1.4 Subtractive Processes Micromachining is the removal of material in the form of chips or debris with sizes (or cross-section or at least one dimension) in the range of microns (greater than | am and smaller than 999 jm). In other words, it can be considered as the process of creating zs Came] [Fanning } a = [SGcrometaina) (Micmpuncting JL Boodies FIOURE TA Classification of miicromanufactering: processes, LBMM, laser beac micramachining: EBMM, electron bear micromachining: EDMM, electric discharge micromachining, ECM, electrochemical micromachinans: USMM, ultrasonic micromachining: AIMM, abrasive jet micromachining: CVD, chemical vapor deposition, PWD, phy microfeatures on macro- or mierocomponents. Sub tractive-type micromanufacturing pro cesses are classified into two classes (Figure 1.1), traditional and advanced.‘Mlcrofusion/iqu- ‘Microsodeting! Microadhesive Micro soli-siate state ween imrobraving banding welding 7 Bectronbeam|) Laserbeam |[ Plasmaarc (AG micro- ]{T1G micro-] [Resistance } f Litrasonic inicmawelding | microweldig ff microwelding |] welding |] welding | | micronekling | | micsowekling FIGURE 1.5 Classification of inicrejoining processes, face challenges because of advances in miniaturization, The classification of microjoin- ing processes is shown in Figure 1.15, These processes face challenges in interconnecting, MEMS, wherein electrical, anechanical, fluidic, and optical camponents are connected as well a5 coupled to the macroscopic external environment (Menz et al., 201}. This micro- joining of MEMS should overcome some problems; for example, it shoukd yield undise torted physical and chemical output signals, and should also protect from corrosion as well as mechanical damage (Lancaster, 1984; Kou, 2003; Eagar, 1993; Norrish, 2006).ng by abrasion RGA Surface Modern 5 finishing abrasion Surface Honing, USM. Creep feed Lapping ATM. Cylindrical Superfinishing, ANIM Centerless Polishing, ane Buffing er MARAF——_—} LL ‘Workoiece shows a typical ultrasonic machining (USM) operation where successive layers are removed from the workpiece material by mechanical chipping using the loose abrasives that are hammered against the workpiece surface at 19-20 kHz. Further examples of modern abrasive processes include the high-velocity abrasive jet in abrasive jet machining (AJM), abrasive water jet machining (AWJM), abrasive flow machining (AFM), magnetic abrasive machining (MAF), magnetic float polishing (MFP), magnetorheological finishing (MRF), and magnetorheological abrasive flow finishing (MRAFF).Electrochemical | a EDM FRM. LBM. PBM Flectrolyte Laser beam | Tool (~) ety dt w Workpiece (+) wo workpiece Cie ee1.3.4 Combined Machining To enhance the performance of some thermal erosion processes, a secondary erosion process can be added, such as ECM, to form electrochemical dis- charge machining (ECDM) or electroerosion dissolution machining (EEDM). In other situations, the MA is combined to electrodischarge machining (EDM) to form abrasive electrodischarge grinding (AEDG), or EDM is com- bined to both grinding and ECM to form electrochemical discharge grind- ing (ECDG). Electrochemical erosion can also be enhanced by combining with MA during electrochemical grinding (ECG) or ultrasonic erosion dur- ing ultrasonic-assisted ECM (USMEC) (Table 1.3).Combined Machining Eresion EDM +abra (ECG /ECS/ECH/ECB) (EDG/ABDG/EDMUs) ECM + EDM (EEDM/ECDM) ECM + EDM + abrasion (ECDG) Note: ECS, elect electrochemical honing: ECB. electrochemical buffing: EDMUS, eclectrodischarge machining with ultrasonic assistance.Surface engineering (SE) requires that thin film and low dimen- sional structures be deposited on solid surfaces. The electrical, opti- cal, mechanical, and tribological properties as well as the structure and microstructure of thin film materials can vary over wide ranges, and are highly dependent on the deposition process used. To fully apply and utilize SE technology, one must be familiar with thin film deposition technology and materials. There are a number of excel- lent books that describe the various deposition processes [1, 2, 3, 4] and thousands of publications that describe the properties of thin films. Each process has its strengths and weaknesses and deposi- tion conditions, and their effect on film properties, are quite differ- ent for all processes involved. One distinct advantage of thin filmprocesses, because they are nonequilibrium in nature, is that they are able to synthesize compositions not possible with bulk pro- cesses. While electrochemical deposition (plating) processes were first used to deposit protective films such as chromium (Cr), and are still used to some extent, physical vapor deposition processes (PVD) have taken over the lion’s share of deposition of surface engineer- ing materials. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), plasma enhancedchemical vapor deposition (PECVD), filtered cathodic arc deposi- tion, hollow cathode deposition (FCAD), and atmospheric pressure plasma processes are also used extensively. Anodizing and plasma treatments such as nitriding are still used extensively in some appli- cations. A brief description of these processes will be given here. A more detailed treatment of deposition technologies for films and coatings can be found in the Handbook of Deposition Technologies for Films and Coatings, 3 Ed, Peter M Martin, Ed., Elsevier (2009). The following deposition processes will be briefly described: 1. Thermal evaporation (TE) - including ion assist 2. Electron beam evaporation (including, ion assist) 3. Ion plating 4. Sputtering a. Planar magnetron b. Cylindrical magnetron c. High power impulse magnetron sputtering CHIPIMS) d. Unbalanced magnetron e. Closed field f. Ion beam5. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) . Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) 7. Atomic layer deposition (ALD) 8. Filtered cathodic arc deposition (FCAD) 9. Hollow cathode deposition 0, 1 a 10, Vacuum polymer deposition 11. Plasma processes (anodization, nitriding, etc.) For simplicity, we will address three broad categories: physical vapor deposition (PVD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and plasma processes. Hybrid deposition processes include combina- tions of these technologies.2.1 Physical Vapor Deposition Physical vapor deposition processes encompass a wide range of vapor phase technologies, and is a general term used to describe any of a variety of methods to deposit thin solid films by the condensation of a vaporized form of the solid material onto vari- ous surfaces. PVD involves physical ejection of material as atoms or molecules and condensation and nucleation of these atoms onto a substrate. The vapor phase material can consist of ions or plasma and is often chemically reacted with gases introduced into the vapor, called reactive deposition, to form new compounds. PVD processes include * Thermal evaporation * Electron beam (e-beam) evaporation and reactive elec- tron beam evaporation * Sputtering (planar magnetron, cylindrical magne- tron, dual magnetron, high power pulsed magnetron, unbalanced magnetron, closed field magnetron, ion beam sputtering, diode, triode) and reactive sputtering¢ Filtered and unfiltered cathodic are deposition (nonre- active and reactive) ¢ Ion plating ¢ Pulsed laser deposition Variants on these processes are ¢ Bias sputtering ¢ Ton assisted deposition * Glancing angle deposition (GLAD) ¢ Hybrid processes Hybrid processes combine the best attributes of each PVD and/or CVD process. Among the combinations are