Continental J.

Sustainable Development 6 (1): 22 - 31, 2015

Wilolud Journals, 2015
Printed in Nigeria

ISSN: 2251 0486

http://www.wiloludjournal.com
doi:10.5707/cjsd.2015.6.1.22.31

RESEARCH PAPER

DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES, EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND SELF-EFFICACY OF THE

ARMED FORCES: IMPLICATION FOR JOB PERFORMANCE AND JOB INVOLVEMENT
1

Esau Nanfwang Mwantu, 1Zubairu Kwambo Dagona, 1Pius Okoliko Agbo and 2Justice Chidi Ngwama
Department of Psychology, University of Jos, Jos, Nigeria and 2Department of Personnel Management Crawford
University, Igbesa, Ogun State, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
Influence of demographics, emotional intelligence and self-efficacy on job performance and
job involvement of men and officers of the Nigerian Armed Forces was investigated.
Participants were N=104 (67 males and 37 females) drawn from some Sector Commands of
the Joint Task Force. Their ages ranged from 22- 45 years; mean age = 38.07 (SD 8.34). Data
were collected using the Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test (SUEIT), the
General Self-efficacy Scale, the Job Performance Scale and the Job Involvement Scale. Results
showed significant main effects of gender on job performance and job involvement f (1, 103),
9.303, P = 0.03 (females) > f (1, 103), = 5.439, P = 0.02 (males); of age on job performance
and job involvement F (1, 102), = 9.303, P = 0.001(older officers) > F (1, 102), = 3.413, P =
0.024 (young officers); of work emotional intelligence on job performance and job
involvement f (1, 102) = 15.860, P < 0.05; and of self-efficacy on job performance and job
involvement of members of the Armed Forces f (1,102) = 7.129, P < 0.05. Recommendations
are that emotional intelligence and self-efficacy tests are administered to prospective personnel
of the Armed Forces before they are selected and placed or promoted.
KEYWORDS: Emotional intelligence, job involvement, job performance, self- efficacy
Received for Publication: 10/04/15
Accepted for Publication: 14/06/15
Corresponding Author: mwantueujpsy@yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION
For quite some time now, there has been a lot of controversy on whether emotional intelligence (EI) and selfefficacy (SE) have more influence on human work behaviour and job performance than Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
and whether older people have higher emotional intelligence and self-efficacy than young people; or whether one of
the genders score higher on any one of these variables than the other. Many of the investigators (Bandura, 1982;
Salovey and Meyer, 1990; Goleman, 1995; Bar-on, 2006) have argued that it takes more than intelligence and
technical skills to succeed at work. This group of investigators posit that it isnt technical skills, neither is it
intelligence as measured by intelligence quotient levels; rather it is a persons social skills referred to as emotional
intelligence and self- efficacy (Bandura, 1982; Goleman, 1995; Salovey and Meyer, 1990). This submission has
indeed, recently attracted the attention and interest of human resource professionals, corporate trainers, personnel
selection managers, administrators and other stake-holders to begin to imagine what sets apart the average
performers from high performers?

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Mwantu et al.,: Continental J. Sustainable Development 6 (1): 22 - 31, 2015

Coinage of the terms emotional intelligence and self-efficacy are generally credited to the works of Salovey and
Meyer (1990) and Bandura (1982) who first simply described emotional intelligence as the intelligence of
emotions and self-efficacy as a persons self-worth, respectively. Goleman (1995) however presented a more
elaborate definition of the term EI to refer to a form of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor ones
own and others feelings, emotions, to discriminate among them and the use of information to guide ones thinking
and actions. It is the ability to refrain from negative feelings such as fear and self- doubt (low self- efficacy) and
instead focus on positive ones such as confidence and congeniality (Bandura, 1982; Ejikeme, 2010).
Understanding, predicting and improving employee behaviours are major aspects of a managers job responsibility.
Managers therefore, often try to influence the work- related attitudes of their employees in order to create
behavioural changes by relying on moderating attitudinal variables of great importance such as emotional
intelligence and self- efficacy; especially with regard to their specificity, and accessibility and whether differences
exist between people in the experience of such attitudinal traits; and whether employees have direct experience of
such attitudinal traits to impact what they behaviourally do? This attitude- behaviour relationship asserts that
attitudes significantly predict future behaviour by taking all moderating attitudinal variables into consideration
including the ones under investigation in this particular study (Ajzen, 2001; Sutton, 1998).
Recently in Nigeria, research attention on emotional intelligence and self- efficacy has proliferated across different
disciplines and among researchers too (Aremu, 2005; Bankole, 2010; Ejikeme, 2010; Karuri and Tanko, 2007;
Okurame, 2000). Ejikeme (2010) for example, further corroborated this by asserting that social scientists are just
beginning to uncover the relationships of emotional intelligence and self- efficacy to other phenomena. The general
contention of these researchers is that emotional intelligence and self- efficacy as constructs of interest are germane
to the well- being of man, his organization and the society in general.
The Nigerian Armed Forces have been severally accused of work laxity, incompetence and high- handedness in
handling internal security issues in the country especially the problem of kidnappings and militancy in Eastern
Nigeria and the Niger Delta and Boko Harams insurgency in North-Eastern Nigeria (Nwezeh, 2010; Okunola,
Aderinto and Atere, 2002). The understanding is that something is possibly wrong with the personnel of the Service
or the organizational structure itself. This study further observes that in spite of the personnels high intelligence
quotient, high educational qualifications and training, and on the job experience, they still face the above stated
inadequacies. The study therefore, investigated the emotional intelligence and self- efficacy of the men and officers
of the Armed Forces as possible conditions that can explain their levels of job performance and job involvement and
whether there are any significant gender and age differences in their in-role job performance and job involvement
that is due to the influence of these variables?
Empirical literature on the influence of emotional intelligence and self-efficacy on workplace behaviour is indeed,
much. For example, Carneli (2003) investigated the influence of EI on managerial skills among managers in
Nigerian organizations and found that managerial skills in general and emotional intelligence in particular play
significant roles in the success of senior managers in the workplace. In his findings, he discovered that EI has
significant relationship with positive work attitudes, altruistic behaviour and work outcomes; and moderates career
commitment.
Previous studies (Aremu and Tejumola, 2008; Caruso, 2001; Karuri and Tanko, 2007) also investigated the
influence of emotional intelligence and self-efficacy on the work attitudes of employees in different organizations in
Nigeria and different regions of the country. The results indicated that emotional intelligence and self-efficacy have
significant relationships with work attitudes. Other studies (Cohen, 2009; Cohen and Liu, 2011; Druskat and Wolf,
2010) further examined the impact of emotional intelligence and self-efficacy on employee job performance, job
involvement and commitment. Cohen and Liu (2011) particularly found that employee self- report traits
significantly predicted certain supervisor job performance ratings on job involvement above and beyond work
centrality.

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Mwantu et al.,: Continental J. Sustainable Development 6 (1): 22 - 31, 2015

In relation to the literature reviewed above on the influence of emotional intelligence and self- efficacy on job
performance and job involvement of the personnel in some sectors of the private and public services, this study
particularly investigated the influence of work emotional intelligence and self- efficacy on job performance and job
involvement of men and officers of the Nigerian Armed Forces. The specific purposes of the study were-:
(i)
To find out if gender would have any significant influence on female officers job performance and job
involvement more than male officers of the Force.
(ii)
To find out if the age of an officer would have any significant influence on men and officers of the
Armed Forces with regards to their job performance and job involvement.
(iii)
To find out if work emotional intelligence and self- efficacy have any significant and predictive
influence on job performance and job involvement of men and officers of the Armed Forces.
With the above stated objectives in mind, the following hypotheses were further formulated and tested.
1. Gender of officers of the Armed Forces would influence the job performance and job involvement of
female officers with regards to their surveillance intelligence ability, general war strategies and tactics and
combat readiness more than male officers.
2. Chronological ages of men and officers of the Armed Forces would have significant influence on their job
performance and job involvement with regards to their surveillance intelligence ability, general war
strategies and tactics, strategy utilization and combat readiness.
3. Work emotional intelligence would have significant influence on job performance of men and officers of
the Armed Forces with regards to their surveillance intelligence ability, general war strategies and tactics,
strategy utilization and combat readiness.
4. Self-efficacy would have significant influence on job performance and job involvement of men and officers
of the Armed Forces with regards to their surveillance intelligence ability, general war strategies and
tactics, strategy utilization and combat readiness.
METHOD
Design
This study utilized a 2x2x2x2 multi-factorial design with four independent variables and two dependent variables.
The independent variables were gender, chronological age of participants, work emotional intelligence and selfefficacy. The dependent variables on the other hand, were officers job performance and job involvement,
respectively. The independent variables were evaluated at two levels each (ie gender (male and female),
Chronological age (22-30 years and 31-45 years), work emotional intelligence (low and high) and self- efficacy (low
and high).
Participants
Participants for this particular study were made up of 104 men and officers of the three branches of the Armed
Forces (the Army, Air Force and Navy) drawn from seven Sector Commands of the Joint Task Force (JTF)
covering four states in the North-Eastern Region of Nigeria. Participants were made up of 67 males and 37 females
all serving in those Sector Commands of the JTF. Ages of the participants ranged from 22- 45 years with a mean of
38.07; SD= 8.34.
Instruments
The Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test (SUEIT) (Palmer and Stough, 2000), the General Selfefficacy Scale (Jerusalem and Schwartzer,1995), the Job Performance Scale (Williams and Anderson, 1991), and the
Job Involvement Scale (Lodahi and Kejner, 1965) were utilized for data collection in the study. The Swinburne
University Emotional Intelligence Test also referred to as the Genos Emotional Intelligence Inventory (Genos EI) is
a 360 degree measure of emotionally intelligent workplace behavior developed by Palmer and Stough (2000). It
measures how often individuals display emotionally intelligent workplace behavior according to a taxonomic sevenfactor model of emotional intelligence namely emotional self-awareness, emotional expression, emotional awareness

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24

Mwantu et al.,: Continental J. Sustainable Development 6 (1): 22 - 31, 2015

of others, emotional reasoning, emotional self-management, emotional management of others and emotional selfcontrol. The scale with a reliability coefficient score of .80 was developed to be administered to ages 17-75 years.
The General Self-efficacy Scale is a uni-dimensional instrument developed by Mathias Jerusalem and Ralf
Schwartzer in 1995 mainly to assess a general sense of perceived self-efficacy with the aim in mind to predict
coping with daily hassles as well as adaptation after experiencing all kinds of stressful life events. Cronbachs alpha
range of the scale is .76 to .90. It is suitable for adult population and adolescents.
Procedure
Participants were selected from a pool of members of the Nigerian Armed Forces in those Sector Commands of the
JTF covered in the study who served in that Region of the country in the late months of 2014. Due to the nature of
the research, the researchers utilized the convenient sampling technique (Coolican, 2009) to obtain personal consent
of the respondents to carry out the study mostly when such respondents were made at social arenas or sometimes
utilizing their dates to administer the instruments to them. Before the administration of the questionnaires, the
researchers or their Assistants first introduced themselves to the prospective respondents, stating the intention of the
study.
The researchers then proceeded to purposely administer the questionnaires to the respondents. A total of 125
questionnaires were administered to the participants at various points of interaction within the Sector Commands
covered in the investigation. The completed questionnaires were retrieved after three or four days of their
administration due to the tied schedules of the respondents hence making the period of data collection to last two
months. One hundred and four useable questionnaires were collected back; the rest were either misplaced by the
respondents or the respondents were not seen again by the researchers to retrieve the filled questionnaires or were
discarded due to inadequate supply of information; leaving 104 questionnaires that were eventually analyzed.
Statistical Analysis
Data collected for the study were statistically analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS,
Version 2.0). In order to test the hypotheses, we carried out both descriptive analysis and analysis of variance
(ANOVA) on work emotional intelligence and self-efficacy variables of the respondents and on the influence of
gender and age on their job performance and job involvement and the results are presented below.
RESULTS
Table1: Showing percentage, mean and standard deviation of the respondents on the variables
Variables
Age
Gender
Male
Female
Emotional Intelligence
Self-efficacy
Total

Frequency
104

%
100

67
37
104
104
104

64.4
35.6
100
100
100

mean
38.07
23.28
56.66
145.95

SD
8.34
20.99
6.09
19.22

Table 1 presents the basic descriptive statistics of participants on the variables and the inter-correlations among
them. The table shows that the combined mean age of all participants was 38.07 years (SD = 8.34). Sixty four point
four percent of the participants were males while 35.6% were females. Mean score of participants on work
emotional intelligence was 23.28 (SD=20.99) and self- efficacy was 56.66 (SD= 6.09). Total mean score of
participants on job performance and job involvement was 145.952 (SD=19.22), respectively.

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Mwantu et al.,: Continental J. Sustainable Development 6 (1): 22 - 31, 2015

Table 2: ANOVA summary table for influence of age on job performance and job involvement
Sum of Squares df
Mean of Squares F
Sig
Between groups
6995.278
3
2331.423
3.413
0.024
22 - 30 years
Within group
149208.885
102
726.595
P
Total
0.05
Age

31 45 years

Between groups
Within group
Total

569.30
4095.21

3
103
-

190.43
20.384
-

9.303
-

0.001
P
0.05

The ANOVA analysis in Table 2 shows that the result is indeed, statistically significant in favour of the older
officers F (1, 102), = 9.303, P = 0.001(older officers) > F (1, 102), = 3.413, P = 0.024 (young officers). The analysis
revealed that as men and officers of the Nigerian Armed Forces get matured and gain more experience on the job,
they become more stable, more efficient, and more effective in performing their jobs and indeed, more involved in
the job.
Table 3: ANOVA source table for EI on job performance and job involvement of respondents Dependent
variable-Job Performance
Source
Type III sum of square
df
Mean Square
F
Sig
Corrected model
5336.779
1
5336.779
15.860
P<0.05
Interception
2215404.240
1
2215404
6583.8
P<0.05
EI
5336.779
1
5336.490
15.860
P<0.05
Error
34321.9961
102
336.490
Total
2255063.760
104
Results in Table 3 show significant main effect of emotional intelligence on job performance. F (1,102) = 15.860, p
0.05). This implies that emotional intelligence had significant influence on the participants job performance.
Table 4: ANOVA table for influence of SE on participants job performance and job involvement
Dependents variable- job involvement

Dependents variable- job involvement

Source
type iii sum of squares
Corrected model
249.24
Intercept
333917.78
SE
249.24
Error
3565.98
Total
337733.00
Corrected total 3815.22

df mean square
1
249.24
1 333917.78
1
249.24
102
34.96
104
103

f
7.13
7.78
7.13

sig
.009
.000
.009

Results from Table 4 showed a significant main effect of SE on respondents levels of job performance and job
involvement. F (1,102) =7.13, P 0.05). This implies that SE had significant influence on the respondents levels of
job performance and job involvement. The main difference between low SE and high SE is indicative of the fact that
respondents with higher SE had better job performance and job involvement than those with low SE.

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Mwantu et al.,: Continental J. Sustainable Development 6 (1): 22 - 31, 2015

Table 5: ANOVA summary table comparing male and female participants on measures of EI/SE on job
performance and job involvement
Gender
Sum of Squares df
Mean of Squares
F
Sig
EI/SE
Between groups
3989.88
1
3989.88
5.439 0.021
Males
Within group
145220.0
103
8
P
Total
149208.87
104
733
0.05
EI/SE
Females
Between groups
204.593
1
204.593
9.303 0.03
Within group
22.015
103
22.015
104
0.05
Total
From Table 5, female officers were found to score higher than their male counterparts on measures of EI/SE on job
performance and job involvement f (1, 103), 9.303, P = 0.03 (females) > f (1, 103), = 5.439, P = 0.02 (males),
respectively.
DISCUSSION
In this study we investigated whether emotional intelligence and self-efficacy simultaneously influence the degree of
officers in-role job performance and job involvement and if gender and age have any significant influence on their
job performance and job involvement that are related to differences in their EI and SE. To test our hypotheses, the
analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistical tool was utilized. Results showed in the first instance, a significant main
effect of gender, age, work emotional intelligence and self-efficacy on job performance and job involvement of the
respondents. This indicates that an officers in-role job performance and job involvement is significantly influenced
by his or her work emotional intelligence and self-efficacy and the officers gender and age. This result leads us to
accept all the hypotheses of the study.
This finding is indeed; in line with previous studies who all variously concluded that work emotional intelligence
and self-efficacy have significantly predictive relationships with employee in-role job performance, job involvement
and job satisfaction (Cohen, 2009; Karuri and Tanko, 2007). More so, Bellamy and Bellamy (2003) and Cohen and
Liu (2011) all found significant relationships between work emotional intelligence and self-efficacy and employee
job performance and satisfaction. Other studies have examined the relationships between these independent
variables and employee job performance and job commitment (Cohen and Shamai, 2010).
Explaining possible reasons for the significant main effects of work emotional intelligence and self-efficacy on job
performance and job involvement of officers of the Nigerian Armed Forces in this particular study, one can submit
that employees who experience these conditions in their work place will have higher job performance and job
involvement and consequently higher job satisfaction and higher self-esteem which in turn reduces the impact of
organizational stressors such as employee job stress and burnout and negative organizational behaviours such as
employee turn-over and absenteeism. (Cohen, 2009; Karuri and Tanko, 2007). More so, it is very likely that job
performance and job involvement are positively correlated with feelings of psychological attachment/commitment
towards the organization (Cohen and Liu, 2011).
The positive impact of these feelings is further described in the social identity theory. This theory has recently been
adopted in organizational behaviour studies indicating that employee s organizational identification is positively
related to work place attitudes and behaviours such as job performance, job involvement, job commitment and
satisfaction or extra-role behaviours (Cohen and Shamai, 2010; Glazer, Daniel and Short, 2004).
Concerning the influence of emotional intelligence and self-efficacy on the officers job involvement, the result
indicated that there was a main effect of work emotional intelligence and self- efficacy on job involvement. This
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27

Mwantu et al.,: Continental J. Sustainable Development 6 (1): 22 - 31, 2015

finding is indeed, in line with those of Aremu (2005); Aremu and Tejumola (2008) who all found emotional
intelligence to be related to job involvement and career commitment of young police officers and Bellamy and
Bellamy (2003) who also found organizational commitment, job involvement and job satisfaction to be statistically
correlated with the employees emotional intelligence and self-efficacy. In contrast, these findings are however, not
related to those of Abraham (1999) and Wasti (2003) who in their investigations found an inverse correlation
between emotional intelligence and burnout and job involvement of workers in different organizations.
This result could be explained from the fact that there is a link between a variety of factors in understanding
employee job attitudes and behaviours such as job performance and job involvement. Tzafrir, Meshoulam and
Baruch (2007) however, concluded that there are mismatches between such employee attitudes and behaviours and
some organizational variables such as employee and employer expectations. They defined the mismatches between
employee and employer expectations as unmet expectations. These unmet expectations or mismatches lead to
decreased employee job performance, lack of job involvement, reduced commitment and in some cases, absenteeism
(Cohen 2009; Cohen and Liu, 2011; Cohen and Shamai, 2010). Further studies with employees who have
experienced violation in their work place also revealed negative outcomes such as decreased feelings of obligation
to employers, reduced job performance and organizational involvement/commitment and absenteeism (Cohen and
Liu, 2011; Cohen and Shamai, 2010). From the results of the study presented above, it is evident that the
respondents in this particular study had high emotional intelligence and self-efficacy, but perhaps might have
experienced these mismatches and violations in their workplace; resulting to decreased feelings of obligation to their
work and consequently poor performance of their jobs and low job involvement; as evident in their inability to
contain and curb the brutal activities of the Boko Harams insurgency for too long.
On the influence of EI/SE on gender of the respondents with regards to their job performance and job involvement;
this study found significant differences between males and females in the exhibition of the two independent
variables (see Table 5). For example, female officers were discovered in this particular study like in Karuri and
Tanko (2007) to exhibit higher levels of work emotional intelligence and self-efficacy more than their male
counterparts and this significantly affected their job performance and job involvement differently.
Finally, an analysis of the influence of age of the respondents on these two dependent variables (job performance
and job involvement) also discovered a significant correlation between their ages and their job performance and job
involvement that are significantly related to their emotional intelligence and self-efficacy. The analysis revealed that
older officers rated higher on scores of EI/SE than younger officers (See Table 2). The analysis further showed that
older officers exhibited higher levels of EI/SE in their job performance and job involvement more than younger
officers of the Armed Forces. It was revealed that as officers of the armed profession get more matured and gain
more experience on the job, they become more stable, more efficient, and more effective in performing their jobs
and therefore, consequently become more involved in the job. The outcome of this investigation could be argued
based on the differences in the respondents maturity, training and work experience. Another possible explanation
for the respondents age differences in the exhibition of EI/SE that even influences their job performance and job
involvement could be due to the meanings attached to their chronological age than their mental age which could
have resulted to the outcome of this study.
In conclusion, this study has contributed significantly in demonstrating the influence of demographic variables,
work emotional intelligence and self-efficacy on employee job performance and job involvement. Its specific
contribution was the simultaneous examination of the influence of gender, age, emotional intelligence and selfefficacy on officers in-role and extra-role performance and job involvement. Such an examination has rarely been
performed in previous empirical investigations which had hitherto concentrated on examining the impact of only one
or two variables on performance and job involvement or commitment of employees in the workplace. The findings
of this study showed that these four variables are concepts that can increase our understanding of employees
behaviour in the workplace, particularly their job performance and indeed, their job involvement. The findings
suggest a number of interesting and important insights that provide ideas and directions for future research.

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Mwantu et al.,: Continental J. Sustainable Development 6 (1): 22 - 31, 2015

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