Running head: RESEARCH PAPER

Evidence-based Research Paper

Madeline Dunlap, Edith Feld, and Annie Guiliano
Touro University Nevada

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Research Question

Is homeschool or public school more beneficial in increasing academic performance in

handwriting for children with dysgraphia?
APA Reference
Duvall, S.F., Ward, D.L., Delquadri, J.C., & Greenwood, C.R. (1997). An exploratory study of
home school instructional environments and their effects on the basic skills of students
with learning disabilities. Education & Treatment of Children, 20(2), 150-172.
Introduction
Children who experience learning disabilities live with the everyday challenge of
successfully completing school requirements. Regardless if it is with mathematics or spelling,
learning disabilities impact a child with their ability to understand the material without facing
numerous obstacles along the way. Throughout our fieldwork hours we observed many children
who have a variety of learning disabilities that affect them in different areas, especially in
handwriting and spelling. Surprisingly many of these children were homeschooled versus being
in public school. As our time at the facility continued we began to wonder if homeschooling or
being in public school made a difference the academic performance of a child with a learning
disability. With our observations in mind, we decided to look into whether homeschool or public
was more beneficial in increasing academic performance in handwriting for children with
dysgraphia.
How does this study relate to your research question?
The study looks at children with learning disabilities and whether or not home school is
more beneficial than public school on basic skills for the development of children (Duvall, Ward,
Delquadri, & Greenwood, 1997). For the research question that has been proposed, we are

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questioning whether or not home school is better for children with the learning disability,
dysgraphia, versus the public school system. Though this study did not look specifically just at
handwriting and spelling impairments, it looked at childrens progress in public and homeschool
settings in the subjects of reading, mathematics, and written language.
What is the purpose of the study?
The general purpose of this research study was to determine whether parents, who were
not certified as professional educators, provided students with instructional environments that
facilitated the acquisition of basic skills (Duval et al., 1997, p. 1). Researchers also wanted to
determine the satisfaction level of the students and parents who were a part of the homeschooling
system.
What are the research questions/hypotheses?
The researchers questioned the difference between students academic engaged time and
growth in academic achievement as measured by standardized and rate-based measures. They
also questioned ecological features, parental instructional behaviors while teaching, and
consumer satisfaction with homeschooling (Duval et al., 1997, p. 1). With all of that in mind,
they hypothesized that academic gains made by children with learning disabilities differed
between children being homeschooled and those attending public school.
Does the literature review justify the need for this study?
This article reviewed numerous research studies that looked at the features of homeschool
and public school. For example, one study found that children who are homeschooled tend to
score higher than the national average on achievements tests compared to children in public
school (HSLDA, 1990; HSLDA, 1994). Unfortunately, there is still not much research done on
home-school environments where parents are the educators, especially for children with learning

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disabilities. In regards to public school, there has been many studies that have looked at the
benefits of parental involvement on the academic performance of students with learning
disabilities (Duvall, Delquadri, Elliott & Hall, 1992). The overall literature review justified the
need for a comparison between students with learning disabilities academic performance in both
types of school settings.
What is the study design/type of study? What is the level of evidence?
The type of study for this article is an exploratory study. An exploratory study represents
further research on a topic that is not fully understood. The level of evidence would be
considered a level 4, which is a descriptive analysis of current outcomes of two groups.
How many participants?
Within this study, there were six participants in elementary school and two participants in
junior high school. Four of the students were taught in their home by parents. Whereas, the other
four students were taught in the public school setting by a professional teacher. The students
were divided into two groups based on what school setting they were in. Four students were a
part of the homeschooling group and four in the public school setting.
How were the participants recruited and selected?
There was an extensive process used in order to recruit participants. A homeschooling
organization provided the first author with a list of 15 home schooled students from which four
students were selected because they could be paired with four selected from a list of 138 public
school students with similar disabilities (Duvall et al., 1997, p. 3). This was done so the
researchers could compare students in the different school settings as well as compare them as
pair-individuals. The matches were made by determining which descriptions of the
homeschooled children were the most similar to children in public school based on ten factors

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that were dependent on if they had a disability or non-disability in reading, math, or written
language (Duvall et al., 1997). They also looked at Woodcock-Johnson Test of Achievement
Revised (WJ-R) reading, match, and written language scores, as well as the children's IQ, grade,
sex, and SES (Duvall et al., 1997).
If applicable, how were participants assigned to groups?
Students were separated into the two groups according to the school setting they
attended. After they were divided the researchers paired a student from each setting with another
from the opposite group. They were paired based on the ten factors such as making sure the
students were considered to have a learning disability according to school records, shared at least
one type of learning disability with similar pre-test WJ-R scores with a differences of 15 points
or less, had a smaller margin of 15 points between their IQ scores, and matched on at least 70%
of the comparing variables (Duvall et al., 1997).
How are the participants described demographics e.g. diagnosis, age, gender, race
The participants of the study were between elementary and junior high school age range,
but unfortunately no specific ages for the children were stated. The study was conducted in
Kansas City, Kansas and included four homes and two different public schools within a 60 mile
radius (Duvall et al., 1997). Along with no ages, no IQ scores, specific grades, sexes, or SES
scores were mentioned besides that the students had a total matching percentage of 90% for their
disabilities in reading, math, written language, and other factors mentioned previously (Duvall et
al., 1997).
What are the variables? Independent and dependent if applicable
The independent variables were the type of education the children were receiving, which
were homeschool and public school. The dependent variables were academic engagement levels,

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WJ-R subtest scores, rate based measures derived from items on the Kaufman Tests of
Educational Achievement, and consumer-satisfaction questionnaires (Duvall et al., 1997).
What measures were used?
The study conducted was an exploratory study that utilized a continuous baseline probe
design. In addition to using the pre and post standardized test results, there were numerous
measures used in order to see how home-school and public school education programs compared
in students academic achievement and engagement over time. The researchers used rate based
measures, ecobehavioral assessment systems software (EBASS) codes, WJ-R subtest scores, and
consumer-satisfaction questionnaires to view the many differences between home-school and
public school (Duvall et al., 1997). A social validation measure was also included.
If applicable, what is the intervention?
For this particular study no intervention was utilized. This is because the main focus was
to just compare existing student academic scores between home-school and public school
education.
What statistical analyses were used?
There were two types of analysis in the study. One level of analysis was group
comparisons, which involved the eight participants and the overall difference of academic
performance between the types of instruction the students received. Another level of analysis
was between the individual matched pairs. The matched pairs involved the four student pairings
that resulted based on the similarities of factors.
What are the findings?
There were many statistical results reported for academic performance for the
participants. When researchers looked at the pre and post standardized test results they

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discovered there was a 2.8 mean score increase for home-schooled students and a -2.5 score
decrease in mean reading standard score in the subject of reading. In math, both groups of a
students showed a 6.5 mean standard score increase. In the subject of written language, homeschooled students mean standard score increased by 3.5 and public school students score
increased by 0.8. When they looked at the matched pairs, the mean scores for reading increased
for home-schooled students increased by 3.0 and decreased for public school students by 1.5. For math home-school students mean scores increased by 10.0 and public school students
scores increased by 2.0. The mean written language scores for written language increased for
home-schooled and public school students by 3.5 and 0.8 respectively. This type of scoring
system was done for each measure utilized in the study and showed increases and decreases
between students academic performance in all subject areas.
Overall, there was more of increase in performance for home-schooled students on
standardized tests, especially between the matched-pair comparisons. According to the study,
the group and matched pair results indicated that the homeschool students made relatively large
gains in reading and written language while the public school students experienced losses in
reading and only small gains in written language (Duvall et al., 1997, p.10). There were almost
equal gains in the subject of math between both of the two groups.
Do these findings support the hypothesis?
The researchers hypothesized that academic gains made by children with learning
disabilities differed between children being homeschooled and those attending public
school. The findings of the study supported the proposed hypothesis that the gains differ. The
measures of classroom ecology and achievement showed that home schools, when compared to

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special education programs, provided a more advantageous instructional environments for

children with learning disabilities.
How do the findings relate to previous research as described in the literature review?
The findings were consistent with other studies that reported a strong relationship
between smaller instructional groups and increased academic engaged time (AET). The study
also contributed to the research establishing that increasing the AET improves academic
performance of students who are learning disabled.
Does the author state any clinical implications for the findings?
The researchers do not state the clinical implications for the findings. However, if
parents without teacher certification are capable of delivering strong academic gains, it should be
noted that occupational therapists should be practicing family centered care. Parents and
caretakers know their children better than anyone else. They need to be trusted and included in
the entire occupational therapy process. Collaborating with parents on home intervention will
lead to reaching occupational therapy goals faster.

What are the limitations that the author identifies?

The author noted that the design and size of the study limits the generalizability of the
results. The study was based in Kansas and only looked at students from a rural town. Only the
subjects of reading, math, and written language were focused on to record results. It can be
argued that academic progress cannot be summed up by those three subjects alone.
Does the author discuss implications for future research?
Research is needed concerning the effects of social interactions within home schools.
Social interaction is an important part of childrens development and research focusing on a
comparison to public schools could aide in adding to the research of academic progress to create

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a full picture. In future work, learning outcomes in both settings as well as the levels of
academic engagement should be gauged. Use of the methodology could be applied to parent
training, curriculum construction, and effective parent and teacher instructional procedures
(Duvall et al., 1997).
What would you say about the sample size? Do you think it is adequate?
The sample size of eight is very small. This study is only an exploratory study. The
results cannot be generalize to all students with learning disabilities in homeschool and public
school settings. Due to the small sample size, results are not significant. More research must be
undertaken for a consensus on the differences of the academic gains made by children with
learning disabilities attending homeschool and public school.
If the researcher did not find a significant difference between the groups, is it possible that
this is due to a Type II error? If so, why do you think so?
The researchers did find a significant difference between the two groups of
homeschooled and public schooled students. Therefore, they rejected a false null hypothesis
Is there a control or comparison group? If so, is the control or comparison group
comparable to the experimental group on key features?
There were comparison groups in this study. The four homeschooled and four public
schooled students were matched using ten variables: disability or non-disability in reading, math,
or written language, Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement Revised (WJ-R) reading score,
WJ-R math score, WJ-R written language score, IQ, grade, sex, and SES (Duval et al., 1997).

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Are those administering the outcome measures blind to group assignment?

The administers of the outcome measures were not blind to the group assignment because
they were aware of which students were a part of the public school setting and which students
were a part of the home-school setting.
Are the participants blind to group assignment?
The students were not blind to the group assignment because the students were compared
according to the setting that they were in without being assigned to a specific group.
Does the researcher account for dropouts in the study? Could drop outs have influenced
the outcomes?
There was no indication of any drop-outs of the participants in the study but if there were
drop-outs, it could have influenced the outcomes because the sample size would have been even
smaller and less generalizable.
Does the researcher report reliability and validity of the outcome measures? Are there
questions about the outcome measures chosen?
According to the article the researchers determined reliability by calculating the number
of agreements to the number of intervals and then times 100. Additionally, the agreements for
each of the categories mentioned were added separately. For the home school sessions, the mean
reliability was 90.4%, with a range of 50% to 100% agreements whereas, mean reliability for
public school sessions was 91.6% with a range of 50% to 100% agreements. The mean interobserver reliability for all sessions was 90.9% (Duval et al., 1997, pg. 5).
What confounding factors could contribute to or influence the study outcomes?
A homeschooling agency in Kansas gave the researchers a list of 15 students that have
learning disabilities. The four that were chosen were matched with public school children

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(Duvall et al., 1997). For a homeschool parent to agree to be in the study, they were more than
likely proud of their homeschooling abilities. A parent that was not as vigilant in homeschooling
methods probably would not have agreed to be observed. This could have influenced the
outcomes of the findings. A causal relationship has not been determined from this exploratory
study. A controlled experimental design with an increased sample size is needed to establish
outcomes.
What are the major strengths of this study?
Within this study there are strengths and weaknesses to evaluate. One major strength of
this study is that there was a comparison between students that were homeschooled versus in the
public school with a disability that looked at their academic gains in each setting to see which
students had an overall increase in their academic performance. This was done by comparing test
scores in the subjects of math, reading, and written communication. Additionally, this study
looked at instructional environments in the home school setting and compared it to the average
home school settings where they observed the parents involvement with the children and their
desire to engage their children in academic gains. This is significant because not all home school
environments are the same and one could assume that the children that are in the instructional
environment will have more of an increase in academic gains. To conclude, another strength of
this study is that the researchers didnt just compare students in home school setting versus in the
public school setting. The researchers took it a step further and made the comparison according
to similar characteristics of the students and their disabilities. Also not only did they compare in
students group versus group but also individually.

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What are the major weaknesses of the study?

One major weakness of this study was the low number of participants. There were only
eight participants, four that were homeschooled and four that were in public school, and
compared their test scores to come up with the results. Due to the low number of students in the
study, the findings are not generalizable and more research needs to be done on the topic. Also,
another weakness of the study was the limited detail on each participant. For example, the study
did not reveal the participants age or gender which can play a role in test scores in certain
subjects. Lastly, the study did not include an intervention, which could have varied the findings
of the study. Overall the weaknesses of the study made it less generalizable and concluded that
further research needs to take place on this topic.
How would you use this article as a therapist?
As a therapist, this article can be used to compare how well children with learning
disabilities interact academically in the public school system as to how interactive these children
are in a homeschool environment. Also, as a therapist, this article can be used to determine what
methods work for these children and what needs to be implemented in treatment sessions to
facilitate growth in these skills and subjects. For example, the article evaluates students test
scores in math, reading, and written language and overall students that were homeschooled had
higher test scores in these subjects. These results could help a therapist determine what areas of
development these children need to work on in therapy.
How does this article support/not support participation in occupation and the field of
occupational therapy?
The article supports the participation in the occupation of being a student in school to see
which system is more beneficial for children with learning disabilities. Occupational therapist

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can utilize this information from the research to determine how to educate parents with children
who have a disability according to which setting is most appropriate for the development of the
child.

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References

Duvall, S. F., Delquadri, J.C., Elliot, M., & Hall, R. V. (1992). Parent-tutoring procedures:
Experimental analysis and validation of generalization in oral reading across passages,
settings and time. Journal of Behavioral Education, 2(3), 281-303.
Duvall, S.F., Ward, D.L., Delquadri, J.C., & Greenwood, C.R. (1997). An exploratory study of
home school instructional environments and their effects on the basic skills of students
with learning disabilities. Education & Treatment of Children, 20(2), 150-172.
Home School Legal Defense Association. (1990). A nationwide study of home
education. Paeonian Springs, VA.
Home School Legal Defense Association. (1994). A nationwide study of home education in
Canada. Paeonian Springs, VA.