WILLIAM JAMES: THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION

William James:
Past, Present and Future Thoughts on Education
Melissa L. Martin and Rachel E. Jezowski
University of Calgary

WILLIAM JAMES: THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION

The field of education is ever evolving with many contributions to societys

current understandings of child development. With a primary responsibility for
preparing future generations for responsible citizenship, the field of education remains at
the heart of many researchers in the human sciences. Throughout centuries, there have
been many individuals who have made significant impacts on the processes of teaching
and learning. Among those individuals is William James, a 19th century psychologist and
philosopher.
Throughout the 1890s, James gave a series of lectures to educators, which he
termed Talks to Teachers. During these talks, James presented the application of several
psychological theories from his textbook, The Principles of Psychology, to the context of
education. Within these lectures, James identified fifteen psychological areas that were
applicable to educators as they attempted to better understand their pupils (Brewer,
2003). Although these ideas were proposed over a century ago, many of Jamess theories
remain widely accepted and still hold true today (Brewer, 2003).
Of particular relevance to current trends in education and school psychology from
Jamess talks are the ideas of Interest, of the Association of Ideas, and of Memory.
Despite the applicability of Jamess ideas on many of todays educational philosophies,
one statement exists that does not apply to current thoughts on education. This statement
alludes to his beliefs that education and science must remain separate.
Many developments in society have also led to improvements in the fields of
education and school psychology. These developments range from cultural changes,
improvements to psychological theories such as the discovery of self-efficacy and

WILLIAM JAMES: THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION

scaffolding, to the inclusion of technology in the classroom. These developments have

also created change in the roles of school psychologists from those of Jamess era.
Applicable Principles in Schools
Interest
When presenting a concept, teachers must capture the interest of their students in
order to ensure that the idea is internalized. In an analysis of common types of lesson
plans used by educators, Kelly (1997) identified a section labeled motivation, where the
teacher indicates how they will capture the interest of their students and focus their
attention on the topic of the lesson. This interest- building component is important as it
engages the students in reflection as they attempt to draw upon what they already know
about the topic and assimilate the new information properly.
James also emphasized the idea of building interest in the classroom in his
lectures. According to Brewer (2003), James observed that students will always attend
more to what teachers do than to what they say (p.36). In his talks on Interest, James
(1899) provided teachers with a series of steps to follow in order to captivate their
audience and allow them to build connections in what they are learning. The first step,
according to James (1899), is to offer the students objects and activities that are directly
related to their interests. He then suggested that teachers continue the process of
connecting these introductory activities with upcoming ones, allowing the students to
build connections between their interests and what they are learning (James, 1899). In so
doing, teachers also set the stage for building a stronger set of associations in their
students.
The Association of Ideas

WILLIAM JAMES: THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION

The Association of Ideas is a term used by James to demonstrate how thinking

and feeling are subject to the law of habit (Brewer, 2003, p. 36). James (1899)
suggested that ideas, or reactions, are the results of the minds ability to associate
experiences with those that have already occurred.
Of importance to teachers was the idea presented in this section, not the process
of how the associations are made. James (1899) described students as little pieces of
associating machinery (p. 82). He then went on to describe their education as consisting
in the organizing within them of determinate tendencies to associate one thing with
anotherindefinitely (pp. 82-83). The teachers task, once interest has been captured, is
to assist students in associating the information being learned with their pre-existing
knowledge in a reflective process. According to Brewer (2003), James believed that
increasing associations among pupils ideas was critical for learning and memory (p.
36). James believed that the best way for teachers to build these associations was to
provide their students with a variety of learning cues as opposed to stressing repetition
(1899). This same thought holds true today. By providing a variety of learning situations
through different teaching methods, teachers are able to stimulate reflection in their
students and build their critical thinking skills.
The concept of associations is also evident today as teachers strive to make
learning meaningful for students. As indicated by McKeachie (2003), prior knowledge
is a big factor in thinking (p.41). Discovering a students prior knowledge and building
a learning environment from there remains one of the teachers primary tasks. According
to McKeachie (2003), we now see students as actively constructing knowledge, each
getting it a little differently because they store it in terms of their prior knowledge and

WILLIAM JAMES: THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION

experience (p. 41). By providing students with differentiation experiences, teachers

open the door for all learners to show what they know in a way that works for them.
Memory
In his talks on Memory, James (1899) stated, an educated memory depends on an
organized system of associations (p.120). Here, James contended that our ideas are
triggered by cues to our already existing associations; whatever appears in the mind
must be introduced; and, when introduced, it is as the associate of something already
there (James, 1899, p. 118). Building reflection, or getting students to think about
thinking, is an apparent theme in this section of Jamess Talks.
The secret of a good memory is thus the secret of forming diverse and multiple
associations with every fact we care to retain. But this forming of associations
with a fact, - what is it but thinking about the fact as much as possible? (James,
1899, p. 123).
Therefore, if students are to retain the information they are learning, they must be trained
to reflect on the information as often as possible.
In current fields of education, the theme of building reflection and critical
thinking skills continues to persist. As indicated by McKeachie (2003), researchers
current conceptions of learning have moved a long way from simple repetition and
reinforcementwe emphasize reflection and deep processing (p. 41). This focus on
reflection does not, however, mean that there is no room for the practice of skills.
Practice is still important not mindless repetition, but elaborative practice. Educators
encourage practice to reduce the load on our limited capacity working memory

WILLIAM JAMES: THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION

(McKeachie, 2003, p.41). The aim is to focus less on mindless handouts and drill
exercises, and more on summative projects.
Principles Lost: What Has Not Stood the Test of Time
James (1899) stated, psychology is a science and teaching is an art; and sciences
never generate arts directly out of themselves (pp. 7-8). In this sense, one can assume
that he is alluding to the fact that teachers should not attempt to be psychologists and vice
versa. Berliner (1993) indicated that James criticized the attempt to make over teachers
into psychologists or scientistsit was not a teachers duty to collect scientifically
rigorous observations, because to act as a scientist often conflicted with ones
performance as a teacher (p.8). Unfortunately, this statement does not stand the test of
time. Many individuals enrolled in graduate level School and Child Psychology training
courses are teachers.
Further, James (1899) goes on to suggest that teachers should not be burdened
with the tasks of interpreting and collecting statistical data or observing students in an
analytical fashion. Today, many school divisions are turning to the implementation of the
Response To Intervention model (RTI) where the classroom teacher, in collaboration with
Special Education team members, measures a childs non-responsiveness to an
intervention in a given area of difficulty. In order to determine a childs responsiveness
to an intervention then, teachers in todays schools do need to occupy themselves with
understanding data collection and interpretation, as well as analytical observation.
Changes in School Psychology Since the Era of William James
Cultural Influences in School Psychology

WILLIAM JAMES: THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION

During Jamess time period, the area of psychology was predominantly maleoriented and Caucasian. The only reference that James mentions in regards to culture and
ethnicity is when he compared the temperaments of men from the southern races who are
considered more impulsive than the northern English race who suffer from selfconsciousness (James, 1899). Currently, school psychology is also experiencing the same
trend in terms of race with 92.8% of psychologists being classified as Caucasian (Curtis,
Chesno Grier, & Hunley, 2004). Unfortunately this Caucasian dominance is not
representative of the current school populations in the United States where we are seeing
an increase of immigration from non-European countries. Mexico, China, the
Philippines, India, and the Dominican Republic were reported as the top five countries of
origin of American immigrants in 2011 (Rytina, 2012). These immigrations contribute to
school populations consisting of many different cultures whose first language may not be
English (Beachum & McCray, 2007). It is important that educators and school
psychologists try to overcome these cultural difficulties in order to successfully identify
with their students.
Technology and the Media
The advancement of technology and increased influence of the media throughout
the past century have led to improvements and challenges in the field of school
psychology that were not prevalent during Jamess era. Technology has led to increased
communication between people internationally. This allows professionals in educational
psychology to share ideas to colleagues all over the world instantaneously and in realtime (Washington, 2007). In order for William James to deliver his lectures, he had to

WILLIAM JAMES: THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION

travel and speak in person. Distance-education has provided the opportunity for students
to learn from anywhere through the Internet where there is a vast amount of information.
However, unlimited access to information has its drawbacks. Students have an
increased risk of becoming distracted in the classroom with the presence of certain
technologies, such as cell phones (Washington, 2007). Another concern is the quality of
information that is present on the Internet. It is important for students to develop critical
thinking skills in order to decipher whether or not information they receive through
technology and the media is correct (Washington, 2007).
Cognitive Theories of Independent Learning and Motivation
James (1899) believed that the teachers prime concern was to ingrain in the
students an assortment of habits that will be the most useful throughout their lives (p.
66). His notion was that a teacher is the primary facilitator and supervisor of a childs
learning. Recent developments in cognitive theories have resulted in students having an
increased independence over their own learning such as Banduras theory of self-efficacy.
Students are enabled to process and organize information around student-centred
classroom lessons (Burden, 2007). They have more personal control over their own
thinking by developing appropriate self-managing and problem-solving skills. Another
example of independent learning in the realm of metacognition is the notion of
Vygotskys development of scaffolding (Kolencik, 2007). Students are allowed to build
upon their interests by connecting new content onto prior knowledge and experiences
(Kolencik, 2007). They can independently pursue and discover new information about a
topic that they are fascinated in studying.

WILLIAM JAMES: THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION

Curriculum and lesson planning have become more individualized to satisfy a

students needs and interests. The teacher acts as a mediator who guides the learner along
the stages of this independent learning process (Burden, 1994). Jamess (1899)
perspective was different where it described the teacher as having a more active role in
planning and facilitating a lesson.
Motivation is a key factor in why a student chooses to learn. James (1899)
reflected on Bains notion of moral habits where an individual must make the initiation to
acquire a new habit and try to prevent relapsing into the old habit. Motivation is the
driving force behind this decision to form a new habit. Burden (1994) stated that,
cognitive approaches has provided an alternative, liberating perspective from the
essentially mechanistic viewpoint on earlier theories. Cognitive theories characterize
motivation as conscious and self-determined and emphasize that individuals have a
choice over their own actions (p.313).
Motivation has more recently been classified into two categories: intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation refers to activities in which rewards for their
performance are found in the activities themselves whereas extrinsic motivation describes
activities in which rewards for performing those activities lie outside the activity
(Burden, 1994). It is important to address these two categories of motivation in regards
to school psychology to see which type is more effective to use in a classroom. Burden
(1994) reported that intrinsic motivation is the more effective of the two for long-term
reinforcement whereas extrinsic rewards convey a message of a controlling nature.
Extrinsic motivation can discourage students from making choices for themselves by
becoming dependent learners. This can defeat the goal of trying to create independent

WILLIAM JAMES: THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION

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learners and can also affect motivation. Some detrimental affects of this could be learned
helplessness and dehabilitating anxiety towards school (Kolencik, 2007).
Conclusion
William Jamess lectures on the relationship between teaching and psychology are
a valuable contribution to the current discipline of school psychology. A number of his
views on the areas of memory, behavior, reactions, thinking, interest, and attention are
still highly regarded over a century later. The concept of relating psychological
principles towards education was an innovative concept back in his time. Throughout the
years, many of his ideas have been expanded to create more recent theories in school
psychology, particularly in the area of cognition. He felt that the art of teaching and the
science of psychology were two separate entities that could not be combined. However,
current developments in school psychology have found that education has an important
scientific foundation in regards to the study of learning, critical thinking, memory, and
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
The roles of professionals in the education system have changed over the years.
Teachers are increasingly involved in the science of education by observing their
students, analyzing their behavior, developing and implementing strategies to help meet
the learners needs. They have a more collaborate relationship with professionals in
curriculum development, special education, and school psychology. The role of the
school psychologist has also changed throughout the years. Burden (1994) described the
contributions of school psychologists as having changed, from simply diagnosing and
classifying exceptional children to offering guidance, consultation, research, and
curriculum development (pp. 303-304). Society in North America has changed over the

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years and this is reflected through the expansion of the media, technology, and the
introduction to many different cultures due to immigration. It is important that education
and school psychology continue to be adaptable to this so that it can adequately reflect
the changing needs in our society.

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