11.

1 Acids and alkalis

Common acids and bases:
Hydrochloric acid
Sulphuric acid
Nitric acid
Ethanoic acid

Phenolphthal
ein
Methyl
orange

HCl
H2SO4
HNO3
CH3COOH

In acid
Colourle
ss
Red

Turns litmus
red

Turns litmus
blue

Sodium hydroxide
Potassium hydroxide
Calcium hydroxide
Ammonia

NaOH
KOH
Ca(OH)2
NH3

In alkali
Pink
yellow

The pH of any solution can be found using a universal indicator.

11.2 A closer look at acids and alkalis

Solutions of acids contain H+ ions, making them acidic. When an acid is added to water, it
dissociates into ions:
HCl H+ + Cl- (100% of them)
CH3COOH H+ + CH3COO- (only some of them dissociates)
In solutions of strong acids, all the molecules become ions. In the solution of weak acids, only some
molecules become ions. The stronger the acid, the better the conductivity. The higher the concentration
of hydrogen ions, the lower the pH, the stronger the base.

Solutions of alkalis contain OH- ions, making them alkaline. When an alkali is added into water, it
dissolves, and dissociates into ions:
NaOH Na+ + OH- (100% of them)
NH3 H20 NH4+ + OH- (only some of them)
In solutions of strong alkalis, all the molecules become ions. In the solution of weak alkalis, only some
molecules become ions. The stronger the alkali, the better the conductivity. The higher the
concentration of hydroxide ions, the higher the pH, the stronger the base.

11.3 The reaction of acids and bases

Reactions with acids:

 Acid + metal salt + hydrogen

Magnesium + sulphuric acid magnesium sulphate + hydrogen. The metal displaces hydrogen, and
takes its place.
Acid + base salt + water
o Acid + metal oxide salt + water
Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium chloride + water
o

Acid + metal hydroxide salt + water

Sulphuric acid + copper oxide copper sulphate + water

Acid + carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide

Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide

Reaction with bases

Bases react with acids to get salt and water.
Shown in reactions above.
Sodium, potassium and calcium hydroxides react with ammonium salts, giving out salt,
water and ammonia gas.
Calcium hydroxide + ammonium chloride calcium chloride + water + ammonia
Neutralisation is the reaction with an acid that gives water as well as salt. Farmers use neutralisation to
reduce the acidity in soils, by adding limestone (calcium carbonate), lime (calcium oxide) or slakes lime
(calcium hydroxide). To neutralise a bee sting, which is acidic, baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate)
or calamine lotion (zinc carbonate), can be rubbed.
Neutralisation reactions are not redox, as no electrons are transferred. The reaction of metals with acids
are redox reactions.

11.4 A closer look at neutralisation

When an acid and a base are put together, the hydrogen ions and the hydroxide ions join to form water
molecules. Then the rest of the molecules of the reactants join together to form a salt.
To write an ionic equation:

Write all the ions present in the reaction

Cross out the ions that appear unchanged on both sides of the reaction
What is left is the ionic equation

The hydrogen atom is just a proton. So acids are proton donors, and bases are proton acceptors.

The neutralisation of an insoluble base:

The acid donates a proton

The oxide ions accept them

The lattice breaks down
The positive ions of the base and the negative ions of the acid join together to form the salt

11.5 Oxides
Basic oxides:
Magnesium and oxygen:

Magnesium ribbon lit

Plunged into jar of oxygen
Burns with brilliant white flame
Leaves white ash magnesium oxide

Iron and oxygen:

Hot iron wool plunged into gas jar of oxygen

Glows bright
Throws out shower of sparks
Black solid left iron oxide

Copper and oxygen:

Too unreactive to catch fire in oxygen

When heated in oxygen steam, surface turns black
Black substance copper oxide

The more reactive the metal, the more vigorously it reacts.

How to check if copper oxide is basic:

Insoluble in water
But soluble in dilute acid
Copper oxide mixed with dilute HCl, and warmed
This turns litmus blue
So copper is a basic oxide

Metal oxides are basic.

Acidic oxides:

Carbon and oxygen:

Powdered carbon heated until red hot

Then plunged into a jar of oxygen carbon dioxide

Sulphur and oxygen:

Catches fire over Bunsen burnerblue flame

Brighter flame in pure oxygen sulphur dioxide

Phosphorus and oxygen:

Burns into flame without heating

White solid formed phosphorus pentoxide

When these are dissolved in water they turn litmus red. Non-metal oxides are acidic.
Amphoteric oxides:

React with both acids and alkalis

Aluminium oxide
Zinc oxide

Neutral oxides:

Do not react with acids or bases

Carbon monoxide
Dinitrogen oxide N2O LAUGHING GAS, USED AS ANAESTHETIC

11.5 Making salts

How to make zinc sulphate:

Add zinc to dilute sulfuric acid

It starts to dissolve and hydrogen bubbles off
Bubbling stops when all acid is used up
Excess zinc still left remove by filtering
Heat solution to evaporate some water for saturated solution
Leave to cool
Crystals of zinc sulphate

This method can be used to make salts of magnesium, aluminium, zinc and iron. Not with very reactive
metals.
How to make copper sulphate:

Copper does not react with dilute sulfuric acid

Start with base copper oxide (or even copper carbonate)
Add it to dilute sulphuric acid
Dissolves on warming\solution turns blue
Remove excess solid by filtering
Heat solution to obtain saturated solution
Crystals of copper sulphate will form

To make sodium (or any other very reactive metal) salts:

By titration
Use phenolphthalein as the indicator
Put 25cm3 of sodium hydroxide into flask (use pipette)
Add 2 drops of phenolphthalein
Add acid using burette, bit by bit
When the indicator suddenly turns colourless, stop adding acid as alkali has been used up
Solution is neutral
Find how much acid was added
Repeat without indicator
Heat solution crystals of sodium chloride

11.7 Making insoluble salts by precipitation

Soluble salts:

Sodium salts
Potassium salts
Ammonium salts
All nitrates
All chlorides (except silver chloride, lead chloride)
All sulphates (except calcium sulphate, barium sulphate, lead sulphate)
Sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, ammonium carbonate (All others insoluble)

How to make barium sulphate:

A solution of barium chloride contains barium and chloride ions

Magnesium sulphate contains magnesium ions and sulphate ions
Mix the two solutions together
Barium and sulphate ions bond together
Forming a white precipitate
Filter it and dry it

Equation for the reaction:

Ionic equation:
To precipitate an insoluble salt, you must mix a solution that contains its positive ions with one
that contains its negative ions.
Uses of precipitation:

Used to make coloured pigments for paint

Used to remove harmful substances dissolved in water
Used to make photographic film