LU3: Persuasion via

the Mass Media and

Public Opinion
COSC6212
Danille Janse van Vuuren

LO1: Discuss the primary means of persuasion in our current

democratic society
LO2: Explain the role of the mass media regarding opinions as
proposed by the Spiral of Silence Theory
LO3: Critically discuss the Technological Determinism Theory with
reference to the well-known statement by Marshall McLuhan that
the medium is the message.

20

LU
Objectives

LO4: Show how the Uses and Gratifications Theory is applicable

today
LO5: Explain the relevance of the Agenda-Setting Theory to
framing and the process of nation building
LO6: Provide a comprehensive and thorough definition of news
based on Tuchmans description
LO7: Distinguish between the views of technological, economic,
cultural and ideological determinists as pertains to news selection
LO8: Define public opinion and distinguish between solid, fluid and
gaseous public opinion.
LO9: Explain the characteristics of public opinion in terms of its
intended role in democracies
LO10: Critically discuss the usefulness of Cantrils generalisations

LO11: Critically discuss how Ranks model of persuasion could be

applied to practical persuasive communication scenarios
LO12: Discuss the steps in the process of persuasion as identified in
Monroes Motivated Sequence using practical examples to support
your answer.
L13: Explain, using examples, what is meant when we describe
someone as having a Machiavellian character

20

LU
Objectives

LO14: Discuss the traditional perspective on propaganda techniques,

including how the term propaganda became overused in the Western
world during the 20th century
LO15: Critically discuss Fauconniers definition of propaganda
LO16: Discuss the basic propaganda techniques widely used in
advertising and persuasion, and provide examples of each
L17: Distinguish between democratic and totalitarian propaganda and
indicate the role that censorship plays in each
LO18: Compare the traditional view of propaganda with bureaucratic
propaganda by referring to differences with regard to the target, the
medium and the purpose
LO19: Critically evaluate Elluls more holistic view of propaganda and
the broad categories of propaganda identified, referring to examples
of these categories to support your answer

Material
used for
this LU

YOUR module guide, pp.39-47

YOUR prescribed book: pp.68-101
CASE STUDY 4

 In this Learning Unit, the focus is on mass

communication, public opinion and propaganda
We live in a media-saturated world and often have
more contact with the media than with other people

Learning
Unit Intro

It, therefore, stands to reason that our opinions are

influenced by the media
Thus, this LU will delve into the intricacies of our
media consumption, how we make sense of our
consumption through public opinion and how
propaganda is used as a persuasive tool in
communications

LU3
Learning
Objective

Discuss the primary means of persuasion

in our current democratic society (Text
book, p.69)

Primary means of
persuasion today??

The basic structure (communication,

medium and message) has remained
the same in modern persuasion
What has changed is the social
circumstances in which persuasive
communication takes place
Modern democratic societies no
longer resembles Ancient Greek citystates nor the classic-liberal
democracy society from the 19th
century America

 Modern democratic society is seen as a mass society

characterised by mass production and mass
consumption and dependent on (1) a high level of
technology and transportation, (2) a system of organisation
(bureaucracy) and (3) mass communication systems
A person in modern democratic society encounters numerous
communicators/persuaders some of whom are anonymous
Thus, persuasive messages in modern times still takes place
through human speech and interaction, but also through TV,
radio, film, newspapers and magazine on the one side and
the Internet and its various elements on the other
What is of interest is that modern day persuaders must feed
into persuasive communication (rhetoric information) and
take into account more variables (socio-political, cultural or

LU3
Learning
Objective

Explain the role of the mass media

regarding opinions as proposed by the
Spiral of Silence Theory (Text book,
pp.70-71)

The Spiral of Silence Theory

(pp.70-71)

Postulated by Elisabeth NoelleNeumann in 1973

This theory holds that people
form impressions about
public opinion through the
mass media
Thus, the mass media is seen as
an influential and powerful tool
that shapes public opinion
The Spiral of Silence as the title
of the theory states holds that
people generally try and
determine whether their opinions
fall inline with the majority of

 The more silent minorities remain the less their points of view
are represented in society and the more they remain silent
A persons willingness to speak out about minority points of
view is largely impacted (determined) by the climate of
opinion thus, if the climate of opinion is against minorities
they will remain silent out of fear of isolation or social
punishment
The mass media can affect the spiral of silence in 3
ways:
1. The mass media shapes impressions about which opinions
are dominant
2. The mass media shapes impressions about which opinions
are on the increase
3. The mass media shapes impressions about which opinions

LU3
Learning
Objective

Critically discuss the Technological

Determinism Theory with reference to the
well-known statement by Marshall McLuhan
that the medium is the message. (Text

Marshall McLuhan (McLuhan and Fiore,

1967) was instrumental to the
Technological Determinism Theory
He suggests that the medium is the
message
This means that the medium (TV,
radio) determines WHAT KIND of
message an audience will receive and
WHAT INTERPRETATION they will obtain
Thus, the message is structured in
terms of the medium
Therefore, the medium constitutes the
message and not the actual content

LU3
Learning
Objective

Show how the Uses and Gratifications

Theory is applicable today (Text book,
pp.71-72)

The Uses and Gratification Theory sees the audience as active

users of the media
Thus, the audience adopts a decisive role in maintaining and
using media contents
The utilisation of media content satisfies various media needs
For example the need for entertainment or information
Therefore, the relationship between the media and its active
audience is of great interest to this theory
This relationship is characterised by various social and
psychological origins (and understandings) of needs
Ultimately, the media is seen as satisfying various audience
needs and not the other way around what the recipients do to

LU3
Learning
Objective

Explain the relevance of the AgendaSetting Theory to framing and the

process of nation building (Text book,
p.72)

The Theory of Agenda-Setting

Conceptualised by Cohen (1963)
This theory holds that it is not necessarily the media that imposes
their views on members of the public about issues
Instead, the mass media is seen as telling members of the public
what to think about
In other words, the media cannot tell people what to think, but it is
hugely successful in telling people what to think about
The media is renowned for the creation of ideologies
Thus, it plays a significant role in how people see the world and
construct reality
The media affects people without them always recognising the
effects

LU3
Learning
Objective

Provide a comprehensive and

thorough definition of news based on
Tuchmans description (Text book,
pp.73-74)

understood as a window on the world

Tuchman defines news as: (1) Public accounts
(2) of selected events (3) written or broadcast by
professionals (4) according to institutional
methods, conditions and limitations (5) with a
profit-making or influencing motive (6) aimed at
everyone but no one in particular within a target
group (7) providing readers, listens and viewers
with an ideological framework in which they orient
themselves to others and the community (de Wet,
2013, p.74)
News have a definite frame
News frames refers to the politico-ideological,
socio-economic and administrative boundaries
within which journalists practice

 It is through the news frame that recipients (audiences) have their

view of the world structured and curtailed by the news media
News is, thus, only a partial representation of reality
The following 5 conditions and characteristics of news need to
be taken into consideration (pp.73-74):
1. News must be news for someone
2. Journalists who publicise the news have something to do with what
and how much we SEE of the world (yet, through a news frame)
3. It compromises accounts or reports of everyday events
4. News is a social institution (with set patterns of behaviour)
5. News is the outcome of negotiations among (1) those who give it
shape (2) other groups affected by it and (3) those outside the news
medium

LU3
Learning
Objective

Distinguish between the views of

technological, economic, cultural and
ideological determinists as pertains to
news selection (Text book, pp.74-75)

Technological determinism: presumes

that a society's technology drives the
development of its social structure and
cultural values. With regards to news
selection the nature of the medium
determines the style of news that will be
provided. For example, the more
technologically developed a country is
(US compared to Syria) the more
technology (TV, Internet) is available to
spread news and the various topics that
Economic can
determinism:
presumes that
be discussed
economic relationships (capitalist, socialist,
authoritarian) are the foundation on which
all other social and political dimensions are
built. With regards to news selection or
news worthiness information will be
spread that is in favour of the economic
structure of the society (country). Take for
example, in the US an event is seen as
newsworthiness when it is in favour of the

-13

Cultural determinism: presumes that the

culture in which we are raised
determines who we are at emotional and
behavioural level. With regards to news
selection events will only be considered
newsworthy if it falls inline with the
cultural dimensions of that society (or
country). Take for example, in South
Africa an event linked with xenophobia or
racism will be seen as newsworthy. This
might not be newsworthy in Italy
Ideological determinism: presumes that
social, political and economical
structures are determined by ideology.
With regards to news selection news
may be shaped, consciously or
unconsciously by a dominant ideology.
Take for example news development in
South Africa during Apartheid (National
Party ideology-restrictive news policies)
and news development post-1994

LU3
Learning
Objectiv
e

Define public opinion and distinguish

between solid, fluid and gaseous public
opinion (Text book, pp.76-77)

Public
Opinion

active in the public realm that is expressed by

a significant (large) number of person
(members of the public) on an issue of
general (public) importance
In other words the opinion of the public
on public issues
1. Solid public opinion: refers to steadfast
conviction (unwavering belief) of a public
about matters such as personal or
economic freedoms, forms of government or
rationality
2. Fluid public opinion: means short-lived
public opinion such as topical issues
concerning fashion of sport
3. Gaseous public opinion: is highly
unstable public opinion it is hastily formed
and affected by the news events of the day

LU3
Learning
Objectiv
e

Explain the characteristics of public opinion

in terms of its intended role in democracies
(Text book, pp.77-78)

Lippmann (1956) suggests that public opinion

was supposed to be the prime mover in
democracies
Public opinion was intended to
be the ultimate and rational
standard for directing
policies
Freedom of thought and discussion
+ freedom for all in political
participation was the ideal basis for
democratic public opinion
However what passes for public
opinion in modern democracy is
much more like mass persuasion
since it is presented through the
mass media

LU3
Learning
Objective

10

Critically discuss the usefulness of Cantrils

generalisations about public opinion for
persuaders (Text book, pp.78-79)

There are

15 generalisations proposed by Cantril:

1. Opinion is highly sensitive to important events such as terrorist

bombings
2. Events of unusual magnitude are likely to swing public opinion
temporarily from one extreme to the other and it is only with a
better understanding of the events that opinion stabilises such as
the impeachment of a president
3. Opinions are generally determined more by events than by words
for example Michael Jacksons death or corruption victim shot dead
4. Verbal statements and outlines of courses of action have maximum
importance (1) when opinion is unstructured, (2) when people are
suggestible and (3) seek some interpretation from a reliable source
5. Public opinion does not anticipate emergencies it only reacts to
them for example should a state send humanitarian aid to a country
struck by a natural disaster

There are

15 generalisations proposed by Cantril:

6. Psychologically, opinion is determined by self-interest for example

public opinion on anti-abortion regulations in a country
7. Opinion does not remain aroused only (1) if there is a vested selfinterest or (2) or if opinion is aroused by events for example a
community journalist following a murder case in court
8. Once self-interest is involved it is not changed easily for example
community protests
9. When self-interest is involved, public opinion in a democracy is likely
to be ahead of official policy for example the public will remind
government of much needed policy changes
10.When opinion is held by a slight majority or is not solidly structured
a fact tends to shift opinion in the direction of acceptance for
example a community taking crime into their own hands and
attacking a supposed criminal

There are

15 generalisations proposed by Cantril:

11. In times of crisis people become more sensitive to the adequacy of their
leadership if they have confidence in their leader compared to lack
confidence for example with Zumas Nkandla
12. People are less reluctant to have critical decisions made by their leaders if
they feel that the public did not take apart in the decision making process
for example the public contributed to the constitution
13. People have more opinions and are able to form opinions more easily with
respect to goals than with respect to methods necessary to reach those
goals
14. Public opinion is like individual opinion when opinion is based mainly on
desire rather than factual information it is likely to show sharp shifts with
events
15. The more enlightened people are to the implications of events for their
own self-interest the more likely they are to agree with the more
objective opinions or realistic experts

LU3
Learning
Objective

11

Critically discuss how Ranks model of

persuasion could be applied to practical
persuasive communication scenarios (Text
book, p.79-81)

Ranks Model of Persuasion

Hugh Rank, a scholar of persuasion, offers
us a very helpful model for describing and
analysing certain important strategies and
tactics used by mass persuaders
He argues that persuaders use 2 cardinal
(intensify/downplay) strategies (plans of
actions)
Both strategies are linked to 3 major
possible tactics or rules
These are used to achieve particular
persuasive aims
He argues that persuaders normally either
intensify certain features of their
product, service, ideology or candidate, or

LU3
Learning
Objective

12

Discuss the steps in the process of

persuasion as identified in Monroes
Motivated Sequence using practical
examples to support your answer (Text
book, pp.81-82)

Monroes Motivated Sequence (1962):

Monroe suggested a pattern for persuasive message appeals
The motivated sequence is an organisational plan or patterns
It is based on the idea that individuals go through a normal sequence of
steps as they are motivated to respond to the speakers purpose
The sequential patterns consists of:
1.

Attention

2.

Need

3.

Satisfaction

4.

Visualisation
5.

Action

Monroes motivated sequence is particularly useful for persuasive

messages that advocate a change in policy or attempt to recruit
people

LU3
Learning
Objective

13

Explain, using examples, what is meant

when we describe someone as having a
Machiavellian character (Text book, p.86)

The adjective Machiavellian

is used to characterise
someone that is devoted to
the pursuit of power
This pursuit of power is
usually relentless and in
complete self-interest and
done with little regard of
consequences or morality
Machiavelli sees this
characteristic as held by
royalty of the mid-14th
century

LU3
Learning
Objective

14

Discuss the traditional perspective on

propaganda techniques, including how the
term propaganda became overused in
the Western world during the 20th century

The Traditional Perspective of

Propaganda (pp.87-89):
The traditional perspective of
propaganda is most often
associated with the techniques
employed by Germany during the
reign of Adolf Hitler and his Third
Reich
The National Socialist (Nazi)
propaganda surpassed anything
the world had ever experienced
Hitler understood the value of
propaganda - ??
Nazi propaganda was used as a
means of communication to
sustain itself and to deprive its
subjects of the power of

 For example, books that did not

conform to Nazi ideology was burned,
radio broadcasts cowed the population
and frightening the rest of the world,
rallies were set up with the intention
to propaganda support and military
enthusiasm, and posters espoused
German patriotism and so on
The various propaganda techniques
were masterminded by Josef Goebbels
Hitlers Minister of Propaganda and
Public Enlightenment
The Nazi propaganda was
considered successful because of
the use of various media
platforms

Thumbs.db

The definitions of Propaganda - Propaganda overused?

The Institute of Propaganda Analysis (1937) defines propaganda as the

expression of opinions by propagandists which is deliberately aimed at
influencing opinions and actions
In addition, propaganda was traditional seen as focusing exclusively on
psychological factors (character) as it is the deliberate attempt by an
individual or group to form, control or alter the attitudes of other groups
through mediums of communication (Qualter, 1965)
However, during the 2o century the common usage of the word
propaganda had extended to include different meanings and had
become overused
Reports that does not favour our own interests and those that come from
the opposition are seen as propaganda
Thus, the term propaganda had become synonymous with lies or halftruths told by the other side
Ultimately, propaganda can be understood as the deliberate influence
of public opinion through specific techniques that attempt to
induce in others the acceptance of a specific belief without

LU3
Learning
Objective

15

Critically discuss Fauconniers definition of

propaganda (Text book, pp.88)

According to Fauconnier (1975)

propaganda is a form of mass
communication in which the
communicator consciously attempts
to influence the opinions, attitudes
and behaviour of someone (or
group) by means of direct or
indirect persuasive techniques
Here propaganda is seen as a tool of
mass persuasion rather than mass
communication
Fauconnier argues that it is through
directive persuasive techniques (e.g.
vote for him he is the best) that
propaganda is successful in convincing
people and placing limits on their free
choice

LU3
Learning
Objective

16

Discuss the basic propaganda techniques

widely used in advertising and persuasion,
and provide examples of each (Text book,
p.89)

The Basic Techniques of Propaganda

The Basic Techniques of Propaganda

LU3
Learning
Objective

17

Distinguish between democratic and

totalitarian propaganda and indicate the
role that censorship plays in each (Text
book, pp.90-91)

Totalitarian Propaganda

Democratic Propaganda

Centralised nature and closed society

Diversified and competitive nature

The state is the only propagandist

There is no freedom of expression and
no freedom of choice for individuals

Any person can be a propagandist

and thus, compete with rivals for
support

Demands that subjects think and feel

alike

There is room for freedom of

choice and expression

Uses all the communication and

media devices available to propagate
State makes explicit use of censorship
in order to propagate

Knows people are individualistic

Sees its electorate as rational and
free-willed

State is very dependent on

propaganda

Censorship is relatively
underdeveloped in democracies

And uses forces and terror as

techniques

Also believed to be very

dependent on propaganda

LU3
Learning
Objective

18

Compare the traditional view of

propaganda with bureaucratic propaganda
by referring to differences with regard to
the target, the medium and the purpose

The target of traditional propaganda is a mass (large) audience

whereas bureaucratic propaganda is often addressed to
individuals, a group or specific segment of the population
The medium used by traditional propaganda is usually public
appearances or the mass media, whereas bureaucratic
propaganda is conveyed through official reports such as official
hearings or committee meetings
The purpose of traditional propaganda is to attempt to
deliberately alter opinions and attitudes so that they match with
the propagandist, while bureaucratic propaganda aims to
maintain the legitimacy of an organisation and its activities

LU3
Learning
Objective

19

Critically evaluate Elluls more holistic

view of propaganda and the broad
categories of propaganda identified,
referring to examples of these categories
to support your answer (Text book, pp.93-

According to Ellul (1973) we are only able

to understand the pervasive nature and
influence of propaganda when we have
analysed the technological and mass
society of a democratic state
His arguments are based on the spectrum
of Mass Society Theory
According to Ellul people in a democratic
society are saturated by propaganda
More specifically 4 different kinds of
propaganda:
1. Political and Sociological Propaganda
2. Propaganda of agitation and integration
3. Vertical and horizontal propaganda
4. Rational and irrational propaganda

The different kinds of Propaganda can be grouped

into the following 4 categories (pp.93-94)
1. Political and Sociological
Propaganda: political
propaganda is employed by a
government or political party to
bring about change whereas
sociological propaganda
attempts to allow an ideology
to penetrate individuals or
masses so that they are able to
actively participate within a
specific sociological context

2. Propaganda of agitation and integration: propaganda of

agitation is highly visible and widespread and attempts to exploit
areas of conflict whereas propaganda of integration is seen as
conformity which aims at stabilising, unifying and reinforcing the
social system
3. Vertical and horizontal propaganda: vertical propaganda is
the classical types in which a leader attempts to influence the
people below whereas horizontal propaganda is made inside a
group where all individuals are seen as equal and there is no leader
4. Rational and irrational propaganda: rational propaganda
relies on logic and facts (can be manipulated whereas irrational
propaganda is aimed at the feelings and passions of individuals

propaganda
He points out that the least important form of
propaganda is that of the message of the
political leader
Propaganda in a democratic society flourishes on
sociological constraints and impulses as well as
political slogans
It is only through integration propaganda that
individuals conform to the established social
system
This is done through horizontal interaction
between individuals to establish collective
standards as well as the vertical influence of a
leader
Rational propaganda overwhelms individual and
group life as information is selective and usually
edited
And ultimately, propaganda in democratic
**Find an excellent summary of Elluls main arguments on
society combines
all mass
and interpersonal
propaganda
on p.98

LU3
Learning
Objective

20

Apply relevant persuasive communication

theory covered in LU3 to the provided
Case Study 4

Public
Opinion
Activity

 HOME STUDY:
LU4

For our next

lecture

In addition,
complete
revision
exercises
Do not forget to
engage with
your additional
reading
material
Access material from:
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