Introduction E. K, MILLER Although the Maxwell curl equations are usuelly first encountered in the time domain (TD), ic., with time as an explicit, independent variable, until relatively recently most electromagnetic instruction and research hes taken place in the frequency domain (FD) where time-harmonic behaviors assumed. principle reason or favoring the FD overthe TD in the precomputererahad been that a FD approach was generally more traciable analytically, Furthermore, the experimental hardware availeble for making measurements in past years was largely confined to the ED. ‘Theinfetior position of TD electromagnetics (EM) began to change with the arrival ofthe digital computer, which has profoundly affected what can be done not only numerically (or computation- ally) bat also experimentally. Since the beginning of what has come to be called computational electromagnetics (CEM) in the early 1960s, there has been asteady growth in TD modeling. This srowth, which began slowly at frst, was primarily confined to integral equation (IE) treatments, butt has become slmostexplosive during the past 10 years as TD éifferential equation (DE) mod- cling has auracied wide attention. This chapter sumniarizes the status of direct TD (as opposed ‘o Fourier-transformed FD results) mnodeling and highlights some of the current research areas, ‘The remainder of this chapter surveys the previous aspects in more detail. In Section 1.1, some important aspects related 10 radiation phenomena using time domain snapshots are discussed. Some general EM modeling choices, followed by the reasons why TD modeling in particular might be advantageous anda brie? account ofthe evolution of TDEM modeling, arc considered in Section 1.2. Basie stepsin devsloping o TD model and its subsequent application are discussed in Section 1.3. In Sections 1-4 and 1.5, some specific issues related to TDIE and TDDE modeling, including spatial meshes, closure conditions, obtaining far fields, and alternate formulations are considered. In Section 1.6, topics common to time doniain modeling such as ineveasing. late-time stability, extracting resonances, signal processing of TD results, toul/seatered field formulations, and handling dispersion, nonlinearities, and time variations are summarized. An extensive reference list is also included at the end of the chapter. 1.1. AN INITIAL EXPLORATION OF TIME DOMAIN PHENOMENA ‘Time domain modeling in electromagnetics has been of interest since the advent of Maxwell’s equations. Despite the fact that, historically, most analysis and experimentation was performed in2 E.K. MILLER the frequency domain, EM fields are dynemic phenomena, and even FD results contsinan explicit time-harmonie varistion. Unfortunately, it is rare that FD solutions are examined as a function of time by the simple expedient of determining the real eomponcnts ofthe fields a the time phasor rotates. Observing the time behavior of FD felds could add greatly to oar physical understanding ais demonstraby the case when a TD result is available. Although the transient response of an object can be obtained directly in the TD, o¢ from transformed FD data the emphasis here i on the former, so the results presented are called time domain, rather than transient response. 1.1.1 The Infinite-Length Wire Antenna ‘Consider, for example, the feedpoint current and broadside radiated field of an infinite, cireul perfect electric conducting (PEC) cylinder excited by a Gaussian voltage pulse Vie) = Voe™*” as presented in Fig. 1.1, computed from « TD IE model [1]. (Since the cylinder diameter is small compared with the wavelength, itis appropriate to refer to the geometry as a““wire” structure as is done here). Initially, the current and radiated field follow the rise in voltage. However, after the voltage peak is reached they begin to fall slightly faster in value and then exhibit a negative undershoot whieh lasts well beyond the time at which the voltage becomes negligible, As time continues to progress, the current and charge decay back toward zero as the two halves of the antenna return to.a neutral state ‘These effects are more clearly demonstrated in Fig. 1.2. Here, we observe that the feedpoint current and broadside radiated field are essentially identical in theie time variations. Also, note that the feedpoint current and voltage appear proportional until the voltage peak is resched, after which the current decreases somewhat faster and exhibits an overshoot ‘This simple computer experiment displays some very fundamental physics. It is relevant at this point in discussing TD radiation to include the Lienard—Wichert potentials [2], where s3 as Z 000 © soe zs 3 g Z 004 8 os ¥ oor : Zoo 00 04 O8 12 1é am 00 04 08 12 16 ‘Time- 107 seer a8 a b FIGURE 1.1 Exciting an infinite, civeular wire by the Gaussian voltage pulse. (a) The tiie dota feedpoint current and () the negative of the broadside rained fold 1. INTRODUCTION 10 : 10 08 =e os er 0° oe je Se t 8 he Eos go BP o2 SF o2 oo 00 0.2 02 © 10 20 30 40 50 © 10 20 30 40 50 ‘Time Steps ‘rime steps a b FIGURE 12 (Comparison of 2) me eedpoint curtemt with tne negative ofthe broadside radiated feld and (b) de exciting voltage with the feedpoint current. representing the speed of ight. The magretic field is given by petuxm a2)‘These equations show explicitly that the only source of radiated EM fields is accelerated charge as the du/dt’ term produces a I/r field. ‘Therefore, itis insightful to consider where charge acceleration is occurring as might be deduced from the previous results. ‘Beginning with the initial “turning on” of the exciting voltage, charge on theantenna, originally at rest and in equilibrium, is set iato motion by the electric field that results, as shown ia Fig. 1.3 ‘The positive charge moves to the fight and the negative charge 1 the left; both cause positive ‘currents but their pulses travel in opposite directions, Although the numerical model used in obtaining the results of Fig, 1.1 is limited to finite-lengih wires, until end reflections occur the behavior is identical to that of an infinite wire, as is also the case here. As the vollage increases, proportionately more charge is set into motion with a propoctionaie increase in the radiated field. This process continues until part of the ouward-propagating current and charge are reflected back toward the feedpoint, when the current and radiated field no longer follow the excitation voltage. ‘The feedpoint current grows with the increasing excitation voltage, and since the conduction current is approximately 1 = Qu ~ Qc the feedpoint charge density follows this same buildup. ‘This increasing charge density continues to undergo the same effective acceleration since its FIGURE 1.3 A qualivaive picwre of the charge and current cavsed by a Gaussian voltage pulse applied wo 2 wire antenna ies of Time Domain Models It is worth mentioning several of the advantages in performing time domain modeling. First Widehand data are made available from one model computation « opposed to the frequency domain approach, in which many frequency samples are required to cbtain the equivalent data Second, it provides a more straightforward approach in modeling impedance nonlinearities in the time domain, Third, time domain models can handle time variations of load impedances. For example, the use of a time domain model for nonlinear loading is demonstrated in Fig. 1.14 in ‘which the input current, broadside radiated field, and the radiated field spectrum are presented [4] ‘The radiated fields seen to have two opposite-sign pulses, caused by the initial turn on of the drive voltage, and the stopping of the currert-charge pulses as their outward propagation is stopped, in accord with the Lienard-Wichert potentials. Such loading might be used for pulse shaping, ‘Time varying problems are also well suited to time domain modeling. For example, when a dipole is illuminated by a time-harmoric plane wave incident trom broadside while its center load varies sinusoidally in value, we cbtain the results of Fig. 1.15. Here, a 16 MHz, broadside- incident, plane wave illuminsting a half-wave dipole having a center load whose resistance varies 1.1.5 Some Special Capat1, INTRODUCTION n i if —_ i ao | 0.06]. 4 2 2 +. © . ey Ey + 6 = ween vse A dipole antenna continuously loaded with diodes. (a) The feedpoint current, (b) the broadside radiated field, and (c) the spectrum of the rated field.‘sinusoidally at MHz is shown. Interaction of the incident field and the tinie-varying load causes ermodulation that produces upper and lower sidebands in the scattered field, a phenomenon thet can significantly modi its radar cross section es the resulting frequency spectrum demonstrates, I may be noted that dynamically varying the reflectivity of a scatterer can change the scattered field spectrum from what it would be otherwise. 1.2 MODELING CHOICES IN CEM In discussing CEM in general and TD modeling in particulae, it is appropriste to consider two bbasic questions: 1. What alternative modeling approaches are available for CEM? 2. Whatare the advantages of TD models relative to the otter possibilities?UIE MAGNTICE -L Rh » FIGURE 1.15 (@) Broadside scattered field and (b) the spectrum ofa inielependent loaded seaterer To answer both questions, we observe that there are four major, first principles, models in CEM, given by, 1. Time domain differential equation (TDDE) models, the use of which has increased tremen- dously over the past several years, primarily as a result of much larger and faster computers. 2. Time domain integral equation (TDIF) models, although available for more than 30 years, have gained increased attention in the past decade. ‘The revent advances in this area make these methods very attractive for a large variety of applications,1, INTRODUCTION 13. 3. Frequency domain integral equation (FDIE) models remain the most widely studied and used models, they were the firs to receive detailed development, 4, Frequency domain differential equation (FDDE) models, whose use has also increased considerably in recent years, althouigh most work to date has emphasized low-frequency applications. 1.2.1 Why Model in the Time Domain? Besides physical interpretability, as demonstrated previously, there are two basic reasons for ‘modeling in the time domain which provide a distinct advantage in most applications in which transient results are available: 1. Computational efficiency: For certain problems and/or approaches, fewer arithmetic op- rations are required when performed in the time domain, For example, in applications in which the early time peak response of an object to an impulsive field issought, a TD model offers an intrinsically more efficient approach compared to a FD model, which requires, frequency samples across a broad bandwith followed by a Fourier (or other) transform to ‘obtain the desired result. When seeking broadband information, a TD model is also amore natural choice because it provides a transient response whose bandwidth is limited only by the frequency content ofthe excitation and the time and space sampling used in developing. the model. In addition, TD models may offer a naturally better match to massively parallel computer architectures than do FD models 2, Problem requirements: Problems tht involve nonlinear media or components can usually ‘be modeled in a more straightforwardand efficient manner in TD, asean problems invelving time-varying media and components. An additional benefit of TD modeling is that time gating can be used in modeling, as in measurements, to remove the effects of unwanted reflections or to simulate larger objects. An example of the later application is that of replacing an infinite cylindrical antenna model with a three-dimensional (3D) wise model whose behavior ata midpoint feedat early times, prior to end reflections, will be identical to that ofan infinite structure [5]. Finally, body resonances, or singularity expansion method (SEM) poles, may be computed more directly froma TD model.1.2.2. Evolution of Time Domain Modeling Development of computer-cra TD CEM models might be traced to physical optics work (6-8}, in which the relationship between an ebject’s ramp response and its cross-sectional arca along the propagation direction of an incident plane wave was derived. Representative examples of the growing variety of TD research that followed inelude the original TDDE approach by Yeo {9] which focms the basis of the widely used finte-difference time domain (FDTD) model. An extensive survey of the applications of this method is available [10]. A related application of 4 TDIE to acoustics was presented by Mitzner [11]. This work was closely followed by TDIE. EM applications [!2-15]. An alternate implementation of TDDE models was shorily thereafter initiated os the transmission-tine method (TLM) by Johns and Beurle (16). Recently. TD versions of the method of lines (TDML and the geometrical theory of diffraction (TDGTD) were presented by Nam ef al. [17] and Veruttipong [18], respectively. It seems likely that TD versions of other modeling approaches can also be expected to be developed. Accompanying this initial research into TD CEM models was continuing work of a more analytical nature, including a series of papers in the early 1960s, one of which was a study 7 E. K. MILLER by Brundell [19] on transient current waves propagating azimuthally around an infinite circular cylinder. Related papers by Wu [20] and Einarsson [21] investigated the impulse response of an infinite dipote antenna. Another furdamental analytical study of antennas excited by impulsive sources was presented by Franceschetti and Pappas [22]. Tijhuis etal, (23] reexamined a classical problem, the transient response of athin, straight wire ‘An increasing amount of TDIE modeling has followed. For example, Miller etal. [24] empha sized wire applications of the electric fckd IE (EFIE) which is further developed together with surface modeling using the magnetic field IE (MFIE) [25]. Other examples of developing TD models include Lui and Mei (26), Bennett (27, 28], Bennett and Mieras (29, 30], Gomez et al [BI], Marx [32], Bretones ef al. [33], Gomez et al. (34, 35], Rao and Wilton [36], Vechinski ‘1 al. (37, 38}, and Walker eof. [39, 40]. Application examples have grown commensurstely, 28 demonstrated by some nonlinear modeling [41, 42], and as illustrated by using the time-gating, feature of TD modeling for simulating infinite stractares with a 3D wire model [5]. Selective ‘overviews of this early TD research are given by Bennett and Ross (43), Miller and Landt [4], and Miller [44, 45]13 1 Model Development For any numerical solution, it is necessary to develop the required equations and solve them on a ‘computer. The equations thus developed must include the physics of the problem a5 well as the geometrical atures. The following four steps are carried out in EM time domain problems: 1. Develop tie-depencent integral equations using potential theory along with appropriate ‘voundary conditions (see Section 1.4) or, aliematively, begin with the time-dependent Maxwell curl equations or their equivalent (sce Section 1.5). 2. Sample these equations in space and time utilizing an appropriate geometical space grid and suitable basis and testing funetions. Note that, depending onthe choice of formulation, the space grid may cover the structure and/or the surrounding space. 3. Develop a set of simultaneous equations relating known and unknown quantities. Gener- ally, the known and unknown quanities are the excitation field or its derivatives snd the radiated scattered field or induced current and charge, respectively. 4. Generate a computer solution of this system in space and time as an initial-value problem,