ATHEISM 1 The Cambridge Companion to Atty, ihe of the work's leading scholars pest original esiys on various apo atom its history, bth ancient and mde, defense sed ope ‘ations. The topic is examined in tein of is implications hey ide rng: of discplins including philosophy, religion, emiten, Postmodernism sociology and python laa deenas ket ‘cal and contemporary these arguments ar citiceed adc atzument fom evil and impoenbitystgumens along wi ne religions basis for morality are defended. These oy irs aed ‘dertanding of atbeism and lei inteuctin ths come versal tp Michel Martins Pofesar of Philosophy Emeritus Roston Uni ‘erty. He s the author of more than 130 antes an ence ella evra books including Athcam Moral and Mesos The impossbty of God with Ricki Monnir| sod Adnan Philosophical fstieation,ABELARD Eilted by erry x nnowex and ADORNO Edited by roxc Hu AQUINAS ited by Noman EnETZ3aN and rLrONORE HANNAH ARENDT. Edited by paxa va ARISTOTLE Ecited by owarvan nannies ‘AUGUSTINE Eulted by exzonons srumr and BACON Edited by wanaxo rxcronts SIMONE DE BEAUVOIR. Ediced by cravpia can DARWIN Edited by onatuan nonce and DESCARTES. Edlted by ony corrimcnan DUNS SCOTUS. Faited by Tuomas WiLLiaNS EARLY GREEK PHILOSOPHY Eited by 8-4. 10NG FEMINISM IN PHILOSOPHY Edited by naan raucasn and yin HORNSBY FOUCAULT Second Eation Edad by cany curr FREUD Edited by reromt niu GADAMER Edited by nose). postaL (GALILEO. alted by vera maciancen (GERMAN IDEALISM ited by nant ancenses (GREEK AND ROMAN PHILOSOPHY "ited by HABERMAS. Edited by sransnx x ware HEGEL Edited by mepeaicx wise HEIDEGGER Edited by cuantes GUIGNON HOBBES. Edited by rom sonst HUSSERL Edited by nanny suri and WILLIAMTAMES. Edited by aurn axa ronan KANT. Edited by eso. cure KIERKEGAARD’ Felted by AAstain wanna and coapow LEIBNIZ. Edted by tcwouas our CContinged aft he IndexThe Cambridge Companion to | ATHEISM | Edited by Michael Martin Boston University CAMBRIDGE‘Gembadgs Now York ator, Nal Cape Tw, Singapore, to Pal Camb Unversity Pree Sct i Amen, New Yk 605-475, 08e ena g {taon ode wonecambee ates ros ‘Cambs Univer Pr 207 “aspen inn Sao ny in Sorepnacton ny pat a ke ewe ‘Berenson of Cade: Vert Pe Pata he ite State Amen Acta rec forth pba eval fo the Bish iba bay of Gongs Catal Poben Da “The Canby companion othe ded y Michael Mar c(i cmgene tplce lec itiapea recs yor duh oon ip ta Mb ee. s Tavera Sard Sqoraaseohantaar Bibiot mes sterpecetrspeeinn LORUDL BS amie Unive Preto ens or ‘hie uy nent Weblo te action nds tot name ht ny et on ch ‘eb sein orl sai eae erate CONTENTS content Proce Glossary General Intoduetion Part Background 1 Atheism i Aneigty Atheism in Mader History 43 Atthtsm Contemporary Numbers and Patterns Part The Cas against Theis 4 Theistic Cetiques of Atheism 5 The Fah of Casi! Theistic Arguments 6 Some Contemporary Theistic Arguments 7 Notaratis and Physicals 8 Atheism and Feoton 9 The Autonony of this “ age10. The Argument fom Bet 11 Kalam Cosmological Argamentsfor Atheism 12 Impossibility Arguments Part I Lmplieations 13 Atheism and Region 14 Feminism and Atheism 15 Atheism and the Freedom of Relgion 16 Atheism, theology and we Postmodern Condition 17 Anthopolopical Theorie of Relison 18 Atheists: Peyehoogial Profile Index CONTRIBUTORS: Moe extensive biographical material about the contibutos can usally ‘beabened from the Wel page of theirreapective cade departments of available, fom the contributors own personal Web page oro the Sevalar Web, ewan netrstALLasoa is Profesor of Paychology, University of Hala, and author of Prologomena to he Psychology’ of Religion (1985) and The Psychology of Religious Behaviour 1957 tan x. mneManra is Profesoe ofthe General History of Religion and {the Comparative Science of Religion, dhe University of Groningen the Netherlands andthe author of Geek. Religion [ng] and The Rise and Flo the After aca ‘pau 0. mu is Profesor of Philosphy, Univesity of California at San Diego, andthe suchor of Moral Reali and the Foundations of Eahics 108] and Prfectonism and the Cammon Good: Themes inthe Philosophy of ZH. Green (003), youn. carovo is Thomas). Watton Profesor of Religion and Human Ines, Syacuse University, and author of On Religion (2001) and The Weakness of Gad A Theology of the Event 3008) wntsas ave ena is Research Professor of Philosophy, Tho Schoo! (of Theology and suthorof The Kalen Cosmologieal Argument 973) and God, Tie and teity (220), DANIEL C. DEXNEFT i Director ofthe Center for Cognitive Sues, Univesity rofessor, Austin B. Fletcher Protessoe of Philosophy, Tats Univesity, and author of Darin’ Dangerous Idea 195] and Freedom volves (2003).JANN. suemoER 1 Atheism in Antiquity in 1943 the French historian Lous Febvre published his poch-makiag study of Rabelais in which he noted dhe absence of thei inthe Mile ‘Ages! Febvre explained tis absence as «kindof hlocage rental In the life of soetey and he individ, Christianity was of overiing importance. Is festivals ensticated the rhythm ofthe yea smporant twansitons nthe ie ofthe ivial bith, asiage, ad death were ‘completely integrated into religious Ie, a were everyday activities Churches, whose bells would always zemind the forget believer of their existence, often dominated dhe ndseape Iwas simply impossible to think Christanity away fom medieval scety Subsequent eseatch has modified Febre's findings to some extent, bt his main findings ul sand. Aatigity was aot that diferent rom ‘he Midle Ags inthis resect, The ancient Greeks and Romane also ‘moved in a landscape where cemples were everywhere, where gods adorned their coins, where the calendar went from religious festival to festival, and where religous ste accompanied al major eanstons in life. Consequently, atheism never developed nto «popula idtlogy with «recognizable following. All we have in antigulty i the excep {onl individual who dared to voice hie dsblit ot bold philosophers ‘who proposed intellectual theories abou the cong into existence of the ans without, normally, puting their heeris into practice ore} ing religious practice altogether If we find abel a al iis usally "sol" athe othe imputation of atheism to others a4 means AUscredi hem “ven if we may assume that mankind always has known its septics ndunelievers, the expresion of tht sexpticiam anduabeliets subject, to historical ercumstances. Some pes were thre favorable to dis Senter than ther ies, and le ies thay interpreta atheism what Carlier dimes permitted as perhaps only jst sccepable theories about the god or the origin of eligion. This means that we mut be stentive to the afferent periods in which atheism more or ess lous, tthe incerpretations by ater Greeks and Romans of thelr edecesrs, and‘to the reasons why contemporaries impute atheism to people who difer tom them in reigious option. "The Epicurean Phloem (ea, 110-5 Be] classified the various ind of atl aneiguly as follows [a] Those who say that it is unknown whether there are any gods oF what they are ike {a Those wo say openly that the gods donot exis (3) Thowe who leet py ic ‘Although this clasfication isa faily acceptable one it stays atthe Tevel o ideas and neglects practicing atelste, Moe seriously, it does fot mention atheism as labeling device wo slander your opponent, be they religious of plosophical ones. Tat is why we do no fallow Philodesnus but divide our evidence into three periods 1 the classical eto, the Hellenistic period, which tare to label earlier thinker [sathests and developed sof” aels tha ried rosave the existence {tthe pl, and 3] the Roman period when the Christians were called tied by the papins and vice vers, Given its interest fr the history tt athcim, we wil oncentate onthe cashcl period nal cases, we trill use the trm “atheim saer Losey for those chinkers tl people who dened the exstene ofthe gods ort forward theories o explain the exsence ofthe mds tis not our intention 0 give an exhaastive listing of all people that Ihave been called athe in aneiuiy. This has already been dane in very competent manner and needs aot ce redone Atheism ite has Tso been studied repeatedly.” Yet recent publications of new papyri and ‘ew eitions of already published texts enable ust ake afresh ook | {he alder Greek evidence ad thus to sketch better pictare than was posible im most ofthe rwentith century. ‘Atheism in Greece became visible e=pcillyin Athensin the secondhsll| ihe ith cenry, slihoogh the fie atheist” was nt from Athens “Theis prominent pilowoper that ws later eategorized ay such was Protagoras a. 490-420 mc) fom Abra, «city in the northeast of (Greece, where Demoerits fs. 460-4001 B.C), who coud have devel ‘ped into am athlete sppaendy did ot, was born. He was famous for ‘hat probably ws the opening sentenceo is work called "Concering the God" asin antiquity the ties of pose works often consisted of the pening words: "Concerning the gods am unable co discover whether {hey exis or not, ce what they are ike frm, fr here are many hin tances to knowledge, the obscurity of ee subject and the brevity of ‘ei in Antiquity 5 ‘numan fe. Ts clear fom this quote that Proagors wa an agnosie rather than an stele, a Cicero in his De natura deat (La) and Galen ia his De ropris plats (ed. Boudon-Nilloe snd Petobel ull recognized. And indeed during hie fe he was highly respected Pericles, the leading Athenian plicin in the mide ofthe filth ce tury Snvited him to wete the constittion ofthe paallenie colony ‘Thun in Souther Kaly(Heracldes Ponics,fagment 150 Webi") and Pato even noted in his Ano (gel that Protagoras had lived out sein high epue. Yet hs fame son tok awn forthe wore, and sleely in the Hellenitte period noice stated to appear that he had ‘heen condermned to death and that his book withthe famous opening words had been burned inthe marketplace Although these reports ate ‘probably fittous, they developed into accusation of staghtiorward !heism in, a the latest, the second century a. in the weitings of the fmpleist Sextus Empiicus Adverss Matbematicas 9 30-1, 56] and ‘he Epicurean Diogenes of Oenoand (agment 16 Sih), who may have derived hi ection fom Bpeunis hiesel ‘Protagora’ agnostic can be explained only i the most general of terms, There i lite known shove his ie and hardly anything aboot his inclletual formation. Yer we can say something about the nelle: tual climate he grew up in and che preconditions fr his agnosticism, Protagoras belonged to the so-called sophistc movement, loose term ‘hae denotes che ental intellectual, particular, dhe philosophers of ‘he second half ofthe fifth century nc. The sopists were connected 0 boo by ther eantemprarc "and this point literacy a an impor tne condition for the development of extical philosophy. Its impor tance fo philosophy becomes visible around oo nc. when Pythagoras [ea 560-4953 wascriticized by Xenophance(7DK-ea. 370-4951.) In writing and Heraclitus 129 DK: ca. 500 2c) even reproached him forhavig plundered many weitings" “The Inter to influential phlosophers also fiercely attacked the snthropomorphie gods of Homer and Hesiod, the authoritative Gree, poets. Xenophancs even proclaimed "the one god, restr among od "nd humane” frgment B23 DEL. nether wor, he and is comtempe. tance ted to introduce new ides ofthe divine rather than abolishing the ies ofthe divine altogether. The situation started to change with [Anunagoras [ca 500-428 sc), who wa the fist philosopher known to have seed in Athens, st the te the cener of intellectual le in Greece, pabably in the middle ofthe 4seu. According tothe ticle century 4, Diogenes Laertin [27 = fragment A x DK) he sid tat ‘hen was aredhot mas of metal” Wemay not think this revostion ty, bu forthe Athenians the sun wa a god Helios, and Anaxagnas servation sipped the sun from ts divine nature‘When dd Anaxagoras pronounce this statement? Unfortunatly, ls chronology is ot at all asuzed Much of our evidence pots tothe yearse came to Athens, but later sccounts cnet him with attempts {oarm Pericles, and speak of legal ease cased by his “impiey."™* ‘The wouble with these account is that mockery ofthe Views of natural llosopets stats to ppest in text nly sn Uh 4205. In his Panopte| Uiagment 167 Kas Austin which must have appeared shrdly belo las, the playwright Cratins mocks the philosopher Hippon, who ‘iter pitured as impious, becase he ha stated that che sky isa baking cover’! In 425 nc, Antophanes put onthe Clouds and mocked the Inhabitants of the "Reflector" prontérion) for espousing the same idea, Socrates even say: "Twalk the at and contemplate the sun"** In ar, another playwright of cone, Eupolis implicated even Pro- tagotas in these ideas im hi laterer f 431. byeepresenting him "pontilating about the heavens” frgment 157 Kassl/Austin, and in guy Adstophanes let the chorus of hs Birds sry tht people have to ay atenton so them so thet "you may dear comedy from ual about he things om high 60, which in the ext seems connected withthe bricly mentioned Prodics [below ‘But s€ was not ony ee author of comedy who took abe atthe new philosophy The tagedian Euripides, so, contebuted tothe ge ‘tal resentment by leting the chorus ofan unknown play rete: "who, ‘Sig this docs not tach beforehand that is soul i eonstered ago, Sind does not husl ft font im the crked deceis of talkers about the heaven, whose ind tongues male random tows abou whats Inidden, devoid of understanding" Ic this connection between athe ‘sm and speculating about the nature ofthe heavens that also comes to the fore in Plato's Apology s8be), where Sorates says that is accusers “There twine man alld Soca wh bts soot the esse aod tis nveigated everything low the cae rnc ake the weser aes deat he sone is these people, getiamen othe ary, he deine ‘thn rumours who my dangers acne Beaune hove who Bee he “This testimony from an carly dialogue of Plato is most valuable, a i shows that speclating about de eavers was inded already connected ‘wih them by Socrates’ contemporarss. "We move ia diferent diccton with the aphis Prodicus of Keos (es. 485-395 ne, Unfortunately, nent to nothing is known about the tile, content and scope ofthe workin which he expounded his views "Thebes candidate pehaps his Hora or seasons personified” which Aeiam in Antiisy 5 smut have appeared around 420 8.6, a8 Prodi theory was parodied im Aristophanes’ Birds of 414 8c. and echoed by Euripides’ Becchae of {106 ne" Although Prodicos wa also one of chose philosophers with the reputation of specieting abou the heavens" [above), this waa not his main claim to ame In fact, is ideas were much more radical sccoding wo Philodems, he maintained "chat the gods of popula ele Ao no exist nor do they know, but primitive man, out of admiration, ‘eed the frit of the earth nd virtually everything that contibuted to his existence” The highly stylized character ofthe language surgests that this passage reflect rather lselyPodicus’ very words* But what {hd Prodicns actually mean! ‘Renewed attention to the fragmentary papy chat ae our best source for Prodicus’ ideas has shown tat Prodicus proposed a two-stage theory af the origin of polytheism. Past, primitive man started to eal “pods” thoes clement f nate on which he wes moet dependent, sock ato ‘nd moon rivers andfuts, Subsequently, those humans who had been the main Benefactors as inventor ofthe prope usage ofthe fruits ofthe tarth, namely, bead and wine, Demeter and Dionysos, were likewise Called "ods" and worshipped as such, Evidently, here had been atime ‘without gods ye for Prodieus, even chough an was lea thee. ‘Coenarisoa with acer culsural theres of his time suggest that Prolieus located th begining ofeligionnagricultre Now te alent ff Demeter and Dionysos sth thei gifts of read and wine wea prt of ‘Acicmythology Infact, Athens prided itselfas having given aculre tothe Greck world”) Proicus may well have head about this claim on hisislan Keo, which wasn easy reach of Attica, but he may also have been influenced by his frequen ays in Athens, where he dd noe forget his own interests while bing ambassador of hin inland. The fact shat he had appeared bere the Athenian Council and bad mpresed thee by his eloquence almost certainly guarantees cht he hed well prepared his ‘ase by studying Atie mythology In addition to Prodicus, the only other fith-century intelectual in whose work clear atheistic statements can be found ae Euripides ‘hcism is based primary on inferences trom his poctey, which were laorated, often with degre of malice, by writes ofthe fourth cen tury and afer Even theeaiton of Euripides" il for atheism prob ably ether derived from comedy or invented in analogy of the tal of Socrates" On the other hand, these inferences had some materi to work from.* In the end, though, there Is only one passage wih a lea thistle content and it pays to quote I in fll In fagment that has ‘been handed down in Christian times fora the Rellerpbion, a tragedy‘that was probably performed around 430, Bellerophon himself states ely in the play ‘oes someon sy the ae ined gain ewe! Thee ate ot hee no, ifaman owing ato ely fio he gure esr. Conse ot Yourelen dot tase ou opinion om wore mine uy mye that ey Tiley tay men and eps them of tne posession and haters ea cr ute go anasck te ain ding ts thy sre more rsferous de ean than nn ho lve uel in eerenc om a 0.1 KO {Coot ama cites dng hones othe pe thi ar mbt oper more fen, Decne thoy ae vere y re numero army ak ht, “an wee any an payed to he pd and id at gp fathering Ms rel ood with had you wuld re a ein in ee ext rein and “Thestatementisa radical expression of elingencounteredmore often In Burpides that dhe ieeligious prosper, whereas the pious sue. * Con ‘Seauently, the pds have no power and religion is imaginary. Such a radial stince most be one of those that iced Anstophanes'som,"> ‘ut atthe end ofthe play the traditional order was re-established and Bellerpon's athlete declaration ix ore than outweighed. by his Pitable lot nother words the statement the exresion oa character {nthe play, not he opinion ofthe paywight himsell» "There could bea second posse but authorship is igh debated. Ieused tobe ascribed tothe sophist Cats ea. 40-403 mc, who was ‘ge of the most unserspulous members ofthe Thirty Tran,» group ‘tanstoctte chat had seized power atthe end ofthe Peloponnesian Wat Si was emtembered forts role of tere. As uch, the eymical tone of ‘the pace scemed to fit prfecty the smageof author nthe histrio- ‘apical tation. On the other hand, Cass mentioned only once as the author ofthis passage, wheres Epes mentioned twice. Infact, “evealecentsties have pssuasvelyanoed thats eompletly out ‘of character ofthe gente ofthe ats pay cata caracter would develop ites highly provoatve theory forte vary fusteme instead ofprody- ings aoindord ovens tobe the cove nese-she moe so when the aseape ‘des aot elect the pinion of fst one powopher but dose of ever Moreover a character tht tres to pesunl somebody that aerme with ‘witness wil main unpunished fsa sty play much eter than {tragedy Finally, the passage contains a number of words that oct ‘only in Euripides’ work Consequently, the passage could have belonged {elther Eanpides Sisyphus 485.) oy, perhaps more trative, his “Butaykor A Mate unknown) Yet the ecene authoritative edition of Euripides irapments has not accepecd these arguments and once again {scribes the agent toCritian” This probably correc, since the new ‘Atheism in Anciuity » citi of Pilodemus’ On Piety (519-41) shows that Epicurs already ‘onelided that what Critias himself had sid abous the gods "made it {mpotile fr them as generally conceived to exis” in ace, ines §39~ 4p and 1165-1217 of On Piety exhibit vestigial echoes ofthe Sisypas Sceoune. In other word, Citas reputation as anathelst predates the “elenisicbogrpers Given sincerest for the history of atheism 1 ‘wil uote the pce i ll: ‘Onc there was atime when he eo human beings ws srr an siar to tht of nasa ld ce, when tee was bo ead ote Wo ‘or any punishment forthe wick, Ap the hin ha buses Used ‘Stablahaweas perso ht uti) might ber lacarl sbe es Peeve ot ere fel rye a Seti ‘ing wong Ten since the Lave ed pen dete of ene In eock they niet imate in ert, he, Tlee a wise al leverminded ‘un ovnted rma are os 0 hat hee tes detest or thew even shop et sy e hin anyehing msc Hence om hs Surceeexganed the vine here Sty it who ny epeiable Ie bering ad seg with is mid, hs hot sd ateton om al cngs ‘eerofadvine nature He wil hear whatever std ag eras and bese {ovee whatever doef ou sent plot nil dhs wil ot xp the a For ‘hey luna have owed With hee words ecpsineehe mow lh Paro th eching and hl he uth witha fale tae He alte go ell "here whee be by pcg dom tte could gen hua belngs ot ‘whence bekne fens core to mrt ab trbls forte wretched thats fm the along wherthey bbe the igh and earl lows Of ther and esven with i stay eye, he Beautify domed ‘lig of Tne, the wie ctfsman, Whence toy the bilane mas ofthe san Sie ane iui ain lon the ea sero ne] wast, ‘hi ht vrcone tpeande otal blee tat he exstoa race an In this long passage, which mos probably was pronounced by Sisyphus, the cleverest Greek in mythology, we ce heist currence ofthe the. ary that religion here: the gds| was inveated vo ensure god behavior of swight would pus forward such a dheory ina play meant vo entein his audience without sny previous knowledge of it among ts spect tore. Now iis clear that several aspect ofthis passage must have been familiar tothe audience, Fist the picture ofan animal like situation ‘tthe begining of himanksind was «recurrent topos in deseriptons| {nd parodies ofthe primeval situation by contemporaries of Euripides Sccund, the opposition between public assent o laws but private fc dm fom restesint canbe paralleled in the work of the contemparary ‘ophist Antiphon, who stated shat justice would be most advantageousto a man fhe were to regard the laws a great in the presence of wit ses but atures et when dept wines” Fal 123 Pendvick), Thied, Democres" [A 75 DK) insticutors of religion rel tm human fer of eclesial phenomena, an, fourth, Prdicus had also vanced aro stage theory ofthe development of religion (above). Yet {he theory espoused in our passage goes further and is more eynial than anything proposed in our sovieng texts. “ria or Euripides desma well aseatesa gradual changein mood. seganing the gods in Athens nth ater ith century. There was worse forcome ln 415 the Athenians undertos a major expedition t Scly to conquer Syracuse, and our sourees cule Us 9 observe the ner ‘ous mood of the Athenian population a chat time Te was at this precarious moment that che highly gunled sereey ofthe Elessnian| [teres rice came under attack. One momaing shor Before the ‘Athenan leet was de to sil to Sicily, was discovered that nearly {ll the images ofthe god Hermes in pubs places had been mutated. "Those denounced wete also accused of having profaned the Elewsnian ‘Myerien” Where the mutiators ha ariel the Mysteries they sctally hed dane so) in peat creumstances, around the same time Dingoras, a citizen of the island Melos, mocked the Mysteries openly ter the Athenians ha rested his home land bay.” Consequently, the cleventhcentury Arab Mbashah, whose account ~ deely or Indiectly ~ seems to derive from the erudite Athenian Apallodoras (ea. 180-120 m.],notes ‘he he pc, Dhigagurs ofan, o& “Digna se here raps” ‘eine iyo or "nln i unbelt sndhisathelse Tey he wie men for pooner, Baka and leaders of Ata sug Ii hm The wler Chana te Archon [Kayo al Arkin ets] se pce ‘on is eal tel "pet money” Pal and commanded tha soa fe peclaimed sang che pole “He who aprehends Diora fn Mls [Ny an ile wil bred whe um bs, anally Tether bageotaining sno 120 dha," promised one talent of saver to anyone who killed Diagoas, and 170 fo anyone who caught him alive. Now Diagora is already mocked in Hermippor’ comedy Moira fragment 9 Kasse-Austn), which was ‘writen belore 430. In Aristophanes’ Chuds (830, which even ins {evised version cannot be lter than ca. 4x6 Socrates Is called the ‘Melia’ forespousing “atheistic” views Thismest mean that Diagoras ‘hal been living safely in Athens for many years despite bis ieeions ‘views a fact that also shines though inthe Arab report However, his Inorking went to fa nd Epcurwealcely mentions Diagoras together Ahem in Ansiguiy > ‘with Critas and Proicus athe arch-atheist-® In that eapaity Diag ‘is would remain notorious al through angi ‘More famous than Diagorss, if less for his atheism, was Socrates (69-399) Its clea from Arisprophanes portrait of Socrates inthe (Clouds that already in that tue the later was considered tobe some ‘hing like an atheist thsi also suggested by his frequent assoeiation| with Euripides in comedy I is therefore noe wholly surpesing that fn 399 nthe Athenians charged Socrates at follows: "Socrates does ‘wrongby nt acknowledging the wos the ety acknowledges nd into ducing other, new powers daimoria), He also dos wrongby corupting the young." The tal of Socrates sil poses many questions, but ii ‘ern that for many Athenians Socrates had moved t0 close to those ‘who questioned the tadilonal gods eis only about a decade after Socrates! death, in Pata (ea. 429- 147 nc) that we sar to ind the Greek word ateos, which arginaly tess used inthe meaning "godless, widhou gods, godosaken,”denot ing intlleerls who denied he od ofthe city oe any form of deity. ‘This particular meaning may of course be slighty older, but its dat fits ‘our impression ofthe intellectual climate ofthe lst decades of the fifth encury The increasing criticism ofthe yodshy philosophers and poets had eroded the waditanal boils in the gods, and some intellectuals drew the snevitable consequence. Yet the combined power of aditional ‘ele and Pat's influential theiam sna ie that "eal" ahelts would always remsin 2 rate phenomenon inthe Greek woud “The death of Socrates constituted the end ofan ext. Most philso- pers had got the message and remained eaefl in expounding their "ews. There was the occasional exception, suchas Theodarusof Cyrene lea 34o-ase ne who is mentioned most with Diagrss a the stelst Der excellence. However, oar evidence mainly exists of anecdotes sad eis hard to reconstruct his theology: Tn the Hellenistic retod two important developments are noticeable Fist, wenow start ofinda isingof atheists inan index atheoram. The carlest example sy Epicurus[34i-270 cin the twelith book of his ‘Oa Nature, which must have been wltten around joo 8.0.” He proba: by included his eticiems of Protagoras,Prodicus, Citas and possibly Diagoras, a4 “raving lates” sa ehe context of how men fist came to believe in and worship the gods, Epcurus himself was aot an athe Ist but later philosophers, probably the Stoic, attacked the premises tof his physical stem, inferred that che gods had no necessary place his system, and happily Ibeled him as an atheist. After Eplcurs, atthe en of the second century nc, dhe It was exended by the Aca ‘kere scopic Clitomachus i his tweatse Concerning atheism.* He ‘wav an adherent of the most important epresentative ofthe seeps ‘Academy, Carmeadesc4.214-128 sc} wh probably had alleged that Epica id not relly mean what he said abou she god, Hein tum ‘vas followed by Cicer ia his De natu doram (63) Pseudo Atis [ea a, so-100)" and towacd the end of the second century, by Sextus Empircu Adverss mathematics 9 3-8 "The sccond development was the istnt success of Prodius' theory shout the gods witnestsreflection afterEurpies [above in Tater poets Sndbistrune Yet hie moet famous follover live a good dea later In the frst quater of the third century, the Alexandsian Euhemerus| ‘wrote his Sacred Record in which he arsed the Hesidie succession of ‘Ouranos, Kronos, and Zeus into dynary of mortal Kings that nab: ited fistiows island called Panchaca Ie was the sim of Eubemerss to keep the gods but to present chem in form in which sophisticated people could belive. We ave only afew fragments If but Sextus Enpircus ses o summarize hs workin saying that “the traditional ‘ods wete important artals and therfore defied hy Wei contempo farts and considered gods" Euhemirur was particulary successfl in Rome where the pct Ennis (239-169 n] translated his work around 200 nc: into Latin prose, perhaps in proaration ofa spinal climate favorable tothe deticaion of Sipio Atacanus, the victor of Carthage sd Hanna, Ennis didnot make a iter erasltion, bute expanded the orginal somewhat and explained the Greek names to his Roman public, where his work proved to be highly sucessful and was read by arco e-7 ne) and Chero and, evenly, frnished ammunition tothe Christians “The ever-expanding lists with atheists should not conceal the fact that in histonea reality no practicing shea ae mentioned in out {Sources for the perio, In the Fist two ceases of ou ea, atheism had tainly become a Ibe to be uted again philosophical opponents but tot tobe taken to seriously Even the Jers knew how to lay the game Su epached the Fayptane forthe ahem © A new development Iecomes visible in che midleof the send century a. In his Life of| Alexander of Abonouttchos, the biography of relisious enteepeneur ‘vino had founded new cult in Abonoutlshos, small own in Pontus [Asa Minor, the malicious satirist Lucian mentions that Alexander hd ‘cued from his elt the "atheist, Chaistan and Epicurean” [25, 38) “The rave consequences of suchan attule become visible in myroa In| the Maryidom of Polyearp which probally dates fom about a. 160 a ‘ember oa group of Cnstian marys, the youth Germanic, dageed ‘the anisal that was supposed to ll in, perhaps leaps, om op of ‘Abies in Aninity ” him. In reaction, the crow shouted, “Away with dese atheists. Go and ee Poca!” ~ che old bishop ofthe Chstins (3a. When Polyea ras caught and interrogated by the Roman goveror he later tied to save him and told him to "Recant. Say, "Away with the atelt!.” Polyeap looked at the crowd, shook his Fit at them, and si With dhe atheists” pal He was not the only ‘he charge, When in a. 177 a group of macys was executed in yen, ‘one of them, the youth VettiusEpagathus, requested hearing fom the prefect in onder that he could explain thatthe Chistans were "innocent ‘of athels and impiety." ‘The accusation of theism” must have been very widespread since the irstan apologists often did thei best o ebut thecharge" Toward ‘theend ofthe second entury a2, Taian (Orotioad Graecoe 27s} even ‘mentions thatthe pags called the Cristiane otheottous, “he most stheistones"! Only Justinus ia hie Apology 6) writen about a. 154~ 55 tell us which opponent had made the charg. It was the Cyne {escens, who would also be responsi for his martyrdom, Fsenus sMmited that the Christians were indeed ast regarding tei tt tude wand he pagan gas Tis indeed hard eo sechow he pags ould have thouge diferent given thae ee Christians had no temples or statues of deities and did nt pes sterfices. nthe eyes of the pagan ‘hilosopher Celsusc. 180), quoted by Origen 84-254] his Contra Celsum 7.62: wnten ea 249, his made the Chritans comparable to ‘other unciilisedpaoples who id no gods either, such asthe barbaric Seythians or nomadietybians, The charg had long life ond survived even nt che fourth century. Is barely surprising hat the ews ule fered fom the same accusation, eventhough they had a trmple Yet ‘heir separate postion made them vulnerable too, and Julian he Apo tate (Contra Galles 3] even stated tht the Christian had inherited ‘heir atheism from the Jews. 43. THE CHRISTIAN PERIOD ‘The Chuistans were not alow in taking up the porsiility of labeling ‘opponents as Justinus already called fellow Christians with whos he disagreed, “ateis] and impious herees" Yer it tok them some time before they were ale to develop a stratny to teute the accuse sion of atheism. In his Apologetics (24 of about ab. 200, Teealan (ce, 160-20) tried 0 refute the charge by arguing tat the pagan gods ‘were no gos at all bt demons. Consequently, the Christians could not possibly be atheists Some Christians now even edt urn the ables, Origen charged the pagans ofan “atheist paythetam” or analyte: Ist atheism." Clement of Alexandsia [ea 150-215) went even furthernd stated thatthe sal atheists were those who did not believe in God ‘rhs Providence che pime example of those being Epirus. Rather ‘Sterisingly, he todo ehabiitce the "anonica” atheists, such a5 ‘ingran Euhemeres, and heads by chiming that they had at leat ‘eenpaized the folishness of the pagan eas Tis time wo come to «close. Our survey ha shown that antiquity is lamportant for the history of stein, nat eas three respects Fist, the {Guecks discovered theoretical atheism, which "ean be seen tobe one tf the most portant evens inthe history of religion.” Secon, the (Greeks invented the term athens, which was aken over bythe Romans (herhun which ave ie tothe words atheist” and “atheism” incatly {neler times, Third, Greeks and Romans pagans and Christan, soon {lscovered the utility ofthe term “shen” aa a means to label oppo fonts The inveation of atheist would open anew road to ine {hl feedom, but als enabled people ole opponents in new way. Progress rarely comes without 8 est. 1 this chapter iit the noes a mach posible tthe mot resent, ‘Zech estate able mates prainngo stent thes, For mee {Sian on te vatus “usr” dacused, ete reeant te tare which snow ely conte in Dr nee Poly (Ubi, 1996 seni 1. Tl, Le poblime de Fncrpance ay XV tcl La elgion de Flea paiva cacti ncane ‘Tepoque des ft Revor do since rgueuses 7919998 42-73. 3. Kr Thun Religion and the Delve of Mae [armandswort, 973) fp trac, estat skeptics were fen sens sh sang 19 4 Bee stele, 0-15, 4 fA Heh “Die Kk der stoechen| ‘hlsoglim Pte ash’ Cronche Bcalanes «aydh $3 825 ‘Oia, Poe: Om ety vot od 196 1 5. Cat Winch "Mesolaces "um aes Atel” Rhenches| ‘Stim ts loess, and SAatte Reasehmungen dee Cows tnd des aber” Racer seu 15 992 16-25 6 HRERESEE ep ltt a tut” Pua 28984 Tapes and wih supplements and added, "Wer gale Arum ls ‘Ala Phloas 16 op 30-16 1. #bechure,Leeque des tao rligeass che es rcs Par {pork AB, Dachman, Ace fn Pee Ait (Gydendal, 13h WW Neste “Athesman” Relea far nae und Christen, wh + (Beam! sok pp. Sebo, W ue, Theor nomic: Zam Problem cre eg de Abels be dee Crecente and New York, ‘969k WC Cork, The Soph Canbrde, 197 pp. 36-4 dM ‘Witch, "topic 2m snken Ahem” Hleocos To [98 Atel in Aniguisy as 4s ete DA mn te on SE a etn Tone (Otol om aca 9 od Rake Aen el (Seat a Se Ea ee ne i pd Hsia toma earache ieee al gst oh once Greek: ee ae ea 4990, p. 305. ce eee es a fear Se aca ee ‘ta Reasont (Oxford, 19991, pp. 71-83 at 78. ee ee a noc ‘The Peon of Azar anh Aging 209 Sores rarer PRSEPREIES BA he enn mates rte pect Caata eee come tr oe fore es freee fice ae eee ane eee tere ee eee eee adapted in the light of Kannichi’s revised text. per Hep eg cee tome CRA net ta tgs tiled drat honed soar ee ee tera in deren, Bnei Ne tec ie ae fas acm OO ny ee ee oe eh Se koe eesti mesa io omnes Peace crores ey cate Eel tte Shae ka or the texts, see R. Kannicht,Trgicorion graccorum fegmenta, vol. 5.1 Beaten iecme tartans CORE ee starsat baat, Aer att elas feet oe ce aaa ee eer tok: 7O-82, ™ oe sean cae rare Sie pL Sey fn aeips, Hinge sol, Sy agen 684 Kane ‘stapes, Thesmophoritu 48-5 Frogs 88-94, CeniRle othe thc’ Paps fom Earp’ Bellrphonts (Get NI loots Clans Sede (90) 30-53 ‘Eee very dead Ucuon of NP, Boies sarrogrntas [Setar and Lee tos 289-35, no ls M, Davis, “Syps {nds inention a tig,” Bullen ihe stars of Casa Sis Soleo Lean MC. Sar “Sn pnts seo dl isn” Bren 15 ina) a9-ay andl fe sp Sel dal ‘Sao’ risa come ‘emanates onetonewcrienSe ioCraa ‘acu’ ‘SScte™ Elenco 16 oor ay-76 Reames et al Dav gece Scrape (Duma, sgl, pp t3-6 Ket, commentary, ahd German ‘ean by N. Peseta ‘See Kenic, apo pocorum agmente, 60 ‘Oh Phloderus On Pty, 355 ‘Cas TG 49 Fok tan Chr Ka, “ek Rlgon and Pwo in the Spe agent" Paso gy) 247-63 at 247-8, dae in thelial ech anion od comment [ot a Simow recety Pech Eudes rye p33 "rps, Sead ules in Grose, {ancl and Eat Mater Boe” Numen4o [993 150-85 317 Tate, Athena Relion, 0m) Cra “Der Mysterenpraa” in ‘ordre ad on Ung Serbeg el Case paces im anten ‘hen nich S000 pe e37 ‘Ass pessncly ae by ©. Asa, “Asam und Zurackweing ‘Newer Cove im sieschen Athen: Reign pen Kr, Religion ihr Kase" nW Bro} Disothenahe Demat fabndet whe Sugar tops] pe 8)-48 FE Rome, “Ati, mt ak tne ior Mls in Atte id Amerzan Journal of Paaeey ‘is loppe: 951-6, and "Digs the Meson Dd Se 3.67)" Casa Mulla Revert Geek Poop ne Arb Wel Hand, {9gol eh p33 Onsale 61937 33 tana Cer Jan va Geld, ‘oa he or comments nd fo tlio ofthe passage ne [Bes Mlanhie POH gue Ty, Cats FGF 942 Fre For the dt, ee ‘ators Selo 547 and sndepniendy, Makai ‘Obinks, Paden: On Pity». For Duagoay ce sont ecenty Winey agro Mei et Theodor (rena gue fret to fend Was "Eetncun ‘horas und Thakoon Phos 15 [p89 53s Bem, Re [bor Sects andSerey in Cla Cree" H,Kippenberg dG ‘ures de Serer and Cancealnes den, os 61-78 Parker, ‘Ahentan Reliant, Obtn Philoema: Ox ity pp a-36 and ake Rena Ze Tole und graph (4 cor 3-98.The een atermptty Rank, ‘he yee Hewpbane Aesop, Souse andthe Authorship the Devel Papyan? Zehr far Ppyolgee and Ftephik 38 ites erg and The Dervea! Paps (Dag of Melon, “Acoma ‘eae lag A New Trlaton” Clase Poly 96 ot 1-3, Atel in Ani {2m Dae he abo he Deven pp eed by Reet he Bren Pera Coma Tel ed patos Ganka ed oe ‘Soni: Patt men Kant Tie, pen toa Ka Actin. ‘enn Dns ri cae. at Xeon Mamas 1 dpobgy om Hoy Akay sete, Bambee Obbink, Phiiodenmus: On Piety, yp. 1636-97. i ere geet th poe ler Aeon agp 29207, ‘sinh hts Foren tose Fk Aba, Lom 2987, Hew, Atlan of Pew” Sil “Tieton fo an Ping 125 tt és Disc ilts Thode rene se topes. mms Sonor regan, vos ome HS ws 345 WS, Botkin me atmos” Gok omen. and yan Sad: tests sy, On, Modan Oe Ray wa ety era enor dame Oban, Please a yy 33, cays serene AtarlatalneRetonscoy” Psion Molin seta iene HE Saath epee po an Dini "Aiki Ate, Tati and Comment ot De st yore” Magoo qa 49 Hone 82-7 Nae ha he Moe AGAL was une elt te wae Demat ‘tia Dayar eTannloncf Demag eames m3 tomrorss {ene "esphia ndelene Relion pp. sep BC Wily “ante Buku uefa neta? Reichs ‘Mona ds argn ad Eon en Me abe ek tn Neches ah od Leet el nd Arp Ee ‘Be bral Gr How ot artnet act Nba {Ec Sin mr of Soo Tama as oh ok 2, way, tee Mel aig 19 coca trast (areeeoalinabaagi ear tani: Fl teioed Gates ‘ites Atop cin felc ,fl Claen ‘Nesmtt semt7 Pocey“Der Vr Goong rAmeaincocns lfc chon en hate Bea (Ge Ababar ter er fd htetxCyrch br Se el ten ye: ot XB hen Vora es en Se re che” me Hohe Stet soe nee EE ei, "Uintian ute cob cen Kaye Rotel Halts crane incre Aa sag tpg ul lel vo Harnh, De Vrwa es Aro ila eine ede ohants, Poppa vagace 12.-4 21.4 Amoblus 1363) Athan ‘sun, Care gentler and De teaaione Verb 13 Fisvis foes Cota Apionen Te, 79 48 Iti Dla ote rato a eich ‘Gripen hor ad mre, a Co Clu 1, 3.73. ‘Clam ef Alanis Somate Sky exe and ays. 722 and ‘leet, Prope 343 Whur Geek eligi ear 1985 15 2 Atheism in Modern History In October 1652; the small town of Loudun in mid-Fance was con valsed by the Belief that che nuns ofthe town's Ursline convent were postesse with devs. Over the following months and ear, she cles Sd shrieks of the unfortunate mine became eve derail het bay ‘wathings more obscene, Loudun became a place of celebrity ab pro- ‘ession of priests, doctors, politicians, and touts cme to witness the ‘srtaoinary spectacle for themselves. The possession wat not shor: lived andthe execution ofthe supposed sorcerer, he ars priest Urbain Grinder, dd not bring the closure that ome hoped it would. The exor clams of priests and the ministatons of doctors were to litte elect, nd thee seemed to be no hope of deliverance ntl the antival of the Stintly Father Jean-oseph Sarin in Lopdum in December 1634, Within = few months, the mother superior, Jeanne des Anges, was delivered rom her demon, although the las devil wat not reported to have departed unt 1637, a his extended study of this remarkable episode, the French histo- ran Michel de Certeau snot ofa aso provide definitive (arcven ‘provisional “explanation” of dhexe happenings. But he doce intsreet them as, among other things, "symptom" of a trauma what might ‘be described asthe tums of the birth of modernity. He says that the “aolial crisi” jf which the Loudun possesion wat jst one instance) "is not merely an obec of historical euros. e isthe con frontation lone among others, though more vse than others of society with the certaltis i i losing and those i i attempting tw acquire" One of the certsintes this society i losing is tht of ‘them, and de Certeau ses in the portesson an indice expeston ofa epressed anscty and fear of doubt and blaspitsy Sach doubt was becominga common feature ofsociety at this time, with theism emerg {ng asa recognized phenomenon, ina way that was unknown a centr earlec” Atheism, tseems, isa featur or ymptom othe modernity tht ‘is traumatcally coming wo birch. le might besa ha if theism i one of the certainties thissocleryislosing, hen atheism i one ol those certain Ses it is attempting vo acquire In thi sens, athe ean inescapable