Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Yves Barriol
Karen Sullivan Glaser
Julian Pop
Sugar Land, Texas, USA
Bob Bartman
Devon Energy
Houston, Texas
accurate formation pressures can be determined at almost any time in a wells life
cycle. Whether while drilling, when the well is at total depth, or years after initial
Ramona Corbiell
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
Kre Otto Eriksen
Harald Laastad
Statoil
Stavanger, Norway
James Laidlaw
Aberdeen, Scotland
Yves Manin
Clamart, France
Kerr Morrison
BP Exploration and Production
Aberdeen
Colin M. Sayers
Houston, Texas
Martin Terrazas Romero
Petrleos Mexicanos (PEMEX)
Poza Rica, Mexico
Condensation
Evaporation
Precipitation
Yakov Volokitin
Shell E & P Americas
New Orleans, Louisiana
Surface
runoff
Ocean
Lake
Flow
22
Water table
Particle transport
Sedimentation
Bedding
> The hydrologic cycle. Evaporation of water from the ocean forms clouds. These clouds drift over
the land and produce rain that flows along rivers back to the ocean, carrying with it rock and organic
debris that accumulates in basins. The cycle repeats, depositing massive layers of material.
Oilfield Review
Autumn 2005
23
Congo fan
free-air
gravity
Seep clusters
Bathymetry
contours
> Seepage identified offshore Angola, West Africa. About 75% of the worlds
petroliferous basins contain surface seeps. Knowing where oil and gas seeps
are emerging is helpful in locating the sources of subsurface oil and gas
accumulations. Scientists use satellite imagery to help identify potential
hydrocarbon reservoirs. In this image, free-air gravity values derived from
European Remote-Sensing Satellite (ERS) data identify areas of high gravity
resulting from sediment emitted from the Congo River, known as the Congo
Fan. The data are also used to help identify areas of hydrocarbon seepage
shown as red-outlined contours. The subsea seep source is typically located
using sonar or shallow seismic reflection. The hydrocarbons can then be
sampled, helping to identify oil type and field maturity and to correlate with
other subsea seeps. (Image courtesy of NPA Group; Archive block outlines
courtesy of IHS Energy.)
24
Oilfield Review
Gas
Oil
Salt water
> Structural traps. The weight of overlying sediments causes salt layers to plastically deform, creating diapirs. As diapirs evolve, sediments onlap their
margins, forming traps that typically accommodate hydrocarbons (left). Where the strata have deformed to form an anticline (center), oil (green) and gas
(red) may become trapped under a seal. Faulting may also trap hydrocarbons (right) by sealing the updip margin of a reservoir.
Autumn 2005
25
26
Well 1
Well 2
Well 3
Well 4
Well 5
Pressured sand
Pressured sand
Pressured sand
Oilfield Review
Autumn 2005
Rain
Rain
Well elevation below water table
Artesian well
Ground level
Permeable sand
Seal
> Artesian pressure system. In these systems, the surface elevation of the well is below sea level or
below the water table. This commonly occurs when drilling in a valley or basin surrounded by hills
or mountainslocations where a connected water table is charged by water from higher
locations.
Charged sand
Zone of higher
pressure
27
0.5
13.0
1.0
12.5
1.5
12.0
2.0
11.5
2.5
11.0
3.0
10.5
10.0
3.5
16
lbm/galUS
Depth, km
14.0
13.5
9.5
14
9.0
12
10
y, k 8
m
6
12
10 km
,
x
14
16
0.5
15
1.0
14
1.5
13
2.0
12
2.5
11
3.0
10
3.5
16
lbm/galUS
Depth, km
16
9
14
12
10
y, k 8
m
6
12
10 km
x,
14
16
28
to accurately predict pore pressure for wellplanning purposes. By contrast, the tomographically refined velocity model leads to better
understanding of the magnitude and spatial
distribution of pore pressure, reducing the
uncertainty of pore-pressure predictions (above).
Reducing Uncertainty
In areas where the geology is unknown and
where few, if any, wells have been drilled, seismic
geopressure prediction may be the only planning
tool available to the engineer. However, data from
multiple sources, especially drilling, can be used
Oilfield Review
16
14
13
12
11
10
14
12
10
y, k 8
m
Autumn 2005
10
12
14
x, km
16
9
8
> Electric log analysis to reduce the uncertainty of seismic-based pore-pressure predictions. In
normally compacted sediment, electrical conductivity will decrease with depth as water is squeezed
from pore spaces. A deflection in conductivity from the normal trend (dashed circle, left and middle)
may indicate a change in pore-water concentration, hence the potential for abnormal pressure. Using
both seismic and electric log data, computer processing refines the data and generates threedimensional predictive models that help engineers and drillers visualize pore-pressure trends (right).
Change in interval
transient time, s/ft
200 300
50 70 100
Conductivity, mS
200
0
1
2
3
4
16
5
Depth, km
Depth, 1,000 ft
lbm/galUS
Resistivity
15
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Depth
Spontaneous
Potential
(SP)
Depth, km
15
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
14
13
12
11
lbm/galUS
Conductivity, mS
200
Depth
10
14
12
10
y (k
8
m)
10
12
m)
x (k
14
16
9
8
15
> Acoustic logs for pore-pressure prediction. Sound waves slow when encountering rock with higher
pore-water concentrations. The top of an abnormally pressured zone can be predicted based on the
change in interval transit time (dashed circle, right), then correlated to changes in conductivity (left).
Both measurements can then be used to reduce the uncertainty of the seismic pore-pressure cube
(center).
29
0
1
2
U S A
4 101
102
15
12
10
Cuatas #1
4.0
402 405
403
13 6
Depth, km
1
5
10
1
3
Velocity, km/s
15
10
y,
k
m 5
0 0
10
x, km
e
f M
Gulf o
xic
2.0
1.8
1
2
1.6
3
M E X I C O
1.4
4
600
Cocuite field
Inli 400
ne
num 200
ber
600
400
200
n
ine
sl
Cros
4
15
Depth, km
Depth, km
Velocity, km/s
2.0
3.5
2.5
3.0
1.2
er
umb
> Comparison of P-wave interval velocities. Data (top right) obtained by upscaling the sonic log (green curve) and by inverting traveltime-depth pairs from
the checkshot (red curve) in Cocuite Well 101 are compared with the seismic interval velocities (blue dots) for all locations surveyed in the Cocuite field
study. From this information, engineers generated a seismic interval velocity 3D cube (left) and a pore-pressure gradient cube (bottom right) showing a
transition zone around 3 km [9,843 ft]. This cube helped to define lower and upper formation-pressure limits.
30
Oilfield Review
500
500
1,000
1,000
1,500
1,500
Depth, m
Depth, m
2,000
2,000
Sonic
2,500
2,500
3,000
3,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
Vp, m/s
3,000
1,500
10
15
20
Pore-pressure gradient, lbm/galUS
3,000
10
15
20
Pore-pressure gradient, lbm/galUS
500
500
Mud weights
1,000
1,500
2,000
1,500
2,000
Sonic
2,500
3,000
3,000
2,000
2,500
Vp, m/s
Porepressure
data
Sonic
2,500
1,500
Mud weights
1,000
Depth, m
Depth, m
2,000
2,500
Vp, m/s
3,000
10
15
20
Pore-pressure gradient, lbm/galUS
1,500
2,000
2,500
Vp, m/s
3,000
10
15
20
Pore-pressure gradient, lbm/galUS
> Reducing uncertainty. The degree of uncertainty in a pore-pressure gradient is exemplified by the width and low resolution of the compressional-velocity
(Vp) and pore-pressure gradient curves (1). Vp data from sonic logs are added to the model, somewhat reducing pore-pressure uncertainty (2). Adding mud
weights from drilling reports (3) and physical pore-pressure measurements (4) refines estimates and dramatically improves pore-pressure resolution.
Autumn 2005
31
> The StethoScope 675 tool. The tool is 31-ft [9.1-m] long; it has a 6.75-in. collar with an 8.25-in. stabilizer
or optional 9.25-in. stabilizer. The stabilizer is made up of a four-blade spiral section at the bottom and
two straight blades at the top. The packer and probe are mounted in the blade of the stabilizer
(black). The stabilizer blade rests, or is pressed, against the formation by gravity or by force applied
by the drillable setting piston (not shown), negating the need to orient in holes up to 10.5 in. for the
8.25-in. stabilizer tool. The probe can extend out of the blade by 34 in., but normally only moves out
level with the surface of the blade and is compressed against the formation to make the seal. The
probe is then opened to the formation to take a pressure measurement. The retainer ring (Q-shaped
piece around black packer) minimizes deformation of the packer during a test, helping to maintain an
effective seal (inset).
32
Oilfield Review
Autumn 2005
33
Pretest 2
Pretest 1
Mobility
(mD/cP)
A: 0.1
Rate,
cm3/s
Volume,
cm3
Buildup
time, s
Rate,
cm3/s
Volume,
cm3
Total
time, s
0.2
450
0.2
0.5
900
B:
0.3
100
0.3
6.0
300
C:
10
0.5
10
100
1.0
15.0
300
1.0
10
60
2.0
15.0
180
D: 100
1,800
Wellbore pressure
1,600
Pretest 1
Pretest 2
Pressure, psi
1,400
1,200
1,000
800
Pumps off
Pumps on
600
100
200
300
400
500
Elapsed time, s
600
700
800
2,000
First estimate of
formation pressure
1
Pressure, psi
Pressure
data
Final estimate of
formation pressure
1,000
2
Investigationphase pretest
Measurementphase pretest
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Time, s
> Pressure data in real time. In this field-test example, pressure data, presented
as open triangles, are displayed in real time at surface during a 5-minute
time-limited pretest performed with the mud pumps on, circulating at a rate
of approximately 600 galUS/min [2,271 L/min]. The telemetry rate for this test
was 6 bits/s. The colored circles represent the principal event markers
identified as the data are acquired. The first event marker (1) identifies the
well pressure prior to the test; the second marker (2) indicates the beginning
of buildup for the investigation phase; the third marker (3) shows the
investigation-phase, sandface-pressure estimate; the fourth marker (4)
identifies the beginning of buildup for the measurement phase; and the fifth
marker (5) represents the sandface pressure as determined during the
measurement phase. The formation fluid mobility was determined to be
approximately 1.4 mD/cP.
34
Oilfield Review
Autumn 2005
600
While-drilling tool
Test 6: 1,850 to 2,250 L/min
550
500
Start of change
in circulation
450
Pressure, bar
400
350
300
While-drilling tool
Test 5: 2,262 L/min
While-drilling tool
Test 7: No circulation
250
MDT test: 20 cm3 at 20 cm3/min
200
0
100
200
300
400
500
Time, s
407
While-drilling tool
Test 6: 1,850 to 2,250 L/min
406
While-drilling tool
Test 5: 2,262 L/min
405
Pressure, bar
404
403
Start of
change
in circulation
While-drilling tool
Test 7: No circulation
402
MDT test
401
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Time, s
> Measuring pressure in a low-mobility formation. Three StethoScope test sequences (top) were
conducted at the same depth under different mud-circulation rates in a 3-mD/cP formation: a rate of
2,262 L/min [597 galUS/min] (Test 5); a changing rate from 1,850 to 2,250 L/min [489 to 594 galUS/min]
(Test 6); and a test with pumps off (Test 7). All of the while-drilling tests are of pretest Type C. For
comparison, a single-pretest MDT tester conducted some 24 days after the StethoScope tests is
displayed. The graph (bottom) shows details of the final buildup. Here the effects of the dynamic
wellbore can be clearly seen by comparing the while-drilling tests with pumps on and pumps off with
the MDT tool test, in which the filtercake should have reached maximum resistance.
35
36
Original Well
40-in. Blended
Attenuation Resistivity
40-in. Blended
Attenuation Resistivity
10 0
10
adnVISION
Bottom Quadrant Density
adnVISION
Bottom Quadrant Density
g/cm3
g/cm3
1.65
2.65 1.65
Photoelectric Factor
0
b/e
20 0
Gamma Ray
Hydrostatic
Pressure
30 psi per division
Formation Pressure
200 psi per division
4
3
5
6
7
8
11
150 0
Neutron Porosity
0.6
20
gAPI
150
Neutron Porosity
0 0.6
4
5
6
7
8
9
12
11
12
XX,800
9
1110
13
2
5
XX,900
6
7
6
7
11
11
10
13
gAPI
b/e
Gamma Ray
13
0
Depth
2.65
Photoelectric Factor
10
9
XY,000
13
Sidetrack
Original well
> Using adnVISION data to help pick pressure stations. Density data from the adnVISION675 logging
tool (Tracks 3 and 4 - red) helped select locations, or pressure stations, to be tested with the
StethoScope pressure tool. Tracks 1 and 2 show formation and hydrostatic pressures, respectively,
from the original hole (red circles) and the sidetrack (green circles). Zones with lower density have
higher porosity and fluid mobility.
Oilfield Review
> Wireline pressure-measurement tool. The PressureXpress tool diameter and profile are designed to reduce the risk
of sticking. Shown are the sampling seal system (black) and the backup anchoring pistons (top image lower side)
used to push and hold the tool in position at the formation face.
Autumn 2005
37
ohm.m
2,000
Permeability
Volume of Clay
0
Slow Pretest
Computed
Micro Normal
0.2
Gamma Ray
0
gAPI
ohm.m
20
150 0
ohm.m 10
Computed
Micro Inverse
ohm.m 10
2,000
in.
2,000
Caliper
0
ohm.m
Normal Pretest
0.2
AIT H
Water
Saturation
ohm.m
2,000
0.6
0.2
ohm.m
2,000
0.6
> Locating pressure-test stations while logging. During the running of the combination
PlatformExpress integrated wireline logging tool and the PressureXpress tool, a real-time estimate of
formation fluid mobility is output using the k-lambda correlation, a permeability estimator for
siliciclastics. Engineers use this information to help select zones for pressure testing (Track 5). The
data output also helps select an appropriate pretest flow rate and volume that minimize time on
station during the subsequent formation pressure-test operations.
38
Oilfield Review
4,400
4,200
Pressure, psi
4,436.22
4,428.86
3,809.33
0.01
4,000
3,800
3,600
3,400
3,200
100
200
300
400
Time, s
500
600
700
800
> An electromechanical pretest system to reduce time on station. At time 0 s, the PressureXpress tool
is on station and because it is not yet set, the flowline pressure is reading the wellbore mud pressure,
approximately 4,430 psi [30.5 MPa] (black square, left). The tool is then hydraulically set,
corresponding to an increase in the hydraulic pump velocity (green). The pressure curve (black)
measures a pretest drawdown in a 0.01-mD/cP formation at about 45 s, followed by a gradual
pressure buildup. After about 200 s, the tool initiated a second pressure drawdown (red triangles),
extracting a volume of 0.1 cm3 of fluid from the formation. From 280 s to 680 s, reservoir pressure
stabilized, then the tool was hydraulically retracted from the formation (green curve), and the flowline
pressure increased to the wellbore mud pressure. By using an electromechanical motor, the
pressure-testing tool accurately controls the pretest volume and rate at low values (0.1 cm3),
effectively reducing buildup duration and time on station.
8,500
Mud gradient, 0.493 psi/ft
9,000
9,500
Depth, ft
4,600
10,000
10,500
11,000
0
4,000
2,000
6,000
Pressure, psi
> Identifying depleted zones. Formation pressures (red) are compared with
the mud gradient (green), identifying zones depleted by as much as 4,000 psi
[27.5 MPa] in the middle part of the reservoir, while the last 500 ft of pay is
still at a relatively high pressure.
Autumn 2005
39
> Cased-hole sampling tool. Engineers use the CHDT tool to make multiple pressure measurements and collect fluid samples from behind a cased
wellbore. Powered by a wireline cable, the backpressure pads (lower side of tool) push the tool into an eccentric position (tool shown eccentered against
blue casing frame), the probe (shown tool top side) seals against the casing, and then drills a hole and measures pressure, samples fluids and plugs the
hole. As the drill bit penetrates the target, the onboard integrated instrument package monitors pressure, fluid resistivity and drilling parameters.
40
Oilfield Review
Gravel pack
Shrouded valve
(WRFC-E)
Sand screens
Production
packer
Electrical line
to valves
Resistivity cable
External casing
packer (ECP)
Sand screens
ECP
ECP
Oil
Water
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
> Highly complex sensor and control installation. As downhole control-system technology evolves,
the complexity of completion, monitoring and control systems continues to increase. Multizone
completion systems comprising packers, sand-control screens, flow-control valves (WRFC-E) and
sensor packages for temperature, pressure, resistivity and more are not uncommon.
Autumn 2005
41