Compendium: Teaching Exceptional Students in the CTE Environment

Andrew Borriello
EDU 753
ONeill
September 20, 2014

Table of Contents
Chapter One: Overview of Special Education
The Birth of Special Education
2
504 vs. IEP
2
Universal Design Education 3

Chapter Two: Student Disability Designations 5

Learning Disabilities 5
Emotional/Behavioral Disorders
6
Communication Disorders 7
Chapter Three: Student Disability Designations
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 9
Physical Disabilities 10
Other Health Impairments 11

Chapter Four: Student Disability Designations 13

Hearing Impairment 13
Severe Disabilities
15
Chapter Five: Student Disability Designations 18
Autism Spectrum, Gifted & Talented
18
Multiple Disabilities 20
Chapter Six: Transitioning Special Needs Students into Careers and/or
Post-Secondary Education
23
Legal ramifications of Transitioning the SPED Student - what does IDEA have to
say?
23
Strategies and Transition Traits
24

CHAPTER ONE: Overview of Special Education

The Birth of Special Education
Providing equal access to education has been a struggle since the late 1800s
when students were discriminated against based on race and educational abilities.
For years now legislation has been enacted to ensure that all students, regardless of
factors, were able to receive a fair and equal education. The term special
education refers to the services provided by school districts to support children
with disabilities and ensure that they have access to the same curriculum as regular
students and are able to participate in school activities, classes and events (Special
Education, n.d.). The special education system is constantly evolving and is
governed by three major laws: Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, the Americans
with Disabilities Act (ADA), and the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) (Special
Education, n.d.).
Discrimination based on educational ability can be traced back to
Massachusetts during the late 1800s (1893) when a student was expelled based on
poor academic ability. Following this ruling by the Massachusetts Supreme Court,
Wisconsin also denied education to a student because he had cerebral palsy
(Esteves & Rao, 2008). However, it wasnt until 1954 in Brown vs. Board of
Education that the discussion of an equal education, even special education, would
present itself. In this landmark Supreme Court decision, the court ruled that all
students were eligible to a fair and equal education regardless of their race. This
ruling overturned a previous decision by the court, Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) in
which the court decided that a segregated, separate but equal education was
ideal (Plessy v. Ferguson, n.d.). The Brown decision ultimately determined that all
students were entitled to public education regardless of their educational abilities,
race, gender or disabilities. This led to the birth of special education and providing
equal opportunities for students with disabilities.
In the years following the Brown decision, special education was stagnant,
mostly due to a lack of funding. Many school districts were uninterested in
participating in programs especially at their own expense. However, in 1965 the
government passed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, which ultimately
provided money for special education (Esteves & Rao, 2008). Later, in 1973,
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act further strengthened the special education
curriculum by prohibiting discrimination based on disability in programs and
activities that are private or public (NCLD Editorial Team, n.d.). The law never
specified learning disabilities but rather labeled a person as disabled if they were
one of the following: has a physical or mental impairment which substantially limits
one or more major life activities; has record of such impairment, or; is regarded as
having such impairment. (NCLD Editorial Team, 9/14/14) Violating the law would
result in a loss of federal funding and a student was considered eligible under
Section 504 after an evaluation that would determine the students needs. Through
the evaluation a plan would be put in place for the student, but was not mandated.

In 1975 Congress passed Education for All Handicapped Children Act (Public Law 94142), one of the strongest pieces of legislation on special education at the time.
The law hoped to improve and provide equal learning opportunities for all students.
Under this law, all students were entitled to a free and appropriate education,
(ages 3-21), an evaluation, an individualized education program (IEP), a least
restrictive environment, due process, and parental participation (The Education,
n.d.)
Any state looking to receive federal funds had to comply with these
mandates. This law is considered the cornerstone of special education because it
no longer allowed for denial of services for students. It also provided an outlet for
parents to become active participants in their childs education. States had to
comply or lose funding.
This law was further strengthened by the passage of ADA, Americans with
Disabilities Act in 1990 and in 2004 IDEA, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
ADA is one of the most comprehensive civil rights laws that address the needs of
people with disabilities. This law prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability
in employment, public services, and accommodations. (Disability Rights, n.d.) ADA
does not specifically apply to public schools, but rather private schools and works in
conjunction with Section 504. Any accommodations made through Section 504 are
also applicable to employment opportunities. The passage of IDEA an education
act that provides federal assistance to State and local education agencies to
guarantee special education and related services to eligible children with
disabilities (Disability Rights, n.d.) provided more protection for students with
special needs. Similar to the previous law passed in 1975, children between the
ages of 3-21 are protected and are entitled to a free, appropriate public education.
However, Congress further clarified the goals for the legislation that schools meet
the individual unique needs of each student with disabilities and that they are
prepared for the future.
504 vs. IEP
In todays education system, schools and teachers are quick to classify
students with special needs into one of two categories, IEP or 504. It is important to
note that there are several key differences between accommodations made under
Section 504 and an IEP (IDEA). First, under IDEA, students ages 3-21, who are
eligible for IDEA have to have a one of the specific disabilities as determined by the
law. An individualized education plan (IEP) is mandated to provide documentation
of the specific learning disability and any accommodations that need to be made. A
strict evaluation process is required called Multi-Factored Evaluation (MFE) and a
variety of assessments are used to gather information. Reevaluation should occur
every 3 years to ensure students are receiving appropriate services and parental
involvement is essential. IDEA is a federally funded program and schools are
eligible to receive financial assistance if needed. Although Section 504 is similar to
IDEA students only have to meet one of three requirements for accommodations
and the law is non-specific. There is no additional funding; however, negligence is
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grounds for lack of future funding. There is also no required IEP but rather a
documented plan for reasonable accommodations based on information given by a
variety of people known to the student. Additionally, unlike IDEA, there are no strict
guidelines for re-evaluation and parental consent is not mandatory (NCLD Editorial
Team, 9/14/14).
Both of these plans, however, encourage the concept of inclusion, in which
students with disabilities are included in the general classroom (Disability Rights
Education and Defense Fund, n.d.). When included, students with disabilities are
able to create friendships or have role models they may not otherwise have been
able to have. The exposure to a different learning environment can challenge the
student and the diversity in the classroom not only benefits the student with
disabilities but also the regular education student as well. Both are able to further
develop social skills to help them later in life by dealing with people who are
different from themselves (Disability Rights Education and Defense Fund, n.d.).
Universal Design Education
Under the concept of free and appropriate public education and ADA in the
1990s, Universal Design was conceived. Universal Design Learning (UDL) was
created under the Higher Education Opportunity Act (2008) and changes the way in
which curriculum is designed and implemented (Relebate, 2011). Todays current
curriculum is too focused on printed material that may not suit the needs of all
students within the classroom. Under UDL, changes were adopted to fit the needs
of the students specifically. It focuses on four major areas: goals; methods;
materials; and assessment, and is driven by the anticipation that each student will
become an expert learner. To accomplish this, goals would be set according to state
standards. Methods would be based on the needs of each student but also by
recognizing what the class needs as a whole (Relebate, 2011).

CHAPTER TWO: Student Disability Designations

Learning Disabilities, Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, and
Communication Disorders
Learning Disabilities
Learning Disabilities (LDs) are a group of disorders that affect the brains
ability to receive, process, store, respond to and communicate information.
Different types of LD include: Dyslexia (difficulty processing language); Dyscalculia
(difficulty with math skills); Dysgraphia (difficulty with written expression);
Dyspraxia (difficulty with fine motor skills); Auditory Processing Disorder ( difficulty
interpreting auditory information); Visual Processing Disorder ( difficulty interpreting
visual information); and may also include Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
(difficulty with concentration and focus) (NCLD Editorial Team, 9/20/14). LDs affect
the ability to acquire skills needed in all aspects of life. There is no cure, however,
the quicker it is recognized, the quicker steps can be taken to deal with the effects.
Although LDs do not go away, they should not stop students from achieving their
goals. A sign of a learning disability is a gap between their level and the level of
other students at the same age. It is not uncommon for students to be diagnosed
with more than one LD (NCLD Editorial Team, 9/20/14). The percentage of
diagnosed LD students in the United States is 5% (2.4 million) of the total student
body. LDs are the largest group of students receiving benefits for SPED Services,
about 42% of the total 5.7 million students and 66% of the 2.4 million students
diagnosed as LD are male (Cortiella, n.d.).
LDs affect learning, speaking, reading, writing, spelling, reasoning, and
mathematics. Depending on the specific LD one or more of the categories may be
affected. For example if the LD diagnosed in a student is Dyslexia, teachers can
expect the student to have difficulty with reading, writing, and spelling. A student
with dyslexia may avoid reading out loud, need more time for tests, or have
difficulty writing notes in class (NCLD Editorial Team, 9/20/14). In order to make this
student feel comfortable in the shop or classroom, the teacher should avoid asking
the student to read out loud in class, unless prior permission is given from the
student. They should also accommodate with extra or additional time on test and
quizzes and provide a copy of class notes for the student to take home and review
to supplement their own notes. When necessary and appropriate the teacher
should read all directions out loud to the class and give any LD student an
opportunity to repeat them in their own words. This would ensure that the student
correctly understands the expectations of the lesson or assignment. These
modifications and accommodations are standard for any classroom, not just a CTE
classroom. Unfortunately, there is no single way of assessing or evaluating
students with a LD. Research has shown that tests that ask specific questions and
are modified to the student are the best option (NCLD Editorial Team, 9/20/14). For
example, a student with dyslexia may benefit from a diagram/picture test and asked
for a verbal response, rather than a written one. Other examples may include

projects, presentations, or other types of visual representations rather than a

written evaluation.
The goal of every teacher is to prepare their students for their future whether
it is a post-secondary education or a career. Students with LDs are no exception.
Teachers should teach and reinforce skills needed for their future. The first step is
to create a plan with the student, parent and counselor, and identify attainable
goals for their future. Colleges and Industry will not recognize existing IEP
modifications for students. However, colleges will recognize a 504 plan therefore, if
possible one should be put in place. Teachers should work with students and
parents to decide what the best option is (NCLD Editorial Team, 9/20/14).

Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Emotional and Behavioral disorders (EBD) are defined, as per the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) as:
a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a
long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a childs
educational performance: an inability to learn that cannot be explained by
intellectual, sensory, or health factors; an inability to build or maintain
satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers;
inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances; a
general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or a tendency to
develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal schools
problems. (Emotional/Behavioral Disorders, n.d.)
There are various types of behavior and emotional disorders that range in
characteristics. Some of these include anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder (manicdepression), conduct disorders, eating disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder
(OCD), and psychotic disorders (Emotional Disturbance, n.d.). Research indicates
that approximately 1% of the general student population, (18% of the SPED
population) is identified as students with EBD, but many believe that this number is
actually much higher (Lehr, C., & McComas, J., 2005). According to the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, about 2.9 children have been prescribed
medication for EBDs (Emotional Disturbance, n.d.). This discrepancy of population
with EBDs can be contributed to many factors including the stigma of being labeled
as an EBD. The most common EBD is Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD) which is believed to the most widely treated and found in 3-5% of children
globally (kidsmentalhealth.org).
Typical behaviors identified with EBDs vary depending on the setting and the
disorder. Some behaviors include disruption of classroom activities, impulsive
behavior, poor concentration, continual absence from school, low self-esteem,
aggressive behavior or resistance to change and transition (Emotional/Behavioral
Disorders, n.d.). If any of these or others behaviors are presented in a classroom
6

the teacher should focus on discouraging the unwanted behavior and encourage the
intended behavior. For example, if a student is having difficulty staying seated in a
classroom the student should be addressed and shown or explained the correct
behavior within the classroom. Most often, students benefit from immediate action
rather than a delay so that they recognize what is appropriate. If applicable,
teachers may also implement a behavioral chart which tracks student behavior and
rewards the student if the expectations of the classroom were met
(Emotional/Behavioral Disorders, n.d.). For example, if a student has difficulty
staying seated or coming to class, a behavior chart may be set up in which a sticker
is placed every time the student follows the rules and comes to class or stays
seated. At the end of each week the teacher could reward the student with 5
minutes of free time or a homework pass.
Teachers should pay close attention to students with EBDs and vary
instructional practices when possible for working with this student population.
Some suggestions are to break information into chunks so that students do not
become overwhelmed with information, provide time to catch up on work, place
students with EBDs near the teacher, teach organizational skills for the future and
write objectives and expectations for the day on the board. Teacher instruction
should be clear with expectations and include individual seatwork as well as group
work opportunities. These tips help students to stay organized and relaxed in the
classroom without feeling pressure or overwhelmed (Do2Learn: Educational
Resources for Special Needs, n.d.). Accommodations or modifications may include
extra time for tests or assignments, the ability to move around the classroom, free
movement to the nurse or school counselor or preferential seating.
Accommodations are typically specific to the student and can be supported through
a 504 plan agreed upon by the student, parent, and counselor working with the
student. A behavioral plan may also be enforced which addresses a specific
behavior needing to be changed. This plan should be monitored closely and
reevaluated periodically to ensure effectiveness. Additionally, the teacher must
continue to reinforce the desired behavior from the student to help the student
succeed in the future (Emotional/Behavioral Disorders, n.d.). If the behavior
impacts a students learning or the learning of others, an Individualized Education
Plan (IEP) may be used instead to address problem behavior and should include
strategies for addressing the behavior and types of positive reinforcement
appropriate for the student (Emotional Disturbance, n.d.). Assessments for students
with EBDs should be specific to the student and be clear in expectations.
Modifications in type or time may help students who have anxiety or OCD.
Students with EBD have been found to be at the highest risk for dropping
out of school according to a study conducted in 1999-2000 in which 51% of students
age 14 or older dropped out of school (Lehr, C., & McComas, J., 2005). Therefore,
teachers of students with EBDs should work closely with the family and student
counselor to set goals appropriate for the student in high school and the future.
Students should continue developing skills necessary for college or career with the
teacher modifying the curriculum to help the student meet these goals. Meetings
7

between counselors, teachers and students should happen frequently to address

any problems that may arise. Test taking strategies should be focused on for
students wishing to continue to college (Do2Learn: Educational Resources for
Special Needs, n.d.).

Communication Disorders
A Communication Disorder is an impairment in the ability to receive, send,
and comprehend concepts or verbal, nonverbal and graphic symbol systems.
(Definitions of Communication Disorders and Variations, 1993). Symptoms may be
presented in hearing, language, speech, or any combination of the three.
Communication Disorders are separated into four categories: Speech Disorders (an
impairment of the articulation of speech sounds, fluency, and/or voice); Language
Disorder (impaired comprehension and/or use of spoken, written and/or symbol
systems); and Hearing Disorders (impaired auditory system which may limit the
development, comprehension, production and maintenance of speech and
language) (Definitions of Communication Disorders and Variations, 1993).
Communication Disorders affect 18.9% of students in the 2000-2001 school year
receiving services under IDEA (Helping Children with Communication Disorders in
the Schools, n.d.). Children with Communication Disorders typically do not perform
at grade level. Symptoms of communication disorders include difficulty with
reading, understanding and expressing language, misunderstanding social cues,
poor school attendance, poor judgment, and have difficulty with tests. Students with
reading and writing problems may also have difficulty using language to
communicate, think and learn (FAQs: Speech and Language Disorders in the School
Setting, 1997).
There are over one million children being served in our schools under the
Communication Disorder category of IDEA. Communication Disorders have the
ability to isolate students from proper social and education foundations; therefore it
is imperative for educators to provide the necessary support. Students should be
referred to a speech-language pathologist. A speech/language pathologist (also
called speech therapist) assess, diagnose, treat and help to prevent disorders
related to speech, language, cognitive-communication, voice, swallowing and
fluency (What is a Speech Language Pathologist?, n.d.). It is also important to
provide any necessary assistive technology such as augmentative and alternative
communication (AAC) devices. AACs make it possible for students with no speech
or poor speech to overcome the communication problem. However, Communication
Disorders are all very different, so it is important to be familiar with the students
IEP. Most students with a Communication Disorder benefit from visual aids and
clearly written instructions. Most importantly, collaboration between parents and
speech therapists about needs and what teaching techniques work best is critical
(Hamilton, K., n.d.). Assessing and evaluating students with Communication
Disorders can be challenging. Some suggest reducing the quantity of work since
having trouble communicating can be stressful. Conducting a one on one
8

assessment can reduce that stress. Using pictures like diagrams, timelines, and
flow charts to support text is sometimes beneficial. Also the use of simple and clear
language on assessments is often necessary. Assigning a scribe or reader is highly
suggested (Adjustments for students with a speech-language impairment, n.d.).
Transitioning students with Communication Disorders is not unlike
transitioning students with other learning disabilities. It is important to
communicate with the student and parents to create a plan for their future. Once
the goal is set, the teacher should teach skills needed for the future. Teachers of all
classes should help teach and reinforce language skills, such as grammar, syntax
and social language that will be related to future work or college. Students may
also benefit from working with peers or peer tutoring to help advance language
skills (Adjustments for students with a speech-language impairment, n.d.). This
type of partnership between students could help students with a communication
disorder acclimate themselves to more people and practice their speaking.

CHAPTER THREE: Student Disability Designations

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Physical
Disabilities, and Health Impairments

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a biological disorder
caused by underactivity in certain portions of the brain.(ADHD: Tips for Teachers,
2009) ADHD is typically diagnosed in early childhood, around age 5-7 years, based
on symptoms present within the child. ADHD is known as one of the most common
childhood disorders affecting between 3-5% of the student population (Helping the
Student with ADHD in the Classroom: Strategies for Teachers, 2010). Students who
have ADHD may have trouble paying attention, controlling impulsive behavior or
be overly active. (Facts About ADHD, August 2014) Children are most often
diagnosed at school based on patterns of behavior exhibited in the classroom.
There are three main behaviors associated with this disorder: hyperactivity,
inattention and impulsivity. Recognition of these behaviors help to classify which
type of ADHD a child has: hyperactive-impulsive; inattentive; or a combination. A
hyperactive-impulsive child may feel restless, unable to be quiet, fidget or run
around the classroom. A child exhibiting the inattentive type may have difficulty
focusing, seem lazy, and may often lose things. The combination type, the most
common form ADHD, accounts for 50-70% of all ADHD cases, and shares symptoms
or behaviors from the other two types (ADHD: Tips for Teachers, 2009).

A student with ADHD could exhibit a wide range of behaviors such as, calling
out, interrupting activities, daydreaming, fidgeting or losing things. Unfortunately,
there is no one type of intervention for students with ADHD. Therefore, teachers
should be aware of their students, the type of ADHD they have and the behavioral
plan identified for the student. According to law, students with ADHD are entitled to
a free and appropriate education under Section 504 of the Vocational and
Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1997 (Helping
the Student with ADHD in the Classroom: Strategies for Teachers, 2010). Therefore
it is imperative that teachers do as much as they can do guarantee the success of
all their students. Students with ADHD may have a 504 plan, created by counselors
and parents based on behaviors observed by classroom teachers. It is important to
follow the plan to ensure academic success.
Students with ADHD often have problems achieving academically. About
10%-40% of these students are recognized to also have a learning disability with
about 30% of these students also having a reading disability. These students may
also have issues with anxiety, with about 25% of students dealing with anxiety
disorders or emotional issues which may stem from relationships with parents or
peers, issues with substance abuse and/or low self-esteem. These particular
students need a strong support system and modifications in the classroom to
become successful academically (Helping the Student with ADHD in the Classroom:
Strategies for Teachers, 2010). Some suggestions for teachers for modifications or
accommodations include structuring the environment, restructuring time and
activities, focusing attention, planning for movement, organizing assignments and
rewarding appropriate behavior. For example, in structuring the environment the
teacher would place the student with ADHD closest to the teacher or surround the
student with model students (behavior to be modeled). If this is not possible, then
placing the student away from distractions is vital. The teacher should also
restructure the daily schedule with more time consuming or demanding activities in
the morning for the student to benefit the most. Research has shown that students
with ADHD tend to struggle with problem-solving skills in the afternoon (Helping the
Student with ADHD in the Classroom: Strategies for Teachers, 2010). The use of
verbal or visual cues could help the student keep focus on what is important when
they become distracted. Lessons, likewise, should be interesting and stimulating to
keep students attention. Furthermore, the teacher could plan for movement within
the lesson to allow the student to move. This can be done easily with asking the
student to hand something out to the class. Many students with ADHD need help
with organizational skills, especially if they plan on furthering their education with
college, therefore practice in organizing or note-taking should be addressed
(Helping the Student with ADHD in the Classroom: Strategies for Teachers, 2010).
The teacher should monitor the student and possibly start a daily assignment book
to help keep the student on track. Teachers should also consider chunking
material so that information is put into easily understood groups instead of tedious,
long lessons. Lastly, the teacher should reward the student for appropriate
behavior. This type of reward can be in the form of an activity or praise . (Facts
About ADHD, August 2014).
10

According to research, between 50%-60% of all students going to college do

not have a successful college experience and unfortunately this number is higher
for students with ADHD, even though they are less likely to attend college (Quinn,
P., August 2013). According to a research study students with ADHD who did attend
college have stated that college was somewhat to very challenging. (Quinn, P.,
August 2013) So, how does a high school teacher prepare their student with ADHD
for college? Doctors suggest in addition to creating a rigorous curriculum for
students to acclimate themselves to for college, they should also include a class
called transition planning (Quinn, P., August 2013). Students with ADHD depend on
set schedules in which they have become accustomed to in high school. This can
include, set schedules for classes, waking up, homework and meals. However, in
college or in a career, this type of schedule is not typical, with many college classes
varying from day to day and the workload often coming in shifts. Therefore, for any
student planning on going to college or start a career, teachers, doctors, parents
and counselors should work together to ensure the student is well prepared in
meeting these new challenges. This may include a change in medicine prescribed
by doctors, most often the case with ADHD, or a class called transition planning in
their school schedule which helps practice skills for the future such as organizing a
school work load (Quinn, P., August 2013). It is also important to teach the student
how to ask for help, and who to go to if a problem should arise.

Physical Disabilities
A physical disability is a limitation on a persons physical functioning,
mobility, dexterity, or stamina . (Physical disability | What is disability? | Education
to Employment, n.d.) The disability can be temporary or long term and include
conditions such as: a spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, spina bifida, amputation,
muscular dystrophy, cardiac conditions, cystic fibrosis, paralysis, polio/past polio,
and stroke. (Physical Disabilities, n.d.) It is estimated that about 0.6% of the school
population has a physical disability. Students are protected under Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and may
have a 504 or IEP plan to accommodate their needs (www2.ed.gov). Each student
is unique in their diagnosis and therefore any accommodations or modifications
made need to be specific to each individual student. Likewise these
accommodations may range from simple changes to more complex permanent
changes, such as changing a students seat to including a para professional or
classroom aid to help in instruction
A student with a physical disability may require a wheelchair, has difficulty
writing or holding items, traveling from class to class, or may be prescribed a
medication with noticeable side effects (Physical disability | What is disability? |
Education to Employment, n.d.). Therefore teachers should be ready to modify the
environment and accommodate the students needs if necessary. Some
modifications may include changing the classroom layout so that the student may
enter and leave easier, allowing the student to leave early to avoid crowded
11

hallways, providing flexibility with deadlines, allowing for test accommodations

(timing, locations, scribes), and providing a note taker, if one has not been provided
already. For some students a paraprofessional may be assigned to the student,
according to the 504 or IEP plan devised by the school professionals. This aid may
help the student with movement from class to class or other basic accommodations
to help the teacher. It is important to remember to always use discretion and
protect the students privacy. When possible, always speak to the student in private
and or at eye level (Physical Disabilities, n.d.). The teacher should always be in
contact with the parents, counselors and nurse to ensure academic success.
Research has shown that many students with physical disabilities do not
often pursue postsecondary academic studies. There are many obstacles for
students with disabilities and these students are often plagued by a lack of
encouragement, mediocre academic preparation and very little support in
transitioning from high school to life after (Burgstahler, S., September, 2003). In
1999, the Presidential Task Force on Employment of Adults with Disabilities
demanded that immediate efforts had to be made to ensure that students with
disabilities were able to fully participate in postsecondary education programs and
were prepared for meaningful employment. These programs were to include:
access to technology, programs that helped prepare students to leave school and
begin work, work-based experiences, peer support and mentoring (Burgstahler, S.,
September, 2003). Many schools are still in the process of creating these types of
programs for students with disabilities therefore, teachers should try to include
these as much as possible.

Other Health Impairments

Other Health Impairments (OHI) is a chronic condition that affects nearly
7.5% of all students within special education (Comprehensive Overview of Other
Health Impairments, n.d.). OHI is considered an umbrella term because it
contains many disabilities that are very different from each other. However, the
most common three are epilepsy, asthma and diabetes and the subcategory ADHD
(Health Impairments - Project IDEAL, 2013). Under the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act, Other Health Impairment is defined as
having limited strength, vitality or alertness, including a heightened
alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with
respect to the educational environment, that: (i) is due to chronic or acute
health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder (ADD) or attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition,
hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, and sickle
cell anemia; and (ii) adversely affects a childs educational performance.
(Comprehensive Overview of Other Health Impairments, n.d.)

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Symptoms of OHI include fatigue, mobility issues, frequent absences, inability to

concentrate for extended periods of time, coordination difficulties and muscle
weaknesses. However, more importantly, students with OHI may feel fear, worry or
anxiety over the lack of understanding of their condition. This disorder can be
present at birth and there is no general age for diagnosis (Comprehensive Overview
of Other Health Impairments, n.d.). Children with OHI are eligible for early
intervention services under the age of 3 and special education services from ages 321 years. Once a child receives special education services an IEP may be created to
provide students with particular services that would benefit them (Health
Impairments - Project IDEAL, 2013).
A teacher with a student who has an OHI should be prepared for frequent
absences, often times lengthy ones. If this should occur the teacher may have to
provide assignments, modified if possible, for a homebound instructor. Additionally,
teachers can video tape or record their lectures for students and post on websites
for viewing. This would be beneficial for all students within the classroom if a
teacher did not want to single any specific student out. Class websites are also
good for students to stay aware of class assignments for announcements they may
miss while absent. Students with OHIs may also benefit from computer work
stations, use of keyboards for typing instead of writing, book stands or a larger desk
(Learning Strategies for Students with Health Impairments, October 2010). For
students with ADD or ADHD a varied curriculum is best. Students would benefit
from classrooms with minimal distractions and proximity to the teacher. Free
movement to the nurse or counselor is important in case an issue should arise.
Teachers should follow the IEP or 504 plan devised by the childs counselor and
parents for any additional modifications needed specific to their OHI (Helping the
Student with ADHD in the Classroom: Strategies for Teachers, 2010).
Preparing students with OHIs for college or career is no different than other
students. Teachers should help students with organizing their work load and
becoming acclimated to a more rigorous academic schedule. Teachers, parents and
counselors should work together to determine what the best options are for the
student. Together they should teach the student the skills necessary for whatever
path the student chooses. For students with ADD or ADHD who are often
unprepared for college, teachers should work on mentally preparing these students
for the new level of rigor expected in college classes. Teachers should work with
counselors in educating students about their disability or disorder; help them create
self-management of self-determination skills; and how to ask for help if needed
(Quinn, P., August 2013). These are lessons that should not be limited to OHI
students but include all students.

13

CHAPTER FOUR: Student Disability Designations

Hearing Impairment

Hearing impairment occurs when there's a problem with or damage to one

or more parts of the ear. Visual impairment is a term specialists use to describe
any kind of vision loss, whether it's someone who cannot see at all or someone
who has limited vision loss. Some people are completely blind, but many others
have what's called legal blindness. Intellectual disability is a disability
characterized by significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and in
adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and practical skills. This
disability originates before the age of 18. (American Association on Intellectual
and Developmental Disabilities, 2014)
The teacher should become acquainted with the childs perception of the
world through observation and interaction. Moreover, when the teacher is
planning a curriculum for such a student, he or she should remember to ask,
What will my student take away from this lesson? A teacher will be more
effective in communicating with these students if he or she accounts for the
need for verbal or non-verbally. I believe that successful, extra-verbal
communication in this situation represents a meaningful bond between student
and teacher wherein the best interest of the student has been carefully
considered and nurtured. (The Special Ed Wiki, 2014)
The student will need help learn their way around the school grounds and
classrooms. Although it will take extra planning, the student will also need
special attentions to be involved in the school activities. Having friendships and
positive social communication may require help on the teachers part to
advocate for them and build acceptance. It can be a challenge to arrange
seating in the classroom to nurture friendships particularly when the student
needs to be positioned in a particular location in the room to allow for lighting,
closeness and be accessible to outlets. Efforts should be acquired to place the
student with other students, specifically if other students in the classroom are
positioned in groups. For fire drills, the mobile student should be coached to
take hold of the nearest moving adult or student and quickly follow others.
There are captioned media programs used to provide support and help increase
the academic achievement of students (early learning through grade 12) who
are blind, visually impaired, deaf, hard of hearing, and any other Intellectual
Disability.
Students with intellectual disabilities often have struggles with
knowledgeable concepts. They have difficulty applying knowledge to new
circumstances and generally learn at a slower pace. If they cannot see then
they must use other skills such as braille to understand what the concept is and
on the other hand, if they cannot hear then they must utilize their eyes to help
the advance in their learning. Nevertheless, the teaching approach must be
tailored to the students individual learning needs and interests.
The main goal for a student who has an intellectual disability is to help the
student develop his/her potential to its fullest. The student should be provided
14

access to the general education curriculum to the greatest degree possible.

This can be done by accommodations and modifications to the classroom's
curriculum and instruction. The teacher should converse with the class how
different people have different needs and encourage them to be supportive of
modifications that support ones needs.

1.

Classroom methods Develop classroom routines and methods that

support learning.
a. Assign the student a peer tutor to assist him/her with independent
work.
b. Allow the student to use computer-based tutorials/materials.

2.

Curriculum Planning Curriculum modifications that are responsive to

the strengths and weaknesses of the student facilitate learning.
a. The activity may remain the same as his/her peers, but ways of
responding may be adapted. For example, listen rather than read,
speak rather than write.
b. The student must participate in activities that are thematically
linked to what his/her
peers are doing but the focus for the
student is on the implementation of his/her
IEP goals and
objectives (e.g., social, communication, motor, cognitive) that can
be
inserted in the classroom curriculum.

3.

Teaching Concepts ID students may have difficulty understanding

concepts being
taught.
a. Be as concrete as possible, and move from the concrete to the
representational to abstract.
b. Use visual aids and provide simple explanations.
c. Provide the student with hands-on materials and experiences and
the opportunity to try things out.

15

d. Teach the same concepts and skills in many situations so skills are
generalized.

4.

Thinking Skills Develop thinking, reasoning, and decision-making

skills.
a. Provide opportunities for advancing these skills with puzzles,
games, and logic problems.
b. Use classroom situations to demonstrate simple steps in problemsolving.
c. Teach concepts in context to make ideas 'real'.
d. Provide direct instruction to assist students through the problemsolving process.
e. Provide opportunities for choice in activities.

5.

Communication The teaching of reading, writing, listening, and

speaking.
a. Read to the student.
b. Present textbook material on tape, so that the student can listen to
it.
c. Give careful attention to vocabulary. Simpler terms may have to be
substituted for technical vocabulary; for example, "top" and
"bottom" instead of "numerator" and "denominator".
d. Allow time for answers, and encourage expression rather than "yes"
or "no" answers.
e. Give the student the opportunity to do written work using
computers.
f. Use learning aids, e.g., number lines, calculators, counters, and
tape recorders.

16

g. Have a volunteer tape-record reading assignments that the student

may be unable to read.
h. Use one-step instructions and check frequently for understanding.
i. Prepare alternative activities focusing on basic skills.
j. Receptive Language - support verbal communication with body
language, such as using gestures (pointing, air drawing size or
shape), and changing voice quality. Use verbal labels for objects
and actions in the classroom, hall etc. Speak directly to the student
with the intellectual disability as you would any other student. Use
short, clear phrases.

6.

Focus on Success Recognize that students with an Intellectual

Disability do respond to instruction.
a. Find out what the student's strengths and interests are, and
emphasize them. Offer activities that provide initial success.
b. Encourage appropriate responses and learning with motivators,
such as praise and time with favorite activities.
c. Break longer, new tasks into small steps. Demonstrate the steps.
Have the student do the steps, one at a time. Provide assistance, as
necessary.
d. Simplify, demonstrate, positively reinforce, and teach to the
students strength areas.
e. Generalize to community-based settings by teaching skills that the
students can use frequently and apply to settings other than school.

7.

Social Skills Teach the student life skills such as daily living and social
skills.
a. Help the student interact with other students in the class.
b. Assign a buddy to assist the student in learning class and
playground routines.

17

c. Make sure students can imitate and practice socially appropriate

skills.
d. When appropriate, give the student leadership responsibilities.

When doing assessment of students with disabilities, one can utilize the
following steps below. Multiple measures formal and informal are required for
students of having an intellectual disability and must include:

1. Knowledgeable evaluation:
a. An individual major test of intelligence must be administered by a
qualified assessor.
b. If verbal or performance scores are significantly different from each
other, more evaluation must be done to determine the reason for
the discrepancy and to ensure that the student is actually
displaying an intellectual disability.
2. Written results of academic achievement must be measured by
achievement tests, classroom academic screenings and tests, report
cards, cumulative records, etc.
Severe Disabilities
A severe disability is unlike any of the previous disabilities discussed. In fact,
researchers have a difficult time defining this category and rather use it as a
blanket term. Students labeled with severe disabilities may have mental retardation
or normal intelligence accompanied with other disabilities, such as physical or
delayed language skills. Students with severe disabilities are eligible for special
services through IDEA legislation under the categories: multiple disabilities and
deaf-blindness. Some of these students may require ongoing, extensive support
and may have additional disabilities with movement and behavior (Severe or
Multiple Disabilities, 2001). In 2010, it was reported by the U.S. Census Bureau
that 19% of the population had a disability. This number had increased since the
2005 report by 2.2 million people. Research indicates that number of people with
severe disabilities has also risen; however, it is still around 1% of the population
(multiple disabilities 0.2%/deaf-blindness 1%) (United States Census Bureau, July 25
2012). As with previously discussed disabilities, the earlier the intervention the
better it is for the student. Early intervention is available in every state as per IDEA,
for students ages 3-21 years, and services can be provided on a sliding-fee basis
(depending on income) (Center for Parent Information and Resources: Research
Term, October 1 2010).
18

Students with severe disabilities may be diagnosed through an IQ test,

adaptive behavior scales and other types of assessments, such as medical
evaluations. Students with severe disabilities may have significant delays with
speech, social skills, attention, learning, blindness and mobility (Lecture 106).
Students may have difficulty moving, have a tendency to forget skills, unable to
generalize one situation to another and need support in life activities, such as selfcare (Severe and/or Multiple Disabilities, June 19 2013). Therefore it is important for
teachers working with students with severe disabilities be familiar with their
particular issue (IEP) to best suit their needs. Students who have difficulty moving
around would benefit from being close to the door for easier entry and exit. Other
suggestions include having a set routine and consistently sticking to it. Students
benefit from the repetition of activities, so it is important to go over these activities
when the student has given their full attention and continually do them. Students
also work best with clear goals and expectations outlined for them and tracking
their progress. By tracking progress, students are able to see how they are doing or
if any behaviors need to be corrected. Once the goal is met, continue to practice
this skill for mastery status (Watson, S., n.d.).
Students with severe disabilities may lack social skills, often withdrawn and
unaware of what is going on around them. However, teaching a student how to
interact with peers is essential and daunting, and can determine the future of the
child. Therefore, when and if possible, teachers should provide opportunities for
students to develop and strengthen their social skills (Cheryl, H., January 2008).
Students may also not be able to fully participate, so when applicable, allow for
partial participation. If a student is unable to fulfill the task or work completely
independently, modifications should be made so that the student may still
participate in the activity at some capacity. Assistive technology is also beneficial
for students with communication issues as well as textbooks in a format suitable for
a particular students needs. If a paraprofessional aid can be assigned to the
student for additional assistance, this may help give additional support within the
classroom (Center for Parent Information and Resources: Research Term, October 1
2010). Lastly, it is important for teachers to be patient with students and willing to
continually work with the student teaching skills essential for their future (Watson,
S., n.d.).
Students with severe disabilities need transition planning. Under IDEA
legislation, schools are required to plan ahead for a students transition from school
to life outside of school (Watson, S., n.d.). It is essential that the teacher and the
child study team work together to ensure that the skills needed for the student to
be successful are taught and reinforced regularly. Depending on the school district,
and if available, students should participate in community-based instruction
beginning as soon as possible. This type of instruction is done outside of the
classroom and helps to develop the skills needed in the work setting out in the field.
As a student masters a skill and progresses, additional time in the community or
work place is increased. This type of education prepares students for life outside of
high school. Students are able to practice for employment and if applicable, schools
19

can work towards placing students in schools in jobs. Teachers should work with
counselors, the child study team, parents, teachers and the community to use
programs already in existence for students to plan for their future (Severe and/or
Multiple Disabilities, June 19 2013).

20

CHAPTER FIVE: Student Disability Designations

Autism Spectrum, Gifted & Talented
Autistic Scholars are youngsters and adults who have an autism spectrum
disorder (ASD) and who display extraordinary abilities or skills in one or several
areas. These scholars have abilities and/or splinter skills, that may be presented in
the following skill areas: memory; hyperlexia (the exceptional ability to read, spell
and write); art; music; mechanical or three-dimensional skills; calendar calculation;
mathematical calculation; sensory sensitivity; athletic performance; and computer
ability. These skills may be outstanding in difference to their disability of autism.
However, the exceptional gifts or talents of most autistic people are
demonstrated in obsessive and repetitive behaviors and these skills may appear to
have little practical application or meaning. For example, Dustin Hoffman, in the
movie Rain Man, played the character of Raymond, an autistic man who showed
remarkable memory, calendar and mathematical calculation skills but was unable to
function in everyday life skills alone.
Students who are diagnosed with ASD have a development disorder that
results in severe social, communication, and/or behavioral impairment. Although
only a small minority of gifted students are considered twice-exceptional, or
possessing gifts and talents and a disability (e.g., Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD), learning disability, etc.), an even smaller portion are thought to be
both gifted and talented and on the autism spectrum.(Two-Exceptional Children,
2014)
Students who are diagnosed with one of the autism spectrum disorders (ASD)
have many behaviors, skills, and characteristics that are contradictory to their
environment. In other words, there are some areas that are extraordinarily and well
developed especially academically, within the same area, however, there are other
facets that are relative to academic strength, are significantly weak and may make
a situation where the regular classroom setting may not be adequate for learning. If
tasks are far ahead of a student point of mastery, frustration takes place and
learning does not occur (Howard, 1994; Vygotsky, 1962). Accommodations can be
used to ensure that the students learning practices is appropriate with his or her
abilities. People assume that creating lessons that use a variety of teaching
methods should cover every students areas of struggle. Unfortunately, one major
issue when trying to implement differentiated instruction is the students behavior.
This circumstance can hinder a teachers ability to assess a students progress
during a series of lessons designed around students participation. At the same time
it is expected that these students meet the same expectations as the rest of the
class. (Classroom Theory into Practice, 2014)
Diagnostic Assessments allow the teacher to know what previous knowledge
the students have and if there are any weak areas in that previous knowledge. This

21

helps for differentiating student readiness. Diagnostic assessments information is

not used for grades. (Classroom Theory into Practice, 2014)
Examples of Diagnostic Assessments are:
- Short-answer responses
- Skills surveys
- Interest Inventories
-Learning Preferences Checklist
- Journal Entries
- Writing/Reading Samples
Formative Assessments occur while learning is happening so that the teacher
can keep on top of what students understand and which are confused. It is
important that these assessments have detailed, specific feedback so that the
student knows what areas they need to improve on. Formative assessments are not
often used for grading purposes.
Examples of Formative Assessments are:
- Exit Cards
- Graphic Organizers
- Student Reflections
- Student Indicators (thumbs up or down)
- Journal Entries
Summative Assessments are used at the very end to determine what a
student has learned. It will point to to the teacher whether or not a student
achieved the learning objectives. After a summative assessment takes place there
is no more going back to improve. The teacher can use this to determine which
teaching strategies worked and which ones didn't. Summative assessments are
graded.
Examples of Summative Assessments are:
- Journal Entries
- Portfolios (student products)
- Essays
- Final Project
Many Schools and Districts the student receives instruction in Secondary
Transition Education Program (STEP) programs and the general education classroom
as described in their IEP. Most of the Secondary Transition Education Program
(STEP) provides a planned environment and behavior management intervention.
Students get direct instruction in numerous academic courses within Secondary
Transition Education Program (STEP). Students may attend classes in the general
education setting with age appropriate peers for some or most of their classes with
conference and support by the certified special education teacher. The program is
maintained by paraprofessionals who provide support in both the Secondary
Transition Education Program (STEP) and general education class settings under the
22

direction of the special education teacher. Learning structures can be modified to

address individual learning and behavioral needs.

23

Multiple Disabilities
Multiple Disabilities are defined as concomitant impairments (such as mental
retardation-blindness, mental retardation-orthopedic impairment, etc.), the
combination of which causes such severe educational problems that they cannot be
accommodated in special education programs solely for one of the impairments.
(Multiple Disabilities - Project IDEAL, 2013) It is important to note that the category
multiple disabilities does not include deaf-blindness. A child with multiple
disabilities would have two or more areas of impairment, one of which would be an
intellectual disability. Areas of impairment include: Orthopedic Impairment; Visual
Impairment including Blindness; Hearing Impairment including Deafness, Speech or
Language Impairment; Serious Emotional Disability; Autism Spectrum Disorders;
Traumatic Brain Injury; or Other Health Impaired (Quintana, G., September 22,
2014). It is estimated that from the roughly 5 million students receiving special
education services in the 2003-2004 school year that about 2.2% received special
services for having multiple disabilities (Multiple Disabilities - Project IDEAL, 2013).
Students are entitled to receive services and are protected through IDEA legislation.
Since the term multiple disabilities is an umbrella term, students may vary in
the types of characteristics or behaviors shared with this disability. However, some
common traits or behaviors they could share are having limited speech or
communication issues, difficulty moving around the classroom or throughout the
school, difficulty acquiring or maintaining skills from lack of use, an inability to
generalize a situation to another, and require additional support for life activities
(Multiple Disabilities, n.d.). These students may also have other medical issues that
could impact their time within the classroom. As a teacher it is important to be
familiar with these issues to help the student. Some additional medical issues that
have affected students with multiple disabilities are seizures, loss of senses,
hydrocephalus, and scoliosis(Multiple Disabilities, n.d.). Therefore, when working
with this type of student it important to work closely with the parents, counselors or
child study team, and additional support, such as a paraprofessional to ensure the
safety and well-being of the child.
In years past, students with multiple disabilities, like other disabilities, were
excluded from the classroom. However, through current legislation (IDEA) and the
protection of such, students with multiple disabilities are encouraged to go to school
to acquire skills necessary to be survive later in life. Research has shown that
educational programs for students with multiple disabilities should focus on four
skill areas: domestic, leisure/recreational, community, and vocational and include
objectives that will increase independence for later in life (Multiple Disabilities, n.d.).
These programs should be age appropriate and include training for job skills.
Teachers should work with the appropriate team created for the student which could
include speech or language therapists, physical or occupational therapists, medical
specialists, and parents. Students should not be removed from the classroom, if
possible, to receive therapy. This type of therapy isolation is not considered
beneficial to students (Multiple Disabilities, n.d.).
24

Other issues to note within the classroom include difficulty with motor skills,
sensory skills and communication. Students who have difficulty with motor skills
present an additional challenge within the classroom. These students require
additional support and may need access to physical therapy. Furthermore, these
students may have difficulty moving within the classroom and also need support
with self-care (Multiple Disabilities - Project IDEAL, 2013). Therefore, if the student
has to travel from class to class, a paraprofessional is necessary for additional
support. For sensory issues (hearing and or visual impairment), students may need
very specific accommodations. It is important that the teacher is knowledgeable of
the students specific needs and accommodates to them. Lastly, for students with
communication difficulties, technology and augmentative communication systems
prove to be the most beneficial (Multiple Disabilities - Project IDEAL, 2013).
To accommodate for students with multiple disabilities the classroom should
be designed so that their needs are considered. For example, the layout of the
classroom should be adjusted so that any specific furniture or equipment required is
available in the classroom or that a student with a wheelchair can maneuver around
the classroom. Additionally, other minor changes can include providing large
pencils that are easier to grip for writing. If cooking, provide utensils that have
been modified or are large for easier handling (Bolay, J., n.d.). If in a general
education classroom, pair the student up with a general education student and have
that student write. Some argue that working with another student is very beneficial
for all students, including those with multiple disabilities, and can result in a positive
attitude change (Multiple Disabilities, n.d.). These peer students can also push the
wheelchair around or help with classroom activities. If not in a general education
classroom, students can present findings verbally. There are also audio books that
can assist students when possible and computer programs that can assist students
in turning pages. Teachers should provide appropriate and timely feedback for
students to ensure progress. It is also beneficial to place the student near the
teacher for additional support and ability to cue the student if necessary (Bolay, J.,
n.d.). Furthermore, additional time or modifications on assignments may also be
beneficial to the student.
When teaching students with multiple disabilities, there are several options
available for teachers. The first is Unadapted Participation in the General Education
Curriculum. In this model the teacher structures the lesson with the same lesson,
same activities and same setting as general education students (Bolay, J., n.d.). For
this type of instruction it is important for teachers to see if the lesson is aligned with
the IEPs in the classroom and that all students are able to meet the learning goals.
Students complete the same assessments as regular education students. The
second instructional strategy is Adaptations to the General Curriculum which
includes the same activities, different (related) objectives, but the same setting
(Bolay, J., n.d.). This strategy focuses on whether the student is able to meet the
learning goals with minor modifications, such as extended time. The student is still
expected to complete the same assignments as regular education students but with
some minor accommodations. The third type of instructional strategy is Embedded
25

Skills within the General Curriculum and includes similar activities, different
(related) objectives and the same setting (Bolay, J., n.d.). This type of instruction
focuses on meeting an aspect of the learning goal for the regular education
classroom, if it is aligned with the IEP of the particular student. These students may
not participate in the full activity of the regular education classroom but a variation
of it. Students may partially meet learning goals for the lesson. The fourth
instructional strategy is Functional Curriculum within the General Education
Classroom (Bolay, J., n.d.). This includes different activities, different (related)
objectives, and the same setting. This strategy evaluates if the activities are
aligned with the IEP or if other objectives could be met in the same lesson. These
students participate in different activities from the class, meet similar objectives as
the regular education student and remain within the general education classroom.
Learning goals should be reflected as goals determined by the child study team.
The last teaching strategy is Functional Curriculum Outside General Education
Classroom. This strategy focuses on different activities, different (unrelated)
objectives, and a different setting (Bolay, J., n.d.). This type of instruction takes
place outside of the classroom to learn skills needed for after high school. This may
also be referred to as community-based instruction because instruction and learning
are performed where the skills will be used. This type of instruction can help
students who have difficulty retaining skills from lack of use. As their proficiency
with skills improves, the time they spend at the location may increase (Severe
and/or Multiple Disabilities NICHCY Fact Sheet 10, December 9th 2009). Regardless
of the teaching strategy, the focus should be on transition planning/teaching.
Teachers should focus on helping students acquire and maintaining skills needed
after high school.

26

CHAPTER SIX: Transitioning Special Needs Students into Careers and/or

Post-Secondary Education
Legal ramifications of Transitioning the SPED Student - what does IDEA have to say?
Students in special education have the right to learn in a customary
classroom subjects at school. They have the right to take communal skills, job
skills, and independent-living skills. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act,
IDEA, mandates that each student with a disability who is enrolled in the
Exceptional Childrens (EC) program have an Individualized Education Plan (IEP).
The goal of IDEA is to educate students with disabilities in the least constricting
environment as possible. IEPs describe how the school plans to educate each EC
student while accommodating the students disability. IEPs often specify
modifications to be provided by teachers. (Individual Education Plan, 2015) IDEA
intended transition services to facilitate movement from school to post-school
activities prior to the students leaving the school environment (Price-Ellingstad &
Berry, 1999). Post-school activities could include vocational training, postsecondary
education, or work.
Vocational Evaluation and Rehabilitation is a state agency that assists
individuals with disabilities to secure employment, regain employment or retain
employment that is consistent with their strengths, abilities, and informed choice.
Vocational Rehabilitation evaluations become part of the eligibility records to which
parents have a right (Barnett v. Memphis City Schools, 2004).
Below are methods of evaluation:
1. Psychological Tests: an objective and standardized measure of a sample of
behavior (cognitive, psychomotor, or affective trait) considered important to general
or specific job functioning.
2. Work Sample: an actual or simulated job which is managed and observed under a
standard set of conditions.
3. Situational Assessment: a systematic procedure for observing, recording, and
interpreting work behavior in a real (though controlled) work situation where, under
close supervision, the participant works with others on contract jobs for wages.
4. Work-related Exploration: used when more job-related information is needed in
order to make a choice among several types of work.
The ADA applies to anyone who have deficiencies and that they must
noticeably limit major life activities. Here is a list of examples of major life
activities: caring for oneself, carrying out manual task, seeing, hearing, eating,
sleeping, walking, standing, sitting, reaching, lifting, bending, speaking, breathing,
learning, reading, concentrating, thinking, communicating, interacting with others,
and working. Examples of specific impairment disabilities include: deafness,
blindness, intellectual disability, partially or completely missing limbs, mobility
27

impairments, autism, cancer, cerebral palsy, diabetes, epilepsy, HIV infection,

multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder,
post-traumatic stress disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and schizophrenia.
The ADA mandate any person who meets appropriate skills, experience, education,
or other necessities of an employment position that s/he seeks, and who can
perform the necessary functions of the position with or without reasonable
accommodation.
Assistive technology is anything, piece of equipment, or product, whether
acquired commercially, changed, or made-to-order, that is used to increase,
maintain, or improve functional capabilities of an individual with a disability. Here
are some examples of assistive technology: vehicle modification, daily living,
mobility/seating/positioning.
VR pays all the case service costs for serving eligible students through
cooperative programs. All Individuals that go through VR will have a plan of
services that is developed with the individual following eligibility requirements and
the comprehensive assessment of the individuals rehabilitation needs. Services are
planned to assist the individual to achieve and uphold employment successfully. All
services are planned with the informed choice of the individual.
Strategies and Transition Traits
Finding employment after graduation can be challenging for any student, but
for students with special needs it can be even more difficult. It becomes a
competition for the few jobs available that pay well, offer benefits, and have
reasonable hours. The likelihood of getting such a job is rare. According to the US
Chamber of Commerce the unemployment rate for persons with disabilities is 62%
(Nietupski, 2008). Therefore, the Grant Wood Area Education Agency (GWAEA)
began in 2000 to explore why students with disabilities have trouble transitioning to
careers. One cause for the unemployment issue with persons with disabilities is a
lack of career exploration and work experiences available in high school; most
students with disabilities graduated with no plan of what they wanted to do.
Exacerbating the problem, many students did not know about or did not apply for
career services that may have helped them transition to a successful career
(Nietupski, 2008). It is important as educators to do as much as possible to help
students with special needs transition to life outside of high school. Transition
programs within high schools are essential to provide opportunities within school to
practice skill sets that can be used outside of the classroom. This can include
proper work ethic, developing routines that can be transitioned to the workplace,
and learning how to work with others. Programs that are community- based present
the best possible solution because instruction takes place outside of the classroom,
possible job locations, and students are learning key skill sets that are directly
applied (Severe and/or Multiple Disabilities NICHCY Fact Sheet 10, December 9th
2009). If students learn skills or procedures that can be used in a job-type setting
they will become a more integral part of the workforce. In Old Bridge High School,
28

Old Bridge New Jersey, students are transitioned to the workforce with a class called
Transition planning. For several periods a day students are taken to employment
locations to work, developing skill sets that can be related to other opportunities as
well. For example, students get an opportunity to work at TJ MAXX, collaborating
with other store employees and providing customer service. Students are also
encouraged to take another class, a one period class, in which they learn how to
create a resume and other necessary employment tools. These students work
together as a class to practice job interviews and handshakes to ensure they are
ready for life after graduation.
To further help students transition to the workforce the GWAEA created Career
Connections with the purpose to help students with disabilities identify career goals
and then find, learn and keep jobs. These designated Career Connections were
designed to keep the focus on the student and ensure they are prepared for the
workforce. Career Connections created a curriculum with six program elements
designed to help guide educators guide students in career exploration and getting
them the work experience they need. High schools, when developing and designing
a curriculum that benefits students with special needs, should address these six
areas. Below are the elements of the Career Connections Curriculum (Nietupski,
2008):
Career Connection Program
Elements
Establish a Relationship with
and Get to Know the Student:
Record review
Teacher, parent, student interviews
School-community observations
Career interest inventories
Person-centered Career
Planning Sessions:
Team of students choosing
Review work history, skills and
interests
Identify ideal job elements and
occupations to investigate
Identify barriers to an ideal job
Next steps and action planning
Fifth-Year Community
Work Exploration:
Job shadows
Short-term work experiences and
tryouts
Six to eight weeks of work experiences
Fifth-Year Internships:
Six- to 12-week paid internships
Coaching or co-worker support

Questions Addressed by Element

What are the students career dreams,

general skill levels and areas in need of
training and support?

What career options should be

explored?
What are must-have and must-avoid
elements of students ideal job?
What is our plan for helping students
obtain their ideal job?
Who can help implement the plan?

What career area is of greatest interest

to the student?
What are the students support or
training needs?
Internship meets student career goals?
Is student qualified for such
employment or is another internship
29

development

warranted?
Will employer hire or provide a
referral?

Additional Skill Training

and Support as Needed:
Community college coursework
Resume, job application and interview
skill training
Transportation training
Behavioral and social skill teaching
and support
Community service linkage

What related skills or services does the

student need for employment success?

Paid Employment and Program Exit:

Convert internship into paid
employment
or develop job that matches career goal
Provide training and support until
student is employed for 60 days

Should the student:

Exit special education and the
program?
Continue to receive Career
Connections
support on the job?
Exit to adult system long-term
supports?

30

CTE programs can be critical in helping students with disabilities explore careers
and gain valuable skills and experience. Inside a CTE classroom, students can learn
marketable work and social skills needed for a career (Allen et al, 2008). Students
with disabilities who participate in CTE programs are nine times more likely to
become employed (Allen et al, 2008). Therefore, high schools and teachers should
do as much as they can to prepare students and participate in a transition type
class. The key is for CTE teachers to help connect students to the community.
Collaboration with local businesses and associate schools is vital for both student
success and program success. Not only do students benefit, but businesses benefit
as well: workforce diversity is enhanced; attendance and productivity rates are
higher for students with special needs then typical employees; and communities are
enriched when young adults with disabilities become productive, contributing
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