Literature Review

As a broad concept, there is a significant amount of research describing family-school

relationships. However, the findings this research presents and associated policy
recommendations for schools can be a bit unclear due to the numerous ways interactions between
families and schools is defined in the literature. Various terms used to describe the relationship
between schools and families encountered during this literature review include: family
engagement, school-family relationships, school-family-community partnerships, and parental
involvement. This paper will use the term parental involvement, which stood out as the most
common term used to address the relationship between family members and schools, particularly
in regard to the role this relationship plays in a childs academic achievement.
However, the way the literature defines parental involvement also differs between
publications. For example, Grolnick & Slowiaczek (1994) broadly defined parental involvement
as the dedication of resources by the parent to the child within a given domain (p. 238). In
contrast, Jeynes (2012) presented a more explicit definition of parental involvement as schoolsponsored initiatives that are designed to require or encourage parental participation in their
childrens education (p. 707). Along the same lines, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
defines parental involvement as the participation of parents in regular, two-way, and meaningful
communication involving student academic learning and other school activities (No Child Left
Behind Act, 2002). These differences in definition are important to keep in mind, particularly
when assessing how parental involvement influences a childs academic achievement, as well as
when considering how schools should go about engaging parents.
This paper will adopt the definition presented by Hill et. al. (2004) and define parental
involvement as parents interactions with schools and with their children to promote academic

TALKING POINTS Literature Review

success (p. 1491). In addition, the word parental or parent will refer to a childs adult
caregiver(s), regardless of their blood relationship to the child and/or parental lineage.
Parental Involvement Frameworks
Several theoretical frameworks of parental involvement have been described in the
literature in the past two decades. In practice, the types of involvement presented in the various
frameworks can be divided into two categories: school-based involvement and home-based
involvement. The most commonly cited framework by Epstein et. al. (1997) incorporates both
of these two categories of involvement (See Table 2).
School-based parental involvement strategies are ways that schools directly involve
parents in their childs education. These strategies include parent-teacher conferences,
participating on school committees, volunteering to chaperone a school trip, or emailing
teachers. As described by Epstein et. al. (1997), maintaining open lines of communication,
providing opportunities for parents to volunteer, establishing ways that parents can participate in
school decisions, and coordinating access to community resources are all ways schools work to
involve parents. A study by Green et. al. (2007) suggested that explicit invitations from both
teachers and students are an important predictor of school-based parental involvement.
In contrast, home-based parental involvement considers factors such as the degree to
which the parents communicate with the child about what they are learning in school, help with
homework, or provide access to books and newspapers. Researchers have also included parents
supervision of their children, and monitoring how children spend their time out of school in this
category of involvement (Henderson & Mapp, 2002). In the model by Epstein et. al. (1997),
home-based involvement includes parenting skills and the creation of an environment that
promotes learning at home. Due to the inherent differences in parenting skills and the general

TALKING POINTS Literature Review

nature of home-based parental involvement, this type of involvement may be more difficult for
schools to address through specific initiatives. However, programs and interventions that
engage families in supporting their childrens learning at home are linked to higher student
achievement (Henderson & Mapp, 2002).
In an effort to understand why parents engage in schools, Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler
(1995, 1997) developed a model that addressed parental motivation for becoming involved in
their childs schooling (See Figure 1). Their original model suggested that both school-based
and home-based parental involvement are a function of three factors: parental role construction
(perceptions regarding the role parents/educators play in educating their child), parental selfefficacy (perceptions regarding their ability to help their child succeed), and parental perception
of invitations for involvement in schools. In a review of continued research, Hoover-Dempsey et
al. (2005) added that parents perceived life contexts, which may be related to socioeconomic
status (SES), also played an important role in their involvement in their childs education (See
Figure 1). They suggested that while SES does not solely explain why parents become involved
in school, variation in resources that often accompany SES, such as time, energy, knowledge, and
skills, can impact parental involvement. Overall, this model, coupled with the framework of
home-based and school-based parental involvement, provides a series of starting points for
schools to consider as they develop initiatives aimed at increasing parental involvement.
Table 2. Six Types of Parental Involvement, Keys to Successful Partnerships. (Epstein et. al.,
1997).

TALKING POINTS Literature Review

Figure 1. Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler Model of Parental Involvement (1995, 1997, 2005).
(Image from Robbins & Searby, 2013).

TALKING POINTS Literature Review

More recently, Hill & Tyson (2009) suggested a third category of parental involvement,
which they term academic socialization. Specifically defined as communicating parental
expectations for education and its value or utility, linking schoolwork to current events, fostering
educational and occupational aspirations, discussing learning strategies with children, and
making preparations and plans for the future, academic socialization is suggested as a
developmentally appropriate strategy for adolescents (Hill & Tyson, 2009, p. 742). A childs
ability to engage in problem solving, planning, and decision making all increase during
adolescence. In addition, adolescents begin to seek autonomy and independence, which often
makes it more difficult for parents to connect with their children. In summary,
academic socialization includes the types of strategies that will scaffold adolescents
burgeoning autonomy, independence, and cognitive abilities. In addition, this type of
involvement represents developmentally appropriate strategies of involvement, as it
fosters and builds upon the development of internalized motivation for achievement,
focuses on future plans, provides a link between school work and future goals and
aspirations, and is consistent with the needs of middle school students (Hill & Tyson,
2009, p. 758).
While all three types of parental involvement (school-based, home-based, and academic
socialization) are important for schools to consider, after a review of the extant literature these
researchers concluded academic socialization has the strongest positive relation with academic
achievement during middle school (Hill & Tyson, 2009, p. 758).
Parental Involvement and Academic Achievement
Educators, researchers, policymakers, and even society in general, have long believed
that parental involvement in schools is associated with improved student outcomes. However,

TALKING POINTS Literature Review

the link between parental involvement and academic achievement is inconsistent in the literature
due to differing definitions of both parental involvement and academic achievement. In addition
the multiple dimensions of parental involvement further complicates the research. In an attempt
to address this issue, several researchers have conducted meta-analyses of the available data
surrounding parental involvement in schools and student achievement (Fan & Chen, 2001;
Jeynes, 2007; Jeynes, 2012). In general, these analyses defined student academic achievement in
terms of report card grades, grade point averages (GPA), standardized test scores, and enrollment
in advanced classes.
Fan and Chen (2001) conducted a meta-analysis of 25 empirically based studies that
looked at parental involvement in schools. Their analysis found that parental involvement does
have positive influence on students academic achievement (p. 11). Interestingly, they found
that the relationship between parental involvement and positive academic achievement is
stronger for general school achievement measures (such as GPA) when compared with more
specific measures (such as math grades or reading test scores). In addition, this analysis revealed
that parental supervision has a weak relationship with students academic achievement, whereas
parental aspiration or expectation for childrens educational achievement has a considerably
stronger relationship with students academic achievement (p. 13). These findings are
consistent with the idea that parental involvement that reflects academic socialization may be
more effective than school- or home-based involvement.
Jeynes (2007) analyzed the literature surrounding the relationship between parental
involvement and urban secondary school student academic achievement. This meta-analysis of
52 studies also indicated that parental involvement positively impacts student achievement.
Importantly, this study claimed that the correlation between academic achievement and parental

TALKING POINTS Literature Review

involvement holds not only for the overall student population, but for minority students as well
(p. 99). These findings suggest that focusing on parental involvement across the school may be
one means of reducing the achievement gap that exists between White students and some racial
minority groups (p. 103). Interestingly, both meta-analyses discussed here (Fan & Chen, 2001;
Jeynes, 2007) suggest that further study be done on the relationship between SES, parental
involvement, and academic achievement.
While each of these meta-analyses addressed the relationship between overall parental
involvement in schools and academic achievement, they fail to consider whether formal schoolbased programs for such involvement are effective. In an additional meta-analysis, Jeynes
(2012) investigated the efficacy of school-based programs that seek to improve parental
engagement in urban elementary and secondary schools. Overall, the results revealed that
programs meant to encourage parental support in their childs schooling are positively related to
achievement for children (p. 731). Most studies included in this analysis were of elementary
school programs; however, the positive correlation between parental involvement programs and
academic success held when secondary studies were considered independently. Due to these
findings, Jeynes (2012) suggested that our society ought to place an emphasis on parental
involvement programs in order to raise the academic achievement of youth (p. 731).
Factors Influencing Parental Involvement in Diverse Schools
Todays schools often serve families from diverse backgrounds. As a result, schools
working to increase parent involvement should recognize that parents involvement orientations
are informed by their backgrounds (e.g., their social class, race, and prior educational
experiences) (Diamond & Gomez, 2004, p. 421). However, the parental involvement strategies
employed at many schools may not account for the involvement capacities of some families of

TALKING POINTS Literature Review

color or low-SES. Many school-based involvement strategies, such as parent associations, onsite volunteer opportunities, and electronic communication, are not explicitly classed but, in
practice, it is middle-class parents who are most involved, most visible, and who are, therefore,
proximal to schools (Hanafin & Lynch, 2002, p. 36). Auerbach (2007) argues that the
framework presented by Epstein et. al. (1997) is a middle-class definition of parental
involvement and fails to account for the needs and experience of many parents of color/lowincome, as well as structural constraints on their actions and relations with schools (p. 253).
This may be partially due to cultural differences between schools and working-class
families. As Delpit (1995) suggests, the prevailing culture of school is based on the culture of
the upper- and middle-classes (p. 25). This is at least partially due to the fact that most schools
and districts are led and staffed by middle-class professionals. As a result, parental involvement
strategies that schools employ tend to cater to the cultural competencies of upper- and middleclass populations, rather than those possessed by working-class families. In a study of social
class difference in family-school relationships, Lareau (1987) found that middle-class and
working-class families tend to differ in social network formation, childrearing patterns, and in
how they view the responsibilities of the home and the school. These differences may account
for some of the disconnect between the culture of schools and many of the families they serve, as
the life experiences and cultural capital of middle-class professionals are insufficient to
understand the educational requirements of working-class families to whom they provide an
education service (Hanafin & Lynch, 2002, p. 46). Thus, schools that serve students from lowSES families need to work to understand how families support education so that they can
promote parent participation and respectful, culturally sensitive, home-school relations
(Auerbach, 2007, p. 279).

TALKING POINTS Literature Review

Similarly, cultural differences between various racial and ethnic groups also affect
parental involvement. The prevailing culture of schools implicitly (and invisibly) privileges
white families (Lareau & Horvat, 1999, p. 49). Researchers have shown that, even in cases
where schools are apparently committed to programs that invite community input and strive to
reflect family values, many ethnic and linguistic minority parents are intimidated by the large,
institutional structure of the school and schooling (McCaleb, 1997, p. 31, as cited in Borg &
Mayo, 2001, p. 246). Specifically, African American and Latino parents are less likely to be
involved in school-based activities and more likely to take a skeptical, ambivalent, or even
adversarial stance toward school programs (Auerbach, 2007). Thus, there is a need to develop
and implement culturally competent parental involvement strategies when working with families
of color.
In todays society it is common for a perceived lack of involvement by parents from a
non-dominant culture to be seen as due to a cultural deficit. For example, many parental
involvement strategies that tend to target working-class families, such as early start programs and
the coordination of access to community resources, are derived from a cultural deficit model of
explaining educational failure (Hanafin & Lynch, 2002, p. 35). Parental involvement strategies
often fail to take into consideration the fact that families of low-SES may face barriers to
involvement, including nonflexible work schedules, lack of resources, transportation problems,
and stress due to residing in disadvantaged neighborhoods (Hill & Taylor, 2004, p. 162).
Auerbach (2007) contends that schools need to broaden the definition of parental involvement to
include more open-ended, emic notions of parent support for childrens education,
advancement, and well-being (p. 278). One approach, proposed by Borg and Mayo (2001),
suggests that schools should focus on implementing parental involvement initiatives that help

TALKING POINTS Literature Review

create a grassroots participatory democracy. These researchers state that parents should be
encouraged to participate actively and air their view rather than remain passive recipients
during meetings and/or outreach programs (p. 256). Interventions seeking to increase parental
involvement should be interactive, and encourage genuine participation from parents in
meaningful activities. In addition, Borg & Mayo (2001) suggest that schools need to evolve
from the traditional scenario of parents leaving their children at the schools doorstep and [only
being] called in when needed (p. 262). Instead, schools should seek to engage family members
from all backgrounds on a frequent basis.
Rethinking the way schools work to involve parents is particularly important for diverse
schools, especially considering the current economic climate where public school funding is a
significant issue. Presently, schools frequently look toward parent-teacher organizations to play
an increased economic role in funding school programs. Middle- and upper-class families tend
to have resources, including time, knowledge, skills, and money, that can help them facilitate
significant fundraising efforts, such as donor campaigns, strategic marketing, and silent auctions.
In many cases, this form of parental involvement has become increasingly valued in schools. In
a case study of an elementary school undergoing significant demographic shifts that increased
racial and socioeconomic diversity of the student population, Posey-Maddox (2013) found that,
despite a shared value for diversity and collective action by school families and teachers,
increased volunteerism and engagement of middle- and upper-class parents ultimately
[exacerbated] race and class tensions and status positions among parents (p. 245). Thus,
implementing parental involvement strategies that target the cultural competencies of middleand upper-class parents must be monitored carefully and through a lens of inclusiveness and
equity, particularly in diverse urban settings.

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TALKING POINTS Literature Review

Parental Involvement in Middle School

While there is evidence to support that parental involvement in schools has a positive
influence on student achievement at all grade levels, studies have suggested that parental
involvement declines as students progress into secondary school (Hill & Tyson, 2009; HooverDempsey, Walker, & Sandler, 2005; Jeynes, 2007). Diminished parental involvement during the
years of early adolescence in middle school may be attributed to multiple factors. Entry into
middle school coincides with multiple changes in adolescent development, including biological
and cognitive growth, social development, and renegotiations of family relationships, especially
the parent-adolescent relationship (Hill & Tyson, 2009, p. 740). These developmental changes
enable adolescents to play a more active role in their own education, and often lead parents to
take a more indirect approach, such as spending less time in school and [pulling] back from
direct assistance with students' homework" (Oxley, 2013, p. 3). In addition, the typical middle
school structure represents a significant change from that of elementary schools, including an
increased number of classes, teachers, peers, and extracurricular choices. In some cases, parents
may find it difficult to navigate the more complex secondary school environment. Thus, middle
and high school organizational and instructional practices require different approaches to support
parent involvement, compared to the practices employed by elementary schools (Oxley, 2013,
p. 1).
Considering the numerous developmental and structural changes that middle school
presents, it is also possible that parental involvement does not actually decline during middle
school. Instead, research may show declining involvement only because the nature of
involvement changes in ways that are not reflected in our measures (Hill & Taylor, 2004, p.
163). Most parents want to know how to best support their childs education. The changes that

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TALKING POINTS Literature Review

students and parents go through adolescence suggest that the distinction between home- and
school-based parental involvement should also be a key consideration for middle schools (Green
et. al., 2007).
Strategies for Increasing Parental Involvement in Middle Schools
There is ample research to support a focus on parental involvement in schools as a means
to improve student outcomes, but what schools should do to increase parental involvement in
practice is less clear. Whats more, teachers typically have very little time or resources to devote
to promoting parental involvement. However, several structural strategies have been addressed
in the literature. There is evidence to support the formation of small schools as a means to
increase parents engagement in the school community (Goldkind & Farmer, 2013; Oxley, 2013;
Walsh, 2010). These researchers have found that smaller schools have a positive effect on school
climate, which may in turn lead to increased opportunities for communication or involvement as
perceived by parents. In addition, there is also evidence to support that reductions in class size
have a positive effect on parental involvement (Datar & Mason, 2008).
Another way middle schools across the country are addressing the challenge of involving
families is through the implementation of interdisciplinary teaching teams (Oxley, 2013), which
can consist of anywhere from two to five teachers who share a group of students. When
implemented effectively, interdisciplinary teams allow teachers to communicate with parents
more efficiently by decreasing the number of students that each teacher comes in contact with
and/or creating a shared sense of responsibility when it comes to working with students and
families. Robbins and Searby (2013) studied interdisciplinary teaching teams in a variety of
middle school settings and found that effective teams had the following parental involvement
practices in common: believing that parental involvement is essential, being open and

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TALKING POINTS Literature Review

approachable, approaching problem-solving opportunities as a team, and serving as a resource

for families.
Recently, studies have indicated that subtle aspects of parental involvement may have the
most impact on student academic achievement (Hill & Tyson, 2009; Jeynes, 2007; Jeynes, 2012).
These subtle components of parental involvement include such expressions as maintaining high
expectations of ones children, having open communication with them, and demonstrating a style
of parenting that includes maintaining a loving, but structured home environment (Jeynes, 2012,
p. 734). Hill & Tyson (2009) termed these subtleties academic socialization, which has since
been defined as parents speaking effectively with their children about the importance of
education and helping them think about their futures" (DAngelo, 2012, p. 7). In light of the
these findings, at the middle school level it may be more productive to focus on increasing the
capacity for parents to be involved with their childs education in ways that reflect academic
socialization, rather than to focus solely on enhancing school-based parental involvement.
Programs that emphasize partnerships between parents and teachers have been shown to
be effective at increasing parental involvement and improving student academic achievement
(Henderson & Mapp, 2002; Jeynes, 2012). In accordance with this idea, Diamond & Gomez
(2004) contend that schools need to pay attention to the relationships between parents and
teachers as a means of specifically supporting working-class families. The meta-analysis of
effective parental involvement programs by Jeynes (2012) found that efforts designed to help
parents and teachers collaborate with one another as equal partners in any attempt to improve
childrens academic and/or behavior outcomes were effective (p. 728). In light of the
challenges schools face supporting members of the diverse populations, Oxley (2013) reiterates
that communication with parents increases teachers' knowledge of the community and their

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TALKING POINTS Literature Review

professional capacity to respond directly to their students' interests and skills, and to draw on
community-based resources to help meet students' needs" (p. 2). This suggests that schools may
find it useful to focus on developing effective ways to open communication between teachers
and parents. This strategy may be particularly important as a means of increasing a schools
capacity to support families of color and families from low-socioeconomic backgrounds.
Communication Methods between Schools and Families
In the past, schools typically relied on printed newsletters, informational flyers, or phone
calls to communicate with families. More recently, schools have also operated websites as a
means of one-way communication. With the recent emergence of new technologies, schools are
now able to use automated tools, such as email, text messages (SMS), and automated phone
calls, to contact and communicate with parents (Clarke, 2012). Some schools have been using
these technologies as a means of both increasing the likelihood that the parents receive the
message, and also saving the school time, money, and resources (Seaton House School Case
Study, 2013). An additional consideration for schools includes the idea that communication
methods that facilitate two-way communication [are] more successful in fostering parent
involvement than one-way (Pakter & Chen, 2012). Thus, the use of text messages or e-mail
may be more effective than sending letters home, making automated phone calls, and/or using
websites to distribute information to parents.
Schools must also evaluate parental access to technology within the population they
serve. In 2013, approximately 85% of adults in the U.S. used the Internet and/or email (Zickuhr,
2013). However, Internet usage is strongly correlated with age, education, and household
income. Specifically, only 59% of adults who have not graduated from high school are online.
This number is also significantly lower in the Hispanic population (76%) and low-SES

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households, those that earned less than $30,000 per year, (76%) (Zickuhr, 2013). Thus, some
parents in diverse and/or low-income schools are less likely to have regular Internet access at
home. However, the majority of these same parents do have a mobile phone capable of receiving
text messages. In 2014, more than 90% of U.S. households had a cell phone. This statistic held
true for white, African American, and Hispanic populations (90%, 90%, and 92%, respectively),
and was nearly true for both low-SES adults (84%) and adults who did not graduate from high
school (87%) (Pew Research Center, 2014). Furthermore, nearly all cell phones users frequently
send and receive text messages. In a recent study that looked at educational text messaging with
low-income families in Northern California, 80% of the participating families had a cell phone
plan that included unlimited text messages (York & Loeb, 2014). Additionally, virtually all text
messages are opened (by comparison, the email open rate in education is about 36 percent)
(York & Loeb, 2014, p. 32). Thus, the use of text messaging as a means of parent
communication seems promising due to the capacity for two-way communication and the general
access across a large percentage of the population. In addition, succinct text messages can be
translated into a variety of languages with relative ease, making this an added advantage of using
this form of communication with a diverse population.
The use of text messaging in education is relatively new. Even so, initial findings by
several researchers suggest that it may be an effective communication method across a variety of
populations. Pakter and Chen (2012) studied the use of text messaging as a communication tool
between parents and a high school physics teacher in an urban Northern California high school.
They observed that texting greatly reduced the amount of time the instructor spent contacting
home, while increasing the amount of parent contact. York and Loeb (2014) recently tested the
use of text messaging to support the literacy development of four year olds from a economically-

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disadvantaged population. During this eight-month study, parents in the treatment group were
sent three text messages a week in the language of their choice (English, Spanish, or Chinese).
The text messages targeted a particular early literacy skill and included short, simple, and
highly-specific activities for parents to do with their children (p. 12). The researchers
concluded that the text messages had a positive impact on parent behavior regarding both inhome literacy practices and engagement with teachers, which in turn led to learning gains among
their children. Another experimental study has shown that the use of text messaging between a
school and the parents of high school students had a positive effect on class attendance,
assignment completion, student behavior, and grade point average (Bergman, 2014 as cited in
York & Loeb, 2014). Based on these early findings, along with its widespread use, low cost, and
scalability, text messaging is a promising intervention tool schools may consider using to
communicate with parents and support parental involvement.

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