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Anatomical and Physiological

Terminology Answer

Define Anatomy
Anatomy studies the structure of the body
parts and their relationship to one another

Describe the different topics in anatomy Gross anatomy, Regional anatomy,

Systemic Anatomy, surface anatomy,
microscopic anatomy and developmental
anatomy

Define Physiology Physiology concerns the function of the

body and how it carries out life sustaining
activities

Describe the main focus of Physiology The operation of major organ systems –
focussing on events at the
cellular/molecular level.

Describe the complimentary nature of What a function can do depends on it's

structure and function specific form (structure)

How does it unite the discipline of Ana and

Phys? Function always follows structure

Name the different levels of structural Chemical level, Cellular Level, Tissue
organization Level, Organ Level and Organismal
Level.

What are their relationships to each other? Chemical Level: Atoms, building blocks,
molecules eg H20 and Proteins

Cellular Level: Function Specific

Tissue Level: Group of cells with a smilar

function

Organ level: Composed of at least 2

tissue types and is complex functions

Organ System: Organs working together

to accomplish a common purpose

Organismal level: Sum total of all levels

working together to promote life

List the organ systems in the body and

their major structures Integumentary: The skin (protection)

Skeletal: Bones (Protections, framework,

support, locomotion, posture)

Muscular: Muscles (Manipulation of the

environment, locomotion, heat producing)

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Nervous: PNS, CNS (Nerves, Spinal
Cord, Brain – Electrical control system,
responds to internal and external stimuli)

Endocrine: Pineal gland, pituitary gland,

Thyroid gland, Thymus, Adrenal,
Pancreas, Ovaries, Testis (Hormone
secretion)

Cardiovascular: Blood, Veins, Arteries,

blood vessels, heart (Transport of blood
carrying h20, 02and co2 plus other
gasses, nutrients and wastes)

Lymphatic: Red Bone marrow, Thymus,

Lymphatic vessels/tissue, thoracic duct,
spleen and lymphnoids (immunity)

Respiratory system: Nasal cavity,

pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchus and
lungs (Keeps blood supplied with gasses
02 and removal of CO2

Digestive: Oral cavity, esophagus, liver,

stomach, small intestine, large intestine,
rectum and anus (Breaks down food into
absorbital units)

Urinary: Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder

and urethra (eliminates nitrogenous
waste)

Reproductive: Male: prostate gland,

penis, testis, scrotum and ducus defrens.
Female: Mammary Glands, ovary, uterus,
vagina and uterine tube (production of
offspring)

Describe the anatomical position and its
importance for terminology
The body is erect with feet slightly apart,
palms facing outwards, thumbs pointing
away from the body
Gives a standard reference point for
body position.

Define directional terms as they relate to Superior (cranial): Towards the head or
the body upper part of the structure
Inferior (caudal): Away from the head or
upper part of a structure
Ventral (anterior): Towards to the front of
the body; in front of
Dorsal (posterior): Towards the back of
the body; behind.
Medial: Towards the midline of the body;
on the inner side of
Lateral: Away from the midline of the
body; on the outer side of

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Proximal: Closer to the origin of the body
part, or point of attachment of a limb to
the body trunk
Distal: Farther from the origin of a body
part; or the point of attachment of a limb
to the trunk
Intermediate: Between a more medial and
more lateral structure
Superficial (external): toward or at the
body surface
Deep (internal): Away from the body
surface.

Define the regional terms of the body Axil: Main axis of our body – head, neck,
trunk
Appendicular: Appendages (limbs)
Photocopy page 14

Identify the body planes Sagital: This is a vertical plane dividing

our body from front to back into left and
right pieces
Median: Sagital plane that dives right in
the middle – also called a midsagital
Parasagital: Are all other offset sagital
cuts
Frontal (coronal): Vertical cut that divides
the body into anterior and posterior
sections

Transverse (Horizontal/cross section):

Runs horizontally from right to left dividing
the body into superior and inferior parts
Oblique: Diagonal cut – very confusing
and seldom used

Describe the body cavities and their
relationships to one another
Dorsal: Protects the nervous system and
consists of two smaller cavities, the
cranial cavity (superior to the ventral
cavity) and the spinal cavity (caudal to the
ventral cavity). sits on top of the ventral
cavity
Ventral: Anterior body cavity consisting of
two smaller cavities, thoracic and
abdominopelvic
Thoracic cavity splits into the superior
mediastinum, pleural cavity, pericardial
cavity (which is within the mediastinum)
The abdominal cavity attaches to the
pelvic cavity

Name other body cavities oral and digestive cavity, Nasal cavity,
orbital cavity, middle ear cavity, synovial
joint cavity

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Identify 3 lining membranes Membranes simple organs – consists of

These include muscous (exposed cavities
– stratifies squamous or simple
columnar), serous (line hollow body
cavities – simple squamous) and the
cutaneous (skin – stratified squamous)
membrane

What are their relationships to each other? They are all continuous multicellular
sheets composed of at least two tissue
types

Name the organs they are associated with Serous = Hollow organs, Muscous =
Exposed cavities, Cutaneous = Skin

Homeostasis

Define homeostasis A state of body equilibrium or a stable

internal environment in the body

List the components of the Homeo-s receptor, feedback cycle initiated,

control system stimulus, afferent, control center, efferent,
feedback cycle ends

Describe the mechanics of negative the output of the system shuts off the
feedback initial stimulus or reduces its intensity
mechanics as above (seesaw action)

Why is Negative feedback important to

Homeo-s? Returns systems to their 'ideal'

Describe positive feedback Enhancing the original stimulus so the

output is accelerated

Arthrology
Define a joint Site where two articular bones meet

Classify joints structurally 3x classifications for joints

1: Fibrous
2: Cartilaginous
3: Synovial

Describe the structural characteristics of a Occurs where bones are connected by

fibrous joint and give an example
fibrous tissue, no joint cavity, nearly all
joints are synarthrotic (no movement)
Suture (cranium) and syndesmosis
(between tibia and fibula) Gomphoses
(teeth)

Describe the structural characteristics of a Bones are united by cartilage, there is no

cartilaginous joint and give an example joint cavity present. These are
Synarthrotic and Amphiarthrotic

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Synchondrosis (immoviable joint between
the first rib and the manubrium of the
sternum), Symphyses (intervertibral
joints)

Describe the structural characteristics of a

synovial joint 5 distigusing features
1: Articular cartillage (hyaline)
2: Synovial cavity (contians fluid)
3: Articular capsule ( 2 layers, first layer is
tough fiberuos capsule of CT and is
continuos with the periostea of the
articulating bones. Second inner layer is
the synovial membrane)
4: Synovial fluid (occupies all free spaces
of the joint)
5: Reinforcing ligaments (either
extrcapsular or intracapsular
Also can contain fatty pads and menisci

Name six types of synovial joints and an Plane (carpels), hinge (elbow),
example of each pivot(radias and ulna), condyloid (wrist),
saddle (thumb), ball and socket (sholder)

List the three factors that stablise synovial Articular surfaces – large surfaces and
joints deep sockets
Ligaments – prevent undesirable
movement
Muscle tone – stabilize

Describe common body movements

allowed by synovial joints Tying shoelaces, writing, lifting

Myology
Describe Skeletal muscle striated, many nuclei, elongated cell, and
is controlled voluntarily

Describe Cardiac Muscle striated, one nuclei, branching cell and is

controlled involuntarily

Describe smooth muscle unstriated, spindle shaped cell, single

nuclei and is controlled involuntarily

List the four functional characteristics of Excitability/responsiveness/irritability –

Muscle tissue ability to receive and respond to a
stimulus

Contractibility – Shortens when stimulated

Extensibility – ability to stretch beyond its
relaxed state

Elasticity – ability to resume resting length

List the four functions of Muscle Movement

Posture

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Stability of joints
Generating heat

Describe the gross anatomy of skeletal

muscle including CT coverings and Protected and strengthened by CT
attachments coverings. Epimysium – covers the whole
muscle, Perimysium covers whole groups
of fascicles, Endomysium covers fascicle
which contains the sarcolemma which
contains the myofibrils o which one
section is called a sarcomere
Skeletal muscle attachments
(origins/insertions) may be direct or
indirect via tendons or aponeuroses.
Indirect is better at withstanding friction

Describe endomysium Surrounds the elongated muscle fiber

(cell)

Describe perimysium The muscle fibers in the endomysium are

bundled into fascicles, surrounding these
fascicles is the perimysium

Describe the epimysium The dense CT that surrounds the entire

muscle

Outline the 4 common patterns of fascicle
arrangements
Parallel – the long axis of the fascicle
runs with the long axis of the muscle
Convergent – muscle has a broad origin
and the fascicles converge towards a
single tendon
Circular – Fascicles arranged in
concentric ring
Pennate – Fascicles are short and they
attach obliquely to a central tendon
(appear feather-like) that runs the length
of the muscle

Outline the prime movers: Antagonist

Agonist
Synergist
Fixators

What is the function of the antagonist Reverse or oppose the action of another
muscle

Agonist

What is the function of the synergist aid a prime mover by effecting the same
direction, stabilizing joints or prevents
undesirable movement

What is the function of Fixators Function to immobilize a bone or a

muscles origin

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Outline the microscopic structure of

skeletal muscle and the functions of its Long, striated and mutinucleate.
components Myofibrils (which are chains or
sarcomeres) are a contractile element
that occupies most of the cell volume.
The banded appearance comes from the
dark A and light I bands. each sarcomere
contains a thick myofiliment (myosin) and
a thin myofiliment (actin). The heads of
thick myosin filiments form cross bridges
to interact with the thin myosin filliments.
The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
surrounds each myofibril, this releases
and sequesters calcium ions
The T tubules are invaginations of the
sarcolemma that run between the
terminal cisternae of the SR. This allows
for electrical stimulus to be delivered
quickly to deep cell regions.

Outline the sliding filament theory Influx of calcium from Sarcoplasmic

reticulum into the t – tubules and then
into the cytoplasm (depolarizing to allow
for diffusion) binds to troponin which
moves the tropomyosin exposing the
myosin binding sites on the actin
molecules. This binding site opens up for
a cross bridge to be formed.

during contraction the myofibrals thin

filaments (actin) slide past thick filaments
(myosin) (this one myosin unit is called a
sarcomere) so the actin and the myosin
filaments overlap to a greater degree.
From the myosin heads cross bridge
attachments are formed by attaching to
the now open binding sites, these cock,
attach and break several times during a
contraction to generate tension
To release the actin from the myosin
requires atp which then become adp and
cocks the myosin head.

Define action Potential Polarized resting state, -70 mV, hits -55
then depolarization is self propagating
Peak of +30mV. Depolarization changes
the membrane to become more
permeable to NA, re-polarization
decreases NA permeability and increases
K permeability through sodium potassium
pump.

Define motor units A motor neuron and all the muscle cells it
stimulates

Explain how contraction is stimulated When a motor neuron fires (transmitting

and electrical impulse) all the muscle
fibers contract

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Define Muscle Twitch
Describe the events occurring in the three
main phases
How is a smooth graded contraction
produced
Describe isometric contraction
Describe Isotonic Contraction
Outline the three different pathways for
providing muscle energy (ATP)
Define and outline oxygen debt
Define and outline Muscle fatigue
Describe the three types of skeletal
muscle fibers
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Reflex Arc when the stimulus reacts on
the afferent nerve, and singnal is sent
through the ganglion root (dorsal) into the
spinal chord. This then travels through the
action nerve which in turn exits through
the ventral nerve efferently to effect the
muscle the stimulus is working on
The response of a motor unit to a single
Action Potential (AP) of its motor neuron
Latent period – preparatory vents
happening
Period of contraction – muscles tense
and may shorten
Period of relaxation – muscle tension
declines and muscles resume their
resting length
Responses of muscle to rapid stimuli in
wave summation(second twitch riding on
the shoulders of the first) and unfused
and fused tetanus
When muscle tension produces neither
shortening nor lengthening of the muscle
When the muscle shortens or lengthens
as a load is moved, concentric – muscles
shorten and eccentric – muscle lengthen
Aerobic – 95% of ATP usage. occurs in
the mitochondria via the breakdown of
glucose
Coupled reaction of creatine
phosphate - creatine phosphate that is
stored in muscles is tapped until the other
pathways become available
Anaerobic metabolism - Catabolism of
the blood glucose or glycogen breakdown
which is stored in the muscle
The volume of O2 required after exercise
to replenish stores of O2, ATP, Creatine
Phosphate and glycogen plus oxidize the
lactic acid formed during exercise.
When your muscle has run of of ATP and
can no longer move – different from
mental fatigue
Slow oxidative fibers (slow – endurance
activities – aerobic)
Fast oxidative fibers (intermediate –
walking - Aerobic)
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Describe the factors that influence force,
velocity and duration of muscle contraction
Compare the gross microscopic anatomy
of smooth muscle and skeletal muscle
Compare the different functions of skeletal
muscle and smooth muscle
The Blood
Describe the composition of blood
Describe the physical characteristics of the
blood
List the 6 functions of blood
Name the structural characteristics of
Erythrocytes
Name the Function of Erythrocytes
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Fast glycolytic fibers (fast – short term
intense work eg hitting a baseball –
Anaerobic - Glycolysis)
Force – Number of muscle fibers
stimulated, size of muscle fibers
stimulated, frequency of stimulation and
degree of muscle stretch
Velocity – Muscle fiber type (slow or fast
fibers)
Duration – Load and recruitment (how
many units are working together)
Skeletal: Long striated and multinucleate
Sr developed, good CT. Have T Tubules
and sarcomeres
Smooth: Spindle shaped, uninucleate
and have no striations, SR is poorly
developed, arranged in sheets and have
poor CT. T Tubules are absent,
sarcomeres are not present
Skeletal: Posture, support, mobility
Smooth: contracts for long periods of
time at low energy cost without fatigue.
Automatic and based in hollow organs.
Cellular components: Erythrocytes (RBC
45%) Leukocytes (WBC 1%) Platelets.
Liquid Components: Plasma 55%
Sticky, opaque, metallic taste, O2 rich is
bright red, O2 poor is dark red, viscous.
Transportation of O2 and nutrients and
waste products
Transportation of hormones from the
endocrine system
Regulation of body temp plus distributing
heat
Regulation and maintaining PH in body
tissues
Regulation and maintaining the fluid
volume
Prevention of blood loss
Prevention of infection
Bi-Concave disc, Ability to flex, no
nucleus
Carries O2 for gaseous exchange plus
CO2 and waste products
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Describe the production of Erythrocytes
Name the structural characteristics of
Leukocytes
Name the function of Leukocytes
Describe the production of Leukocytes
Name the structural characteristics of
Platelets
Name the function of Platelets
Describe the production of Platelets
Outline the process of Hemostasis
Outline ABO blood
Outline the rhesus Blood system
Cardiovascular
Name the size shape of the heart and its
orientation and location
Name the coverings of the heart
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Produced in the red bone marrow from
the stem cell hemocytoblast once
committed it goes through 5 stages to
become a RBC at the end stages it ejects
its nucleus
Nucleated, usual organelles
Immunity
Made in the red bone marrow from the
stem cell Hemocytoblast that then
becomes either a myeloid stem cell or a
lymphoid stem cell. Once committed the
Myeloid stem cell goes through 5 stages,
the lymphoid 4 stages
Fragments of a large, multinucleate,
megakaryocyte
Clotters – work in hemostasis
Formed in the red bone marrow, stem cell
is hemocytoblast which once committed
becomes a megakaryocytes that break up
into the smaller platelets
Three steps occur, vascular spasms,
platelet plug formation, coagulation
AB blood contains no antibodies
B blood contains A antibodies
A blood contains B antibodies
O blood contains anti A and anti B
antibodies
This is based on the presence of
agglutinogens
45 types of RH blood
only 3 have antigens C, D and E
RH+ can take either RH + or – blood
RH – can only take RH – blood
Size: Your clenched fist
Shape:
Orientation and location: Located
Obliquely within the mediastinum of the
thorax
Serous pericardium (visceral pericardium
– outer layer and parietal pericardium –
inner layer). plus the pericardial space
filled with serous fluid
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Describe the functions of the coverings
Name the four heart chambers
Describe the structure and outline the
function of the right atrium
Describe the structure and outline the
function of the right ventricle
Describe the structure and outline the
function of the left atrium
Describe the structure and outline the
function of the left ventricle
Name and outline the general route from
the blood through the heart
Trace the pathway of the blood through
the heart (draw)
Outline the major coronary vessels and
their distribution
Name the location of heart Valves
Name the function of heart valves
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To protect and act as a lubricant
Left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle,
right ventricle
Small protruding appendages called the
auricles. Two Vena cava enter here, this
accepts low O2 blood
The internal walls are marked by irregular
ridges called trabeculae carne and
conelike papillary muscles. Accepts blood
from the RA and pumps it up to the
pulmonary trunk
Small protruding appendages called the
auricles. 4 pulmonary arteries from the
lungs discharge O2 rich blood here.
The internal walls are marked by irregular
ridges called trabeculae carne and
conelike papillary muscles. the LV Pumps
blood into the aorta
O2 poor blood enters through the 2 Vena
Cava into the Left Atrium which then
drains down to the left ventricle. This is
them pumped up through the pulmonary
trunk through the lung and is drained as
O2 rich blood by the 4 pulmonary arteries
into the Right Atrium. This then drains
down into the right ventricle that then
pumps the blood up into the aorta and
back out into the body
Aorta – has blood pumped into it from the
Right Ventricle
Vena Cava (2 – superior and inferior)
drain into the left atrium
4 Pulmonary Veins – drain into the right
atrium
1 Pulmonary trunk – has blood pumped
into it from the Left Ventricle
Atrioventricular valves - Tricuspid
Valve – between the left atrium and the
left ventricle. Mitral Valve – between the
right atrium and the right ventricle.
Semilunar Valves - Aortic valve –
between the right ventricle and the Aorta.
Pulmonary Valve – between the left
ventricle and the pulmonary trunk.
To stop blood backflowing
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Name the mechanism of heart valves
Describe the structural properties of
cardiac muscle and how it differs from
skeletal muscle
Describe the functional properties of
cardiac muscle and how it differs from
skeletal muscle
Name the components of the conduction
system of the heart and trace the pathway
Outline a normal electrocardiograph
tracing, name each wave and relate them
to cardiac events
Describe the timing and events of the
cardiac cycle
Describe normal heat sounds
Outline cardiac output
What factors regulate stroke volume and
heart rate
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Collagen cords anchor the valves to stop
blowing inside out for the atricentricular
valves or semilunar valve.
Skeletal: Long striated and multinucleate
Sr developed, good CT. Have T Tubules
and sarcomeres
Cardiac: Branching, striated, generally
uninucleate cells, contain myofibrils with
sarcomeres and T – Tubules, abundent
mitochondria
Cardiac: Involuntary movements,
prolonged refractory period that prevents
tetanus, most energy from mitochondria
Skeletal: Has tetanus, voluntary, most
energy from mitochondria
Spontaneous depolarization by the heart
which in turn depolarizes the SA
(Sinoatrial) node the fastest. This sends
out an electrical current (contracting)
across and down the heart hitting the Av
(Atrioventricular) node. This is turn
continues down the AV bundle (HIS)
which split out either side of the bottom of
the heart to the pukinje fibers, hence
contracting the bottom of the heart.
Draw in: P = Atrial depolarization, R =
Ventricular depolarization, S = end of
contractions, T = Ventricular
repolarization (QRS = contracting period)
0 – 50 milliseconds SA node depolarizes
25-100 milliseconds Atrial Muscle
contracts
50 – 150 milliseconds AV node
depolarizes
150 – 350 milliseconds Ventricular
muscle contracts (this is brought down by
the HIS and Purkinje fibers)
Lub-Dub – associated with the closing of
the heat valves
The amount of blood pumped out by each
ventricle in one minute, typically 5l/min
Degree of stretch of the heart muscle by
venous return (preload), exercise,
hormones, ions,
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Name the three main layers of the blood Viens and Arteries have 1. Tunica
vessels intima,2. Tunica Media, 3. Tunica externa.
Capillaries though only have Tunica
intima only

Describe the structure of capillary beds
Very thin walled vessels with clefts which
aid in the exchange between the blood
and interstitial fluid. Flows for capillary
beds are through the arteriole to the
venule (called microcirculation). The beds
consists of two types of vessels –
vascular shunt (short vessel connecting
directly to the arteriole) and true
capillaries

Describe the function of capillary beds Exchange of nutrients, wastes and gases
between the blood and interstitial fluid.

Outline blood flow The volume of blood flowing through a

vessel, and organ or the entire circulation
at a given time

Outline blood pressure Force exerted by blood against a unit

area of the unit walls; differences in blood
pressure between different areas of the
circulation provide the driving force for
blood circulation

Outline resistance (blood) Is opposition to blood flow and is a

measure of the amount of friction blood
encounters as it passes through a vessel

Summarize the maintenance of blood BP is regulated by autonomic (nervous

pressure system) neural reflexes involving
baroreceptors or chemoreceptors. The
vasomotor center (a medullary center that
regulates blood vessel diameter), and
sympathetic vasomotor fibers, which act
on vascular smooth muscle.
BP is regulated by the CNS
BP is regulated by hormones
BP is regulated by the kidneys
BP in indirectly regulated by the renal
system

Describe pulmonary circulation System of veins that serve to exchange

gases in the lunges to bring enriched O2
blood back to the heart. Pulmonary trunk
– Right and left pulmonary arteries – lobar
arteries – pulmonary capillaries –
pulmonary veins

Describe the difference between an open
and closed circuit system
Open: has a beginning and an end – the
fluid levels can change as fluids are
allowed in
Closed: In a loop, no beginning no end –
no change in fluid levels

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Name and give the location of the major
arteries in the trunk
Describe the structure of the Hepatic
portal
Describe the function of the Hepatic portal
Name the position of major structures
(veins/arteries) within the thorax
Lymphatic System
Describe the structure of lymphatic
vessels
Describe the function of lymphatic vessels
What is the function of the lymph system?
Describe the source of lymph
Describe the transport of Lymph back to
the heart
Outline the structure of Lymph Nodes and
draw
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Aorta, Subclavian Artery, Femoral Artery,
The brachial Artery,Coronary artery, Iliac
artery.
Triangular cross grid branching from the
cystic vein and near the liver – between
two capillary beds
Takes blood from the digestive organs to
the liver
Jugular vein, subclavian vein, axillary
vein, antebrachial vein, basilic vein, radial
vein, cephalic vein, superior venacava
vein
Lymphatic capillaries begin as blind
ended tubes. Adjacent endothelial cells in
a lymphatic capillary overlap each other
forming flap-like mini valves
one way system in which lymph flows
towards the heart starting from blind
ended lymphatic capillaries. Empty into
ducts at the subclavian vein and jugular
vein
1. The lymphatic system has three primary functions. First of all,
fluid that has been leaked from the blood
vascular system into the interstitial fluid/
stomach in the form of chyle from the
lacteals
Skeletal muscle, pressure changes in the
thorax, contraction of smooth muscle
around it, back-flow prevented by valves
and contraction of the lymphatic vessel
Each lymph node has a fibrous capsule, a
cortex and a medulla. It contains both
diffuse and dense reticular tissue. Lymph
nodes cluster along lymphatic vessels.
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Outline the function of the lymph node
Filter of lymph and helps activate the
immune system. The cortex contains
mostly lymphocytes which act in immune
responses. The medulla contains
macrophages, which engulf and destroy
bacteria, viruses and other foreign debris
as well as lymphocytes and plasma cells

Outline the spleen The spleen provides a site to destroy

old/damaged blood cells and blood-born
pathogens

Outline the Thymus Most functional during youth – the

hormones it produces causes T-
lymphocytes to become
immunocompetent

Outline the tonsils 3 different tonsils in the oral cavity, nasal

cavity and the back of the throat. Engulf
pathogens as they are taken in

Outline Peyers patch In the intestinal wall to engulf pathogens

Cells

Describe the generalized cell and list the
three main parts of the cell with their
general function
Cells are generally composed of carbon,
hydrogen, O2, and trace elements. They
all have the same basic parts and end
goal
Plasma membrane: Fragile barrier to the
outer boundary of the cell
Cytoplasm: Intercellular fluid packed with
organelles/small structures
Nucleus: Control center of activities

Describe the chemical composition of the

plasma membrane and relate these to
structure and function
Fluid Mosaic model: contains a bi-layer of
lipids (phospholipids, cholesterol and
glycolipids) within which proteins are
inserted
The lipids have both hydrophilic and
hydrophobic regions that organize
aggregation and self repair. The lipids
form the structural part of the membrane
Most of the proteins extend entirely
through the membrane. Some, appended
to integral proteins, are peripheral
proteins

The proteins are responsible for the

specialized membrane functions, some
are enzymes, some are receptors and
some mediate membrane transport

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What is the structure of a tight junction
What is the function of a tight junction
What is the structure of a desmosome
What is the function of a desmosome
What is the function of a gap junction
What is the structure of a gap junction
Outline the cytoskeleton
Describe the structure and function of the
cytoplasmic organelles
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Lipid Bi layer contains lipids, cholesterol
and H20. Glycoprotein sucks in H20 and
is good for cushioning, Glycocalyx – cell
recognizing marker
A series of integral protein molecules in
adjacent cells plasma membranes fuse
together forming an impermeable junction
– joined by proteins
Impermeable junction, stability
This is an anchoring junction with
mechanical couplings like rivets along the
sides of abutting cells to prevent their
separation – joined by proteins
Distributes tension throughout the cell so
it can undergo stresses through strong
guy wires
Allows for the passage of ions from cells
to cell to help synchronies their electrical
activity
The adjacent plasma membranes are
very close and the cells are connected by
hollow cylinders called 'connexons'
Elaborate series of rods running through
the systoles supporting the cellular
structure. These types of rods are the
microtubules (shape), microfilaments
(mobility to change form) and
intermediate filaments (tensile strength)
Mitochondria – Produces ATP through
aerobic pathway – sausage shaped
Ribosomes – Protein synthesis – two
globular subunits that fit together
Endoplasmic retictulum – Rough
ribosomes that manufacture the proteins
– Rough interconnected tubes and
parallel membranes enclosing fluid filled
cavities – rough has ribosomes on it
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulaum –
Catalyses reactions for 1. Lipid
metabolism and cholesterol synthesis 2.
Synthesis of a steroid based hormone. 3.
Absorption, synthesis and transport of
fats. - Rough interconnected tubes and
parallel membranes enclosing fluid filled
cavities – smooth has no ribosomes on it
Golgi – Traffic director – stacked and
flattened membranous sacs
Lyosomes – Demolition – spherical
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Outline diffusion The tendency of molecules or ions to

scatter evenly throughout the
environment Molecules move away from
areas of high concentration to low
concentration. They diffuse along the
concentration gradient by kinetic energy

Outline osmosis The diffusion of a water through a

selectively permeable membrane.
Osmosis occurs when water
concentration differs on each side of a
membrane. High pressure to low
pressure.

Outline the 4 different plasma membrane
transport systems
1. Simple diffusion: non polar and lipid
soluble substances diffuse directly
through the lipid bi-layer
2. Facilitated diffusion: Diffuse through
binding to a carrier protein or moves
through water filled protein channels
3. Carrier diffusion occurs through a
specific transmembrane carrier protein
4. Osmosis: Movement of water, nutrients
and gases

Outline the structure of the nucleus Usually spherical, but the shape often
conforms to the shape of the cell. It has a
nuclear envelope, nuclei and chromatin

Name the function of the nucleus Contains the DNA and is the control
center for the cell. Dictates the kinds and
amounts of proteins to be synthesized in
response to signals acting on the cell.

Outline the structure of DNA
Tightly coiled double helix – with ATCG –
A – adenine which always links with T -
Thymine. C – Cytosine always links with
G – Guanine. All held together with
histone proteins

Outline the replication of DNA DNA helix uncoils

Hydrogen bonds between the base pairs
are broken
each nucleotide strand of DNA acts as a
template for the construction of a
complimentary strand of DNA
Polymers work in one direction only to the
two strands (leading and lagging) are
synthesized in opposite directions
DNA ligase enzymes that join DNA
fragments on the lagging strand
Each DNA molecule consists of one old
one (template) and one new one and this
creates a chromatid of a chromosome

Outline the lifecycle and the main events Mitoses – 4 phases, prophase,
of cell division metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
Prophase: DNA replication

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Metaphase: arrangement of
chromosomes along the midway line of a
cell
Anaphase: Chromosomes split, cell
elongates
Telophase: Chromosomes become
chromatin's and the cell splits

Describe the process of transcription

One of the two major steps in the transfer
of genetic code information involving the
transfer of information from a DNA gene's
base sequence to the complimentary
base sequence of an mRNA molecule
Binding of RNA polymerase to a DNA
promoter; initiation of transcription of the
template DNA strand; elongation of the
mRNA chain and termination of
transcription accompanied by the release
of RNA polymerase ad completed mRNA
from the DNA template

Describe protein synthesis A base sequence of exon DNA provides

the information for protein structure. Each
three base sequence calls for a particular
amino acid to be built into a polypeptide
chain.
1. Transcription: synthesis of a
complimentary mRNA
2. Translation: reading of the mRNA by
tRNA and peptide bonding of the amino
acids into the polypeptide chain.
3. Ribosomes read the codons of the
mRNA and match with the tRNA eg
coordinate translation for proteins until a
stop codon is read

Tissues

Outline the structural characteristics of Simple Epithelia: Comprised of a single

epithelial cells cell layer
Stratified Epithelia: Comprised of two or
more cell layers (stacked)

Outline the functional characteristics of Simple Epithelia: Found where one

epithelial cells needs a high level of absorption and
filtration eg lungs
Stratified Epithelia:Found in high
abrasion/protection areas, eg the skin
and oral cavity

Outline types of Epithelia Squamous: Flattened and scale like

Cuboidal: Boxlike and around as tall as
they are wide
Columnar: Tall column shaped, the
nucleus conforms to this.

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Define a gland A gland consists of one or more cells that

make and secrete a particular product –
usually water based.

Differentiate between endocrine glands Exocrine: externally secreting

and exocrine glands sweat/oil/saliva
Endocrine: internally secreting (ductless)
hormones

List CT Blood
Bones
CT Proper
Cartilage

Outline the common characteristics of Blood, Bones, CT proper and cartilage

connective tissue (CT) Common origin, degrees of vascularity
from avascular to highly vascularised,
extracellular matrix and largely nonliving
to endure trauma and abrasion

Name the functions of CT Bone resists torsion, CT proper is

Tension, Cartilage is compression and
blood is transportation: Binding and
support, protection, insulation,
transportation

Describe the structure of Cutaneous Keratinized stratified squamous

membrane epithelium firmly attached to a thick layer
of dense CT (the skin)

Describe the function of Cutaneous Waterproof, stretchy, self repairing and

membrane protecting

Describe the structure of Mucous Either stratified squamous or simple

membrane columnar epithelia.

Describe the function of Mucous Line body cavities that are open to the
membrane external environment and absorbs and
secretes.

Describe the the structure of Serous Simple squamous epithelium, found in

membrane closed ventral body cavities

Describe the function of Serous They double up on themselves and hold

membrane serous fluid. This cushions and slips to
allow movement and reduce friction with
no damage. Some names – pleura =
lungs, pericardium = heart, peritoneums =
abdominopelvic & viscera

Outline the general characteristics of the

nervous tissue 1. main component of the nervous system
2. highly cellular neurons (electrical
signals)

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Compare and contrast the general
characteristics and locations of the three
types of muscle tissue
Osteology
Name and describe the relative functions
of the two major regions of the skeleton
Compare and contrast the structure of the
4 bone classes and give an example of
each
Outline the 5 functions of bones
Outline the compensation of bone together
with properties conferred by its organic
and inorganic components
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Skeletal: Has tetanus, voluntary, most
energy from, most energy from
mitochondria. Forms the flesh of the body
causes movement, holds posture,
generates heat
Cardiac: Branching and connect at
junctions called intercalated discs,
striated, generally uninucleate cells,
contain myofibrils with sarcomeres and T
– Tubules, abundant mitochondria: Only
found in the wall of the heart, contracts to
propel blood, involuntary
Smooth Muscle: Found mainly on the
walls of hollow organs, Cells have no
visible striations, involuntary, no T –
Tubles Individual cells are spindle shaped
and have one nucleus, they squeeze by
contracting, eg bladder.
Axial skeleton: Head and torso –
protection of the brain, heart, lungs and
some organs.
Appendicular skeleton: Limbs –
movement
Long: Femur – has a shaft (Diaphysis)
plus two ends (Epiphysis) a medullary
cavity and a membrane (periosteum)
Short: Carpals/Tarsals – roughly cub
shaped and have the membrane
periosteum
Irregular: Vertebrae – complicated
shapes
Flat: Scapulae – thin flattened and
usually a bit curved
Sesamoid: Bone inbeded in a tendon
1. Support
2. Protection
3. Movement
4. Mineral and growth factor storage
5. Blood cell formation
Osteogenic cells – organic – mitotic
stem cell found in CT
Osteoblast cells – organic – bone
forming cells, secretes osteoid cells
(matrix!)
Osteocytes – organic – mature bone
cells
Osteoclasts – organic – bone destroying
Osteoid – organic – unmineralized bone
matrix
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Hydroxyapatite – inorganic – calcium
salts
Osteon – structural – what compact bone
is called
CT membrane endosteum which is
inside the bone and periosteum outside
the bone
The extra cellular matrix is made up of
mainly collagen fibers and
hydroxyapatites giving it extreme tensile
and compressional force. Bone does not
resist torsion well and so the most
common fracture is the spiral one

Name and locate the principal bones of Cranium, spine, clavicle, scapulae,
the skeleton humorous, ulna, radius, carpals,
metacarpals, phalanges, ribs, sternum,
coccyx, hip, femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals,
metatarsals phalanges.

Describe the general structure of the
vertebral column
With the exception of C1 and C2 all
vertebrae have: A body, two transverse
processes, two superior and two inferior
articular processes, a spinous process
and a vertebral arch

Name the components of the vertebral

column 24 moveable vertebrae
7 – cervical
12 – thoracic
5 – lumbar
sacrum
Coccyx

Name the curvature of the spine Cervical – concave

Thoracic – convex
Lumbar – concave
sacrum – convex

Nervous System

List the basic functions of the nervous Major responsibility for maintaining
system homeostasis

Outline the structural divisions of the

Nervous System CNS = Brain and spine
PNS = Cranial and spinal nerves

Outline the functional divisions of the Sensory Division (afferent) to the CNS
Nervous system and Motor Division (efferent)

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List the types of neuroglia and list their
functions
Describe the structural components of a
neuron
Describe the function of the neurons cell
body
Describe the function of a neurons axon
Describe the function of a dendrite
Explain the importance of the myelin
sheath
Outline the formation of the myelin sheath
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CNS – Astrocytes – Make exchanges
between capillaries and neurons they also
control the chemical environment around
neurons mopping up leaked potassium
and released neurotransmitters
CNS – Microglia – Monitor neurons
health and can also become special types
of macrophage
CNS – Ependymal – Line the central
cavities of the brain and spine creating a
fairly permeable covering and the beating
of their cilia helps circulate cerebrospinal
fluid.
CNS – Oligodendrocyte – produce
myelin sheaths
PNS – Satellite Cells - Surround neuron
bodies in the peripheral neuron system
PNS – Schwann Calls – Surround and
form myelin sheaths f the larger nerve
fires in the peripheral nervous system
Neurons have a cell body and
cytoplasmic processes called axons and
dendrites.
Major biosynthetic center of the nueron
Each neuron has a single axon, a long
axon is called a nerve fiber, it is the
conducting region of the neuron
generating nerve impulses and
transmitting them
Main receptive/input regions. They
provide an enormous surface area for
receiving information from other neurons
and then convey these messages around
the cell.
The myelin sheath protect and electrically
insulates the nerve fiber along with
increasing the speed of impulse
transmission
Myelin Sheaths in the PNS are created
via a schwann Cell and the CNS is the
oligodendrocyte. These indent to receive
an axon and then wrap themselves
around it in a jelly roll fashion. This starts
off loose, but due to constant squeezing
becomes tightly rolled.
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Outline the structure of the myelin sheath
Describe resting membrane potential
Explain how action potentials are
generated and propagated along neurons.
Explain how action potentials are
propagated along neurons.
Outline refectory periods.
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Much less protein than regular
membranes to assist with their job as an
electrical insulator. the nucleus and
cytoplasm usually bulge to one side when
rolled around an axon. The exposed part
of the plasma membrane is the
neurilemma and due to myelin sheaths
not touching each other along an axon
there are gaps called nodes of ranvier
A resting neuron exhibits a resting
membrane potential which is -70mV
(inside is negative). This is due to both
differences in sodium and potassium ion
concentrations inside and outside the cel
and the differences of permeability of the
membrane and these ions.
1. Depolarizing phase: increase in
sodium permeability – local depolarization
(this can be from just an increase of
10mV) opens voltage-gated Na+
channels; at threshold (- 55mV)
depolarization becomes self-generating
(drive by Na+ influx) The membrane
potential is then reversed to approx
+30mV (inside positive)
2. Re-polarizing phase: Closing of Na+
channels opening of K+ channels
3. Hyper-polarization phase: increase in
potassium (K+) permeability
4. Resting state: All gated channels
closes -70mV
Re-polarization occurs during stages 2
and 3
For unmyelited neurons the action
potential is generated by the influx of
Na+. This establishes a local current that
depolarizes adjacent membrane areas in
the forward direction (away from the
origin of the nerve impulse) this in turn
opens voltage gated channels in triggers
a further AP eg once initiated an AP is
self propagating
Myelited neurons work through saltatoy
conduction
Absolute refractory period: When an Ap
is being generated and the voltage gated
Na+ channels are open the neuron can
not respond to another stimulus until the
Na+ channels close.
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Define Saltatory conduction and contrast it
to unmyelinated conduction
Outline the chemical synapse
Outline the mechanism of information
transmission in a chemical synapse
What is an Excitatory Transmitter and its
effect
What is an inhibitory transmitter and its
effect
Identify the major structures of the brain
Identify the major functional regions of the
brain
Page 24
Relative refractory period: The interval
following the absolute refractory period
where re-polarization is occurring A weak
stimulus would not reopen the Na+ gates,
but a strong one would meaning that
another AP could be generated.
In myelinated nerves local currents give
rise to propagated AP that jump from
node to node. Ap are generated only at
the nodes by the current flows along the
entire axon
In an myelinated axon voltage gated
sodium (Na+) channels are located only
at the nodes of Ranvier, instead of along
the entire length of an unmyelinated axon
Myelinated conduction is approx 30x
fasted than unmyelinated conduction
Chemical synapse are sites of
neurotransmitter release and binding
When an impulse reaches a presynaptic
axon terminal voltage gated Ca2+ enters
the cell and mediates neurotransmitter
release.
Neurotransmitters diffuse across the
synaptic cleft and attach to post-synaptic
membrane receptors. This opens ion
channels .
After binding, the neurotransmitters are
removed from the synapse via enzymatic
breakdown or by re-uptake into the
presynaptic terminal or astrocytes
Causes depolarization of the post-
synaptic membrane therefore triggering
an AP
Inhibits a post-synaptic neuron ability to
generate an AP
Frontal Lobe
Parital Lobe
Occipital Lobe
Temporal Lobe
Cerebellum
Pons
Medulla Oblongata
Spinal Cord
Gyri of insula
Cerebral Hemispheres
Diencephalon
Brain Stem (pons, midbrain and medulla)
Cerebellum
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Name and locate the ventricles of the Lateral ventricles – one deep within
brain (draw) each cerebral hemisphere.
Third Ventricle – in the diencephalon
Fourth Ventricle – In the hindbrain
dorsal to the pons and superior to the
medulla.
Outline the nuclei and the white matter of White matter in the CNS is the axons and
the brain the neurogila the function is a conductor
(just like axons)

Outline the anatomy and organization of Protected by bone, meninges and

the spinal cord. cerebrospinal fluid.
Single layered spinal dura matter.
Inferiorly the cord terminates in a cone
shaped structure called the conus
medullaris. the collection of spinal roots at
the caudal end of the cord is called cauda
equina

List the components of the peripheral Sensory (afferent) pathways that provide
nervous system input from the body into the CNS.

Motor (efferent) pathways that carry

signals to muscles and glands (effectors).

Outline the general structure of a nerve Dendrites receive information from

another cell and transmit the message to
the cell body. The cell body contains the
nucleus, mitochondria and other
organelles typical of eukaryotic cells. The
axon and schwann cell (may or may not
be myelinated) conducts messages away
from the cell body.
Individual nerve fibers covered by CT
covering endoneurium
Fibers arranged in Fasciculi which in turn
are covered by the CT perineurium
Entire nerve surrounded by the
epinuerium

Classify sensory receptors by structure The sensory receptor may be a

specialized portion of the plasma
membrane, a whole cell associated with a
neuron ending, or a group of such cells.

Classify sensory receptors by function

The sensory receptors involved in taste
and smell contain receptors that bind to
specific chemicals. Odor receptors in
olfactory receptor neurons, for example,
are activated by interacting with molecular
structures on the odor molecule. Similarly,
taste receptors (gustatory receptors) in
taste buds interact with chemicals in food
to produce an action potential.

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Other receptors such as

mechanoreceptors and photoreceptors
respond to physical stimuli. For example,
photoreceptor cells contain specialized
proteins such as rhodopsin to transduce
the physical energy in light into electrical
signals. Some types of mechanoreceptors
fire action potentials when their
membranes are physically stretched.

Classify sensory receptors by stimulus adequate stimulus is the stimulus

modality for which it possesses the
adequate sensory transduction
apparatus. Adequate stimulus can be
used to classify sensory receptors:
Ampullae of Lorenzini respond to
electric fields, salinity, and to
temperature, but function primarily as
electroreceptors
Baroreceptors respond to pressure
Chemoreceptors respond to chemical
stimuli
Hydroreceptors respond to changes in
humidity
Mechanoreceptors respond to
mechanical stress or mechanical strain
Nociceptors respond to damage to body
tissues leading to pain perception
Osmoreceptors respond to the
osmolarity of fluids (such as in the
hypothalamus)
Photoreceptors respond to light
Proprioceptors provide the sense of
position
Thermoreceptors respond to
temperature, either heat, cold or both

Name the distribution of spinal nerves by

their origin Cervical nerves – C1 – C8
Thoracic Nerves – T1 – T12
Lumber nerves L1 – L5 cauda equina
starts halfway down here
Sacral Nerves – S1 – S5
Coccygeal Nerves – C0

Parasympathetic nervous system

nerves come from:
Cranial
Dorsal Vagal
Sacral

Sympathetic nervous system nerves

come from:
Cervical to the end of the Lumbar

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Define a reflex
Describe the components of a reflex arc
Outline the types of reflex's
Define autonomic nervous system and
outline its role
What is the arrangement of the
Sympathetic nervous system
What is the arrangement of the
Parasympathetic nervous system
What is the general function of the
Sympathetic nervous system
Page 27
A reflex is a rapid, involentary motor
response to a stimulous.
A reflex arc has 5 components
1. receptor
2. sensory neuron
3. integration center
4. motor neuron
5. effector
Somatic spinal reflex's: include stretch,
superficial reflex's, golgi tendon flexor and
crossed exstensor
Stretch: maintain muscle tone and body
position: initiated by stretching muscle
spindles and causes contraction to occur
Golgi Tendon Reflex: Causes relaxation
of the muscle/tendon to prevent damage:
Initiated by the stimulation of the golgi
tendon organs by excessive muscle
tension.
Flexor Reflex's: Protective in nature:
These occur through painful stimuli.
Crossed extensor reflexes: a
combination of a ipsilateral flexor reflex
and a contralateral extensor reflex.
Superficial reflex: Protective in nature:
elicited by cutaneous stimulation, these
require a functional cord.
The Autonomic Nervous System is that
part of PNS consisting of motor neurons
that control internal organs. It has two
subsystems. The autonomic system
controls muscles in the heart, the smooth
muscle in internal organs such as the
intestine, bladder, and uterus. The
Sympathetic Nervous System is
involved in the fight or flight response.
The Parasympathetic Nervous System
is involved in relaxation.
These nerves originate in the
thoracolumbar region of the spinal cord
These nerves emerge from the brain and
sacral spinal nerves (craniosacral)
Fight or flight
More complex than the parasympathetic
and it innervates more nerves
Mobilse body energies for dealing with
increased activity via
General constriction of cutaneous arteries
Increased blood supply to the heart,
muscles and brain
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cardiac acceleration
Increase in blood pressure
Contraction of Sphincters
Depression of peristalsis

What is the general function of the

parasympathetic nervous system Rest period of the body
Cardiac slowing
Increase in intestinal glandular and
peristaltic activity
Conservation of body energy!!

List the organs innervated by the

sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves Sympathetic:
Eyes
Respiratory system
Heart
Liver
Stomach/intestines
Kidneys
Sexual organs
Parasympathetic
Eyes
Respiratory system
Heart
Digestive
Liver
Urinary and reproductive

Outline the Visceral Reflexes To do with visceral organs

The reflex arcs have the same
components as somatic reflexs
Cell bodies of visceral sensory neurons
are located in the dorsal root ganglia,
sensory ganglia of the cranial nerves or
autonomic ganglia

Visceral afferents are found in spinal

nerves and virtually all autonomic nerves.

Respiratory

What is the conducting Zone is the respiratory passageways, this

includes the nose, mouth, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles

What is the respiratory Zone Is the site of gaseous exchange: This

includes the respiratory bronchiole,
alveolar duct and sac plus the alveolus

Identify the organs forming the respiratory Nose, mouth, Phrarynx, larynx, trachea,
passages from the nose/ mouth to the bronchi, bronchioles, respiratory
Alveoli bronchiole, alveolar duct and sac plus the
alveolus.

Describe the gross anatomy of the lungs 2 lungs

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Describe the blood supply of the lungs
Describe the pleura of the lungs
Describe the respiratory membrane
Relate the structure of the respiratory
membrane to its function
Relate Boyles law to inspiration and
exportation
Page 29
Right side 3 lobes, left side 2 lobed with
cardiac notch (these lobes are divided by
fissures), each segment has its own vein,
artery, nerves and segmental bronchus.
The base rests on the diaphragm,
superior end extends above the clavicle,
Lobar Bronchi descend from the trachea.
It splits into 3 on the right hand side and 2
in the left hand side (lung)
Then becomes segmental Bronci
Then become terminal bronchi
Then becomes Bronchioles (these have
no cartilage but loads of elastic)
Then then becomes the alveolar duct
which is surrounded by capillaries
Then the alveolar sac which is
surrounded by capillaries
Then the single Alveoli
The Pulmonary trunk (artery) brings blood
into the lungs, this steadily becomes
smaller until it becomes capillary beds to
help with O2 and CO2 diffusion. It is then
eventually returned to the heart via 4
pulmonary veins
Parietal and visceral pleura. Adherent to
thoracic wall and diaphragm by CT by the
parietal layer. Visceral (inner) layer
attaches to lung surface. Anteriorly the
lungs finish at rib 8, but the pleura drops
to rib 10.
The walls of the alveloi are composed of
a single layer simple squamous epithelial
cells called type 1 cells surrounded by a
basement membrane.
Together, the walls of the aveloi and the
basement membrane make up the
respiratory membrane.
The structure of the membrane is very
thin and creates the air-blood barrier with
air flowing on one side and blood on the
other.
Gas exchange happens easily through
simple diffusion due to its thinness
Gases travel from an area of higher
pressure to lower pressure: therefore
when we expand our lungs increasing the
volume and the pressure drops. This
then causes air to rush in
When we relax and the lungs recoil (tho
air exportation is mainly passive) there in
is a pressure increase and so air is
ejected.
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Explain the relative roles if the respiratory
muscles and lung elasticity in producing
the volume changes that causes air to flow
in and out of the lungs
Outline and compare the various lung
volumes and capacities
Outline the pulmonary function test using
these volumes
Outline why atmospheric air and alveolar
air differs in comparison
State Daltons Law of Particle pressure
State Henrys Law of Gas solutions
Page 30
inter -Costal muscles contract, diaphragm
decends and rib cage rises – lungs
stretched to create lower pressure for
inspiration
Inter -Costal muscles relax, diaphragm
ascends back to resting place and rib
cage falls – lungs contract passively to
create higher pressure for expiration
1. Tidal volume – the resting rate of
inspiration (around 500ml)
2. Inspiratory reserve volume - The
amount of air that can be inspired forcibly
beyond the tidal volume (around 2100 –
3200 ml)
3. Expiratory reserve volume – The
amount of air that can be expired
(forcibly) after a tidal expiration (about
100, 1200 ml)
4. Residual volume - the amount of air
remaining in the lungs after expiration
(around 1200 ml)
FVC – Forced vital capacity – measuring
the amount of expelled gas when a
subject takes a deep breath
FEV – Forced Expiratory volume –
measures the volume exhaled in the first
second (checks on restriction)
Alveolar air/gas contains more CO2 and
H2O vapor, plus less O2 than
atmospheric air
Dalton’s law states that in a mixture of
different gases, such as air, the sum of
the partial pressures of all the gases
equals the total pressure.
The Partial Pressure of a gas is that
pressure exerted by a single gas in a
mixture of gases (shown as the prefix P).
Therefore in air:
PO2 + PN2 + PCO2 + PH2O = 760 mm
Hg (normal atmospheric pressure).
Thus as O2 is 20.9% of air it exerts 159
mm Hg partial pressure.
Pressure differences move gases in and
out of solution.
The law states: ‘the amount of a gas in
solution is directly proportional to the
partial pressure of that gas’.
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Example: a bottle of soda water has CO2
under high pressure and therefore
contains a large quantity in solution when
the top is removed the ‘holding’ pressure
is released and the CO2 is now super-
saturated at atmospheric pressure and
fizzes out of solution until it reaches its
equilibrium.

Describe O2 transport in the blood
Each RBC contains four Hæm units (each
with an atom of iron) and can bind four
molecules of oxygen forming
oxyhæmoglobin (bright red).
Of the oxygen carried in the blood, about
85% can be extracted from the
hæmoglobin, but normally only about
25% is extracted by tissues, leaving the
Hb about 75% saturated on return to the
lungs.

Outline CO2 transport in the blood 7% CO2 dissolves in the plasma.

The remaining 93% diffuses into the RBC
as a solution.
23% of this combines with the Hem.
The remaining 70% is converted to
bicarbonate ion and dissolves in the
plasma to be transported as a solution

Outline the neural controls of respiration Medullary respiratory centers are

responsible for the rhythm of breathing
The pons influences the activity of the
medullary centers.
Why does Pco2 matter? PCO2 is the partial pressure of CO2 (the
amount of carbon dioxide gas dissolved in
the blood) as PCO2 levels rise, blood pH
levels will decrease, becoming more
acidic as PCO2 decreases, pH levels will
rise, making the blood more alkaline.
Because of the differences in partial
pressures of oxygen & carbon dioxide in
the systemic capillaries & the body cells,
oxygen diffuses from the blood & into the
cells, while carbon dioxide diffuses from
the cells into the blood.

Endocrine System

Define the endocrine system and a Coordinates and directs the activity of the
hormone calls of the body via hormones in
conjunction with the nervous system
Endocrine system is usually slower acting
– like growth
The major components of the endocrine
system are glands and organs that
secrete hormones into extracellular
space, they are ductless and highly
vascularized

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Define a hormone
List the chemical classification of
hormones
Outline two major mechanisms of
hormone action on target tissue and the
control of hormone release
Outline the structure of the hypothalamus
Outline the function of the hypothalamus
and its relationship to the pituitary gland
Outline the structure of the pituitary gland
Outline the function of the pituitary gland
and its relationship to the hypothalamus
Page 32
A hormone is a chemical messenger
released into the blood or lymphatic
system. It will then travel to a specific
target organ/cell and will bind to its
specific receptors to stimulate
It will then increase or decrease the rates
of normal cellular process
Amino acid based (e.g. proteins)
Steroid-synthesized from cholesterol
Negative feedback Internal/external
stimulus – Hormone secretion – rising
hormone levels – inhibition of further
hormone levels
Stimulated by other hormones e.g. testis
Stimulated by critical ions and nutrient (eg
calcium)
Stimulated by neural nerve fibers e.g the
adrenal glands
is located below the thalamus, just above
the brain stem. This brain region occupies
the major portion of the ventral
diencephalon.In humans, it is roughly the
size of an almond.
The hypothalamus is responsible for
certain metabolic processes and other
activities of the Autonomic Nervous
System. It synthesizes and secretes
neurohormones, often called
hypothalamic-releasing hormones, and
these in turn stimulate or inhibit the
secretion of pituitary hormones.
The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland
about the size of a pea. It is a protrusion
off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the
base of the brain, and rests in a small,
bony cavity in the pituitary fossa. It has
two lobs, the anterior pituitary and the
posterior pituitary
The anterior pituitary synthesizes and
secretes important endocrine hormones,
such as ACTH, TSH, prolactin, growth
hormone, endorphins, FSH, and LH.
These hormones are released from the
anterior pituitary under the influence of
hypothalamic. The hypothalamic
hormones travel to the anterior lobe by
way of the hypothalamic-hypophyseal
portal system.
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The hormones secreted by the posterior
pituitary are Oxytocin, where the majority
is released from the paraventricular
nucleus in the hypothalamus Antidiuretic
hormone (ADH, also known as
vasopressin and AVP, arginine
vasopressin), the majority of which is
released from the supraoptic nucleus in
the hypothalamus
Oxytocin is the only pituitary hormone to
create a positive feedback loop. For
example, uterine contractions stimulate
the release of oxytocin from the posterior
pituitary, which in turn increases uterine
contractions. This positive feedback loop
continues until the baby is born.

List three examples of a pituitary hormone
and their target organs
Growth Hormone: Stimulates most cells
of muscles, tissue and bone to increase in
size and replicate hypo-secretion would
create a dwarf, hyper-secretion would
create a giant

ATCH – Adenocorticotrophic Hormone:

Stimulates to cortext of the adrenal gland
to release corticosteriod hormones which
helps the body to resist stressors
Oxytocin: Stimulates the let down effects
of the mammary glads and uterine
contractions

Outline the micro anatomy of the pancreas
It is both exocrine (secreting pancreatic
juice containing digestive enzymes) and
endocrine (producing several important
hormones, including insulin, glucagon,
Under a microscope, stained sections of
the pancreas reveal two different types of
parenchymal tissue. Lightly staining
clusters of cells are called islets of
Langerhans, which produce hormones
that underlie the endocrine functions of
the pancreas. Darker staining cells form
acini connected to ducts. Acinar cells
belong to the exocrine pancreas and
secrete digestive enzymes into the gut via
a system of ducts.

Outline the function and the
interrelationship of the two major
pancreatic hormones
Glucagon is released when the glucose
level in the blood is low (hypoglycemia),
causing the liver to convert stored
glycogen into glucose and release it into
the bloodstream. The action of glucagon
is thus opposite to that of insulin, which
instructs the body's cells to take in
glucose from the blood in times of
satiation

The Digestive System

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Differentiate between the glands of the
alimentary canal (Gastrointestinal tract)
and the accessory digestive tract
List and define the major processes
occurring during the digestive system
activity
Describe the arrangement of the four
layers of the alimentary canal
Describe the function of the four layers of
the alimentary canal
Identify the structural modifications of the
wall of the stomach that enhance the
digestive process
Identify the structural modifications of the
wall of the intestines that enhance the
digestive process
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GI Tract: The upper Gi tract consists of
Mouth (as an orifice), Pharynx,
Oesophagus. The lower GI tracts consists
of Stomach, small intestines, Large
intestines and anus
Accessory Digestive Tract: The upper
ADT consists of Teeth, Tongue, Salivary
glands. The lower ADT consists of the
Liver and pancreas.
Six processes
Ingestion (intake of food)
Propulsion (movement of food through
the tract
Mechanical digestion (physical mixing
and breaking down of food)
Chemical digestion (breakdown of food by
enzymatic action
Absorption (transport of nutrients into the
blood)
Deification (excretion of undigested
residues)
musoca, sub muscosa, muscularous,
Muscoa – Secretion/Protection against
the acidity in the stomach. Sub Mucosa -
Dense CT with elastin, lots of lymph.
Muscular layer – responsible for churning
and helps form the spinchtors
Rugae: folds of the lining which allows
expansion in volume of the stomach
without increased pressure
Smooth Muscle: Lies first length ways
then cross ways, this allows for the
churning ability of the stomach
Mucosal Barrier: Stops the stomach
from self digesting
Three main regions of the small intestine:
Duodenum, Jejunum and the Ileum. The
bile duct and pancreatic duct join to form
the hepaticpancreatic ampulla and empty
their secretions into the duodenum via the
hepaticpancreatic sphincter.
Villi and Micro-villi: circular folds
increasing the surface area for digestion
and absorption
Duodenal submucusa: Contains mucus-
secreating glands (Brunners glands)

State the roles of bile and pancreatic juice
in digestion
List the major functions of the large
intestine
Outline the process of absorption and the
processing of foods stuff within digestion
Define metabolism
Define catabolism
Define anabolism
Outline how glucose is used by a cell to
produce energy by oxidation
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Peyers Patch: Part of the lymphatic
system to ingest and kill pathagons
Liver: Secretes bile into the hepatic duct
Bile is made in the liver by hepatocytes
and stored in the gall bladder. upon
eating is discharged into the duodenum
where the bile aids the process of
digestion of lipids
Pancreatic juice is a juice produced by
the pancreas and contains a variety of
enzymes. Pancreatic juice is alkaline in
nature due to the high concentration of
bicarbonate ions. This is useful in
neutralizing the acidic gastric acid,
allowing for effective enzymic action.
The large intestine: Dries out
indigestible food, stores fecal material
and provides a suitable area for the
bacterial colony
Almost all foodstuff, water and
electrolytes are absorbed in the small
intestine. Except for fat digestion
products, fat soluble vitamins and most
water soluble vitamins (which are
absorbed through diffusion) most
nutrients are absorbed through active
transport (membrane transport processes
run by ATP, such as solute pumping and
endocytosis
Sum total of the chemical reactions
occurring in the body cells
Process in which living cells break down
substances into similar substances
Energy requiring building phase of
metabolism in which simpler substances
are combined to for more complex
substances
How it gets Glucose enters the tissues cells by
into cells facilitated diffusion (this is enhanced
through insulin). immediately upon entry
to the cell glucose is phosphorylated to
glucose-6-phosphate.
Glucose + ATP = glucose-6-PO4 + ADP
Glucose is catabolized through the
reaction: C6H1206 (glucose) + 6O2
Oxidation of (Oxygen) becomes 6H2O (Water) + 6CO2
glucose (Carbon Dioxide) + 38 ATP + Heat
0. Glycolysis
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Define Glycogenesis Formation of glycogen from glucose

Define Glycogenolsis Breakdown of glycogen to glucose

Define Glyconeogenesis Forming new glucose from non

carbohydrate molecules

Outline how fats are metabolized for The products of fats and amino acids are
energy transported in lymph in the form of a fatty
protein called Chylomicrons. These are
eventually are hydrolyzed by plasmas
enzymes and the resulting fatty acids and
glycerol are taken up by body cells and
processed in various ways
Glycerol is converted to glyceraldehyde-
PO4 and enters the Krebs Cycle or is
converted to glucose
Fatty Acids are oxidized by beta
oxidation into acetic acid fragments.
These bind to coenzyme A and enter the
Krebs cycle as acetyl CoA. Dietary fats
not needed for energy or structural
materials are stored as adipose tissue
Breakdown of fats and fatty acids and
glycerol is called Lipolysis

Outline the synthesis of proteins (?) I think Amino acids are converted to keto acids
amino acids Metabolism that can enter the Krebs cycle. This
involves transamination, oxidative
deamination and keto acid modification

Outline the bodys management of Managed through the liver as it

cholesterol synthesizes, catabolizes and secretes it in
the form of Bile salts
Liver controlled through negative
feedback: Therefore if you eat a high
cholesterol diet your liver does not
produce as much. But you can see this
would not have a huge effect on
cholesterol in the body as if you reduce
dietary intake of cholesterol then your
liver will up in producing it again.

Identify the major regions of the

abdominopelvic cavity and locate the
major organs Draw

Outline the main enzymes involved in Proteases digest protein - hydrolyse the
chemical digestion, the foodstuffs they amino acid chains (protein) into smaller
work on and the products we produce molecules

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Amylases digest carbohydrate -
hydrolyse the starch chains into smaller
molecules such as maltose and
eventually glucose
Lipases digest fat – overt triglyceride
substrates found in oils from food to
monoglycerides and free fatty acids.

Name the membrane surrounding the Visceral – around organs, Parietal –

organs and the body cavity around the frontal body cavity

Outline the Krebs cycle In aerobic organisms, Krebs cycle is part

of a metabolic pathway involved in the
chemical conversion of carbohydrates,
fats and proteins into carbon dioxide and
water to generate a form of usable
energy.
The citric acid cycle begins with acetyl-
CoA transferring its two-carbon acetyl
group to the four-carbon acceptor
compound (oxaloacetate) to form a six-
carbon compound (citrate).
The citrate then goes through a series of
chemical transformations, losing first one,
then a second carboxyl group as CO2.
The carbons lost as CO2 originate from
what was oxaloacetate, not directly from
acetyl-CoA. The carbons donated by
acetyl-CoA become part of the
oxaloacetate carbon backbone after the
first turn of the citric acid cycle. Loss of
the acetyl-CoA-donated carbons as CO2
requires several turns of the citric acid
cycle. However, because of the role of the
citric acid cycle in anabolism, they may
not be lost since many TCA cycle
intermediates are also used as precursors
for the biosynthesis of other molecules.[4]

Most of the energy made available by the

oxidative steps of the cycle is transferred
as energy-rich electrons to NAD+, forming
NADH. For each acetyl group that enters
the citric acid cycle, three molecules of
NADH are produced.
Electrons are also transferred to the
electron acceptor Q, forming QH2.
At the end of each cycle, the four-carbon
oxaloacetate has been regenerated, and
the cycle continues.

Reproductive and Renal system

Locate the male sexual organs Internal Genital organs

Vas Deferens - Continuation of

epididymis, Runs upward in the spermatic
cord then enters the lesser pelvis

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Seminal Vesicles - The seminal vesicles
are 2 sacculated and contorted tubes that
are placed
between the bladder and rectum
Ejaculatory ducts - enters the prostatic
urethra.
Prostate - surrounds the commencement
of the urethra
Bulbourethral Glands – Posterior and
lateral to the membranous portion of the
urethra at the base of the penis
External Genital Organs
Testes – inside the scrotum outside the
body below the penis
Epididymis -narrow, tightly-coiled tube
connecting the efferent ducts from the
rear of each testicle to its vas deferens
Penis – external to the pelvic region

Outline the structure of the male sexual

organs Internal Genital organs
Vas Deferens – tube that allows for travel
of sperm
Seminal Vesicles – Tubular glands
Ejaculatory ducts – the junction of the
Vans Deferens and Seminal Vesicles
Prostate - firm, partly glandular and partly
fibromuscular body
Bulbourethral Glands - each
approximately the size of a pea. They are
composed of several lobules held
together by a fibrous covering
External Genital Organs
Testes – testis contains very fine coiled
tubes called the seminiferous tubules.
The tubes are lined with a layer of cells
that, from puberty into old-age, produce
sperm cells
Epididymis - narrow, tightly-coiled tube
connecting the efferent ducts from the
rear of each testicle to its vas deferens
Penis – has a root and a body. Skin is
thin and loose. it is made up of three
columns of tissue: two corpora cavernosa
lie next to each other on the dorsal side
and one corpus spongiosum lies between
them on the ventral side.
The end of the corpus spongiosum is
enlarged and bulbous-shaped and forms
the glans penis. The glans supports the
foreskin or prepuce, a loose fold of skin
that in adults can retract to expose the
glans. The area on the underside of the
penis, where the foreskin is attached, is
called the frenum (or frenulum).

Outline the function of the male sexual

organs Internal Genital organs

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Vas Deferens – Passage for sperm from
the testis
Seminal Vesicles - They secrete a
significant proportion of the fluid that
ultimately becomes semen. About 60% of
the seminal fluid in humans originates
from the seminal vesicles.
Ejaculatory ducts – unites Vans
deferens and Seminal vesicles
Prostate - The main function of the
prostate is to store and secrete a clear,
slightly alkaline (pH 7.29) fluid that
constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the
seminal fluid
Bulbourethral Glands - During sexual
arousal each gland produces a clear,
viscous secretion known as pre-ejaculate.
This fluid helps to lubricate the urethra for
spermatozoa to pass through, it
neutralizes traces of acidic urine in
urethra
External Genital Organs
Testes – formation of sperm
Epididymis -tube for passage of sperm
Penis – urination and reproductive organ

Outline the location of the female sexual

organs Internal Organs
Vagina – extending from the cervix of the
uterus to its external
opening, the vestibule of the vagina
Uterus - anteflexed so that the body of
the uterus lies across the superior and
posterior surfaces of the bladder.
Uterine Tubes - extend laterally from the
uterine horns and open into the peritoneal
cavity near the ovaries close to the lateral
pelvic walls
Ovaries - located close to the lateral
pelvic walls
External Organs
Mons Pubis - rounded fatty prominence
anterior to the pubic symphysis
Labia Majora - prominent folds of skin
that lie at the sides of the pudendal cleft
Labia Minora - surround the vestibule of
the vagina
Clitoris - located where the labia minora
meet anteriorly
Vestible of Vagina - the space between
the labia minora
Bulbs of Vestibule - lie alongside the
vaginal orifice
Greater Vestibular Gland - two glands
located slightly below and to the left and
right of the opening of the vagina

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Outline the structure of the female sex

organs Internal Organs
Vagina – elastic muscular tube
Uterus - thick walled pear –shaped,
hollow muscular organ
Uterine Tubes - hollow muscular tube,
transports the ova
Ovaries - almond shaped glands
External Organs
Mons Pubis – Rounded fatty pad
protects the pubic bone
Labia Majora - prominent folds of skin
Labia Minora – fat free hairless skin
Clitoris – erectile organ - commonly
about the size of a pea that is visable.
Following from the head back and up
along the shaft, it is found that this
extends up to several centimeters before
reversing direction, branched resulting in
a shaped like an inverted "V", and
extending as a pair of "legs"
Vestible of Vagina - contains the
openings of the urethra, vagina and ducts
of the vestibular glands
Bulbs of Vestibule – mass of erectile
tissue
Greater Vestibular Gland - two glands

Outline the function of the female sex

organs Internal Organs
Vagina – Path for menstrual blood,
sexual activity, channel for childbirth
Uterus - The main function of the uterus
is to accept a fertilized ovum for
reproduction of children
Uterine Tubes - hollow muscular tube,
transports the ova
Ovaries – produce eggs (ova)
External Organs
Mons Pubis – protects the pubic bone
Labia Majora - protection for the urethral
and vaginal orifices
Labia Minora – protection
Clitoris – erectile/sensory organ for
pleasure
Vestible of Vagina - contains the
openings of the urethra, vagina and ducts
of the vestibular glands
Bulbs of Vestibule – mass of erectile
tissue – sensory/pleasure organ
Greater Vestibular Gland – secretion of
mucous for reduction of friction and
protection

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Outline the ovarian cycle
Follicular phase (1-14) the lining of the
uterus thickens, stimulated by increasing
amounts of estrogen. Follicles in the
ovary begin developing via hormones. At
14 days (approx) the oocyte follicle
(dominant) releases an ovum or egg in an
event called ovulation. It takes one to two
weeks to travel down the fallopian tubes
to the uterus.
Luteal Phase: (15-28) After ovulation the
remains of the dominant follicle in the
ovary become a corpus luteum; this body
has a primary function of producing large
amounts of progesterone. Under the
influence of progesterone, the
endometrium (uterine lining) changes to
prepare for potential implantation of an
embryo to establish a pregnancy. If
implantation does not occur within
approximately two weeks, the corpus
luteum will die, causing sharp drops in
levels of both progesterone and estrogen.
These hormone drops cause the uterus to
shed its lining in a process termed
menstruation.

Outline the Uterine cycle
Menstrual phase: (1-5) the function layer
sloughs off in menses
Proliferative phase: (6-14) rising
estrogen levels stimulate regeneration
and is receptive ti ova implantation
Secretary Phase: (15-28) uterine glands
secrete glycogen and endometrial
vascularity increases
The last few days with a combinations of
hormones and blood supply reduction
causes menses to occur

List the sex hormones and summarize

their effects Otherwise known as sex steroids
androgens: stimulates or controls the
development and maintenance of
masculine characteristics
1. testosterone : include enhanced
libido, increased energy, increased
production of red blood cells and
protection against osteoporosis
2. androstenedione : Prohormone for
converting into testosterone or estrogen
3. dihydrotestosterone: DHT is
produced by males in utero and is
responsible for the formation of male sex-
specific characteristics
4. dehydroepiandrosterone:
Prohormone for converting into
testosterone or estrogen

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5. anabolic steroids: They increase
protein synthesis within cells, which
results in the buildup of cellular tissue,
especially in muscles. Anabolic steroids
also have androgenic properties,
including the development and
maintenance of growth of the vocal cords
and body hair.
estrogens: stimulates or controls the
development and maintenance of female
characteristics
1. estradiol: Estradiol is critical for
reproductive and sexual functioning, but
also affects other organs including bone
structure
2. estrone: Estrone is relevant to health
and disease due to its conversion to
estrone sulfate, a long-lived derivative of
estrone. Estrone sulfate acts as a pool of
estrone which can be converted as
needed to the more active estradiol
progestagens: Effects similar to those of
progesterone
1. progesterone: Involved in the female
menstrual cycle, pregnancy (supports
gestation) and embryogenesis
2. progestins: SYNTHETIC: The two
most frequent uses of progestins are for
hormonal contraception (either alone or
with an estrogen), and to prevent
endometrial hyperplasia from unopposed
estrogen in hormone replacement
therapy. Progestins are also used to treat
secondary amenorrhea, dysfunctional
uterine bleeding and endometriosis, and
as palliative treatment of endometrial
cancer, renal cell carcinoma, breast
cancer, and prostate cancer.

What is Mitosis Creates a new cell (eg skin repair) is the

process by which a cell separates the
chromosomes in its cell nucleus, into two
identical sets in two daughter nuclei

What is Meioses The splitting of a cells in half to create

gametes with only 23 chromosomes (46
in normal cells)

Describe the anatomy of the kidney renal capsule: The membranous

covering of the kidney.
cortex: The outer layer over the internal
medulla. It contains blood vessels,
glomeruli (which are the kidneys' "filters")
and urine tubes and is supported by a
fibrous matrix.

hilus: The opening in the middle of the

concave medial border for nerves and
blood vessels to pass into the renal sinus.

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renal column: The structures which
support the cortex. They consist of lines
of blood vessels and urinary tubes and a
fibrous material.
renal sinus: The cavity which houses the
renal pyramids.
calyces: The recesses in the internal
medulla which hold the pyramids. They
are used to subdivide the sections of the
kidney. (singular - calyx)
papillae: The small conical projections
along the wall of the renal sinus. They
have openings through which urine
passes into the calyces. (singular -
papilla)
renal pyramids: The conical segments
within the internal medulla. They contain
the secreting apparatus and tubules and
are also called malpighian pyramids.
renal artery: Two renal arteries come
from the aorta, each connecting to a
kidney. The artery divides into five
branches, each of which leads to a ball of
capillaries. The arteries supply (unfiltered)
blood to the kidneys. The left kidney
receives about 60% of the renal
bloodflow.
renal vein: The filtered blood returns to
circulation through the renal veins which
join into the inferior vena cava.

renal pelvis: Basically just a funnel, the

renal pelvis accepts the urine and
channels it out of the hilus into the ureter.
ureter: A narrow tube 40 cm long and 4
mm in diameter. Passing from the renal
pelvis out of the hilus and down to the
bladder. The ureter carries urine from the
kidneys to the bladder by means of
peristalsis.
renal lobe: Each pyramid together with
the associated overlying cortex forms a
renal lobe

Describe the nephron Each nephron is composed of an initial

filtering component (the "renal corpuscle")
and a tubule specialized for reabsorption
and secretion (the "renal tubule"). The
renal corpuscle filters out large solutes
from the blood, delivering water and small
solutes to the renal tubule for
modification.
This is under high pressure with the small
filters like a coffee filter

Describe the location of the urinary organs Kidney, ureter, bladder plus prostrate for
and their location men, urethra. The urethra passes through
the UG (muscular diaphragm)

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Identify the nephron parts responsible for
filtration, reabsorption and secretion
Outline the mechanisms for the nephron
cortex/glomerular filtration
Outline the mechanisms for the nephron
Proximal Tubual
Outline the mechanisms for the nephron
Renal pyramid
List the kidney functions that contribute to
homeostasis
Describe the normal physical and
chemical properties of urine
Integumental System
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Filtration: cortex: Glomerular filtration:
The outer layer over the internal medulla.
It contains blood vessels, glomeruli
(which are the kidneys' "filters") and urine
tubes and is supported by a fibrous
matrix.
Reabsorption: The proximal tubule is
the portion of the duct system of the
nephron leading from Bowman's capsule
to the loop of Henle. Takes back things
like salts
Secretion: renal pyramids: The conical
segments within the internal medulla.
They contain the secreting apparatus and
tubules and are also called malpighian
pyramids.
The glomerular membrane is highly
permeable and allows fluid and small
molecular weight solutes to pass into
Bowman's space. The glomerular
capillary tuft with its interconnected loops
increases available surface area. Finally,
arterioles at both ends of the glomerulus
modulate intraglomerular pressure.
Sodium potassium pump on the micovilli.
Reabsorption involves both passive and
active transport mechanisms. Passive
transport includes osmosis and diffusion
while active transport mechanisms, such
as primary and secondary transport and
endocytosis, require the use of energy to
move substances against an
electrochemical gradient.
Tabular secretion is the movement of
solutes from the peritubular capillaries
into the tubular system. It is the process
by which the body secretes unwanted or
excess substances. Like reabsorption,
secretion occurs by both passive and
active transport mechanisms. As with
reabsorption, secretion of substances is
regulated by a number of factors, many of
them hormonal in nature.
Filtration, reabsorption and secretion
which regulates blood volume, its
composition, PH of the blood and
eliminates nitrogenous metabolic waste
from the blood.
A clear yellow and aromatic. Slightly
acidic, 95% water, should never be
proteins in it such as erythrocytes
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Name the tissue type composing the
epidermis
Name the tissue type composing the
dermis
Name the tissue type composing the
hypodermis
What is the function of the dermis
What are the layers of the dermis
What is the function of the epidermis
What are the layers of the epidermis
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Keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium with an underlying basal
lamina.
Connective tissue proper – both areolar
and dense irregular CT
consists of adipose tissue, loose
connective tissue and small bundles of
smooth muscle cells
he main functions of the dermis are to
regulate temperature and to supply the
epidermis with nutrient-saturated blood.
The Papillary Layer: The upper, papillary
layer, contains a thin arrangement of
collagen fibers. The papillary layer
supplies nutrients to select layers of the
epidermis and regulates temperature.
The Reticular Layer : The lower, reticular
layer, is thicker and made of thick
collagen fibers that are arranged in
parallel to the surface of the skin. The
reticular layer is denser than the papillary
dermis, and it strengthens the skin,
providing structure and elasticity. It also
supports other components of the skin,
such as hair follicles, sweat glands, and
sebaceous glands.
protects the body from the environment
he Basal Cell Layer : The basal layer is
the innermost layer of the epidermis, and
contains small round cells called basal
cells. The basal cells continually divide,
and new cells constantly push older ones
up toward the surface of the skin, where
they are eventually shed. The basal cell
layer is also known as the stratum
germinativum due to the fact that it is
constantly germinating (producing) new
cells. The basal cell layer contains cells
called melanocytes. Merkel cells, which
are tactile cells of neuroectodermal origin,
are also located in the basal layer of the
epidermis.
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The stratum spinosum Layer : This
squamous cell layer is located above the
basal layer, the cells are held together
with spiny projections. Within this layer
are the basal cells that have been pushed
upward, however these maturing cells are
now called squamous cells, or
keratinocytes. Keratinocytes produce
keratin, a tough, protective protein that
makes up the majority of the structure of
the skin, hair, and nails.
The Stratum Granulosum & the
Stratum Lucidum
The keratinocytes from the stratum
spinosum layer are then pushed up
through two thin epidermal layers called
the stratum granulosum and the stratum
lucidum. As these cells move further
towards the surface of the skin, they get
bigger and flatter and adhere together,
and then eventually become dehydrated
and die.
The Stratum Corneum : Is the outermost
layer of the epidermis, and is made up of
10 to 30 thin layers of continually
shedding, dead keratinocytes. The
stratum corneum is also known as the
“horny layer,” because its cells are
toughened like an animal’s horn. As the
outermost cells age and wear down, they
are replaced by new layers of strong,
long-wearing cells.

List and locate the organelles found in
glabrous skin
There are four main types of
mechanoreceptors (sensory receptors) in
the glabrous (hairless) skin of humans
Pacinian corpuscles (deep touch)
Meissner's corpuscles (light touch),
Merkel's discs (Texture)
Ruffini corpuscles (skin stretch).
Sweat gland

List and locate the organelles found in

hirsute skin Eccrine Gland
Sebaceous Gland
Hair follicles

List the glands found in skin and their Eccrine Gland/Sweat gland –
functions temperature regulation through water
secretion
Sebaceous Gland – Oil producing gland
for sebum softens and lubricates skin and
hair
Ceruminous Glands – of the ear
producing ear was
Mammary Glands – secrete milk

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Outline how the skin accomplishes at least
5 different functions
Protection against infection: Intact skin
forms a primary barrier against
pathogens. Surface is always being shed,
the stratum Corneum is also resistant to
penetration
Protection against dehydration: Keratin
in the epidermous and the sebum
released helps to waterproof the skin and
prevent evaporation
Regulation of Body temperature: Blood
supply and sweat
Collection of sensory information:
Nerve ending in the skin relay messages
back to the brain
Vitamin D synthesis – from its
precursors under the effect of sunlight
and introversion of steroids.

Name and outline the neural receptors of There are four main types of
the skin mechanoreceptors (sensory receptors) in
the glabrous (hairless) skin of humans
Pacinian corpuscles (deep touch)
Meissner's corpuscles (light touch),
Merkel's discs (Texture)
Ruffini corpuscles (skin stretch).

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Ligaments – Fibroblast
Cartilage – more elastic fibres but little collagen

Hyaline cartilage – The only fibre in their matrix is fine

collagen fibers
Check out page 14 number 5

Tendon connects to bones and muscle

Ligaments connect to just bone

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The motor neuron will be stimulated. At the axon hillock,

this will cause Na+ to rush into the axon, triggering an
action potential. This will propagate down the axon until
it reaches the terminal button. Here, Calcium will enter
the cell and travel across the synaptic cleft and bind on
receptors located on the motor end plate. This will cause
Na+ to rush into the muscle cell, triggering an action
potential.
This action potential will travel through a network of T-
tubules, causing a release of Ca++ from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum. This Ca++ allows for muscle
contraction to occur.

A spontaneous self-propagating change in membrane

potential Action potentials are triggered when the cell's
membrane potential depolarizes Voltage sensitive ion
channels cause an in influx of sodium ions (making the
inside more positive = depolarization) followed by
potassium efflux (making the outside more positive). The
potassium efflux brings the membrane potential below
the threshold and thus to rest.

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There are three main types of extracellular matrix

(ECM): loose connective tissue (Tendons, dermis, etc.),
dense connective tissue (cartilage, bone) and basement
membranes (underlie any epithelia and form special
structure like molecular filter of the glomeruli).
Each type of ECM is made of many types of
glycoproteins but each is primarily made of examples of
three types of proteins that are specific for each kind of
connective tissue:
1) collagens for the fibrous foundation of all types of
connective tissue.

2) proteoglycans and GAGS (small proteins with lots of

carbohydrate attached to them) that bind to lots of water
and growth factors and swell to fill much of the space
occupied by connective tissue. For example,
proteoglycan is responsible for the squishy cushioning
properties of cartilage.

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3) multi-adhesive proteins like laminin and fibronectin,

which tie things together by being able to bind to
collagens, proteoglycans and to cells.

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Active – energy required, Passive – no energy required

Deoxyribose – upright rungs sugar and phosphate

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12 ribs half of the vertebrae 7 of which are true ribs

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C.A.M.E.O

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1. The motor neuron will be stimulated. At the axon

hillock, this will cause Na+ to rush into the axon,
triggering an action potential.

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1. Calcium channels open in the presynaptic Nerve. 2.

Neurotransmitter is released 3.Neurotransmitter binds to
post-synaptic receptor.

4. Ion channels open in post-synaptic membrane. 5.

Neurotransmitter effects are terminated.

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references

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Preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic

phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and
digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach.
Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth
where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to break
down starches. The stomach continues to break food
down mechanically and chemically through the
churning of the stomach and mixing with enzymes.
Absorption occurs in the stomach and gastrointestinal
tract, and the process finishes with excretion

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Big to small

Small to big

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