AN OVERVIEW OF THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY AND KEY DEF! J.C. VAN WAGONER, H. W. POSAMENTIER,' R, M. MITCHUM, PLR. VAIL. J. F. SARG. T. S. LOUTI "AND J. HARDENBOL Exvon Production Research Compims, P.O. Bos 2189, Houston, Tevas 77252-2189 ‘The objectives of this overview are to establish funda- ‘mental concepts of sequence stratigraphy and to define ter- ‘minology critical for the communication of these concepts. Many of these concepts have already been presented in ear- lier articles on seismic stratigraphy (Vail and others, 1977). In the years following, driven by additional documentation and interaction with co-workers, our ideas have evolved be- yond those presented earlier, making another presentation desirable. The following nine papers reflect current think~ ing about the concepts of sequence stratigraphy and their applications to outcrops, well logs, and seismic sections. ‘Three papers (ervey, Posamentier and Vail, and Posamen- tier and others) present conceptual models describin§ the relationships between stratal patterns and rates of eustatic change and subsidence. A fourth paper (Sarg) describes the ‘application of sequence stratigraphy to the interpretation of ‘carbonate rocks, documenting with outcrop, well-log, and scismic examples most aspects of the conceptual models. Greenlee and Moore relate regional sequence distribution, derived trom seismic data, to a coastal-onlap curve. The last four papers (Haq. and others; Loutit and others; Baum and Vail; and Donovan and others) describe application of sequence-stratigraphic concepts to chronostratigraphy and biostratigraphy, Sequence stratigraphy is the study of rock relationships within a ehronostratigraphic framework of repetitive, se- netically related strata bounded by surfaces of erosion or rnondeposition, or their correlative conformities. The fun- «damental unit of sequence stratigraphy is the sequence, which is bounded by unconformities and their correlative con- formities. A sequence can be subdivided into systems tracts, which are defined by their position within the sequence and by the stacking patterns of parasequence sets and parase- quences bounded by marine-flooding surtaces. Boundaries Of sequences, parasequence sets, and parasequences pro- vide a chronostratigraphic framework for correlating and mapping sedimentary rocks. Sequences, parasequence sets, and parasequences are defined and identified by the phys- relationships of strata, including the lateral continuity and geometry of the surfaces bounding the units, vertical and lateral stacking patterns, and the lateral geometry of the strata within these units. Absolute thickness, the amount ‘of time during which they form, and interpretation of re- gional or global origin are not used to define sequence- stratigraphic units. quences and their stratal components are interpreted to form in response tothe interaction between the rates of eus- 1. subsidence, and sediment supply. ‘These interactions can be modeled and the models verified by observations to "Preseat addresses: Esso Resources Canada Li, 297 Ath Avenue SW, Calgary. Alberta T2P OH6: ‘Deparment of Geology, Rice Univesity Houston, Texas 77251 ‘Sco-Level Changes—An inca Approach. SEPM Speci Publication No. 42 predict stratal relationships and to infer ages in areas where geological data are limited ‘The following paragraphs define and briefly explain the terms important for the communication of sequence stratig~ raphy concepts. Each term will be discussed more fully in the nine papers previously mentioned. Parasequences and parasequence sets are the fundamental building blocks of sequences. A. parasequence is a rela- tively conformable succession of genetically related beds ‘or bedsets bounded by marine-flooding surfaces and their correlative surfaces (Van Wagoner, 1985). Silicielastic par- sequences are progradational and therefore shoal upward. Carbonate parasequences ate commonly aggradational and also shoal upward. A marine-flooding surface is a surface that separates younger from older strata, across which there is evidence of an abrupt increase in water depth. This deep- ening is commonly accompanied by minor submarine ero- sion (but no subacrial erosion or basinward shift in facies) and nondeposition, and a minor hiatus may be indicated Onlap of overlying sirata onto a marine-flooding. surface does not occur unless this surface is coincident with a se- quence boundary. Marine-flooding surfaces are planar and commonly exhibit only very minor topographic relief rang- ing from several inches to tens of feet, with several feet being most common, The marine-flooding surface com- monly has @ correlative surface in the coastal plain and a correlative surface on the shelf. The correlative surface in the coastal plain is not marked by significant subaerial ero- sion due to stream rejuvenation, a downward shift in coastal onlap, a basinward shift in facies, nor onlap of overlying strata. The correlative surface in the coastal plain may be marked by local erosion due to fluvial processes and minor subaerial exposure. Facies analysis of the strata across the correlative surfaces usually does not indicate a significant change in water depth; often, the correlative surfaces in the coastal plain or on shelf can be identified only by corre- lating updip or downdip from a marine-flooding surface ‘A parasequence set is a succession of genetically related parasequences which form a distinctive stacking pattem that is bounded, in many cases, by major marine-flooding sur- faces and their correlative surfaces (Van Wagoner, 1985). Parasequence set boundaries (1) separate distinctive parase- quence stacking patterns; (2) may be coincident with se- quence boundaries; and (3) may be downlap surfaces and boundaries of systems tracts. Stacking patterns of parase- quences in parasequence sets (Fig. 1) are progradational, retrogradational, or aggradational, depending upon the ratio of depositional rates to accommodation rates. These stack- ing patterns are predictable within a sequence. ‘A sequence is a relatively conformable succession of ge- netically related strata bounded by unconformities and their correlative conformities (Mitchum, 1977). An unconform- ity isa surface separating younger from older strata, along CCopyrigm © 06h, The Sait of Econom Puevtotnsts and Migerakgsn ISBN 0-919985.74.9ssonanoasvuvd awnaiaian CP) - (0) sanoisann 706 HB] sasousonvs seven movers Mano ROEM 9 Noss oan Tas sonsnoasvava WnOnVavUDDY 1» Nottyoonosoe 0 anna 7 ry ms 135 sowanoasvava WHouVaveDOuL3u |<" NOILIS0d30 40 3104 a X._ 33N0AS3H DOT TIM sonconad utente 30 NOLIN ae 4135 39NANDISVEVs TWNOLLVaVUDONSOVERVIEW OF THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY 41 which there is evidence of subaerial erosional truncation (and, in some areas, correlative submarine erosion) or sub- aerial exposure, with a significant hiatus indicated. This definition restricts the usage of the term unconformity to significant subaerial surfaces and modifies the definition of unconformity used by Mitchum (1977). He defined an un- conformity as “a surface of erosion or nondeposition that separates younger strata from older rocks and represents a significant hiatus” (p. 211). This earlier, broader definition ‘encompasses both subserial and submarine surfaces and does not sufficiently differentiate between sequence and paras- equence boundaries. Local, contemporancous erosion and deposition associated with’ geological processes, such as point-bar development, distributary-channel erosion, or dune ‘migration, are excluded from the definition of unconform- ity used in this paper. A conformity is a bedding surface separating younger from older strata, along which there is no evidence of ero- sion (either subaerial or submarine) or nondeposition, and along which no significant hiatus is indicated. It includes surfaces onto which there is very slow deposition, with long periods of geologic time represented by very thin deposits ‘Type I and type 2 sequences are recognized in the rock record. A type I sequence (Figs. 2, 3) is bounded below by a type 1 sequence boundary and above by a type I or a type 2 sequence boundary. A type 2 sequence (Fig. 4) is bounded below by a type 2 sequence boundary and above by a type I or a type 2 sequence boundary. A type 1 se- quence boundary (Figs. 2, 3) is characterized by subserial exposure and concurrent subaerial erosion associated with stream rejuvenation, a basinward shift of facies, a down- ward shift in coastal onlap, and onlap of overlying strata As a result of the basinward shift in facies, nonmarine or very shallow-marine rocks, such as braided-stream or ¢ tuarine sandstones above a sequence boundary, may di- rectly overlie deeper water marine rocks, such as lower shoreface sandstones or shelf mudstones below a boundary, ‘with no intervening rocks deposited in intermediate depo- sitional environments. A. typical well-log response pro- duced by a basinward shift in facies marking a sequence boundary jis illustrated in Figure 2. A type | sequence boundary is interpreted to form when the rate of eustatic fall exceeds the rate of basin subsidence at the depos tional-shoreline break, procucing a relative fall in sea level at that position, The depositional-shoreline break is a po- sition on the shelf, landward of which the depositional sur- face is at or near base level. usually sea level, and seaward ‘of which the depositional surface is below base level (Po- Bese eee) oe 18» skouence EE ic. 2.—Swratal puters ina type 1 sequence deposited in a basin with shelf break,J.C. VAN WAGONER ET AL. ‘Sccnaoamonat AN Pmocea 7 ‘eansanceave sverews TACT setmocmaoaveonat ane ‘ike wusstones Fic. 3.—Stratal pattems ina type 1 sequence deposited in a basin with a ramp margin. amentier and others, this volume). This position coincides proximately with the seaward end of the stream-mouth ar in a delta or with the upper shoreface in a beach. In revious publications (Vail and Todd, 1981; Vail and oth- 8, 1984), the depositional-shoreline break has been re- arred to as the shelf edge. In many basins, the deposi- ‘onal-shoreline break may be 160 km (100 mi) or more indward of the shelf break, which is marked by a change 1 dip from the gently dipping shelf (commonly less than £1000) landward of the shelf break to the more steeply ipping slope (commonly greater than 1:40) seaward of the nelf break (Heezen and others, 1959). In other basins, the epositional-shoreline break may be at the shelf break. ‘A type 2 sequence boundary (Fig. 4) is marked by sub- ctial exposure and a downward shift in coastal onlap land- vard of the depositional-shoreline break; however, it kicks. ‘oth subaerial erosion associated with stream rejuvenation rnd a basinward shift in facies. Onlap of overlying strata andward of the depositional-shoreline break also marks a ype 2 sequence boundary. A type 2 sequence boundary is vierpreted to form when ‘the rate of eustatic fall is less than xe rate of basin subsidence at the depositional-shoreline reak, so that no relative fall in sea level occurs at this horeline position. ‘A depositional system is a three-dimensional assem- ‘lage of lithofacies (Fisher and McGowan, 1967). A sys- ‘ems traet is a linkage of contemporaneous depositional ystems (Brown and Fisher, 1977), We use the term sys» ‘ems tract {0 designate three subdivisions within each se- |uence: lowstand, transgressive-, and highstand systems facts in a type I sequence (Figs. 2, 3) and shelf-margin, ransgressive-, and highstand systems tracts in a type 2 se- uence (Fig. 4) Systems tracts are defined objectively on the basis of types at bounding surfaces, their position within a sequence, and parasequence and parasequence set stacking patterns. Sys- {ems tracts are also characterized by geometry and facies associations. When referring to systems tracts, the terms Jowstand and highstand are not meant to imply # unique period of time or position on a cycle of eustatic or relative ‘change of sea level. The actual time of initiation of a sys- tems tract is interpreted to be a function of the interaction between eustasy, sediment supply, and tectonics. The lowermost systems tract is called the lowstand sys- tems tract (Figs. 2, 3) if it lies directly on a type 1 quence boundary; however, it is called the sheif-margin systems tract if it lies directly on a type 2 boundary (Fig. 4) ‘The lowstand systems tract, if deposited in a basin with ‘a shelf break (Fig. 2), generally can be subdivided into ‘three separate units, a basin-floor fan, a slope fan, and a Iowstand wedge. The basin-floor fan is characterized by deposition of submarine fans on the lower slope or basin floor, Fan formation is associated with the erosion of can- yons into the slope and the incision of fluvial valleys into the shelf, Siliciclastic sediment bypasses the shelf and slope through the valleys and the canyons to feed the basin-floor fan, The base of the basin-floor fan (coineident with the base of the Iowstand systems tract) is the type 1 sequence boundary; the top of the fan is a downlap surface. Basin- floor fan deposition, canyon formation, and incised-valley erosion are interpreted to occur during a relative fall in sea level. ‘The slope fan is characterized by turbidite and debris- flow deposition on the middle or the base of the slope. Slope- fan deposition can be coeval with the basin-floor fan or with the early portion of the lowstand wedge. The top of the slope fan is a downlap surface for the middle and upper portions of the lowstand wedge. ‘The lowstand wedge is characterized on the shelf by in-' J.C. VAN WAGONER ET AL. sed-valley fill (Figs. 2, 3), which commonly onlaps onto e sequence boundary, and on the slope by progradational | with wedge geometry overlying and commonly down- ping onto the basin-floor fan or the slope fan. Lowstand edge deposition is not coeval with basin-floor deposition swstand wedges are composed of progradational 10 ag- adational parasequence sets, The top of the lowstand jge, coincident with the top of the lowstand systems tract, ‘a marine-flooding surface called the transgressive sur- igs. 2-4), The transgressive surface is the first sig- ficant marine-flooding surface across the shelf within the quence. Lowstand wedge deposition is interpreted to oc- r during & slow relative rise in sea level ‘The lowstand systems tract, if deposited in a basin with ramp margin (Fig, 3), consists of a relatively thin low= and wedge that may contain two parts. The fitst part is aracterized by stream incision and sediment bypass of the astal plain interpreted to occur during a relative fall in ‘level during which the shoreline steps rapidly basinward til the relative fall stabilizes. The second part of the wedge characterized by a slow relative rise in sea level, the in- ling of incised valleys, and continued shoreline progra- tion, resulting in a lowstand wedge composed of incised Hey-fill deposits updip and one or more progradational rasequence sets downdip. The top of the lowstand wedge the transgressive surface; the base of the lowstand wedge the lower sequence boundary The shelf-margin systems tract (Fig. 4) is the lower- ost systems tract associated with a type 2 sequence vundary. This systems tract is characterized by one or more 2akly progradational to aggradational parasequence sets; 2 sets onlap onto the sequence boundary in a landward rection and downlap onto the sequence boundary in a ba- award direetion. The top of the shelf-margin systems tract the transgressive surface, which also forms the base of 2 transgressive-systems tract. The base of the shelf-mar- f systems tract is a type 2 sequence boundary ‘The transgressive-systems tract (Figs, 2-4) is the mid- = systems tract of both type I and type 2 sequences. It is aracterized by one or more retrogradational parasequence ts. The base of the transgressive-systems tract is. the nsgressive surface at the top of the lowstand or shelf- argin systems tracts. Parasequences within the transgres- ve-systems tract onlap onto the sequence boundary in a rdwand direction and downlap onto the transgressive sut- ze in a basinward direction. ‘The top of the transgressive- Stems tract is the downlap surface. The downlap sur- re is a marine-flooding surface onto which the (oes of grading clinoforms in the overlying highstand systems ict downlap. This surface marks the change from @ retro- adational to an aggradational parasequence set and is the rface of maximum flooding, The condensed section (Figs 4) occurs largely within the transgressive and distal high- ind systems tracts. The condensed section is a facies nsisting of thin marine beds of hemipelagic or pelagic iments deposited at very slow rates (Loutit and others, ' volume). Condensed sections are most extensive during 2 time of regional transgression of the shoreline. ‘The highstand systems tract (Figs. 2-4) is the upper stems tract in either a type 1 or a type 2 sequence. This systems tract is commonly widespread on the shelf and may be characterized by one or more aggradational parase~ quence sets that are succeeded by one or more prograda- tional parasequence sets with prograding clinoform geo- metries. Parasequences within the highstand systems tract onlap onto the sequence boundary in a landward direction and downlap onto the top of the transgressive or lowstand systems tracts in a basinward direction. The highstand sys- tems tract is bounded at the top by a type I or type 2 se quence boundary and atthe bottom by the downlap surface. Systems tracts are interpreted to be deposited during spe- cific increments of the eustatic curve Gervey and Post- rmentier and others, this volume). © Iowstand fan of lowstand systems tract—during a time Of rapid eustatic fall; © slope fan of lowstand systems tract—during the late eus- tatic fall or early custatic rise; © lowstand wedge of lowstand systems tract—during the late eustatic fall or early rises © transgressive-systems tract—during a rapid eustatic ris © highstand systems tract—during the late part of a eus- tatic rise, a eustatic stillstand, and the early part of a ceustatic fall ‘The subdivision of sedimentary strata into sequences, parasequences, and systems tracts provides a powerful methodology for the analysis of time and rock relationships in sedimentary strata. Sequences and sequence boundaries subdivide sedimentary rocks into genetically related units Ddounded by surfaces with chronostratigraphic significance. These surfaces provide a framework for correlating and ‘mapping. Interpretation of systems tracts provides a frame- work to prediet facies relationships within the sequence. Parasequence sets, parasequences, and their bounding sur- faces further subdivide the sequence and component sys- tems tracts into smaller genetic units for detailed mapping, correlating, and interpreting depositional environments, REFERENCES Baowy. L. F.. AND Fisues, W. L., 1977, Seismic-stratirapic interpre {ation of depositional systems: examples from Brazil it and pullapact, basins, im Payton, C. E., ed., Seismic Stratigraphy— Applications to [Hydrocarbon Exploration: American Assceiation of Petoleum Ceol opis Memoir 26, p. 213-248, Fisizn, W. L., aND MCGOW®S, J. H., 1967, Deposiional systems in the Wilcox Group of Texas and thet relationship ta occurrence of oil and 22s: Gulf Coast Associaton of Geological Societies, Transactions, v. TY, p. 213-248 Hexzin, B. C., Tuare, ‘ocean, 1 The North Paper 65, 122 p MrrcitM, R. M., 1977, Soismic stratigraphy apd global changes of sea level, Part I Glossary of terms used i seismic stratigraphy, im Payton, CE, ef. Seismic Statigraphy—Applications to Hyeiocarbon Ex: plontion: Association of Petroleum Geologists Memeir 26, p. 208 ET VatL, P. R., MOTCHUM Re M.y AND THOMASON, S., Il, 1977, Seismic ‘eatigraphy and global changes of sea level, Part 3: Relative changes fof sea level from coastal onlap, in Payton, C. W., ed, Seismic Sica tigraphy—Applicaions to Hydrocasbon Expleraion: American Asso ciation of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 26, p. 3-97. {ax0 Tob0, G. R., 1981, North Sea Jurassic unconformiies, M., ano Ewin, M.y 1959, The floors of the tlonie: Geological Society of America SpecialOVERVIEW OF THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY 45 chronostratigephy and scacevel changes from seismic sirigraphy: fommities and Hydrocarbon Accumulation: Ametican Association of Petroleum Geology of the Continental Shelf, Northwest Europe, Pro- Petroleum Geologists Memoir 36. p. 129-144 cevdings, p. 216-235, Vax Waconta, J.C, 1985, Reservoir facies distribution as controlled _,Hatoeston, J., axm Toop, R. G... 1984, Jurassic unconformi- hy sea-level change: Absiact and Poster Session, Society of Peano ties, chronostatigraphy and sea-level changes from seismic stratgr2- _Paleontologists and Mineralologists Mid-Year Meeting, Golden, Cal phy and biostaligraphy, én Schlee, J. S., ed., Incaregional Uncon- orado, p. 91-92.