Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Q.3 .- what are the methods for under water concreting ? And give the explanation for
each method.
ANS:
Types of underwater concreting
Tremie
Pump method
Toggle bags
Bag work
1. Tremie method:
1. Pump method:
A concrete pump is a machine used for transferring liquid concrete by pumping.
There are two types of concrete pumps.
The first type of concrete pump is attached to a truck. It is known as a trailer-mounted
boom concrete pump because it uses a remote-controlled articulating robotic arm
(called a boom) to place concrete accurately.
Boom pumps are used on most of the larger construction projects as they are capable
of pumping at very high volumes and because of the labour saving nature of the
placing boom.
They are a revolutionary alternative to truck-mounted concrete pumps.
The second main type of concrete pump is either mounted on a truck and known as a
truck-mounted concrete pump or placed on a trailer, and it is commonly referred to as
a line pump or trailer-mounted concrete pump.
This pump requires steel or flexible concrete placing hoses to be manually attached to
the outlet of the machine.
Those hoses are linked together and lead to wherever the concrete needs to be placed.
Line pumps normally pump concrete at lower volumes than boom pumps and are
used for smaller volume concrete placing applications such asswimming
pools, sidewalks, and single family home concrete slabs and most ground slabs.
3. Toggle bags:
4. Bag work:
Q.4.-write short note on under water construction of diaphragm wall and basement.
ANS
DIAPHRAGM WALL
up to depths of 45 meters.
About Diaphragm wall:
Limited construction time where deeper than normal cantilever support
may be required.
Can be installed to considerable depth.
Formation of walls with substantial thickness.
Flexible system in plan layout
Easily incorporated into Permanent works.
Designable to carry vertical loads.
Construction time of Basement can be lowered considerably.
Economic and Positive solution for large deep basement in saturated and
unstable soil profiles.
2.Basement:
BASEMENT
A basement or cellar is one or more floors of a building that are either
completely or partially below the ground floor.
Basements are typically used as a utility space for a building where such items
as the boiler, water heater, breaker panel or fuse box, car park, and airconditioning system are located; so also are amenities such as the electrical
distribution system, and cable television distribution point.
However in cities with high property prices such as London, basements are
often fitted out to a high standard and used as living space.
Q 5.- Explain tunnelling technology with respect of advance planning and equipment.
ANS
are establish.
Depending of end use of tunnel,the tunnel shape and diameter can be decided.for
example tunnel is used for vehicular,rail or foot transport,then horse shoes of the
tunnel are the best suited and these can be constructed efficiently with the help of
model tunnelling equipment .
Finished diameter or size of the tunnel is based on required capacity of the end use
generally the cost of smaller tunnels can be reduced by slightly increasing the site
toallow enough room for machinery and men to work with case.
Another aspect to be study in technical planning is tunnel gradient.
This will depend on the surface terrain and on the use of the tunnel.
If the grade is steep,for example addition horse power in the power unit of haulage
1. Roadheaders
2. Tunnel Boring Machines
3. Transportation & Haulage
4. Infrastructure & Surface Plant
Road headers:
ROADHEADERS
Uses and refurbished:
MEKTUNNEL are your Roadheader experts. We manage one of the largest
inventories of available used Roadheader inventories globally and can offer quality
used and refurbished Roadheaders of all brands and models to satisfy your project
and budgetary requirements.
New road houlders:
MEKTUNNEL proudly represents BBM MaschinenfabrikMeran GmbH.
BBM produces a full range of top quality German build Roadheaders and provides
excellent support and expertise to assist you in making sure your project is a success.
The BBM brand of Roadheaders was previously sold under the Westfalia.
Roadheader brand and they are world renowned for quality and reliability.
Compact Roadheading and Cross Passage Solutions:
MEKTUNNEL can supply compact continuous mining/excavation solutions in the
<10t weight class, offering reliable and proven machinery to projects requiring an
extremely compact solution.
We are able to meet project requirements down to m height and/or m width
utilizing advanced and proven Roadheader technology and can provide a complete
line of support equipment from face to surface.
2. Tunnel boring machines:
MEKTUNNEL keeps an inventory of available used TBM machines and work with
our clients on a project by project basis to source and/or supply quality used TBM
options to satisfy project and budgetary requirements.
In addition, through Agency relationships we are able to offer a complete package of
new TBM and/or support equipment.
Power Supply
Hoist and Shaft Equipment
Concrete Plant & Segment Mold
Ground Stabilization
Ventilation & Dust/Temperature Control
Misc. Tunnelling Equipment
BOX CAISSONS
A box caisson is used, bearing stratum is available at the shallow depth and
where loads are not very heavy.
The closed box caisson are used for break waters and sea walls.
The box caisson is open at top and closed at the bottom and is made of timber,
reinforced concrete or steel.
This caisson is built on land and then it is launched and floated to pier site,
where it is sunk in position.
Before placing the precast caisson, a level bearing surface is prepared by
dredging or by a drivers.
They can be founded on an irregular rock surface, if all mud or loose material
is dredge away and replaced by a blanket of sound crushed rock.
Where the depth of soft material is too deep for dredging, they can be founded
on a piled raft.
The launched caisson is then sunk, by filling it with suitable material, usually
sand or gravel.
The top of the caisson is then sealed.
b. open caisson
OPEN CAISSON
An open caisson is rectangular or square in plan and further sub-divided into smaller
section from inside forming open wells.
They are made of timber,metal,reinforced concrete or masonry, which is open both at
top and bottom.
They are used for the most common type of deep foundation for bridge piers,
abutments and other similar structure.
It consists of following components.
1. Well curb and cutting edge:
Athewell curb is designed for supporting the weight of the well with partial
support of cutting edge at bottom.
The load coming on the well curb is considerably born by skin friction.
The cutting edge should have sharp angle for knifing into the soil and strong
enough to resist various stresses induced by boulder ,bows, blasting ,etc.
2. Well staining:
The thickness of staining is designed in a such way that at all stages,the
well can be sunk under its own way.
3. Bottom plug:
PNEUMATIC CAISSON
This type of caisson is closed at top and open (during construction) at the
bottom.
The water is excluded from the caisson chamber by means of compressed
air.
The construction of the pneumatic caisson is similar to the types described
above, except that, the working chamber and shaft are made air-tight.
In order that the workmen may carry out excavation work underneath the
caisson and the water may not find its way inside from below, the pressure
of the compressed air in the shaft is kept just higher than that of the water
at that depth.
Each caisson has two air locks.
Through one air lock workmen go down for working while through the
other excavated material is taken out.
doors.
One door of this chamber serves as an entry for men and material from
outside into the steel chamber and the other door leads to the air shaft.
When a workman enters the airlock from outside, the pressure inside the
airlock is the same as that of outside atmosphere.
Thereafter the outside door is closed and the pressure inside the airlock is
raised slowly.
When the pressure inside the airlock becomes equal to the pressure in the
caisson, the door of the airlock which leads to the air shaft is opened and
the workman goes down the air-shaft with the help of a ladder installed
therein.
Exactly reverse procedure is followed when the workman comes out of the
caisson.
Air-shaft provides means of access for the worker from airlock down to
the working chamber.
ANS
When the workers returned to the atmospheric pressure after working under
compressed air, they suffered a certain type of disease. This sickness is known as
caisson sickness.
Localized deep pain, ranging from mild to excruciating. Sometimes a dull ache, but
rarely a sharp pain.
Loss of balance
Q 10 - Explain cofferdam with its components and under which construction site and
circumstances it is required?
ANS
COFFERDAM COMPONENTS:
1. Sheet piling:
Sheet piling is a manufactured construction product with a mechanical connection
interlock at both ends of the section. These mechanical connections interlock with
one another to form a continuous wall of sheeting.
Sheet pile applications are typically designed to create a rigid barrier for earth and
water, while resisting the lateral pressures of those bending forces.
The shape or geometry of a section lends to the structural strength.
In addition, the soil in which the section is driven has numerous mechanicalproperties
that can affect the performance.
2. Bracing frame
3. Concrete seal:
The typical cofferdam, such as a bridge pier, consists of sheet piles set around a
bracing frame and driven into the soil sufficiently far to develop vertical and lateral
support and to cut off the flow of soil and, in some cases the flow of water.
The structure inside may be founded directly on rock or firm soil or may require
pilefoundations.
In the latter case, these generally extend well below the cofferdam.
Inside excavation is usually done using clam shell buckets. In order to dewater the
cofferdam, the bottom must be stable and able to resist hydrostatic uplift.
Placement of an underwater concrete seal course is the fastest and most common
method.
An underwater concrete seal course may then be placed prior to dewatering in order
to seal off the water, resist its pressure, and also to act as a slab to brace against the
inward movement of the sheet piles in order to mobilize their resistance to uplift
under the hydrostatic pressure
Q.11- Explain sequential the site operation for coffer dam. And what are load
consider during the structure design?
Site operation of cofferdam:
ANS
Pre-dredge to remove soil or soft sediments and level the area of the cofferdam.
Drive temporary support piles.
Temporarily erect bracing frame on the support piles.
Set steel sheet piles, starting at all four corners and meeting at the centre of each side.
Drive sheet piles to grade.
Block between bracing frame and sheets, and provide ties for sheet piles at the top as
necessary.
Excavate inside the grade or slightly below grade, while leaving the cofferdam full of
water .
Drive bearing piles.
Place rock fill as a levelling and support course .
Place tremie concrete seal.
Design load:
The maximum probable height outside the cofferdam during construction and
thewater height inside the cofferdam during various stages of construction need
to be considered.
2. Forces due to Soil Loads:
The soils impose forces, both locally on the wall of the cofferdam and globally
uponthe structure as a whole.
These forces are additive to the hydrostatic forces.
Local forces are a major component of the lateral force on sheet-pile walls,
causingbending in the sheets, bending in the wales, and axial compression in the
struts.
These are of two types: the force exerted by the expansion of a closed-in
solidlyfrozen-over area of water surface (static ice force) and the forces exerted by
themoving ice on breakup (dynamic ice force).
As an example, for static ice force, avalue of 4000 lb/ft2 has been used on cofferdams
and structures on the great Lakes,whereas the value due to dynamic ice force on a
cofferdam-type structure are often taken at 12,000 to 14,000 lb/ft2 of contact area.
6. Seismic Loads:
These have not been normally considered in design of temporary structures in the
past.
For very large, important, and deep cofferdams in highly seismically active
areas,seismic evaluation should be performed.
7. Accidental loads:
These are the loads usually caused by construction equipment working alongside the
cofferdam and impacting on it under the action of waves.
(a)
Earthen cofferdam
Single-walled cofferdam
(d) Double-walled
cofferdam
(e)
Crib cofferdam
EARTHFILL COFFERDAM
It essentially consists of an earthen embankment built around the area to be enclosed.
It is constructed in places where the depth of water is not much, say 13 to 18 in. and
the velocity of the current is very low.
As a precautionary measure, the earth bank is carried about one metre above the
water level.
The top width of the bank should not be less than 1 in. and the side slopes in a vary
from 1: 1 to 1: 2.
The earth embankment should be built from a mixture of clay and sand or clay and
gravel. If the estimated quantity of clay is not easily obtainable, the banks may be
constructed with a central clay wall with slopes of sand on either side.
In order to prevent the embankment from scouring due to the action of water, side
slopes of the bank on water side should be pitched with rubble boulders.
If the current of water is such that there is a danger of the earthen embankment
getting washed away, canvas bags half filled with material of embankment (mixture
of clay, sand or gravel) are stacked one over the other to form the embankment.
After the work of construction of cofferdam is over, the water from the enclosed area
is pumped out so as to leave a dry surface inside.
Excavations can then be performed to the required depth and the work of construction
of foundations carried out.
This type of cofferdam is used in places where the area to be enclosed is very small
and the depth of water is more, say 4.5 to 6 m Timber piles known as guide piles are
first driven deep into the firm ground below the river bed. Depending upon the
velocity of the current of the water in the river, the centre to centre spacing of the
piles may vary between 1.8 to 4 m. longitudinal runners called wales are then bolted
to the guide piles at suitable distance apart.
Steel or wooden sheet piles are then driven into the river bed along the wales and are
secured to the wales by bolts.
The sheets on the two faces arc braced by trussed arrangement of struts. This helps in
increasing the stability of walls against the water pressure.
Half-filled bags of sand stacked on the inside and the outside faces of the sheets help
in increasing the stability of cofferdam.
After the cofferdam is constructed, the water in the enclosed area is pumped out and
the construction work is taken up.
2. Double wall coffer dam:
The distance between the two walls depends upon the depth of water. The thickness
of wall should be equal to the depth of water up to 3 m.
For greater depths of water, the thickness of wall should be 3 m. plus the depth of
water in excess of 3 m.
At their top, the two faces of the walls are connected by steel rods spaced at close
intervals.
To prevent the leakage from the ground below, the sheet piles are driven to a good
depth in the bed.
c) Cellular coffer dam:
This type of cofferdam is mostly used for de-watering large areas in places where the
depth of water may be of the order of 18 to 21 m.
Cellular cofferdams are mostly used during the construction of marine structures like
dams, locks, whales etc.
Cellular cofferdam is made by driving straight web steel sheet piles, arranged to from
a series of inter-connected cells.
The cells are constructed in various shapes and styles to suit the requirements of site.
Finally the cells are filled with clay, sand or gravel to make them stable against the
various forces to which they are likely to be subjected to.
The two common shapes of the cellular cofferdam are,
1. circular type:
The circular type of cellular cofferdam has the advantage that each cell may be filled
completely to the top before starting the construction of the next cell without causing
any distortion to the shell of the cofferdam.
Thus, when one cell is completely filled up it can be used for placing crane or other
equipment required for the construction of other cells.
In addition, each cell acts as a self-supporting independent unit and in case one of the
cells collapses due to scour or interlock damage or some other reason, it does not
produce any adverse effect on the neighbouring cells it is found that the interlock
stresses reach their maximum permissible value when the diameter of cell is about 21
meter.
Diaphragm type cellular cofferdam:
In this respect, the circular type cofferdam has the advantage over the diaphragm
type cofferdam because in the former, it is not necessary to fill the adjacent cells at
d)Timber crib:
TIMBER CRIB
In deep waters where it is difficult to penetrate the guide piles or sheet piles into the
hard bed below, crib cofferdam is used.
In this type of construction, the sheet piles are supported by a series of wooden cribs.
A crib is a framework of horizontal timbers installed in alternate courses to form
pockets which can be filled with earth or stones.
The length and breadth of each crib depend upon the depth of water and the current of
flow.
The framework of the cofferdam (made from, logs of wood) is prepared on ground
and then floated to the site where the cofferdam is to be constructed.
The layers of sand and the other loose material overlying the impervious hard bed is
dredged out. Crib is then sunk to the position, the bottom of each crib is given a shape
to fit in the variation in the surface of bed rock.
The space inside the crib is then filled with stone or any other material, so as to make
it stable against sliding and overturning.
Timber or steel sheet piles are then driven around the crib.
e) Movable coffer dam:
Where there are number of repetition work in under water foundation such as in
pier of multi span river bridges or long jetties it is economical to design coffer
dam to move as single unit from one foundation to another foundation. Such
coffer dams are known as movable coffer dam.
Construction works in such that the number of identical coffer dam isrequired.
Hence if single unit of coffer dam is used several times, it may result in economy.
A cap is provide on the top of piles or caissonbelow low water and the of river
bed is more.
The movable cofferdam serves the following purpose
As working plat forms for construction plant
As guide for driving the sheet of ring piles
As form work for the underwater portion of the pier shafts.
inward movement of the sheet piles in order to mobilize their resistance to uplift
under the hydrostatic pressure.
Non shrink
Non corrosive
Non-metallic grout
Grout offers pump ability,heat and thermal shock resistance.
Resists water and salt penetration and damage from freeze thaw cycle,and
provide control net position expansion.
Its design for precast concrete components,structural column base plate pump
and machinery bases, anchoring bolts,dowels,bearing pads,key way joints and
crane rails.
Q. 15 - Write various grouting equipment and its essential at the various stage.
Grouting Equipment:
400 ft3 Bulk Cement P-Tanks, 11 ft Diameter 12,000 lb Empty (20 tons of Bulk
Grout)
Grout Mixer (50 BBL Capacity Mixer)
Mixer Hydraulic Power Units
Grout Pumps
Grout Manifold System (Air / Water / Grout)
Air Compressor 350 psi, 960 CFM
Regulator / Dryer, Skid Mounted
Pressure Washer
2-in Non-Collapsible Grout Hose
Hydraulic Magnetic Drill Press
8 ft x 20 ft grout van, offshore unit with power and climate control, used to house
testing equipment and spares. (Grout samples can be stored and tested onsite.)
Its essential:
Our Micro grouts are fast setting 100% solid epoxy systems with
exceptionally high strength that need minimal surface preparation for
anchoring and installing heavy industrial machinery. Industries that use our
grout include food plants, pharmaceutical plants, chemical plants, battery
plants, institutional facilities and pulp and paper mills.
Equipment that use our epoxy grout are: Compressors, Lathes, Pumps,
Engines, Electric Motors, Generators, Presses, Crushers, Paper Machines, Xray Machines, Grinders, Truck Scales, Punches, Hoist and Jib-Crane Bases.
Installation is quick and trouble free, virtually eliminating costly machine
down time. Material, equipment and labour costs are greatly reduced using
our systems of machinery
DEWATERING TECHNIQUES
Q.1. Explain electro osmosis dewatering system?
ANS
Dewatering Technique of dewatering done through the use of cathodes
and anodes with passage of Electrical current.
Electro-osmosis is defined as the movement of water (and whatever is
contained in the water) through a porous media by applying a direct
current (DC) field.
It is the only effective method of dewatering in deep clay soils.
2. Effectiveness of Electro-osmosis
Electro-osmosis provides the following benefits when properly applied:
First, electro-osmosis provides uniform pore water movement in most types of soil.
Since the boundary layer movement towards the cathode provides the motive force
for the bulk pore water, the size of the pore is not important.
The slurry trench method is used for creating impermeable groundwater barriers or
cut off walls they are also used to contain contaminated ground water. Diaphragm
walls are used in cases of trouble some dewatering and excavation support problems,
which
particles to bond to each other evenly and swell to form a gel. If the bentonite is left
to stand for a period of time it forms a gel or bonding of the swollen clay particles.
This increases the stabilizing quality of the fluid in the excavation. One could imagine
a freshly mixed jelly poured into a mould which then gains strength over a period of
time. However, bentonite once in motion again reverts back to its fluid state a process
that can be repeated indefinitely. Bentonite is sensitive to many chemicals and has
different qualities when blended with each.
Just raising or lowering the pH (acidity/alkalinity) can cause the thickening of the
fluid till it becomes almost a solid, or on the other hand it can be made to separate
into a sludge on the bottom of the tank with clear water on top. By manipulating
viscosity the designer of the mix can suspend particles e.g. sand in the mud. Further
into construction concrete is used to displace the bentonite.
These subsurface barriers consist of a vertically excavated trench that is filled with
slurry. The slurry hydraulically shores the trench to prevent collapse and forms a filter
cake to reduce ground water flow. The slurry trenchtechnique uses an engineered
fluid for support of trench walls. Usually the fluid is bentonite slurry that coats the
trench walls and permanently blocks the free flow of water. Most slurry walls are
constructed with a mixture of soil and bentonite that provides an impermeable, but
non-structural barrier.
The bentonite slurry is used primarily for wall stabilization during trench excavation.
A soil-bentonite backfill material is then placed into the trench (displacing the slurry)
to create the cutoff wall. Walls of this composition provide a barrier with low
permeability and chemical resistance at low cost. In some cases, a material with
moderate structural strength is desirable. A mixture of soil, cement and bentonite
(SCB) has recently seen increasing acceptance. SCB is stronger and more
impermeable than cement-bentonite grout, but flexible enough to allow for
deformation, and usually less costly. Other wall compositions, such as
cement/bentonite,
pozzolan/bentonite,
organically
modified
bentonite,
or
wall for site remediation or pollution control is to base (or key) the slurry wall 2 to 3
feet (0.6 to 0.9 meters) into a low permeability layer such as clay or bedrock. This
"keying-in" provides for an effective foundation with minimum leakage potential.
a. Penetration grouting
b. Displacement grouting
c. Compaction grouting
d. Grouting of Voids
e. Jet grouting
(a)
(b)
Equipment: The vibroflot consists of a cylindrical steel shell with and an interior
electric or hydraulic motor which spins an eccentric weight (). Common vibrator
dimen-sions are approximately 10 ft (3.1 m) in length and 1.5 ft (0.5 m) in diameter.
The vibration is in the horizontal direction and the source is located near the bottom
of the probe, maximizing the effect on the surrounding soils.
Procedure: The vibrator is lowered into the ground, assisted by its weight, vibration,
and typically water jets in its tip. If difficult penetration is encountered, predrilling
through the firm soils may also be performed.
Materials: Backfill usually consists of sand with less than 10% silt and no clay,
although gravel size backfill can also be used. A coarser backfill facilitates production
and densi-fication.
Materials: Generally, the compaction grout consists of Portland cement, sand, and
water. Additional fine-grained materials can be added to the mix, such as natural finegrained soils, fly ash, or bentonite (in small quantities).
Design: The design will begin with an analysis of the planned construction with the
existing subsurface conditions (bearing capacity, settlement, liquefaction, etc.). Then
the same analysis is performed with the improved soil parameters (i.e., SPT N value,
etc.) to determine the minimum parameters necessary to provide the required
performance.
Quality control and quality assurance: Depending on the grout requirements, grout
slump and strength is often specified. Slump testing and sampling for unconfined
compressive strength testing is performed during production.
4. Surcharging with Prefabricated Vertical Drains
Surcharging consists of placing a temporary load (generally soil fill) on sites to preconsolidate the soil prior to constructing the planned structure . The process improves
the soil by compressing the soil, increasing its stiffness and shear strength. In partially
or fully saturated soils, prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) can be placed prior to
surcharge placement to accelerate the drainage, reducing the required surcharge time.
Applicable soil types: Preloading is best suited for soft, fine-grained soils. Soft soils
are generally easy to penetrate with PVDs and layers of stiff soil may require
predrilling.
Equipment: Generally, a surcharge consists of a soil embankment and is placed with
standard earthmoving equipment (trucks, dozers, etc). Often the site surface is soft
and wet, requiring low ground pressure equipment.The PVDs are installed with a
mast mounted on a backhoe or crane, often with low ground pressure tracks. A
predrilling rig may be required if stiff layers must be penetrated.
Procedure: Fill soil is typically delivered to the area to be surcharged with dump
trucks. Dozers are then used to push the soil into a mound. The height of the mound
depends on the required pressure to achieve the required improvement.
Design: Generally, a surcharge program is considered when the site is underlain by
soft fine-grained soils which will experience excessive settlement under the load of
the planned structure. Using consolidation test data, a surcharge load and duration is
selected to preconsolidate the soils sufficiently such that when the surcharge load is
removed and the planned structure is constructed, the remaining settlement is
acceptable.PVDs are selected if the required surcharge time is excessive for the
project..
Quality control and quality assurance: The height and unit weight of the surcharge
should be documented to assure that the design pressure is being applied. The PVD
manufacturers specifications should be reviewed to confirm that the selected PVD is
suitable for the application. During installation, the location, depth, and verticality are
important to monitor and record. The settlement monitoring program is critical so that
the completion of the surcharge program can be determined
5. Infrequently-Used Compaction Techniques
Blast-Densification and Vacuum-Induced Consolidation
Blast-densification densifies sands with underground explosives. The technique was
first used in the 1930s in the former Soviet Union and in New Hampshire. The below
grade explosion causes volumetric strains and shearing which rearranges of soil
particles into a denser configuration. The soils are liquefied and then become denser
as the pore pres-sures dissipate. Soils as deep as 130 ft (40 m) have been treated. A
limited number of projects have been performed and generally only for remote
location where the blast-induced vibrations are not a concern.
Vacuum-induced consolidation (VIC) uses atmospheric pressure to apply a
temporary surcharge load. A porous layer of sand or gravel is placed over the site
and it is covered with an air tight membrane, sealed into the clay below the
ground surface. The air is then pumped out of the porous layer, producing a
pressure difference of 0.6 to 0.7 atm, equivalent to about 15 ft (4.6 m) of fill. The
process can be accelerated by the use of PVDs. The process eliminates the need
for surcharge fill and avoids shear failure in the soft soil; however, any sand
seams within the compressible layer can make it difficult to maintain the vacuum.
Plastic (nylon mesh screens surrounding flexible riser pipes) well point system
used in situations requiring long period presence ground (e.g., for dewatering
dry dock excavation).
Well point assemblies-are made up of a well point, screen, riser pipe, and
flexible hose swinger and joint with tuning.
They provide for entry of water into the system by creation of a partial
vacuum.
Well point systems are frequently the most logical and economical choice
for dewatering construction sites where the required lowering of ground water
level is approximately 6 m (20 feet) or less. However, greater lifts are possible
by lowering the water in two or more stages.
The 20-foot lift restriction results from the fact that the water is lifted by
difference between ambient air pressure and the lowered pressure created by the
pump.
Site is accessible
to Well
point
system
Where water levels must be lowered greater distance than
can be practically handled by the well point systems
where greater quantities of water must be moved than is practical
with well points
where the close spacing of well points and the existence of the
above-
ground
header
might
physically
interfere
with
construction operations.
When soft clay is cooled to the freezing point, some portion of its pore water
begins to freeze and clay begins to stiffen. If the temperature is further reduced,
more of the pore water freezes and the strength of the clay markedly increases.
When designing frozen earth structures in clay it may be necessary to provide for
substantially lower temperatures to achieve the required strengths. A temperature
of +20 F may be adequate in sands, where as temperatures as low as 20 F may
be required in soft clay. Referring to the Figure 12, the frozen earth first forms in
the shape of a vertical cylinders surrounding the freeze pipes.
The most common freezing method is by circulating brine (a strong saline solution
as of calcium chloride). Chilled brine is pumped down a drop tube to the bottom
of the freeze pipe and flows up the pipe, drawing heat from the soil (Figure 13).
The liquid nitrogen (LN2) process has been applied successfully to ground
freezing. The cost per unit of heat extracted is much higher than with circulated
brine. Nevertheless for small,
short term projects, particularly in emergencies, the method can occasionally be
competitive
Freezing Applications
The freezing method is remarkably versatile, and with ingenuity it can be adapted to a
great many project conditions. The penetration of a freeze does not vary greatly with
permeability, so it is much more effective as a cutoff than grout. In stratified soils,
cutoff by freezing encounters fewer problems than drainage by dewatering. Freezing
can perform the dual function of water cutoff and earth support, eliminating sheeting
and bracing.
Q.8.Write advantages & disadvantages of the slurry trench method for dewatering
system:ANS
Advantages
Effective groundwater control if properly constructed and keyed into bedrock
Can be applied in appropriate any environments .
The slurry trench method create economical and positive cut off walls in the
core or foundation soils beneath dams and dikes of many types and sizes.
Slurry walls are also used to contain contaminated ground water, divert
contaminated
ground
water
from
the
drinking
water
intake,
divert
uncontaminated ground water flow, and/or provide a barrier for the ground water
treatment system
Disadvantages
If not keyed into bedrock, groundwater inflow will occur at the soil/rock interface
ANS
1. Open dewatering system: A sump is merely a hole in the ground from which water is being pumped for the
purpose of removing water from the adjoining area . They are used with ditches
leading to them in large excavations. Up to maximum of 8m below pump
installation level; for greater depths a submersible pump is required. Shallow
slopes may be required for unsupported excavations in silts and fine sands.
Gravels and coarse sands are more suitable. Fines may be easily removed from
ground and soils containing large percent of fines are not suitable. If there are
existing foundations in the vicinity pumping may cause settlement of these
foundations. Subsidence of adjacent ground and sloughing of the lower part of a
slope (sloped pits) may occur. The sump should be preferably lined with a filter
material which has grain size gradations in compatible with the filter rules. For
prolonged pumping the sump should be prepared by first driving sheeting around
the sump area for the full depth of the sump and installing a cage inside the sump
made of wire mesh with internal strutting or a perforating pipe filling the filter
material in the space outside the cage and at the bottom of the cage and
withdrawing the sheeting. Two simple sumping details are shown in Figures 2 and
3.
2. Sumps and ditches system: Open excavations. An elementary dewatering procedure involves installation of
ditches, French drains, and sumps within an excavation, from which water
entering the excavation can be pumped . This method of dewatering generally
should not be considered where the groundwater head must be lowered more than
a few feet, as seepage into the excavation may impair the stability of excavation
slopes or have a detrimental effect on the integrity of the foundation soils. Filter
blankets or drains may be included in a sump and ditch system to overcome minor
raveling and facilitate collection of seepage. Disadvantages of a sump dewatering
system are slowness in drainage of the slopes; potentially wet conditions during
excavation and backfilling, which may impede construction and adversely affect
the subgrade soil; space required in the bottom of the excavation for drains,
ditches, sumps, and pumps; and the frequent lack of workmen who are skilled in
the proper construction or operation of sumps.
b. Cofferdams. A common method of excavating below the groundwater table in
confined areas is to drive wood or steel sheet piling below subgrade elevation,
install bracing, excavate the earth, and pump out any seepage that enters the coffer
dammed area. (1) Dewatering a sheeted excavation with sumps and ditches is
subject to the same limitations and serious disadvantages as for open excavations.
However, the danger of hydraulic heave in the bottom of an excavation in sand
may be reduced where the sheeting can be driven into an underlying impermeable
stratum, thereby reducing the seepage into the bottom of the excavation. (2)
Excavations below the water table can sometimes be successfully made using
sheeting and sump pumping. However, the sheeting and bracing must be designed
for hydrostatic pressures and reduced toe support caused by upward seepage
forces. Covering the bottom of the excavation with an inverted sand and gravel
filter blanket will facilitate construction and pumping out seepage water.
Note: Greatest depth to which the water table can be lowered by this method
is about 8 m below the pump.
Disadvantages of Open Sump and Ditches
Ground water flows towards the excavation with high head or a steep slope and
hence there is a risk of collapse of sides.
General guidelines
Well point systems are frequently the most logical and economical choice
for dewatering construction sites where the required lowering of ground
water level is approximately 6 m (20 feet) or less. However, greater lifts are
possible by lowering the water in two or more stages. The 20-foot lift
restriction results from the fact that the water is lifted by difference between
ambient air pressure and the lowered pressure created by the pump
5. Deep well system: A typical deep well consists of a drilled hole within which is a lower
screened casing which admits water to the pump; an upper casing which
prevents soil from reaching the pump and, within the casing, the pump
and its discharge pipe.
The discharge pipe supports the pump to which it is attached. Electrical
wiring for the pump motor runs between the discharge pipe and the
casing.
The space between the drilled hole and the casing is normally packed
with filter material (for example, coarse sand and/or gravel) to minimize
the pumping of solid material from the soil surrounding the well
They are
conditions. Fig. 2.10 shows the range of permeability under which the
Educator system is applicable.
Educator systems are able to extract groundwater and generate a high
vacuum at the base of wells up to 50 m deep and of as little as 50 mm
diameter. Vacuum drainage can provide dramatic improvement in the
stability of silty fine sands and laminated silts and clays by the control of
excess pore pressures. Educator wells have been successfully installed in
raking boreholes to dewater beneath inaccessible areas such as railway lines
and canals.
8. Electro-Osmosis system: Dewatering Technique of dewatering done through the use of cathodes
and anodes with passage of Electrical current.
Electro-osmosis is defined as the movement of water (and whatever is
contained in the water) through a porous media by applying a direct current
(DC) field at is the only effective method of dewatering in deep clay soils
The principle of ground freezing is to change the water in the soil into a solid wall
of ice. This wall of ice is completely impermeable. Ground freezing is used for
groundwater cutoff, for earth support, for temporary underpinning, for
stabilization of earth for tunnel excavation, to arrest landslides and to stabilize
abandoned mineshafts. The principals of ground freezing are analogous to
pumping groundwater from wells. To freeze the ground, a row of freezepipes are
placed vertically in the soil and heat energy is removed through these pipes(Figure
). Isotherms (an isotherm is a line connecting locations with equal temperature)
move out from the freezepipes with time similar to groundwater contours around a
well.Once the earth temperature reaches 32 F (0 C), water in the soil pores turns
to ice. Then further cooling proceeds. The groundwater in the pores readily freezes
in granular soils, such as sands. For instance, saturated sand achieves excellent
strength at only a few degrees below the freezing point. If the temperature is
lowered further, the strength increases marginally. In cohesive soils, such as clays,
the ground water is molecularly bonded at least in part to the soil particles. If soft
clay is cooled down to freezing temperature, some portions of its pore water to
begin to freeze and it causes the clay to stiffen. With further reduction in
temperature, more pore water freezes and consequently more strength gain is
achieved. When designing for frozen earth structures in cohesive soils, it may be
necessary to specify substantially lower temperatures to achieve the required
strength, than in cohesionless soils. A temperature of +20 F may be sufficient in
sands, whereas temperatures a low as 20 F may be required in soft clays. The
design of a frozen earth barrier is governed by the thermal properties of the
underlying soils and related response to the freezing system. Formation of frozen
earth barrier develops at different rates depending on the thermal and hydraulic
properties of each stratum. Typically, rock and coarse-grained soils freeze faster
than clays and silts (Figure)
The liquid nitrogen (LN2) process has been applied successfully to ground
freezing. The cost per unit of heat extracted is much higher than with circulated
brine. Nevertheless for small,
short term projects, particularly in emergencies, the method can occasionally be
competitive
Freezing Applications
The freezing method is remarkably versatile, and with ingenuity it can be adapted
to a great many project conditions. The penetration of a freeze does not vary
greatly with permeability, so it is much more effective as a cutoff than grout. In
stratified soils, cutoff by freezing encounters fewer problems than drainage by
dewatering. Freezing can perform the dual function of water cutoff and earth
support, eliminating sheeting and bracing
ANS
Hydro Vibro Compaction (desification)
Vibro compaction (VC), also known as VibroflotationTM was developed in the
1930s in Europe. The process involves the use of a down-hole vibrator (vibroflot),
which is lowered into the ground to compact the soils at depth. The method is used
to increase bearing capacity, reduce foundation settlements, reduce seismic
subsidence and liquefaction potential, and permit construction on loose granular
fills.
Applicable soil types: The VC process is most effective in free draining granular
soils. The expected improvement achieved in specific soil types . The typical
spacing is based on a 165-horsepower (HP) (124 kW) vibrator. Although most
effective below the groundwater table, VC is also effective above.
(a)
(b)
predrilling through the firm soils may also be performed. The compaction starts at
the bottom of the treatment depth. The vibrator is then either raised at a certain
rate or repeatedly raised and lowered as it is extracted . The surrounding granular
soils rearranged into a denser configuration, achieving relative densities of 70 to
85%. Treatment as deep as 120 ft (37 m) has been performed.Sand added around
the vibrator at the ground surface falls around the vibrator to its tip to compensate
for the volume reduction during densification. If no sand is added, the in situ sands
will fall, resulting in a depression at the ground surface. Loose sand will
experience a 5 to 15% volume reduction during densification. Coarser backfill, up
to gravel size, improves the effectiveness of the technique, especially in silty soils.
The technique does not densify the sands within 2 to 3 ft (0.6 to 0.9 m) of the
ground surface. If necessary, this is accomplished with a steel drum vibratory
roller.
Materials: Backfill usually consists of sand with less than 10% silt and no clay,
although gravel size backfill can also be used. A coarser backfill facilitates
production and densi-fication.
penetrations, the amount of time spent densifying the soil, and the quantity of
backfill added (or in situ soil volume reduction).
Quality control and quality assurance: Production parameters should be
documented for each probe location, such as depth, compaction time, amperage
increases, and estimated volume of backfill added. If no backfill is added, the
reduction in the ground surface elevation should be recorded. The degree of
improvement achieved is typically measured with penetration tests performed at
the midpoint of the probe pattern.
Q.12. Enlist and explain dewatering technique based on direct pumping:ANS
1. Open dewatering system
2. Dewatering - Open Excavation by Ditch and Sump
3. Well points
1. Open dewatering system: A sump is merely a hole in the ground from which water is being pumped for the
purpose of removing water from the adjoining area . They are used with ditches
leading to them in large excavations. Up to maximum of 8m below pump
installation level; for greater depths a submersible pump is required. Shallow
slopes may be required for unsupported excavations in silts and fine sands.
Gravels and coarse sands are more suitable. Fines may be easily removed from
ground and soils containing large percent of fines are not suitable. If there are
existing foundations in the vicinity pumping may cause settlement of these
foundations. Subsidence of adjacent ground and sloughing of the lower part of a
slope (sloped pits) may occur. The sump should be preferably lined with a filter
material which has grain size gradations in compatible with the filter rules. For
prolonged pumping the sump should be prepared by first driving sheeting around
the sump area for the full depth of the sump and installing a cage inside the sump
made of wire mesh with internal strutting or a perforating pipe filling the filter
material in the space outside the cage and at the bottom of the cage and
withdrawing the sheeting.
2. Dewatering - Open Excavation by Ditch and Sump:-
A well point system consists of a number of well points spaced along a trench or
around an excavation site.
These well points in turn are all connected to a common header that are attached
to one or more well point pumps.
Well point assemblies-are made up of a well point, screen, riser pipe, and flexible
hose swinger and joint with tuning.
These are generally installed by jetting.
They provide for entry of water into the system by creation of a partial vacuum.
The water is then pumped off through the header pipe.
What is Dewatering?
Dewatering or construction dewatering are terms used to describe the action of
removing groundwater or surface water from a construction site.
Normally dewatering process is done by pumping or evaporation and is usually
done before excavation for footings or to lower water table that might be causing
problems during excavations.
Dewatering can also be known as the process of removing water from soil by wet
classification.
Why Dewatering?
Construction dewatering is used on most construction sites due to accumulated
water in trenches and excavations, places with inadequate slope or due to high
water table.
Normally, builders tend to use water pumps to dewater these areas but are not
paying attention to the place where water is discharge, causing erosion and other
problems.
It is important to follow best management practices when water is being pumped
to lakes, wetlands or directly to storm sewer inlets.
single pile and the loads on the foundation. Piles are a convenient method of
foundation for works over water, such as jetties or bridge piers.
without the constraints of shoring and traffic controls. When the structure is ready,
a shield is fitted to the front, hydraulic jacks are installed behind, and the box is
pushed into final position while simultaneously the earth is excavated from within.
The actual jacking generally takes only a few days to a week. During that time,
traffic is proceeding overhead normally, unaware of the construction below. The
non-disruptive nature of the process together with its inherent safety, simplicity
and economy make box jacking a useful tool for the practicing civil engineer. This
paper intends to bring a greater familiarity with the box jacking process to the
reader and then give some considerations and guidelines to assist engineers in
designing a project that can be built using the box jacking method.
Applications
Some examples of potential box jacking projects include storm drains, bike or
pedestrian trails, livestock or wildlife under crossings, conveyors, pipe ways and
other industrial uses, small bridges, and roadways up to 4 lanes wide. Basically,
applications of box jacking depend only on the creativity of the civil engineer
designing the project.
Box Jacking - A Useful Construction Tool
These systems, acting in concert, can propel the heaviest concrete structure straight into
the ground, producing a complete installation with maximum ease and economy. To
realize these potential benefits it is very helpful if the project is originally designed with
box jacking in mind.
PIPE JACKING: Pipe jacking is a technique for installing underground pipelines, ducts and
culverts. Powerful hydraulic jacks are used to push specially designed pipes
through the ground behind a shield at the same time as excavation is taking place
Common Applications
Sewerage and potable water construction
FIG.PIPE JACKING
Q-18: Explain pile construction in brief and also explain various types of piles
with its significance.
ANS:
A pile is a long, columnar element made of timber, steel, concrete, or a
combination of these materials.
Piles transmit foundation loads to deeper strata that sustain the loads safely
and prevent settling of the supported structure.
Piles derive their support from a combination of skin friction along the
embedded lengths and end bearing at the tips or bottoms.
Piles are used as follows
To transfer the structural load through material or strata of poor bearing
Types of Pile
Based on Function
End Bearing Pile:- End Bearing Pile are used to transfer load through water or soft
soil to a suitable bearing stratum
Friction Pile:- Friction piles are used to transfer loads to a depth of a friction load
carrying material by means of skin friction along the length of the piles
Compaction Piles:- Compaction pile are used to compact loose granular soil thus
increasing their varying capacity. The compaction pile themselves do not carry any
load. Hence they may be of weaker material sometimes of sand only. The pile tube
driven to compact soil in granular.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Dynamic testing was pioneered by Dr. G.G. Goble and his colleagues at Case
Western Reserve University in Cleveland Ohio and is now a routine pile
capacity evaluation method
Dynamic load testing (DLT) is a high strain test method for assessing pile
performance. Over the last 15 years, it has been the predominant means of pile
load testing worldwide.
DLT involves impacting the head of a pile with a piling hammer or drop weight
and measuring the resultant strains and accelerations. These measurements are
used to quantify the pile and soil behavior in response to the applied dynamic
force.
Some important capabilities of the DLT method are summarized as follows:
Relatively quick and economical means of quality control for pile
construction.
On-site monitoring of piling hammer performance.
Assessment of driving problems and/or pile damage.
Provides immediate estimate of mobilized pile resistances during the blow.
Can be applied to all types of pile foundation
Q-20: Explain with sketch and with its construction parameter: Pile, Pile cap.
ANS:
Pile: A pile is a long, columnar element made of timber, steel, concrete, or a
combination of these materials.
Piles transmit foundation loads to deeper strata that sustain the loads safely
and prevent settling of the supported structure.
Piles derive their support from a combination of skin friction along the
embedded lengths and end bearing at the tips or bottoms.
The following parameters to be considered, while construction
of pile:
Site conditions such as its boundaries, inclination of ground surface, access to
area, factors restricting work, etc.
Location and condition of nearby buildings, roads, railways, equipment, lines
and cables, underground structures, foundations, piles, anchors and other
Design: A geological survey must be carried out first to establish the stability of the
proposed site for the support cap.
The cap thickness will be determined by the load that it has to support and the
number of piles used to distribute the load into the underlying soil. Other
considerations, such as any localized loading that any part of the mat must
support are taken into account.
Some soil is so fluid in nature (such as clay and sand), that screw shaped piles
are used, these resist the tendency for the pile to sink under the added weight
of the cap and the load placed upon it. Standard engineering practice is
followed with regard to the square area of the cap, thickness, and its design
loading. From a set of appropriate calculations the sizes will be determined
and the quantity of concrete required calculated.
Construction:
The mat is made of concrete which is an aggregate of small rocks and cement.
This mixture has to be supported by a framework to avoid sagging and
fracture whilst setting.
This process is known as shuttering and reinforcing.
The materials used are long twisted steel bars between the piles held in shape
by thinner tie wires.
Once this steel mat is laid, timber is attached around the perimeter to contain
the wet concrete mixture.
Once poured, (usually as a series of small loads), the concrete is stirred to
remove any air pockets that might weaken the structure when set.
The concrete undergoes a chemical change as it hardens and this produces a
lot of heat.
Sometimes, if the mass of concrete is very large, pipes carrying refrigerant
coolant are used in the mass to assist the setting process to prevent the
concrete from cracking.
Q-21: Short note
1. Drilled pile
2. Auger pile
ANS:
Drilled Pile: Drilled piles are also called caissons, drilled shafts, drilled piers, Cast-indrilled-hole piles (CIDH piles) or Cast-in-Situ piles. Rotary boring techniques
or larger diameter piles than any other piling method and permit pile
construction through particularly dense or hard strata.
Auger Pile: An auger cast pile, often known as a continuous flight auguring (CFA) pile.
The CFA Pile is a non-displacement pile used where fast vibration free
installation is required in difficult ground conditions. The drilling process is
suitable for penetrating dense layers and is unaffected by ground water or
collapsing soil conditions.
Cement-sand grout or concrete is then injected under pressure through the
augers hollow stem as it is being withdrawn.
The grout or concrete pressure is maintained during the auger withdrawal so
that it assists the extraction as well as exerting a lateral pressure on the
surrounding soils. On completion of this operation, a reinforcing cage is
placed into the fluid column of grout or concrete.
The pile is formed by first drilling into the ground with a continuous flight
auger.
Auger cast piles are not generally suited for use in contaminated soils, due to
expensive waste disposal costs. In cases such as these however a displacement
pile may provide the cost efficiency of an auger cast pile and minimal
environmental impact.
Q-22: Write sequential procedure for pile installation.
ANS:
A variety of methods and special equipment have been used for the installation of
piles. Installation practices include consideration and utilization of appropriate field
methods for storing, handling, and accurately driving each pile to the desired final
position within established tolerances.
The installation process and method of installations are equally important factors as of
the design process of pile foundations. There are two main types of pile installation
methods
i. Pile driving methods
ii. Boring methods
Following are the basic operations carried out for pile installation.
Transporting Position
Drilling of hole
Raising of monitor
Delivery of water-cement grout and mixing with soil
Flushing of system
TUNNELING TECHNIQUES
Q-1. Explain operational sequences for tunnel.
ANS
Underground construction is a series of individual activities that must be
completed before the subsequent activities can start. This series of unique
activities is then repeated and repeated until the operation is complete. For tunnels
that employ drilling and blasting to create the tunnel opening the series is, "drill,
load, shoot, muck and support."
Each round is drilled a certain length or depth using a pre-engineered drill pattern.
Once the drilling is done the explosives are loaded into the drill holes and "wired
up". The equipment and crews are then pulled back a safe distance from the loaded
face and the blast is "shot".
Exhaust gasses produced by the explosives are removed from the face and
fresh air is sent to the heading area. After around 30 minutes the crew is brought
back into the area to scale or knock down any loose rock and remove the
excavated material or "muck".
Once the muck is removed, the initial tunnel support is installed to make the
excavated opening stable and safe for the crew to work under. The cycle is
complete and the tunnel has been advanced some distance. The next round can be
started when all of these activities have been completed.
In TBM excavated tunnels there is also a defined sequence of activities needed to
advance the heading. The TBM usually completes this series much faster that in
drill & blast tunnels but the elements remain similar. The TBM cuts into the
rock or earth a certain distance at the same time the muck is removed by conveyor
to either waiting muck cars or to a continuous horizontal conveyor, so the
TBM is able to combine these two operations thereby saving time and speeding
up the tunnel progress.
After the end of the TBM's stroke (the hydraulic pistons used to push the TBM
cutting head into the rock have a defined length) the excavation is stopped and the
TBM readied to start the next excavation cycle. While this is happening the
length of tunnel that has just been exposed most be supported to provide a stable
and safe opening.
operational
steps
of
tunneling:
ANS
Advantages
It is carried out underground and hence there is no disturbance by any other
local activity.
Tunnels prevent the divisions of property.
There is no requirement of any overhead bridges, or vent ways.
The area of land to be acquired is less.
Tunnels save tearing up of expensive pavement and so lesser maintenance
costs and operating expenses by providing protection from snow, rain and
effective and
Q-3. What are the factors which involves in selection of route for tunnels.
ANS
Natural features, Topography and Convenience for entrance and exit.
Easiness in securing right of way for a tunnel, from the property owners.
For Sewers, it is better to locate them under public streets, where there is little
development.
Economy and Easiness of construction is generally achieved by having
straight tunnels as far as possible.
Ground Conditions.
This method is useful where the tunnel section is very large and rock is not
structurally sound.
The heading is the top portion which will be 360cm to 450cm ahead of the
bottom portion i.e. bench.
In this method, the holes are drilled horizontally in heading, whereas,
vertically in bench.
Then the drill holes are loaded with explosives and the holes on bench are
fired an instant before the top heading holes.
The muck from the heading is usually thrown off the bench back to the floor of
the tunnel.
As the muck is removed again the next set of drill holes are bored and the
process is continued.
Drift method
This method is useful for large tunnels, where a drift of size 2m x 3m or more
is driven end to end of the tunnel prior to excavating the full bore.
The drift may be located either centrally or on the sides.
Drill holes are provided all round the drift in the entire cross-section of the
tunnel.
When these holes are filled up with explosives and ignited, the drift is
expanded to the full cross-section.
The central drift is economical than others and it also provides good
ventilation.
Pilot tunnel method
This method is useful for speeding up the driving of the main tunnel.
In this method, the pilot tunnel is driven to full size is connected to the
centerline of main tunnel can be started from a number of positions.
The pilot tunnel helps in removal of muck and the lighting and ventilation of
main tunnel very effectively and efficiently.
The pilot tunnel is of minimum cross section, about 2.4m x 2.4m and it is driven
parallel to the main tunnel at a distance of about 2m.
directions. The plot shows displacement vectors in the rock mass, the shape of
the deformed tunnel profile and the shape of the plastic zone surrounding the
tunnel. Figure 2 gives a graphical summary or the most important features of
this analysis.
Elastic deformation of the rock mass starts about two diameters ahead of the
advancing face and reaches its maximum value at about two diameters behind
the face. At the face position about one third of the total radial closure of the
tunnel has already occurred and the tunnel face deforms inwards
Rock bolts
The action of rock bolts and cables installed in the rock mass surrounding a
tunnel can be complex. For example, fully grouted rock bolts act as
reinforcement of the rock in much the same way as reinforcing steel acts in
concrete.
As a result they change the shape of the characteristic curve rather than
provide internal support equivalent to that given by steel sets or shot Crete
linings. On the other hand, ungrouped anchored rock bolts can be considered
to resist the inward displacement of the rock mass and this is equivalent to the
application of an internal support pressure in the tunnel.
Q - 8. What are the different methods of tunneling in SOFT GROUND? Explain any
one method with its advantages.
ANS:
The choice of tunnelling method may be dictated by:
Geological and hydrological conditions,
Cross-section and length of continuous tunnel,
Local experience and time/cost considerations (what is the value of time in the
project),
Limits of surface disturbance and many others factors.
TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION METHODS:
Classical methods
Mechanical drilling/cutting
Cut-and-cover
Classical Method :
Among the classical methods are the Belgian, English, German, Austrian, Italian and
American systems. These methods had much in common with early mining methods
and were used until last half of the 19th century.
Excavation was done by hand or simple drilling equipment.
Supports were predominantly timber, and transportation of muck was done on cars on
narrow gauge tracks and powered by steam.
Progress was typically in multiple stages i.e. progress in one drift, then support, then
drift in another drift, and so on.
The lining would be of brickwork.
These craft-based methods are no longer applicable, although some of their principles
have been used in combination up to present day. Nevertheless some of the worlds
great tunnels were built with these methods.
It required a strongly constructed central bottom heading upon which a crown heading
was constructed. The timbering for full-face excavation was then heavily braced
against the central headings, with longitudinal poling boards built on timber bars
carried on each frame of timbering. As the lining advanced, so was the timbering
propped against each length to maintain stability. The method was capable of
withstanding high ground pressures but had high demand for timber.
TRENCHLESS TECHNOLOGY
Q - 1. Explain Rib Loc technology to rehabilitation of existing sewer lines. Discuss
briefly various methods for installation of Rib Loc profile to suit various
applications of sewer lines.
ANS:
The inliner method using resin-saturated fiber glass or needled felt sleeves has a
proven track record for sewer rehabilitation.
Three new methods using the spiral-wound pipe relining system -RIB LOCSLIPLINING, RIB LOC- EXPANDA PIPE and RIB-STEEL are making inroads
into the sewer rehabilitation market because of their many advantages compared to
the sleeve relining method.
Rehabilitation without obstructing flow in the sewer pipe up to approx. 25 % of pipe
cross-section capacity without additional over pumping Rehabilitation of all standard
diameters without limit and without additional civil engineering work Modifiable to
meet the highest structural specifications by applying system variations Endlessly
wound
The main principle behind the three methods is winding a patented endless synthetic
profile from the manhole to create a new circular sewer pipe within the old pipe. This
process involves a winding machine.
The Rib Loc systems consist of a factory manufactured continuous plastic, or
composite steel and plastic, profile strip which is spirally wound into the deteriorated
host pipe to form a lightweight liner of high stiffness.
Rib Locs winding machines are designed for use in standard sized access chambers
without the need for excavation. When the profile is manufactured from uPVC the
edges of the strip are interlocked during the installation process to produce a
watertight seal. If the profile is manufactured from HDPE the profile is welded
together to form a continuous joint less HDPE liner. One of the following four
installation systems can be employed:
Expanda produces a close-fit PVC liner in diameters from 150 mm to 750 mm.
The liner is wound through the host pipe at a smaller diameter and then radially
expanded into intimate contact.
Rotaloc produces a close-fit PVC liner in diameters from 800 mm to 1800 mm.
The Rotaloc machine traverse the host pipe and installs a liner intimate with the pipe
wall. The Rotaloc machine adjusts diameter to negotiate line conditions.
Rib line produces a fixed diameter, fully welded, steel reinforced HDPE liner in
diameters from 300 mm to 3000 mm
Rib steel produces a fixed diameter PVC liner in diameters from 450 mm to 2500
mm. Stiffness is enhanced by a separate roll formed steel section incorporated during
the lining process.
Q - 2. Discuss advantages of Rib-Loc technology.
ANS:
This process can be done without any excavation and through the existing manhole
chamber.
Short duration of shut down period due to high installation speed.
Up to 200 meters long relining can be done without any excavation requirement.
Sewer network can be relined with up to 25% water flow.
Product design for 50 years life.
Plastic Material with smooth inner surface provides a corrosion & abrasion resistance
The implementation of trenchless technology for laying utility services under the
ground in urban areas, the various problems affecting the structures and traffic
congestion by using traditional methods (open cut trench) can be substantially
reduced. This technology seems to be friendly to all concerns including authorities,
contractors, consultants, environmentalists, and many others.
The main objective of the paper is to provide basic information on this technology,
specifically underground directional drilling, micro tunneling, impact moling, and
pipe jacking which have been rapidly accepted all over the world.
With the greater emphasis on infrastructure development projects for economic
development in India, it is felt that the trenchless technology may poise for its
increased adoption in the growing metropolitan cities. These cities in India can no
longer afford to disrupt traffic and disturbance to public life using traditional open cut
trenching for laying underground services. The question is why we should dig the
road when we can drill it for laying the underground utilities and also why do not
adopt better alternatives and eco-friendly methods, readily available. This article in
general introduces and discusses in brief the various important methods under
trenchless technology being used for laying underground utilities.
Trenchless Technology
The trenchlesss technology is an innovative process of installing and rehabilitating the
underground utilities like water, sewer & gas pipelines, electricity & communication
cables and other underground facilities. This technique minimises or eliminates the
need for excavation of the open cut trenches. It is also referred as No Dig
Technology which is an eco-friendly, hi-tech and speedy construction technology for
construction industry.
The trenchless construction is defined as "A family of methods and equipment
capable of being used for installation of new/ rehabilitation of existing underground
infrastructure with minimum disruption to surface traffic and other activities at the
surface."
Trenchless technology, the term itself includes many generic techniques which have
been further custom developed or even patented by many advocates and developers in
this field. The techniques, as we shall call them are not just one area of engineering
and technology but integration and interfacing of various branches of engineering like
civil, electrical, mechanical, electronics, instrumentation, metallurgy, etc.. Interaction
of so many branches of engineering makes it more complex in the field of modern
however over the years this has evolved to virtual visualization. The use of software
tools,
visual
prototyping
and
robotic
devices
have
reduced
the
time
operation
include
bits,
reamers,
swivels
and
pulling
heads.
Larger jobs often recycle the drilling fluid using a combination of screens, centrifugal
pumps, and hydro cyclones to remove the cuttings from the fluid. Large jobs where
tracking the drill head using a walkover system is not possible due to the depth or surface
conditions
instead
use
wire
lines
to
track
progress.
Operationally, an HDD project has a launch site where the rigs is set-up and positioned to
drill a pilot bore along a planned path to an exit pit where either the product pipe, reamer
or product pipe reamer is attached and pulled back through the bore hole. The process can
be relatively simple for small diameter product pipe covering a short distance or quite
complex
when
the
product
is
large
and
the
distances
are
long.
of bits designed to navigate through different types of soil, from clays and sands to rock.
Most drill bits have a slant-face, the orientation of which determines the direction that the
bit will advance. To move in a straight line, the rig operator both rotates and pushes the
drill string. To change direction, the operator, stops rotating the drill string and pushes the
string. The path will change in the direction that the bits slant-face is pointing. On-board
controls allow the operator to monitor the orientation of the bit and the change in general
direction
of
the
bore.
A walk-over tracking system is used to help guide and monitor the location of the bore.
The system is comprised of a transmitter and receiver. The transmitter or sonde is located
in a housing unit near the front of the drill string. The transmitter emits a continuous
magnetic signal, which is picked up by a portable hand-held receiver. Data transmitted to
the receiver allows the tracking hand to determine position and depth as well as clockface position of the drill bit. This information allows the operator to track location along
the
planned
bore
and
to
make
changes
as
needed.
Drilling fluids, pumped down through the hollow drill rods and holes in the drill bit, are
key to keeping the transmitter electronics cool, stabilizing the hole, and extracting returns
from the bore hole. The drilling fluids are mixed to address the solid conditions that are
anticipated along the planned path. During installation returns can be tested to confirm
that
the
correct
water-additive
mixture
is
being
used.
Once the pilot bore reaches the exit area, the reaming and installation the product pipe
phase begins. The hole is reamed in one or more passes to the required diameter. When
the bore is large enough to accept the product - about 1.5 times the size of the product the product is attached to the drill string with a pulling head and swivel, and pulled back
to the rig. Like drill bits reamers are designed to operate best in certain types of soil. The
larger the product, the more passes with reamers may be required to open up a hole that
can
accept
the
product.
For smaller installations, returns are removed via vacuum trucks for disposal. Cuttings
often are removed and drilling fluids recycled in larger installations using a combination
of centrifugal pumps, tanks with baffles, shaker screens, and de-sanding and de-silting
hydro cyclones. The residual material is removed for disposal.
advantages
low social costs, because detours are avoided
short equipping times short drilling and construction times
very economic for river crossings
supported by the dynamic impact of the striking mechanism, the propulsion
and steerability are improved in soil qualities up to grade 5, sometimes even grade 6
wide spectrum of application
acknowledged procedure
pulling force measurement and position determination are possible
manufactured and sold worldwide including the year 2011 (projected statistics for
2011), 80% (25,708 units) were manufactured in USA. In this paper, HDD survey was
conducted to get the current market and industry position of HDD technology by
analyzing 14 responses from HDD contractors and consultants in USA. Topics studied
included observed HDD applications in different soil conditions, project parameters
(diameters, lengths, depths of boreholes, product pipe and materials), and HDD rig
size and applications.
Q - 8. Enlist and explain various Trenchless techniques for new underground
utilities.
ANS:
Trenchless methods Divided into two major categories:
- HORIZONTAL EARTH BORING
- PIPE JACKING / UTILITY TUNNELING
HORIZONTAL EARTH BORING
It includes
- Auger Boring
- Moling
- Pipe Ramming
- Water Jetting
- Microtunneling
AUGER BORING
Used for installation of steel pipes and casings, especially under railways & road
embankments.
Very economical.
It reduces damage to pavements and disruption to traffic, hence reduces social costs
associated with pipeline installations.
MOLING
way through the soil along the desired path of the pipe.
Mole is a steel cylinder about 60cm long and 6cm in diameter, works as a pneumatic
cylinder with pulsed compressed air causing the head of the mole to repeatedly
hammer against the soil in front of the mole.
Used for installation of steel pipes and casings over distances usually upto 30m long
PIPE JACKING
Jacking Procedure:
Pipe jacking, generally referred to in the smaller diameters as microtunnelling, is a
technique for installing underground pipelines, ducts and culverts. Powerful hydraulic
jacks are used to push specially designed pipes through the ground behind a shield at the
same time as excavation is taking place within the shield. The method provides a flexible,
structural, watertight, finished pipeline as the tunnel is excavated. There is no theoretical
limit to the length of individual pipe jacks although practical engineering Considerations
and economics may impose restrictions. Drives of several hundred meters either in a
straight line or to a radius are routine. A number of excavation systems are available
including manual, mechanical and remote control. Pipes in the range 150mm to 3000mm,
can be installed by employing the appropriate system. Construction tolerances are
compatible with other tunneling methods, and the pipe jacking method generally requires
fewer over breaks than segmental tunnels, providing better ground support. Excavation
methods are similar to those employed in other forms of tunneling using either manual or
machine excavation. Shields, excavation and face support can be provided for a wide
variety of ground conditions.
WATER JETTING
Method is simple.
It uses high speed jet of water to liquefy and remove soil.
Special nozzle is attached at the end of a solid rod & extended into the bore hole.
Q-9 Enlist and explain various Trenchless techniques for rehabilitation of existing
utilities.
ANS:
Methods including are:
1
Pipe bursting
PNEUMATIC PIPE BURSTING
STATIC PIPE BURSTING
Pipe eating
PIPE EATING
used.