e12015 Qualitative research - Wikipedia, he tee encyclopedia
Qualitative research
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in many different academic disciplines, traditionally
in the social sciences, but also in market research by the business sector and further contexts including
research and service demonstrations by the non-profit sectors./"] Qualitative researchers are involved in
studies of almost any imaginable phenomenon, and their studies often require institutional human subjects
approvals "in the ficld”
Contents
= | Introduction to Qualitative Research
= 2 History
= 3 Data Collection, Analysis and Field Research Design
= 4 Specialized Uses of Qualitative Research
5 Data analysis
= 5.1 Interpretive techniques
= 5.1.1 Coding
= 5.2 Recursive abstraction
= 5,3 Coding and "Thinking"
6 Paradigmatic differences
7 Trustworthiness
8 Qualitative Research Journals
9 Qualitative research in psychology
10 See also
11 References
12 Literature
13 External links
= 13.1 Videos
Introduction to Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is a major field of academic research study, and the basis for awarding theses and
dissertations (i.e., the making a Ph.D) in the US and worldwide. The aim of a qualitative research may vary
with his or her disciplinary background, such as a psychologist seeking (o gather an in-depth understanding
of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior, The qualitative method investigates the why
and how of decision making, not just what, where, when, or "who", and has a strong basis in the field of
sociology to understand government and social programs, and is popular among political science, social
work, and special education and education majors
In the conventional view by statisticians, qualitative methods produce information only on the particular
cases studied (¢.g., ethnographies paid for by governmental funds which may involve research teams), and
any more general conclusions are considered propositions (informed assertions). Quantitative methods can
then be used to seek empirical support for such research hypotheses. In contrast, a qualitative researcher
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holds that understanding comes from exploring the totality of the situation (¢.g., phenomenology, symbolic
interactionism), often has access to large reams of "hard data", and begins with propositions proceeding in a
scientific and empirical way throughout the research process (¢.g., Bogdan & Taylor, 1990),
A popular method of qualitative research is the case study (e.g., Yin, 1989) |3] which examines indepth
"purposive samples" to better understand a phenomenon (e.g., supports to families)(Racino, 1999);'4) hence,
smaller but focused samples are more often used than large samples which may also be conducted by the
same or related researchers or research centers (¢.g., Braddock, et al, 1995).(5)
History
Robert Bogdan in his advanced courses on qualitative research traces the history of the development of the
fields, and their particular relevance to disability, including the work of his colleague Robert Edgerton and
a founder of participant observation, H. S. Becker. As Robert Bogdan and Sari Biklen describe in their
education text, "historians of qualitative research have never, for instance, included Freud or Piaget as
developers of the qualitative approach, yet both relied on case studies, observations and indepth
interviewing". (Bogdan & Biklen, 1982, p, 14).[71
In the early 1900s, some researchers rejected positivism, the theoretical idea that there is an objective world
which we can gather data from and "verify" this data through empiricism. These researchers embraced a
qualitative research paradigm, attempting to make qualitative research as "rigorous" as quantitative research
and creating myriad methods for qualitative research. Of course, such developments were necessary as
qualitative researchers won national center awards, in collaboration with their research colleagues at other
universities and departments; and university administration funded Ph.D.s in both arenas through the
ensuing decades. Most theoretical constructs involve a process of qualitative analysis and understanding,
and construction of these concepts (e.g., Wolfensberger's social role valorization theories) 8)
In the 1970s and 1980s, the increasing ubiquity of computers aided in qualitative analyses, several journals
with a qualitative focus emerged, and postpositivism gained recognition in the academy. In the late 1980s,
questions of identity emerged, including issues of race, class, gender, and discourse communities, leading to
research and writing becoming more reflexive. Throughout the 1990s, the concept of a passive
observer/researcher was rejected, and qualitative research became more participatory and activist-oriented
with support from the federal branches, such as the National Institute on Disability Research and
Rehabilitation (NIDRR) of the US Department of Education (e.g., Rehabilitation Research and Training
Centers for Family and Community Living, 1990). Also, during this time, researchers began to use mixed-
method approaches, indicating a shift in thinking of qualitative and quantitative methods as intr
incompatible. However, this history is not apolitical, as this has ushered in a politics of "evidence" (e.g.,
evidence-based practices in health and human services) and what can count as "scientific" research in
scholarship, a current, ongoing debate in the academy.
Data Collection, Analysis and Field Research Design
Qualitative researchers face many choices related to data collection ranging from grounded theory”.
development and practice, narratology, storytelling, classical ethnography, state or governmental studies,
research and service demonstrations, focus groups, case studies, participant observation, qualitative review
of statistics, or shadowing, among many others. Qualitative methods are also present in other
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methodological approaches, such as action research which has sociological bases or actor-network theory.
The most common method is the qualitative research interview, but forms of the data collected can also
include group discussions, observation and reflection field notes, various texts, pictures, and other
materials.(!°) Very popular among qualitative researchers are the studies of photographs, public and official
documents, personal documents, and historical items in addition to images in the media and literature
fields.)
Qualitative research often categorizes data into patterns (i.e., pattern or thematic analyses) as the primary
basis for organizing and reporting results (¢.g., activities in the home; interactions with government).{!21
Qualitative researchers, often associated with the education field, typically rely on the following methods
for gathering information: Participant Observation, Non-participant Observation, Field Notes, Reflexive
Journals, Structured Interview, Semi-structured Interview, Unstructured Interview, and Analysis of
documents and materials.|'3Il'41
The ways of participating and observing can vary widely from setting to setting as examplified by Helen
Schwartzman's primer on Ethnography in Organizations (1993).!'5] or Anne Copeland and Kathleen White's
"Studying Families" (1991).!'6] Participant observation is a strategy of reflexive learning, not a single
method of observing "7! and has been described as a continuum of between participaiton and observation,
In participant observation!'*! researchers typically become members of a culture, group, or setting, and
adopt roles to conform to that setting, In doing so, the aim is for the researcher to gain a closer insight into
the culture's practices, motivations, and emotions, It is argued that the researchers’ ability o understand the
experiences of the culture may be inhibited if they observe without participating,
The data that is obtained is streamlined (texts of thousands of pages in length) to a definite theme or pattern,
or representation of a theory or systemic issue or approach. This step in a theoretical analysis or data
analytic technique is further worked on (¢.g., gender analysis may be conducted; comparative policy
analysis may be developed. An alternative research hypothesis is generated which finally provides the basis
of the research statement for continuing work in the fields.
Some distinctive qualitative methods are the use of focus groups and key informant interviews, the latter
often identified through sophisticated and sometimes, elitist, snowballing techniques. The focus group
technique (e.g., Morgan, 1988)!!9] involves a moderator facilitating a small group discussion between
selected individuals on a particular topic, with video and handscribed data recorded, and is useful in a
coordinated research approach studying phenomenon in diverse ways in different environments with
distinct stakeholders often excluded from traditional processes. This method is a particularly popular in
market research and testing new initiatives with users/workers
The research than must be "written up" into a report, a book chapter, a thesis, a dissertation, charts and
tables, or more commonly termed the manuscript,
Specialized Uses of Qualitative Research
Qualitative methods are often part of survey methodology, including telephone surveys and consumer
satisfaction surveys
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In fields that study households, a much debated topic is whether interviews should be conducted
individually or collectively (e.g. as couple interviews).20121
One traditional and specialized form of qualitative research is called cognitive testing or pilot testing which
is used in the development of quantitative survey items. Survey items are piloted on study participants to
test the reliability and validity of the items. This approach is similar to psychological testing using an
intelligence test like the WAIS (Weschsler Adult Intelligence Survey) in which the interviewer records
"qualitative" (i.c., clinical observations)throughout the testing process
There are several different research approaches, or research designs, that qualitative researchers use.(221(23]
In the academic social sciences, the most frequently used qualitative research approaches include the
following points:
1. Basic/generic/pragmatic qualitative research, which involves using an eclectic approach taken up to
best match the research question at hand. This is often called the mixed-method approach
2. Ethnographic Research. This method is also called "ethnomethodology" or "methodology of the
people", An example of applied ethnographic research is the study of a particular culture and their
understanding of the role of a particular disease in their cultural framework
3. Grounded Theory is an inductive type of research, based or "grounded in the observations or data
from which it was developed; it uses a variety of data sources, including quantitative data, review of
records, interviews, observation and surveys,!™41
4, Phenomenology describes the "subjective reality” of an event, as perceived by the study population; it
is the study of a phenomenon
5. Philosophical Research is conducted by field experts within the boundaries of a specific field of study
or profession, the best qualified individual in any field of study to use an intellectual analysis, in
order to clarify definitions, identify ethics, or make a value judgment concerning an issue in their
field of study their lives.
6. Critical Social Research, used by a researcher to understand how people communicate and develop
symbolic meanings
7. Ethical Inquiry, an intellectual analysis of ethical problems. It includes the study of ethics as related
to obligation, rights, duty, right and wrong, choice etc.
8. Social Science and Governmental Research to understand social services, government operations, and
recommendations (or not) regarding future developments and programs, including whether or not
government should be involved.
9. Activist Research which aims to raise the views of the underprivileged or "underdogs" to prominence
to the elite or master classes, the latter who often control the public view or positions.
10. Foundational Research, examines the foundations for a science, analyzes the beli
ways to specify how a knowledge base should change in light of new information,
11. Historical Research allows one to discuss past and present events in the context of the present
condition, and allows one to reflect and provide possible answers to current issues and problems.
Historical research helps us in answering questions such as: Where have we come from, where are
we, who are we now and where are we going?
12. Visual Ethnography. It uses visual methods of data collection, including photo, voice, photo
elicitation, collaging, drawing, and mapping, ‘These techniques have been used extensively as a
participatory qualitative technique and to make the familiar strange, 5161
13. Autoethnography, the study of self, is a method of qualitative research in which the researcher uses
their personal experience to address an issue.
and develops
Data analysis
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Interpretive techniques
The most common analysis of qualitative data is observer impression. 71 That is, expert or bystander
observers examine the data, interpret it via forming an impression and report their impression in a
structured and sometimes quantitative form.
Coding
Coding is an interpretive technique that both organizes the data and provides a means to introduce the
interpretations of it into certain quantitative methods. Most coding requires the analyst to read the data and
demarcate segments within it, which may be done at different times throughout the process.!78] Each
segment is labeled with a "code" — usually a word or short phrase that suggests how the associated data
segments inform the research objectives. When coding is complete, the analyst prepares reports via a mix
of. summarizing the prevalence of codes, discussing similarities and differences in related codes across
distinct original sources/contexts, or comparing the relationship between one or more codes.
Some qualitative data that is highly structured (e.g., close-end responses from surveys or tightly defined
interview questions) is typically coded without additional segmenting of the content. In these cases, codes
are often applied as a layer on top of the data. Quantitative analysis of these codes is typically the capstone
analytical step for this type of qualitative data. The most common form of coding is open-ended coding,
while other more structured techniques such as axial coding or integration are described (Strauss & Corbin,
1990).29l However, more important than coding are qualities such as the "theoretical sensitivity" of the
researcher.
Contemporary qualitative data analyses are sometimes supported by computer programs, termed Computer
Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software which has replaced the detailed hand coding and labeling of th
past decades. These programs do not supplant the interpretive nature of coding but rather are aimed at
enhancing the analyst’s efficiency at data storage/retrieval and at applying the codes to the data. Many
programs offer efficiencies in editing and revising coding, which allow for work sharing, peer review, and
recursive examination of data. The university goals were to place such programs on computer mainframes
and analyze large data sets which is not easily conducted past 1,000 to 2,000 pages of text
A frequent criticism of coding method by individuals from other research tracks is that it secks to transform
qualitative data into empirically valid data, which contain: actual value range, structural proportion, contrast
ratios, and scientific objective properties; thereby draining the data of its variety, richness, and individual
character. Analysts respond to this criticism by thoroughly expositing their definitions of codes and linking
those codes soundly to the underlying data, therein bringing back some of the richness that might be absent
from a mere list of codes.
Recursive abstraction
Some qualitative datasets are analyzed without coding, A common method here is recursive abstraction,
where datasets are summarized; those summaries are therefore furthered into summary and so on. ‘The end
result is a more compact summary that would have been difficult to accurately discern without the
preceding steps of distillation,
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A frequent criticism of recursive abstraction is that the final conclusions are several times removed from the
underlying data, While it is true that poor initial summaries will certainly yield an inaccurate final report,
qualitative analysts can respond to this criticism. They do so, like those using coding method, by
documenting the reasoning behind each summary step, citing examples from the data where statements
were included and where statements were excluded from the intermediate summary.
Coding and "Thinking"
Some data analysis techniques, often referred to as the tedious, hard work of research studies similar to field
notes, rely on using computers to scan and reduce large sets of qualitative data. At their most basic level,
numerical coding relies on counting words, phrases, or coincidences of tokens within the data; other similar
techniques are the analyses of phrases and exchanges in conversational analyses. Often referred to as,
content analysis, a basic structural building block to conceptual analysis, the output from these techniques is
amenable to many advanced statistical analyses, The input, of course, is all qualitative data anad analyses!
Mechanical techniques are particularly well-suited for a few scenarios. One such scenario is for datasets
that are simply too large for a human to effectively analyze, or where analysis of them would be cost
prohibitive relative to the value of information they contain, Another scenario is when the chief value of a
dataset is the extent to which it contains "red flags" (e.g., searching for reports of certain adverse events
within a lengthy journal dataset from patients in a clinical trial) or "green flags" (e.g., searching for
mentions of your brand in positive reviews of marketplace products). Many researchers would consider
these procedures on their data sets to be misuse of their data collection and purposes.
A frequent criticism of mechanical techniques is the absence of a human interpreter; computer analysis is
relatively new having arrived in the late 1980s to the university sectors. And while masters of these
methods are able to write sophisticated software to mimic some human decisions, the bulk of the "analysis"
is still nonhuman, Analysts respond by proving the value of their methods relative to either a) hiring and
training a human team to analyze the data or b) by letting the data go untouched, leaving any actionable
nuggets undiscovered; almost all coding schemes indicate probably studies for further research
Data sets and their analyses must also be written up, reviewed by other researchers, circulated for
comments, and finalized for public review. Numerical coding must be available in the published articles, if
the methodology, and findings are to compared across research studies in traditional literature review and
recommendation formats,
Paradigmatic differences
Contemporary qualitative research has been conducted from a large number of various paradigms that
influence conceptual and metatheoretical concems of legitimacy, control, data analysis, ontology, and
epistemology, among others, Research conducted in the last 10 years has been characterized by a distinct
turn toward more interpretive, postmodern, and critical practices.°"! Guba and Lincoln (2005) identify five
main paradigms of contemporary qualitative research: positivism, postpositivism, critical theories.
constructivism, and participatory/cooperative paradigms "9! Each of the paradigms listed by Guba and
Lincoln are characterized by axiomatic differences in axiology, intended action of research, control of
research process/outcomes, relationship to foundations of truth and knowledge, validity (see below), textual
representation and voice of the researcher/participants, and commensurability with other paradigms. In
particular, commensurability involves the extent to which paradigmatic concerns "can be retrofitted to each
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other in ways that make the simultaneous practice of both possible" 5 Positivist and post positivist
paradigms share commensurable assumptions but are largely incommensurable with critical, constructivist,
and participatory paradigms. Likewise, critical, constructivist, and participatory paradigms are
commensurable on certain issues (c.g.. intended action and textual representation).
Qualitative research in the last ten years also has been characterized by concern with everyday
categorization and ordinary storytelling. This "narrative turn” is producing an enormous literature as
researchers present sensitizing concepts and perspectives that bear especially on narrative practice, which
centers on the circumstances and communicative actions of storytelling. Catherine Riessman (1993) and
Gubrium and Holstein (2009) provide analytic strategies, and Holstein and Gubrium (2012) present the
variety of approaches in recent comprehensive texts, Relatedly, narrative practice increasingly takes up the
institutional conditioning of narrative practice (see Gubrium and Holstein 2000).
Trustworthiness
In quantitative studies, this is referred to as 'validity', A central issue in qualitative research is
trustworthiness (also known as credibility and/or dependability). There are many different ways of
establishing trustworthiness, including: member check, interviewer corroboration, peer debriefing,
prolonged engagement, negative case analysis, auditability, confirmability, bracketing, and balance. Most
of these methods are coined, or at least extensively described by Lincoln and Guba (1985)!2]
Qualitative Research Journals
By the end of the 1970s many leading journals began to publish qualitative research articles] and several
new journals emerged which published only qualitative research studies and articles about qualitative
research methods.!*4I In the 1980s and 1990s, the new qualitative research journals became more
multidiseiplinary in focus moving beyond qualitative research’s traditional disciplinary roots of
anthropology, sociology, and philosophy. 4)
Qualitative research in psychology
Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of scientific psychology, was one of the first psychologists to openly conduct
qualitative research as part of his series of experiments. Early examples of his qualitative research were
published in 1900 through 1920, in his 10-volume study, Vélkerpsychologie (translated to: Social
Psychology). Wundt advocated the strong relation between psychology and philosophy. He believed that
there was a gap between psychology and quantitative research that could only be filled by conducting
qualitative research, Qualitative research dove into aspects of human life that could not adequately be
covered by quantitative research; aspects such as culture, expression, belief’, morality and imagination.
There are records of qualitative research being used in psychology before World War II, but at the time
these methods were viewed as invalid forms of research. Owing to the lack of acceptance, many of the
psychologists who practiced qualitative research denied the usage of such methods or apologized for doing
so. It was not until the late 20th century when qualitative research was becoming widely accepted in the
world of psychology. The excitement about the groundbreaking form of research was short-lived since
many of the pioneering studies with qualitative rescarch had already been conducted. This left many
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Psy
hologists without the recognition they deserved for their significant work in the field of research.5) 4.
selection of autobiographical narratives of community psychologists can be found in "Six Community
Psychologists Tell Their Stories: History, Contexts and Narratives" (Kelly & Song, 2004), including the
well known Julian Rappaport.54
See also
= Engaged theory
«= Ethnography
= Grounded theory
= Living educational theory
= Hermeneutic:
= Life history (sociology)
= Participatory action research
= Phenomenology (science)
= Quantitative research
= Research case studies
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= Gubrium, J. F, and J. A, Holstein, (2000). "The New Language of Qualitative Method." New York
Oxford University Press
= Gubrium, J. F, and J. A, Holstein (2009), "Analyzing Narrative Reality." Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
= Gubrium, J. F, and J. A, Holstein, eds. (2000), "Institutional Selves: Troubled Identities in a
Postmodern World." New York: Oxford University Press,
= Holliday, A. R. (2007). Doing and Writing Qualitative Research, 2nd Edition. London: Sage
Publications
= Holstein, J. A. and J. F. Gubrium, eds. (2012). "Varieties of Narrative Analysis." Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
= Kaminski, Marek M. (2004), Games Prisoners Play. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11721-
7
= Mahoney, J, Goertz, G (2006). "A Tale of Two Cultures: Contrasting Quantitative and Qualitative
Research". Political Analysis 14: 227-249. doi:10.1093/pan/mpj017
(https://dx.doi org/10, 1093%2Fpan%2Fmpj017)
Malinowski, B. (1922/1961). Argonauts of the Western Pacific. New York: E, P, Dutton.
Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Pamela Maykut, Richard Morehouse, 1994 Beginning Qualitative Research, Falmer Pres
Patton, M, Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods ( 3rd ed.). Thousand Oal
Sage Publications,
= Pawluch D. & Shaffir W. & Miall C, (2005). Doing Ethnography: Studying Everyday Life. Toronto,
ON Canada: Canadian Scholars’ Press
= Racino, J. (1999). Policy, Progam Evaluation and Research in Disability: Community Support for
All." New York, NY: Haworth Press (now Routledge imprint, Francis and Taylor, 2015).
= Ragin, C. C, (1994). Constructing Social Research: The Unity and Diversity of Method, Pine Forge
Press, ISBN 0-8039-9021-9,
= Riessman, Catherine K. (1993), "Narrative Analysis." Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
= Savin-Baden, M. and Major, C. (2013), "Qualitative research: The essential guide to theory and
practice." London, Rutledge
= Silverman, David, (ed), (2011), "Qualitative Research: Issues of Theory, Method and Practice", Third
Edition, London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi, Sage Publications
= Stebbins, Robert A. (2001) Exploratory Research in the Social Sciences, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
= Taylor, Steven J., Bogdan, Robert, Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods, Wiley, 1998, ISBN
0-471-16868-8
tpn wikipedia. orghki/Quattave research sontsavas ‘uattatve esearch Wikpada. te fee eneyclopeda
= Van Maanen, J. (1988) Tales of the field: on writing ethnography, Chicago: University of Chicago
Press,
= Wolcott, H. F. (1995). The art of fieldwork, Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
= Wolcott, H. F. (1999), Ethnography: A way of seeing. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
= Ziman, John (2000), Real Science: what it is, and what it means. Cambridge, Uk: Cambridge
University Press
External links
= C.Wright Mills, On intellectual Craftsmanship, The Sociological Imagination, 1959
(http://ddl, uwinnipeg ca/res_des/files/readings/ewmills-intel_craft.pdf)
= Participant Observation, Qualitative research methods: a Data collector's field guide
(http://www £hi360. org/resource/qualitative-research-methods-data-collectors-field-guide)
= Analyzing and Reporting Qualitative Market Research
(http //answers, mheducation.com/marketing/marketing-research/analyzing-and-reporting-qualitative~
market-research)
= Overview of available QDA Software (http://www sosciso.de/en/software/datenanalyse/qualitativ/)
Videos
= Qualitative analysis, with a focus on interview data (https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=DRL4PF2u9XA)
= "Living Theory Approach to Qualitative Action Research” (https://www youtube.com/watch?
V=AFI3PUrwG_8)
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Categories: Qualitative research | Scientific method | Evaluation methods | Research methods
Methods in sociology
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