r,,"~-::arillJ1IillillI N. M.

Belyoev
I

",--

I
I
I

I
.

.....

--~== -~~~-I ......

,
I
1

---

---=

---

MIR PUBLlSHERS MOSCOW

H. AA 6Ullle.

C0fV>01l1BnEliHE MATEPIo1AnOB

N. M. BELYAEV

Strength of Materials

frallslafed from [he Russial1

byN. K. Me/l/a

MIR PUBLlSHERS MOSCOW

Frrst publlsM<! 1979

R;evised lmm the 1976 Russian edlllon

He ..'......"1.....

_Il#

Ku;~ .H-rll'. \176

10 En(llt"" lranslallon. Mi. Pub""".." 1m

P,ill/H '" 1M U"t/Pl

o/

SOO;ll SedctW RlpubtkJ

Nikolai Mikhailovich Belyaev

(1890-1944)
Nikolal "\ikhaHovich Bdyaev occupied a leading rosltlon among
eminenl Soviet selenOsis who worked on Ihe technica applicatlon oI
Ihecry 01 elasticity and strength al materials and slruclures.
Alter graduating rolO lhe SI. Pelersburg Institute of Railway fogl
neering in 1916, Nikolai Mikhallovich Belyaev was nvlled lo sta y al
Ihe Strength 01 Malerials Departmen!. where he worked under S. P. Ti
moshenko.
Nikolai Mikhailovich Belyaev was associaled wlth thls Instilule
(now the Lc!Oingratl Institute 01 RalJway Engineering) lhroughoul
his Iife. Al lhe institule he laught subjeets like engineering slruc!ures.
bridges, IhooreUcaJ mechanics, slrength el malerials and thecty 01
eJaslicity, and (rolO 1924 to theend 01 his lile was Head of theSlrenglh
01 Mlllerials Deparlmcnt.
AH his life Nikollli Mikhllilovich Belyaev was a leadiog engincer
and research worker. He was the first lo formulate and wlve the probo
lem 01 stability 01 prismlllic bus under variable axial loading-a
problem inleresting from lhe throretical llsped and important from
Ihe point of view of applicallons. Simullllnoously, Nikolal Mikhailovkh Belyaev worked on !he problem 01 local slresses In bodies in contad
under compression. Here he considerably developed the works of Herlz.
The work fint published by Nikolai Mikhatlovkh Belyaev in 1924 has
completel)' relained ils value te this day.
In lhe Soviet Union Belyaev was one 01 the first to undertake Ihe
stud)' 01 the theory 01 plasUc deformatlon, and he oontributed a 101
lowards lhe development 01 his field.
Nlkolai Mikhailovkh Belyaev spenl Ihe lasl yean of his lile in
fruitlul r~arch on problems 01 creep and relaxalion 01 melals llOdcr
high temperalures.
Nikolai Mikhailovich Belyaev was 11 rare la len! who successfull)'
combined Iheory wilh experimental research. In 1924 he cok o\'(r as
Head of the mechanical engineering laboralory 01 lhe Leningrad lo
slitute 01 Railway Eogineering, and in lhe course 01 16 years 01 adnllnistralion changed lhe laborator)' into a leading sdentific res~an:h
cenlre.
New le<:hnical speclllcaUons ensudng long and reHable performance
01 rals were compiled as a resull of lhe research ~ndlJcled al !he
laboratory under lhe guidance and with direcl participalion 01 Nikolai \\ikhailovlch Belyaev. These spedfications wilh minar addilions
are in force lo lhis day.
Research done by Nikolai Mikhailovich Belyaev in Ihe field 01
lechnology of concrele \Van wide acclaim al1 over lhe Soviet Un ion.


The pedaeocieal actlvily el Nikolal Mikh.lIovlch ~Iy..l"v was no!
restrided lo l~ ltninrld Institut! of RailwlY Engillet'f1ne. He
'o\IOfked.1 the Leningr.d Technologicll InsUtute (1919-1926), teningrad rutltule 01 Civl\ Avlatlon (I93J.J934j, and !rom 1934 onwards
was Head o{ Ihe Slrenath of Material! Department al lhe Leningrad

Polytechnl<:al Institute-the blggest lnstitule in Ihe country.

In 1939 Nikolal Mlkhaflovlch Belyaev was eJecled Correspondlng
,,\ember of the USSR Academy 01 Scieoc:es, and !rom 1942 occupttd
lhe po$t of Deputy Director of lhe Institute of Mechana ol lhe Ac.ademy el Scimw oJ Ihe USSR.
His book Strmgth

USSR.

of

Mah:riC!b bu

won ",,de rtooinltlon

in lhe

Preface
to the Fifteenth Russian Edition

The new edltion of Slrmglh o/ MaJeriaJ$ by N. M.

Bdy~v

hu

\)cen publlshed alle!' 11 )'dr5. In 33 years thal lapsed between lIJe

ublication by N. M. Bely.ev 01 lhe first IlIlon In 1932 and Ihe tast
ourteenlh edition in 1965 a 1(1181 ol 675 000 copies of the book "",ere
soldo teslilying \O lb .....Ide popularity. Outl", th's pedod lile book was

f,

periodlcally enlarged and revlsed by N. M. Selyaev and, alter his

death in 1944, by IVOUP 01 lout or his co-workers. This group, which
prepared [rom the fiflh lo lhe lourteenth edltions lor publlcation, did

no! oonslder Jt proper to make subslantial changa in Ihe orIginal

...:ork 01 N. M. Belyaev. AddiUON ..... ere done al Orte time or anolher

only when lhey beeame absotu!el)' ne<:e55.ry due to changes in standards Ind technical spa;lfications and In lbe light 01 recen! research.
In Iht- present edit;oo. prepare<! by Ihe same roup, a number of
tapies have !:leen dropped eilhel' owing lo ihelr irrelevallCe lo strenglh
ol rnaterials or bec8use they are rarely laught in Ihe maln C:OUf'Sie. The
topies that haY<' been drop~ indudeContactSlresse:s, Riveted ~ams.
Relnrorced Coocret... 8eaIIlS, Approxhnate Methods lar Cakulltil1l
DeRedkln of Se8ms, Beams on Elastk: Foundalion, Design of ThinwalJed Bars, all graphical methods. and a part of Complicated P1obIUlS of Stability AIlalysi.s, the oth~ part 01 the last topie being pt&
sented in an abbrevi.ted venion. 1e reader may rerer to the e.arlier
edllions of thi.s book or special monos:raphs In case inlorrnation Is
requirl.'d on lhese topies.
Considering the availabllity 01 arge number 01 problern books
(S@ot, for instan<:e, Problerru on Strel1glh o, Maltrlals edited by V. K. 1(11.
churln) on the market, mo.sl 01 the examples hllve been dropped lrom
the present edit1on. Only eKamples that are essenlial lor the explana.
tion 01 IheoreUcal part have b~tm retained.
For greater compactness Ihe problern 01 deslgn lor sale loads has
now been included In Chapter 26 For the lirst time (he chapler inelu
des the principies of deslgn 101' limiling sta les, which though beyond
the limils 01 the basl<: course of strength 01 malerials are important
mough lo requiTe an exposltion oJ the basic con~pts even at Ihis slage
of teaching.
The problems 01 strenglh, which in the prevlous editions occup~
two chapters, llave been rouped nlo one. lile part dealing wilh aclual
slres.ses has beefl tnmferred lo Chapler 2, 'Aohere il has been presenled
In a sufficlently detalled manner.
Thfo tabl!':!> containing dala on materials have beeo dropped from lh~
appendkes. A part or the dala on materials hu ~ lransierred lo


corresponding secHons. The ob3otete sted pruliles grading has bern
replaccd by ntw ones.
A" in \he previous edlttons lt ""1$ Out endeavour lo pfl:5efVe Belyaev's
stylt Ind melhod ol presentalkm oi malerll/. Therl'rof1! Ihl' author's
161 ha! In general been preserved. 11 Nlkolll Mikhailovich BeJy~
\~ allve loday he would pclS:5ibly write man)' thmgs In a dill"erent
way. However, slnce the book WOIl wide popularlly as II,'ritlen by
N. M. Bel)'aev, we tried 10 preserve tM original lal as {Ir as pos.sible.
The work involved In preparing lhe liH~th edltion loe publica
tlon '#ias dlstributed amoog lhe group as follows: Olapler 13, 80
of Olapter 14, Qapters 1519, 2425-L. A. Belyavskii; Chaplers 6,

812, 27-28-Ya./. Kipnls; Chapters \-5, 26and appendices-N. Yu.

Kushelev; Chapter 1, 79 of Chapter 14, Ch8pter.~ 21)23. 2932A. K. SinHskiL
A. K. Sinitski

Contents

"!toJaI Mikhailovldl Belr~ 5

Pre/~ lo !be FiIlftlllb RuUlln EdItlon 7

PART 1. Inlroduction. rendon .nd Compression

Ou.plff l. lnlrodoo<liooo

1.
2.

1H.
3.
l.

11

The te_ 01 sUrqlb .... IDlIlUuD 17

CJ_lIlcallon oIb<:IS Iod1r'C on tlane"" 01 SIrutIIlrD 18

~orlllllions MllI 5!Rsscti 21

01 ..,n,tlon 01 lbe fundamental problml 01 UrffllElll 01
....Ur,..h 23
T)pes 01 clP:forllllllJons 'l1

srnm..

OUpI!ll" 2. SItaS and SI,..;" In J..,..iOl1 'Rd CompreslOll "'"'11,1" thc' EIll$llc Ll ..,It.
SeleclJOII 01 Crou-otellonrJ Ar... t7
ti. Determinin tht Il.essos in l1.1'It5 pelptlldlculll io ti ... UII
01 lhe bar "/7
7.
Permissibk Ilr~. Stl...::!;og 1110 CfOl5-w<:lI00aI ..... 311
8.
Dtlormalio~ under lell$lon Illd comp,essloll. Hooke's fu.' 32
9.
L.tcl"Il ddorrndiOl1 coelfito.nl. PoJSSQll'...Iio 36

a.apl~

3.

Ex~rtllltntal

",
1".n.
t

i 13.
14.

16.

1".",

Study 01 r.nsr"" .oc Co'nprusloo In Vuloltl ""'ferIal. ood

Iht fluls or Seledln lhe Perml",lble SITI':S-'eS 40

Tenslon test dilliram, Ml<:II.nlul pl'ol!ll"IID ol milerl.ls

Stresssl'"Jn di1llJim

40

47

Truo Was-slllin dlqr~ 48

Slr.slnln d,~am ro< elucide .nd brllllti mlw.als 52
Rupluf"lI! In ~"" 01 britt1e .nd ducl1oo mal,...,.ls. Comp.-asiQn tesl dl"'lUlm &1
Compar.U1'e $lucir ri !he mech.nK.1 proptttlC:S 01 clu<:l.ile .nd
brttl\t roater:!.b 51
~dd"lliOf1$ in 5r1~ll<l'l al
IxlDl 59
PennIJsiblt $It~ IIIldoPr teftlolon .D11 a.mlfer.iQn lar urious
materials (j.4

Sol"'.'

PART 11. Compllaled Cases ol TM.lIlon and

Comp~iOA

<:llIprtr 4. Desl", al SI.lJeally lnlte_lnak Syslmos lar Pmooiulbl. SlrelMS ..

f 18.

19.

t 20.

1'"".
23.

Slatleally Indollflllnale srsl_ 66

!be dect al manulacturllllllll.et..aclt6 (1ft the IClrcft -=tiJ1i In tlK

elemerlls al ~.tically lndeltrmilllte sltuct.....os 13
Te.'lSIon .nd (o:npress.ioo In ban nII1k al hcrtrOi~ m.le-

n.b n

51_ duo lo leIllP'l',.tW"l ctIaIIfe 79

Slmllh._ ao::cwn\ lar vanous ladon 82
More compUcaled cutS al sl.Uully lndetmnln.le s!ructUl'Q 115

'"
Olaftfl'" 5. Acco.nl lo< 0...01 Vt'tlfhl In Tellilon an~ CompIlSSIOI\. Oeslgn 01 Aa."',

Strln!l' liS

24.

~lne

lhe aew._llQl\aI . u wltll

t~

_ n I for

!6

....bl (in lmslon and compt_lIIl)

I~

de.el

Dt/ol"lnatlons dl't to dud Wdpt 11

F1u;b~

cable 92

(JI.ple< .. CaonpoooM Slnsxd Stale.

,'11.

and $tn;1n "

uS.,

ILonc lndlnttl tedlonl unclcr

(unlUi.l :IltftIJ W
S~

tensltlft

or comPl'-'''''

Cm<etllol prilld,.1 . - . T7J* d str_ 01 mal~.1r 101

Eumples af blul.1 and triuia[ l t _ Dosi.~n al cy\h.drl<:ll

I",.".r::
J<.
1."".

m'I'oir

103

Stro:5SllS 111 bluf.'

r
".".

Iot....

101

''''''eY ", ..

OIapl" 7. Strtnlh DI .\blt,hlJo In

"....".

~r-.s

Gr.phic doterminlllon 01 W - (Mobr's cln:k) 110

~lerminailon oIlbe. prIndp.1 stt_ ,"lb 1M ~lp el lhe wna
d,de 114
St,ts5t5 in tl1ut.i IIrMlWd sl.l. 117
Oebmatlons In lho- COOlJlOllnd ,lIea 121
Potenti.1
MUe oelorlrllltlon In tcmpound '1._ 124
Pur. d ... u. Str_ ond str.lM, Hooh', l.,.., POWlU.1
'ntri)' 127
Compo~nd

St.--

'" '"

Res.Istanc.. (o lalluro. RUlllur. and S~I'

Slrwglh lheorieil 136
Thttl"iea 01 hrlllla bill.ll't (lhtorlU DI ru~"re)
Tlle<lrie 01 ob:UIe [arhlle (!hror/a ol I .r)
Reduced .tr~ aOfdHlJ lo dllfe,enl 111O"lllh lhtorlel
Peomlulbk sir_ In ptl/t sht... 149

PART 111. Sheu and Torsion

"'.pttrl. PracHal Mf:lholI5of OesI",on.5ke:o.

,43.

_ 44.

1$1

Oeoin d riVelrd lIWl bollrd )0/111$ 151

Desilll d Mldtd !olnl$

1$3

..

,'"

'"

Coniltnts

11

PART IV. Befldlng. Sb"cngth 01 Reams

CIlIpler lO.

,","57.

1,,
...61.

59.

ClIlpler 11.

........ ".

I.. Iema!

f.,.. . la

"'<11"11'

Sbearl.... kJmo .,,111

Ilendll1"_

Fund_W - . . b d ddormaUoa In bIIndIllI. lnStnocilon d

bum IUpporb 195
Nallft al su- in hum. 8ftId1nc IllOIIItIlt Mld -"1'I!l
fon:. 200
Dllerl5lUal rel.tlOll behrftn ~ lntenslt)' ... :1 Ol'JIltl1lllou> 10M.

force..,d btndlng _ 1 205

sbearlll(

Plolttnc benltl... ~ t .00 ..'l"wlne-foroo dl.ogrlu. 201

Plottlng btndlnmoment en" $lturlnfortt dlagr:lJll$ lar ",en
t<Jmplk.. ted 10tIds 21.
Tbe clleck ofJr~ plotling 01 Q- lI1>d \1dlagrlrtlS 221

AppUc.ollon

1M principIe 01 superpOllllall o 1000etS In plo(f,ng

2'.t3

.hearln,!ol'(ll! Ind bendlng-moment dhgr.1lU

~lmnlnlllon

162.

,,,'"

01 Nonnal 5 1 _ In lkndl .., In'" Sln<n(lh ol

8elms n5
b:perlmmlll lovo:slllllllon el lbe ll'Orkl"ll 01 mll!trI.1s In pure
OOIdlllll 225
o.termlnallon 01 normIll s U - In bendinf.. H_.'$ l........ el ~
le'1tJll mereY of btndlng 228
AppliCllUon 01 \he ftSUlts derived ~ 1" dwdltOllho str_lh al

...

'"

12. Dtl_h..lloll al MooMftb: 01 hlcrtla of PI_ flpra

j6S.
S66.
167.

f 68.

,,,.
,m.

f 71.

In.

'73.

""'- '"

Gtn.l rndbod of eokulati'lrl: Ihe lTlome:ll$ of lnerib 01 <:omplu

Iolldlora 244
R~I.tlQIl btt_ IDOIIIffiIS '" inertl.1Ibout IWll par.IJ,f.1 ua onI
of whlch
11M oentr.l uh 2~
Rel.llon bet_ t"'" momenl. of ...Ih IIn<let fol..I;OIl of

r.

247
Prlnclp.1 un of lner\l nd principal momenls of mert;. :l5O
~ mulmllm and mlnlTmlm v.llles 01 lhe cenll"ll momenls of
Imrli. 254
lUlO

AppUo.llon of lbe rarmllla fOl ddermlnlllll norrn.1 .tr~ lo

n<)II,"~mmetrlcal """lil\l\l 254
RadiJ of lnertll. OJncepl 01 Iht momenlll tlliplC 256
Slrtlllllh clleck, t;hol~ of Il:Ctloo
cletffrnln.lioo of pel'miltible
load In bendl
258

bloam, ol

,"d

nc

o.aplK 13. Shnrlnll and PrIJIClpaJ Slresws In Ba..

213
1 74.
~ln ....._
In beam 01 rrcllllplll aec:Llon

~.

7&.

n.
78.

Shearlnc 11_ In l.tlt.... m

S!learlnc IU_ In kImI cf dr""br and

80.

~11e

w_

&wtu

263

'ne act.l0Pl

SbefWlh clIedr f.. princ:ip.l .lfIIAf:l 27li

DirecUCllU 01 1M prinrlpal sUmes 2l!O

o..,ltt" 14. SIotsr Centr..

f 79.

l39

DetermlrqtlClll of IItOIlle'IIts of lnortl. -.nd MlCtIOll rooduU le. .. ",pie

l'83

Shearin
p Ud lo lbo. neulf.l UIL
E:oneept 01 abe.- oenlu 283
Rlvded and wdded 1>e.ams 289

272

"

PART V. Ddormation 01 Bums due to Bendloa

a...>ln I$.. """lyt\cal Mtfhod el DIle_mm, Del_tlont 2ft

t 81. lA""tion IIIId lohtlon d btam atIC:liOl1l$ m
t 82. Dilett>li.l pc\uIIlUll IX tbe IoIect.e<1 nis 294
t~.

!l4.

t l6.

lnltr.Uon al lhe dilerential eqo.aallon of lbe ddecttd 1m of

Manl flud'l _
end 296
lnlqllU"lllbe 1l!emltill tqu.otlon oll"" dettcted ni. 01. Jlmply
~~t~ bam 299
Metl\Oll of tqu'lilli lile eonsbnts ol InlqratlOll of dlll~ntl.l
""".UoN IIIhtn ~ bum bu Il\Imbu of dille<tnUy loaf<l
p<l<t1on$

86.

111.
ll8.
89.

90.

3)1

Mtlhod 01 InlU,1 pararnelm lar dtltrmJnJn: displ.eeml!llls In

be.ms 304
Slmply 'llpKIfled be_m umymmeh1cally loadtd by for

Inlqrltll1ll lhe dlllmnllal "qu.llon fel" hined

Superpolltlon of lorces 0310
Dlil:erenll.l rel.Uons In bendlT\l 312

b~m

305

301

Ola"I"r 16. Gnopll-I...:Jylk Aldhod of CalC1l1.t1n D\$plaum~t In Ilendln 3U

'}L C....pb-..u.lyllc metllod 313
92. EUllIpla of ddel'mlllln 6el~UlQ by lbe r.jlb-malyUc
nle\bod 317
t \13. The e:r-pb_lytlc lPd.1\od .ppUed lo ~i1inur bend1rc-momenl
diarams 320

Oupltl' 11. Non-.... \1onIl kams #4

t 94. Selt1rc \he 1eI:I.I0II ID M_ d unlf<l1ll sUefllllb 32~
96. Praetlcal uamples o bams al uniflll'lQ mCJlllh m

196.

OUplamnenb In lIOII..:nlllll'lQ \>umI;

326

PART VI. Potentlal Eneegy, Stath:a\ly llldell"rmlnate

Duros
OIaplu 18. AppllcaUo!\ 01 tlM Co!\ctpl 01
menls

PoI~nl\.1

fMrlly In Ool.nnlnin OIsplaco-

331

99.
loo.

St..lcmenl 01 tilo prQblem 331

Pot~ntl.1 ene1rY Irl tM slmplest usa 01 lo.dlui 3J3
P<rteutill ~netllY ler lhe ca.., 01 several lorea 3J.(
CalNlalll\ll btnlKl\Il ~n"-IlY uai"ll ,ule""ll lurCCO' 336

lO!.

Castlctimo'l theomll 331

97,

98.

,102

. lro:

IOt.
lOO.
106.
, 107.
lO!.

Eurnples 01 applleatlon el C.oslllllllno's

lhoelll'~m

Melllod 01 lnlrodUdOll an utellLll 'orce 3<14

1'becnm of letfp<ocily of ""llI'b 3-.6
Tbe lbta'trII 01 Manoell and MoiIr 341

341

V....h;'-&In.. mdbod ~
OUpI_b In I r _ 351
o.,&ectIOll 01 bufnl; duo: lo s.~.. I'1: ICIIOl! 363

au.,I..- ,1. Stallally llIdekrwllmlte Bnms j6

109. FundMncnlal ~b .356
110.
R..--I"ll aaatle loddemUlIIC)' Yia 1M c1lller...lial ~qulion of 11M
dekcltd bum u.h 357

13

lU.

""..
I".
n2.

113.
115.

117.

PART VII. Rt$lslance Undtr Compound Loading

Ooapl(O' to. Unoro-trlc hdllll 37'
~ 119.
Func!&lMnt.1 concepb 37.

Uns)'tl'lrnd.,lt be'll11nc. Dtlermillltlon al lol.reI&a 319

'20.
\ 12t.

Otolermlnlne clSfl1.lrnents In ulII)'TIlll'.flrfc bendln

Oollltl:r 21. Gomblned Ilondln. and

T~,l...

1M

~lon

:188

122.

OtokUon 01 bum subJec:1td lo ul.1 llld l.ler.l lon:a

JZ!.
124.

E~QUlttic I~oo or CompresslOll

392

al !eCUon 396

'"

Ollljlltr 22. Combl""d bondln, and 10TlIl)/1 401

!i 12~. Dtll!l:mln.llon 01 lwlstln: .nel bendln momtnl.s 401
f 126. DtltrmlnlUon ol.treM.e$ IlId .lrtntll check In eo:nbined blOndin.

,"d torslon

404

Ch.p'" 13. Goneral Compound l.oIdln, 408

f 121. Stressts In I b,r _tlon subJ.dtd

,"-".
1

lo.dllW .fOlI
DtltmllfllllJon 01 normal
410
DeU!,mln.Uon 01 ~ .. str_ 413

w_

,>l.

OriermlnaUon of cIIlJ1llOtll'.ents 414

DelifOl ol I $Im\!~ c;nnll: rod 411

131.

0lafI1tt 24.

, 132.
f 133.

l"..
,35.
,35.

1137.

,".,,,....
,JI.
\ '39.

141.

fb" 423
Gener.l Cdapb ~
~minallon of bcndlnc _ b Ind IlOl"mlJ 1M Ihurj~
kRa 424
DtlermlnaUm of str_ due lo IlCIffll.ll ond ~nc ion;e; 42\1
DttmnlnatlOll al SlreHS due lo bendln mcmcnl U7
QmpullllOll al lhe. t.dJ ... al CW'Y.tllJ1l el tbe neutral ~yer In.

rect.r.lcUbc wclJoa '33

OdtnniIIIUon al lile rldlll$ ouv.ulI'e al lile ,,",Iral 11)'8 lar
dale ancI trlptZOld 434
[)etaminfne lile kallon al ne.IIJII laye- ltom bblcs 436
Anal",s 01 !be lonnula kr norma.l s~ In 1 OUV" bJ u:;
Ad41l1onal remarb on lile JomNla lar IlOl"mal Illesses C9
An lIamp~ on delen:tln1nr IIressa In a <;UTftd bar 441
o.et.m1n.Uon 01 dflplar:tmentl In ~rd ban W
Anal)'lll of eireul.. rirll 445

O!.pl~r

'U. Thlc:k_walled and Thln_wulled Vessel<

14'.
145.
1';.

Analyj 01

Ihlcl<-""all~d

cyllndlrs

446

446

Slrt:SSeS In thlclc .pherlC<lI yw;els 453

I\nalysls or thIM,... lIed vflS'els 434

O1aptl:t 'l6. Destilo 10r P...-rnlstlble Loads. Deslio lO' lImlllnl! 51111$ 457
147. Deslgn lO!" perml.'l6lblt load. AppJlc.tron to 5tattca!ly 'Ieterminal. 5.tem! 457
~ J4l:l.
Desllln O sbtically ndetermlnal. sr,slems "nde; l.n.ll)n or
compression by the melhod of permisslb. loads 458
Odermlnallon of ltmiUn, IIflln espadly of I !...alad rOO 4ij2
149.
ISO. Selectlnll be.m sedion for permlssible load. 465
ISI.
Destilo 01 at8tiCllly ndetermlna!. bum. IQf pum($';,bl. 1000~s.
The fundamental. An'l)'Sta 01 Iw.,."pan ~.m 468

l '5' 153.

Analysls al three-span beam 472

FUlIdamNIlals ol deslgn by lb. method o/ lIm\ling sl.lltcs

474

PART VIII. Stllbllity 01 ElemenU 01 Slrudures

Chap'e' 27. Stablllty 01 Oan UndeJ Compresslon 477
154.
lnlrooucllcm. Pundamental$ 01 slabtUly of shapt 01 compressed
baB 4n
Euler's Imnula lor alllcal Ice 480
ElIed of <onsindnlng the bar ends ~84
Limlts 01 ,ppUcablllty oJ Euler', IQl'1TIula. Plotllng of!be dlagram
of tolal crili<:lll .lrl:S'leS 488
158. The shbl1ity cbe<:k 01 COOlprl:5Sl!d bar' 4~4
159. SeIe<:llon 01 Ih. type ol secUon and malerlal 4SS
t 160. Practlcal imporlBnef. 01 .tlIblllly check 502
Olap1er

More CompltCllledQueslloRlol Stabl1lty In El ..... nls ol Slruclures 004

Slablllly of plane .W"lace In bendlng of b.,ms 504
Desigll of compr<'5Sl!d'bent ban 512
~I63.
Elfed of ~nlrl. comprt$lJve fOfC;t .nd nlil,l curv.ture
01 bar 511
~8.

g: 161.
g: 162.

PART IX.

Dynamlo

Actlon uF Forces

ChIpre, 29. Efle<:t 01 PorteS 01 lnertia. Slr=es dile to Vlborallons

f lG4.
t 16S.
166.

,167.

168.

I&J.

lIT:
172.

521

lnlloduclion 521
Ddermlnlng .I.esses In unllorm1y I<:<e1cr.ted mollon 01
bodies 523
S\mse$ In a rotaln 'lng (Dywheel 'lml 524
S!~ In connecling rads 525
RotaUng di .. 01 uni10rm lhickn~ 529
DI.. 01 u"Horro slrength 533
Elfe<:1 al resonan~ GIl tite magnltude 01 stresseo; 535
Oelennlnotion 01 slresses in elemenls subJe<:ltd lo vibrallo" ~
The elfed 01 m;ss of lh. el.,tle syslem on vlbrallcUls S-tl

(.haple' 30. Strmes Unde, "np,cl Lol.dlnll M8

173.
Fllnd,menl.l concepto 548
174. Oo:nerol mdhod 01 detennlning slr<:$SeS linde< impad

I~

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PART I

Inlroduclion.
Tension and Compression

CH......

tn'

Introduction
1. The Scitl'Kl' of Slrenglh 01

Mal~ials

In designing struCIUftS and machines, 3n enllinel'l'" has 10 select I~

material ami the cfoss-scclional area 01 t;tl'h tlemen! of the stru<:!ure

or machine so lha! il enables Ihe

~Itmenl

lo have slrenglh lo resis!

externa! forces Iransmilled to ji by adjllcent elemenb ar lhe structu~

without fiJure of slrength or distorlion of shape, i. e. Ihe t>lement
should fundioo proerl y. Slrenglh 01 malerials provjdes Ihe englneer
wilh lundamenlllls or a proper solution 01 his problem.
Stf(!I1gll1 llf moferfals deals wilh lhe behavlour 01 various malcrials
under lhe aelioo of external lorces aod poiots out ho\\' lo select lhe
appropri.te material aod the crosS-Stclional area of each ciernen! of
Ihe slruclure $O as lo prQvide fully rtliable Functioning and Ihe mosl
economic designo
SomelillK$. slrength o( materials hu jo deal with Ihe problem in a
modified lorm-Io check Ihe dimensions of a designed or existing
struclurc.
The conditions for maximum eoonom)' in rlesign and reliabilil) o(
lunclioning are COfIlradiclory. T~ lormcr demand minimum consumption 01 materials whereas the btter lead lo inttease in consumplOfl.
This contradiction form5 the buis o tM Itchnique, which has fatili(;IIe! the development o slrenglh 01 material$.
orlen lhe uisling methDds 01 checkine: he stren::lh and the availab
le materials a~ unablc lo meet Ihe pradical rtquiremenu for providint
answffS lo nl.'W problems tfor example. allaining high speeds in enei.
neering in general and in aerosl.lics in particular. 1ongspan struclures,
dynamic slabililr, ele.). This initiales a searcb for new malerials
and sludy 01 Iheir proprties, and lapires r~arch lor improving {he
exisltng melhods 01 designing and devising lhe new ones. Slreng1h of
materials mus! keep pace wilh lhe llenera1 deve10pmenl 01 eneineerin
and techno1eey.

1-3uo

..

[Pa,t I

Somelimcs, b{'$ides he chiel Tequirf'rnl.'nls of max;mum reliabllil)'

and econom)'. an engine<'r has lo cn~ure /ulfilmen! of olh.'T condiioru
too. such as quick build,"! lll.'htn rt'$toring brokl'n slructuresl. mini
muro weighl (in 1Ilrrrafl design), cle. These oondilions influcrK:t lhe
dimemions. Iht shape 8nd lhe material of Ihe 'lIrious e1elllenls ron1vris
ing lhe struclurr.
T~ r~ffice ol slrenglh o IIliIlerials 3S a stparlltt SCiffict' daln
back lo 1638 ;lntl ~ nlimale!)' connt<:tf'd wilh lhe \I:o;ks of ~liIto
(aliJei, {he greal Ilalian ~C'I1list Galileo \l:as a proJes,.<;Of 01 mathe
malia al Padua He lh-ed in a period ....1l1ch sa.,, lhe disinl~alion 01
Ihe leudal syslem, lhe developmenl of tradc capital antl inlemalional
marililOl! Iral1$port.8nd lhebirlh 01 minin.!!: Ind ml'lallurgiul mlustrie!.
lile rapitl economic developmenls 01 Ihose tintes called fOl" spcedy
solutiollS 01 oew lechnological problelll:~. Incrt'llSoC' 'lO intemalional
maritime rade perpetWlIM lhe nceo for blgger ships V.11irh in tum
entailt!d r:hanges 10 lheir d~ign: al lhe S<lflte IUlIe it ber:al1l<.' nCl:('SS1!ry
lo reconslruct Ihe existing ano lo butld nev.' mternal \\'lIll'f\\'ays, in
c1uding r:anals Dno sluicl'S, ThMe Ol'W Itl:hnkal problems mulo not be
solvtd b)' simply copyin.l: lhe exblmg lIe.signs 01 ships; il beca me
net:e:ssary lO juogl' Ihr slrenglh of elemenls keeping in mind lheir site
3ml Ihe lorces acting upon Ihelll.
Galileo devoled a considerable par! 01 his work lo the studr 01 lhe
dependence belween lhe dimensioos 01 beams aru! brs and Ihe loads
lhey could wilhstand. He poinled oullhYI Ih!! resull.~ of his experi ments
ma)' prove ver)' uselul in building big shlps, especia!ly in slrengthening
lhe d~k anrlooveringbecauSl' low weighl is ver)' importao! in slruc'
lures of his type. Galileo's works have heen publisht"d in his book
Disrors{ , Dimo1.luu;Qtli Mal/motic/le ... tDialogue on Two f'e"N
Sc:~ces ' , ,~) (1638. Leiden. Holland).
Further developmeol of slrenglh 01 malerials ,,'('ni on in step wilh
1Ilt! progres.s of mechaniral and civil engineing. and rllalena1i1.t!d
O'A'ing lo II~ r~arch .....o rk done by a largre number of eminent ~irn
lisis. nurlhernaikians. phy.ski.sls and l.'nginters. Rmsian ;:lod Soviet
.stffili.sls Ottup~' an importanl place lmongsl hen!. Brie( informali,,&::
skelches aboul Ihe role playM by individual sdenl ists in th(> Orvl.'lop.
ment or sorne problems of strenglh of lnatefials are iVdl ln correspondng ehapler.s o[ Ihe book.

2_ OauHie:alion of Forus Ar:linf on EIm1enl.s

01 Stru<lures
When in operal)ol'l, the elc-m<'nt.s of slruclures ano! m3thin~ are
subjKled lo e.'defnal loads. v:hlch lhey lran~mil lo one aoolher. A c1am
bear.s ils O''A.-n "'eight and the pressure of .....ater Ihal il holds anrllransmHs lhl-s<' loren to lhe louodalion. Thl' sleel trussrs of bridgtos lake

11

Ch.

"

/lllrodllrfiM

the weight of lhe train through the whe~ls and rails and Iransmil ji lo
Ihe slone supporls, aml the latler, in lurn, c.ommunicale Ihis load lo
lhe foumJation. lhe steam pressure in t1le cylinder of a sleam engine is
Iransmitled lo a piston rod. lhe pulling forte or Ihe locomolive is
Iranmitled to Ihe Irain lhrou'h a coupler which conneds Ihe tender
wilh Ihe wagons. Hence, Ihe elemenls of slrl.lctures are subjecl lo either
lXI/Unte forCl'5 acting on eDeh elem~nt 01 lhe slruclure (dead weighl) or
!urces uf inleraclion* be!ween lhe element uoder conslderalion and
Ddjolning elements or belween lhe ~leOlenl and lhe surrounding mediUIII (w3ter,1\leam or air).ln fulure.when "",e S3)' lhal an e:dernal force
is being applied lo an eltmen! of the slruclure, Ibis \\'ill imply lhe
lransmission 01 forceol pressl.lre (molion) lo lhe element under consid
eraUon Irom adjoining elemenls 'O Ihe slruclure or Ihe surrounding
medum.
lhe rarees may be classifled according lo a number 01 crileria.
We dislinguish belween Ihe concenlraled and distributed forees.
A C1Jncentrated fura: is delined as lile force al pressure Iransmillll lo
Ihe element or slruclure lhrough an area whieh is very smllll ~s compared lo (he size 01 the elemenl, lor e;(ample, Ihe pressure 01 Ihe wher>ts
of a moving Irain on Ihe rails.
In practice he eoncenlrllled force is considered lo be acting al a poinl
owing fo Ihe small area through whieh Ihe pressure is transmiHed,
We must kcep in llIind Ihat Ihis Is an approxlmalion wheh has been
inlrodueed lo simplily Ihe calculalions; actually, no pressure can be
lransmi!t('d lhrough a poin!. However, lile error due lo lhis appro);imation is so smalllhal l may be generally gnored.
A disfrbu/cd furre is defined liS Ihe loree applied conlinually o\'er a
eertain lenglb or al'(8 al Ihe slructurl', A la)'l!rol sand 01 uniform !hiekness spread OVl!r Ihe sidewalk 01 a bridge repreSl!nts a raree which s
uniforl11lv dislribuled over a certain area; il lhe tllickness of Ihe sanfl
layer is nol unlorm \Ve shall oblain II non.uniformly dislribuled load.
lhe dearl weighl ola bellm in Ihe eeiling represents a load dislribull!d
over ils lenglh.
lhe conel!ntrated loads are measured in unils of force (lons, kilograms, newlons .*); OH.' IOlldsdistribuled over an area are measured In
lerms oi lorce per unit area (II/m'. kgl/cm', NilO', etc.); Ihe loads
dislribuled along lhe lenglh 01 an elemenl are expressed as loree per
uni! lengtb (kgllm. N/m. ele.).
The loads ma}' further be classified 3S permanl'nt and lemporar~'.
lhe fJCrmanenl loads ael Ihroughout Ihe whole lile 01 lile slruclnrt'.
e.g. de3d weighl. lhe (cmporur!J loods ael on Ihe slruelure only lor:1
To he !,'(clS!', lhe ,,(lght <JI a oo<!y 1$ (lIe QfCe I\f lnter.etlrn b\>l\l('Clllhe

body

~ud

lh~

",,lh.

111 lhe SI s)'6Icm. whieh i6 fIOW p,elencd alld

~llf~d lo ll~wl"ns {l N",O.ICl2 kg/).

,.

rC(~I1U\lrndrd,

lile I"ru' ls IIIra

/lIlroductwlI. Ttllsil/l clld CompltSSiOll

{Porl /

I.:etlain period of time-Ihe welghl of lhe train moving along lhe bridge
may be ciled as an ex.ample.
ACl.:ording lo Ihe nature of adion, Ihe loads may be c:Iassified as
static amI dynamic.
Sla!ic ioos act on Ihe struclure gradually, alter being applied lo Ihe
slructure they eilh~r do nol change al a1\ or ehange nsignificantly;
the majorly of loads acling in civil and hydraulic slruclures are 01
Ihis nalure. Under the influence of slalic loadin:: al! elel1lents 01 Ihe
conslrudion r<'main in equilibriulll; ~cceleralions in Ihe elemenls oi
lhe structure re either tolally absent or .so SlIlall Ihal Ihey may be
neglected.
11, however, tIJe aeceleralion is considerable and the change in
velocily or lhe machine or strueture lakes place in a shorl time, Ihe
load is known as dYllamic.
lhe examples or dj'namic loads are suddenly applied load, impact
load and repeated variable load.
Suddl:ll/Y applil:d loads are IransmHled instanlaneously in their
tolal lIlagnitude. An example 01 this Iype of loading is lhe lorce 01
pressure 01 lhe wheels 01 a locoOlotive when it enlers a bridge.
fmpuc! Juads appear whell there is a sharp change in the velocity 01
adjoining elements 01 il slruclure, lor example the impacl of drop
hammer during pi le driving.
lhe repeated ooriable (oads ael on Ihe elements of strudures ror a
considerable number 01 limes. For example, repealed stea111 pressure,
al lernately stretehing and eomprcssing lhe pislon rod and lhe connecl
ing rod 01 Ihe sleam engine. In a number of cases Ihe load represents
a combination 01 d)'namic loads 01 dillercnt natufe.
We shall flnl of all sludy Ihe resistanee of malerials lo slalic loads;
Ihe selection of material and cr0S5-sectional arca lor eaeh el..menl 01
lhe struclure does nol "resent man)' difficuHies in lhis case.
In Chaptet1l 2931 we shail discuss Ihe actioll 01 dynamlc loads in a
number of instances which occur as often as stalic loads; lhey require
carelul sludy because lhejr elfecl on the eJements 01 slruclures dilfers
rom Ihat 01 static loads, and the malerial also resisls Ihem in a difiero
....nl manner.
Conduding Ihe c1assi6calion of lorces ac(ing on lhe elemenls of
slmclures, lel us consider Ihe aelioo of parls whieh supporl Ihese
dements; lhe forces acliog on lhese supporls are known as the reaclion
furets-lhey are unknown quanlilies and are dell'rmined from lhe
<.:odHion Ihal each elemenl of the struclure musl remain in equilibrium under lhe aclion of JI! Ihe external rorces applied lo jI HIIllhc
l"I.'lIction lorcl'$.

'" JI
3. OeformatioJlS and Slr($5(S

"

In theorclil:al mechanics (slalics) Il'e sludy Ihl:' ~lIilibriulll or a

Jlffltclly riglll body; Ihis eoncepl ol" material in sllies is sulliclMlt lo
dell'l'mine (he contlilions in Ili!ich Ihe bodr \l.'iII remain In equihbrlum
unde.. Ihe oclion of e.~lemal (orces applied lo il. HO\\1!ver, Ihis rough
IlId appro~imale COOC't'Pl 01 Ihe properlics of material, dots 1101 hall!
good in slrenglh of malerinls; here .....1' musllake illto acrounl lhe rae!
Ih;,! Ihen' dtJel; 1101 exisl a pedectly rigld borly.
lhe elemenls of 11 struclure. as well as lhe slruclure a~ a wh1:>le,
chllnge lht.'ir dinumsion.'i and shlpe lo some ('xh.'nt under Ihe clion 01
exlernallorces lid are llable lo complete failure In Ihe tud. lhis change
in shape and size is called rleformution.
lile magniludeand natureol Ihe deformation deflend upon [hesITuc,
ture of lhe material llsetl. AII malerillls may be divilled into 111"0
groups: crystalJine anll alllOfphous,
Crl/sfallinE maJuiafs COf1sisl o a ver)' arge number o edrelllely sma!1
crysials. Each o th~ is a syslem of a\oms arrang~ very clase lo each
ollJer ill regular rows. Thesf: I"O\\"S rorm Ihe so<alled u!fSlafli(/E lallia.
In amorphous maltritds Ihe aloms are not Jrranged in a particular
order. Ther are held in equilibrium b)' the lorces or inleradion. The
JeJormation d bociies lakf$ place due lo change in the Jocl.lion d
aloms. .e. due io IMir getltng closer oc farlller,
Oclormalions are di\'ided into elaslic and plaslic. Elas/ic tkfOl'moliotJ
disap~ars when lhe lorce clusing Ihe dtformation is removed; in
Ihis CISt, 1M bodycomplell'ly regains its initla! shape and dimensions.
This d~ocl\lation OCCtlrs dlJC.' to elastic dislorliOIl in Ihe cr)'slallille
laltite. 11 has beenuperimenlal!yobserved Ihat the elaslic delorma
I ion oontinues till the 10000es bl'ing applied do nol excw:l a cerlain Iimil.
11, however, the utemal force exceeds Ihis particular limil, Ihe
body fails lo regain complele!y ils nitia! shape and sile a(ter lhe
force is removed; Ihe llifrerence in sile which Ihus remains is cal!ed
lhe p/(lslic (residl/al) de!orma!ion. In crystal1ine m;ll'rials, Ihis deloT'
nu.tion is eaused by lhe irreversible displaeemenl 01 one layer o
cr)"slalline laltiee with respetllo Ihe olher. Afler lhe remaval af external forces lhe displaced layers of aloms rl"tain their posilion.
In delormalion, Ihe displacement o aloms under Ihe aclion o exter
nal lorcl'S 15 acoompanied by a change in lhe forees of inleractioo
betWetll Ihe aloms. L~. IIw; forces 01 allraclion and ~ulsion.
Additiona! inlemal forces lJCOOmpanyine Ihl' deiormalioo appear in
lhe elements o slrudures under Ihe aclion oIulernal forces. These
internal rorcts resisl lhl' txterml lors and try lo prevnll Ihem fmm
breaking Ihe elelIll'nt, c:haning its shapt- or ~plrating one parl lrom
(he othe. TMY Iry lo regain Ihe initia! shape and si:z:e 01 a deformed
pan o, Ihe stroclurf'. In order lo M5C"SS Ihe efreel oIlhe ulernallorces
011 Ihe deformed element. we mu...1 know hOll" lo mtlSure and c:alculate

Pad I

the interalomic lorces Ihal appear as a resull oF the deformation caused

by Ihe action 01 external rorces.
In slrenglh of malerjals thi5 i5 achie\'l'd by Ihe mel1wd uf sec/iUf!S,
which we shall Iry lo explain by Ihe following example. Lel us imagine
a bar (Fig, 1), which is subj~lcd lo the clion or l\Va equal and epposile lorces, P, nd lel us imagine lhat lhe bar is cut in t\Vo Ilarls I
1

P~-----4--------tJ
....P
,
and // by a p1ane mil. Under Ihe action 01 forc{'5p both ha1vesoF Ihe
bar tend lo go aparl, bular" h"ld logelher owing lo lhe forces 01 mle
radion betwl.'t'1l Ihe toms localed on bolh sities of plane nUl. The
resultanl 01 Ihe forces of inleraction is Ih" infernal !(}fe.! Iransmitted
Ihrough mil from one hall of Ihr b:lr to the ather, and vice versa. The
internal force or inleraclion per unit area around any poinl 01 st'elion
mil is called lhe slress al lhe poinl of Ihe given seclion. The slresses
ading rrom parl If on par! I nd from parl f on part If are equa1
in magnitude according lo Ihe law 01 arlion aud reaelion.
" Ilumber of planes dividing Ihe bar in t\Va pnrls in t1ifferen! ways
can be dra\\'n thrOllgh a single poinl 01 lhe bar. Thl' rnagnHude and
direction ollhr ~Iresses Iransmilled Ihrough lhe given point [mm one
part ollhe bar lo the olher will clepcnd upon ho\\' lhe plano.' culs lhe
bar.
ThllS, il is wrong to speak of slrfSSl'S wilholl{ ndiellting {he plane
through which they are being Iransmillecl. Therefore \Ve speak bout
"lhe slress on a parliclllar area in <l par[i<:ular plane". Sinee slress is a
rorce per ullll are.1, il is Clll'1lsured in kgf.'Clll, kgl/mm t U:cm', Ulm',
N/m' etc

In '[nlur~, we shall denole slTt~ by Jellers p, a, and t; lelter p is

used ror strCSSl'S applied to cerlain area in 'In}' plane indini'd al an
arbilrary ang1e, C1 denoles slress al right ,mg1es to Ihe plane, i.e. /!ormal
slfl!s~, and T denotes stress in the phlne, Le. s/lrorillg stress.
Thl'slressal any roinl is {he measnreo[ intern:tl [orces which appear
in lhe material owing lo lts delormation under lhe aclon 01 exlernal
[orces. The rorce Iransmilled from parl J or Ihe lwr lo parl 11 (see
Fig. l) holds part 11 in equilibrium, i.~. counlerbalances lhesystem of
e~lernal forces ading on parll f. This lorce may be cxpreMed jo lerms
01 the slress lo be delenninetl: jf \Ve considcr an elementarv area dA
in lhe plane 01 culling, Ihen lhe elementar}' force arting o this ele
mentary arca wil! be p dA, where p is the slress al Ihe poinl arollnd
\\'hich lile elel1lenlary ar...a is lacated. The sun! 01 Ihese t:lemenlary
lorces gives us lhe total/orce translllilted through the particular plane.

Ch.

JI

2J

Thus, to \etermin~ Ihe strcsses. it is nettsSary lo imagine Ihe ele

menllo be cut in 1'4"0 parts and write clown Ihe: condilions of e:quilibrium lor lhe system of Jorct:S aciing on one of t~ cutoll' par\s.: Ihi~
s)'sle:m IllCludcs the ulernal {orl'U appHtd to lhe parl of the bar unrk'r
ronsidn-ation and also Ihe: lorce tro1ll5mitttd through lhe givcn'JL'~
ami uprt"SSCd in lerms 01 slresse::s sou!!hl. This is Ihe melhod
so.'C.
tioM, whlch we shall \,:ollSlanlly apply in lulure.
Let us point out, that, in slrcngth oC materillb. lhe lerm -slrcu~
is very oCien uscd nstead oC Ihe: exprcssion -inlernal lorces 01 inlenlelion Ix!twccn parls 01 the bar~; lherelore in futurc whm \Ve nlcnlion
~unilorl1l ami nonunirorm dislribu\ion oC strl':SSCS OVl'f the Sl'Cton~
and ~rorce as be SUll1 or slrC$SCS", we must bcar in lIlind tbal l~
expressions ar ... lo j cerlain degree convenUonal. For example. lo del('rnline Ihe force on(' caJlnol 5um up the slresscs al various points; (I,~
Il1cnlioned above. it is nccessary lo find al each point 01 sed ion the
tlcmelllafY fafre whiclt is transmittetl lhrough an clelllenl"ry arca dt1
and Ihen sum up a\1 the~ values. RL"Capilulating what has beL'fl wriL
len above, .....e come to lhe conclusion thal when ao exlernal [orce js
applit'd lo an elelllt'nt of structure, Ihe hlller gets delorlOed alld lhe
defOfmation is lK'ronlpanitd by slresses In Ihe clemen!.
Slrenglh or malerials sludies. on lite one hand, the rdalion bc.'t\l,'eCT\
lhe external lorces ando OCI the 01111'1' hand. Ihe deformaUons 2nd
slres5l'S due lo hem. This mables the engintc'r to salve the import.1nl
problem 01 :lell'Cling a bar of proper dimeru;ions and approprialt material lo re<ist lhe extemal forces. In Ihe liellt seclion weshall give an
outline 01 the solUliort lo l!lis problem.

4. Schtme 01 5CIlutlon 01 lhe Fundamental Problelll 01 Slrenlllh

01 Malerials
\Vhile selecting the slze ami material for an elenlenl of lhe ~tructllre
'>\le must provide Ior a cerialn sarely factor IIgainsl its lailure and plll'
tic delormlllion. Th(' element shoul([ be designed so Ihat the mllmum
slresses that occur during its operaton should alWllYS be less lhan (he
slresses lit which Ihl" T1111lerial "OS or undergoe:s plaslic deiormalion.
lhe stress al which Ihe materillllails s called {he ulfimale (fl'nsill')
strmglh; we shall deflOte il wilh the same lellff as <,lr('$S bul \I,'ilh
subscripl u. Thl' slr~ beyond \vhich Ihe 11111enal deforms insigniicanl1y Ind only up to I predetffmined value is kllown as tlle elosllc
limit.- lhese quanlihes are kll\)\\n as Ihe mKhanical characlffi!>lics
of resiStallCe 01 malerial, lo faHure tnd plaslic dclormatiom. To e:llSurt
the smooth funelioning or lhe structure wilhoul a risk ollailur('. \1,'(musl see lo it lhal Ihe element is unly subjedtd lo stresses whicb ar~
11":$$ Ihan its ullimatl' strenglh.

"

lhe ~Mi~'blr s/rlSS is ck-nol~ bv Ihe ~IDC' letler bul is pul in

square bracbls: il is ~Ialed lo Ihe uit imale ~Iren&th P. b)' Ule folklwing expression:

[p]-1'
whffe k ~ thC:S(lfl'ly {De/o' whkh 5hOl\'5 ho\\' many times lhe permi~il'l('
stress [5 [ess Ihan Ihl" ultima!e (tenslle) strenglh. 1h(' value 0' Ibis
factor vares lrom 1.11.8 lo 810 and depends upon IheoperaHng con
dilions al the slrurlure. It will be di5cl.'ssed in grealer detall In 16
and 17.
Cenoling b)' P... Ihe muimum stress Ihal ap~ars in lhe deslntd

eJemenl uoder lhe acllao d external forces. we may ~Tite lhe bnsic
oondilion, \\'hlch lhe si~ ami material oi lhe elenK'nl musl satisry .J5
(0110\\"'5:

(1.1 )

This is lhe sfreflgtl (XmdilioJl, whlch slales Iha! the' adual slrE'SS mllS!
be not grtaler lhan Ihe permi!>Sible.
Nov.' we ma)' compile lhe plan rOl" solving lhe problelllS al slrcngth
01 materlals as folkN.'S.
(1) Ascerbin lhe magnilude and nalure of all Ihe external forces,
includug lhe reattions, IICting on Ihe element IInder cornideution.
(2) Selecl an appropriale material Ihat is mosl suilable in lhe
"..orking conditions 01 lhe eleml!nt (struclure) and lhe natureof loading;
dell'fmine lhe permissible stress.
(3) Set the cross-seclional arra oi lhe elenlCnl in numerical ur algebraie iorm, and calculale 1he maximum aclual stress p",,, which <levelops in il.
(4) Write do""n Ihe slrenglh condilion P_u"'- lpl and with lhe hl'lp
01 it calculale lhe erOSS'Sf!('torJal area or the element or clleck whelher
lhe set valoe ls sufficienl.
lhe plan oI solution of problems in slrtnglh of IIUllerials is solDttimes
altere<!; in sorne slruclures Ihe saret)' lactor lar the "'!lote slructure
is found lo be greater Ihan lhat lor Ihe m.alerilll in the poinl of rules! stress. 11 lhe limitin Ilfling capacHy of lhe material is exhaU$led
at lhis poinl, this does nol necessarily nlean Ihal Ihe limiling lirtiOR
capacityof lhe wbol/! struelure has ,Iso been reoched. In sueh ClIses,
the strl!nglh coodifioo p....,,.;;lpl is replaced by lhe strength condllion
for the struclure as a whole:

p<p... -~.
htre P is Ihe load on Ih/! s1ructure. P~T is i1s permissible valu/!. and
p. is the limitin force whiclt the stn.lcture can wittlslan4 wilhout brell-

Ch. 1I

1tll,odu.~tll)1t

"

king dO\1m. Thus, the design based on permissible stresses is replaced

by the design based on permissible loatls.
[n Ihis case, il Is necessar~' to:
(1) ascerlain the magnltude and nature 01 all Ihe external forces,
acting on Ihe given elemenl;
(2) select the approprate malerial that is mest suilable in lhe
WQrking conditions of the structue and al50 lakes into considera
tion the nature 01 loading; determine the safety factor;
(3) set he crosssectional area of the elemenls of 5lructure in nume
rical or algebraic formo and calcula!e the maximum permi5Sible
load P",,;
(-t) II'rite down the strmglh tondilion Ps;;,P ptl and wilh ils help
calculale Ihe cmo;ssectional area of Ihe elemenls 01 slructure or
check whether lhe set d.imensions are sllllicienl.
[n a numbl'r 01 cases, as wi.'shall see later ( lOO). both methods give
similar results.
In general, we shall be using the conventional method 01 design
base<1 on permissible strffies; ho",ever, along wilh Ihis. lhe method
01 design based on permissible loads will be explained. especially in
cases where the 1".,-0 methods gve dissimilar resulb.
In Ihe mlljorit~' or cases the strenglh eondition musl be supplementel:! by stability and rigidity lests. The lirsl tesl ensores Ihal lhe
elernenls o! struclure must not change their prl'deterrnincd Iype 01 equilibrium, ~nd lh('s('Cond te-sl sets Umils lo theilerormatiol1S01 derncnts.
While solving probll'lIIs on slrenglh or rnaterials, we have lo lakl'
the heJp of theoretieal llIechanil's llnd e~peri!llental lechniqui."i. The
cle-terminaUon or external lorces is baset.1 on equ~tio[1s 01 slaties; in
stalicall> indeterminate slruclures, il is essenUa! \0 determine Ihe
derorm~lion 01 the material. Thi~, as sholl'n in 18, is possible only
ir we have rellable experimenlal data 00 the relalion betw~n deforma
lions and iorces or slresses.
To estimate Ihe pl'rmissible stresses we must knol\' the ultimle
slrength of the material amI Hs olher mechanical propt"rties. This
inloTlTlalion can also be obtained by a sludl' of Ihe properUcs 01 mall'rial in spedlll material te-sling laboratores. Finally. to delermine aelual slresses \\'1' seek lhe help of nol only malhematical analysis and mecho
anies but also the available experimental dala, Thus strenglh of ma
lerials eonsists 01111'0 melhods or solving a problem: analytical. baset.1
00 lnthematics and mechanlcs, od experimentaL 80th Ihese methods
are c1osel)' inlerr('laled.
Slrength 01 materlals ShOllld not be cOllSidered a hraneh of seiencc
which deals 0011' wlth Iheoretical dell:rmintion 01 siresses in sorne
hOlllOgeneous eJaslic body. Thl: problems studied i.n strength 01 malerills CIIO be wlVl'd only ii we havI: sulflcienl experimental data on th('
mech::ll1ielll propertiC$ 01 real materillls. kooping in mirllllheir struc
lure, methollsl labricniion and machining. Therclore, \\'e h~ve pai~

IPurl I
coo~iderl1ble aHenlion lo Ihis lIspeci in our book. Expl'rimen!s play
an jmporlllo! role in !he understallding 01 a subjecl ami must be ca,rrieJ oul bv lhe studfnts along wilh lheir theoretical studies. These
l!xperiments, worked out on lhe basi:; 01 facilities and equipmenl
availabl<' in Ihe slrength lesling laboratories, llave bern presenled in a
sellllrale manual.f\lthough al Ihe very olllset slrenglh of materials was idrntifieJ
wilh Ihe necessily [or solving a nurnber of purely practical problems,
lis lurlher devrlopment was more on the theoretical side, reslllling at
times in discrepancies bclween Ihe oulcorne of experimental invcsU

P-:::::===~P
p

'"

;~

)-.-.tP

,,)
fig. Z

g:ltions amllheir practical application. Laborator)' r("Search ""'ent along

:1 sp,-'Cjl palh, chiefly lo set Ihe acceptable slandards for various types
of mldeJials. Now strength of malerials stulties real malerials in
ac(ordance with lheir operaUon in slruclures acrenlualed by inteosive
expt'rilhental and th..'Orrticat inveslgalions ror solving developing
dlly-(o-Ilay practical probl(,Jlls. These probl(,lIIs, lor eXlImple, are those
connccled with lhe sludy 01 Ihe slrenglh of new Ulaterials, condHions
perllning lo Iheir failure, (Jeterl1lin~on (,r slresses nol unl), wilhin
lhe lillli!s 01 elasticily bul also bc}'ond Ihen!, elc_
N. M. BelY'ICV, JlJoralyy EX(1cr/mJ'lll' '" SlrrIJglil of Malrruls. ~!e~hiz
1:J5J (In RlMian).

dal.

Ch.

1I

S/rnJ llJId 51r"llI "Ilhill EIIJJllt Llmil

5. T)-pe5 01 DefonnaliON

"

Havin~ a~pttd a eenenl method of $Olvini problems c:l strenglh

al malenals. \lOe may now go over lo slud)'ing individual problems.
These ma)' be dh'ided inlo a numbl'r al group1 depending upon the
I"'pe of deforlMtions.
The common types 01 ddOfmalions (Fig. 2) are: (1) lernioo oc como

prwion. (tll and (11), as in ehaios. ropes. c:ables, b.no ollrusses \\''OI"king
unt'r lension or cclilpression, columns; (2) shearing Ir), as Jn bolls
.nd rivels; (3) torsion (ti), as m shails; (4) bendmg (1'). as in beams 01
aH Iypes. These- iour Il'Pes uf dciormatioos art Clllk-d simple ut!vrma
IU)IIs.
The operation 01 el~lIumls in slruclurcs is (enemll)' more tomple;
Ihe)' are subjectcd lo 1\\"0 or more Iype$ 01 deformallons simullancousl y.
lor exampl.., Iomsion ar eompression and bending, I)('nding and lorslon.
ele. These ar.. cases 01 Ihe SQcalled composilt dl'!Oflllolion. FOI' t'aeh al
lhe abovemenliont'ulrpes of deformations ....e shall lind oul melhods
lor delermining Ihe slresses. selecling the material and cross-setlion
al aru 01 the elemenls and delermining lhe magnilude 01 deformation.
lo make il easy 101' Ihe reacler ta undenland, iniHall)' ~ shall
INicler only Ih~ elernen15 of slNClur~ and mtdunes which are in
Ihe rorm of prismu/ic btus wllh asifaighfaxlS. A bodr which has a unlorlO CfO$-wdiooal area aH long ils Irnglh m.lY be considefl'll a
prismalic bar. The cenlres 01 gcavil)' 01 alllhe secHons of Ihe body He
on one slraigbt line, whkh is caUro Ihe axu vf IN lxir. Lal("l" on we
511.11/ aiso consider bars .....ith a non-unilorm cross-sectional ,lita and
eurved ois.

CHAPTeR 2

Stress and Strain in Tension

and Compression Within the Elastic limlt.

Selection 01 Cross-secional Area

6. Oelermloing lite Stresses io Planes Perpendicular lo !he Axis
01 Ihe Bar
We shall 51ad Ihe sludy 01 slrength of malerials wilh the simplesl

case al tension or compresskln of a prismalit bar.

Axial hnsion or aJmprnsion of suth a baT is ils deformatioo under

the acHon o 1\\'0 equal and opposile lorces applied al Ih.e end lacesof
lIJe ~ar along i.ts axis. lf these lorces are direcled oo(wards, lhe bar is

"

tPcrf' 1

saiJ lo be untler lemioo IFig. 311); in th(' opposile C.iI!>e. under comprl.'S
Ioo (Fig. Jb).
Accol'"ding to 1M g~.1 method of sol\'ing problems of strength el
IUlrrials......e rnusllirst determine Ihe magnitulH' of Ihe exlemal 'oren

P stretching (compressing) lhe bar. The v.lue 01 force P can usually

be tlctermined by considering lhe n!encUoo 01 lhe bar wilh Iht' other
eleolenls of Ihe slruclu~.

4- nn+" !:+__ m_~

rN

(IlI

FJl[. J

Ih a simple extllllple, consider a round stee) couph.'r Ihreaded al Ihe

ends antl loaded br axial lensile rorces P... 25 ti (Fig. 4). Our tMk is lo
sele<:\ Ihe crossseclional area of lhe shaH which pro\'ides sufncM..'fI1
streflilh. It is required lo lind out the slresses due lo forces p. deles
p

'=Elmine lhe permissble stress and seled lb!.' CfO$!seclional area in slIeh a
w'Y Ihal he actual stress does nol eXCffd lb maximuIJl perrniuible

value.

To determine lhe slrems, JI is es5enliallo st>lecl tiJe planes br \l!hi<:h

bar is lo be cul inlo 1\\"0 parls. Strenglh should be cheched in lhe
crilka] :;ecHan, Le. in the secUon lhrough whkh lhe maximum slr('ss
i5 lransmiUed. We Shllll firsl derive formulas ror determilling slrcs.ses
in a plane perpendicular lo lhe axs 01 lhe bar, and latl.'r on in inclined
planes loo; \\"1' will Ihus be in a posilion lo find the crilical section.
1~

e.+

-J-

-11- -

J--e
FiJ:_ 6

lel lIS take a sl~ld\(~d bar and cut it in 1\\1) parls by I plane mlf
(Filf. 5), perpendicular lo lhe 3lIis of the bar. lel us disc:ard the second
parl; lo ~Iain Ihe equillbrium o( lhe first parl, w(! must replllCf' lhe
discarded part by the forces transmitted through seetion mn (Fil". 6).

(l.

2J

5Irt$.< (md SI,~ill Wi/hill E/usli, mil

The equivalen! forces musl balancl.' lorce P. Therefore Ihey musl

oompose a rcsultan! force 11' equal in mllgnilude lo lorce P and direcll'rl
along lhe as in Ihe opposile direclion (Fig. 6). This resultanl N
i~ the force acting in thebar.
lo lulure Ihe resulta ni of inlernal C'laslic 10rces,lransFerrl.'d irom
one part lo the olher across lhe imaginar}" sed ion, will becalled normal
or axial ;orCf'. However, since lhe culolI portian ollhe bar must remain
in equi1ibrium under lhe el ion 01 lhe normal rorce and Ihe external
forces acting on tI, Ihe normal forre may also be ca!clllaled Ihrough
lhe externa\ for<:es. 11 is numericalJy equa) lo Ihe resullanl of exlernal
forces applied lo Ihe parl of the bar under consideralion ano acls
in th<, opposite direcHon. lf Ihe normal vrce acts nwards inlo Ihe
part unoer consideralivn, lhe bar is said lo be compr{'SSed; il il acls
in Ihe opposite direcUot!. the bar is said lo be io tension.
Thus, the conditions of equilibrium of Ihe rE.'maining portian ollhe
bar ooly give us Ihe magnilude or Ihe resultanl of lhe inlernal lorccs
tra/lsmilted through secUon mil, ils direction amI point of lIpplicatioo.
They. however, do nol give us any idea 01 ha\\' Ihe stresses are distri
buled over the section, Le. what forces are being IransmitlE.'d through
various unit areas of lhe section. Lel us poinl oullhal to lscertain the
muimum dang~r of falure or 11 material, it is ~E.'ntial lo determine
Ihe maximum slress and also the unil area of the crilical seclioll
lhrough which it is Iransmilted.
Experiments on tensile loading of ban 01 variou~ malerials revenl
Ihal if lhe forces are directcd along Ihe axis sulliciently accurately,
lhen lhe E.'longa1ions of lines dr3wn on lhe surfacE.' of thE.' bar paral1el
lo Ihe axis are equal. This gives rise to Ihe hypothesis oi uniform
dislribution 01 slresses over lhe se<:lon. Cnl}' al lhe faces 01 Ihe bar,
where lorce P is diTff:tlv lransmilted to il, IhE.' distribution 01 slresses
onr dilferenl parls of Ihe seclion is oot unilorm. The porl ions to which
lorce P is applied directly gel overloaded; bul jusI a small distance
a\\'3)' 110m Ihe point 01 applicalioo 01 IhE.' force \he malerial slarts
behaving more unilormly and stress dislribution over the section
perpendicular lo Ihe axis hecomes uniformo These slresses are direct<'i1
parallel to lorce P, Le. perpendicular lo Ihe secUon; therefore lhev
are called normal slressrs and denoted by thE.' lelter (J. 5ince th<,l' ar
distribuled unilormly over 1hE.' seclion, N-(JA; on the olher hand,
N=F. HE.'nce
{2.1)

This formula enablt'S us lo determinE.' stress (1 ir Ihe lensile force and

Ihe cro;:sseelional area are knou'o. On Ihe olller h[lod, ir u'e (mol\' the
rnaximum permissible normal stress, this formula helps us lo lind lhe
re~uired crossseetionJ area A,

30

(Parf 1

7. Permissible Strtue5.
Stltcling Ihe Crossstdional A,u
To asctrlain lhe perrnissible sIras limil lO!' proper (UJ'M:lioning
d. bar of Ihe given malerial, 1Io'e must t'xpcrimel'llally eslablish lile
relallon bel....-een lhe slrqlh el he bu and Ihe stressn Ihal appear
in il. Por Ihis. il i.s esscnlial lo prepare a spttirntn (ll.~uall}' of a roulld
or rectangular cross seclion) ef lhe iven malerial, clamp lts ends in a
machillt' for l('flsile looding and gradually incrt'llse IhE' ltnsile force P.
Th~ specimen "",JlI slretch and ullimalely break 00\\"0.
Let p. be th(> maximum load \\'lIieh IhE' spe'Cinllm can sus!ain befare
ruplure. Tlle normal slrm due lo this load is

0'.="
p.

and is cal1et11he ultimalr (/ensile) slr~lIglh ef lhe material under lension.

It ls USUllJly ell.pressed in l\lt units kgl mm' or kgi cm'.
As poinled oul earlier in 4, lhe maximum permissible normal
stress 10'1 is Sl'veral times 1m Ihan lile ultimate slrength (l.; lhe pero
missible slress is oblained by dividing Ihe ullimale slrength by lhe
sarely factor k. The value of k dt'pends upon a lIumb 01 faclors, whic:h
$hall ~ dist::ussed in ~I.il laltr on ( 16). Al any rale, lhe value of
the saftl}' factor must tnsUfl.' nol on1y Ihe normal "''Ol''king of lhe eltmenl, i.t. wOfkmg witlW)lJ1 failufl.'. bul also prevenl Ihe formaHon of
plaslic deformations whkh nlaY affte! lhe ....-orking 01 lhe Illac:hilW or
slruc:ture. Tbe salely htctor depends upon lile mattrial al' lhe eleml'l'll.
natllrt- 01 lhe lorces ac:ling on the e1emml, economic. l:OOdiHoos ami a
number 01 oiher laclors_
[n \'ie"" of lhe importance of properly st"ltdin Ihe salely faclor and
Ihe pennissiblc str<'SS, Ihese quaniilie,~ have bn stalldardiz.ed ror a
largc number or strurlures and machjne~, ami musl be slrietly followed
by the designers. /-lence, the p('rmissibJe stress 10'1 may be consi(tercll
in eflch case a known quanlity. Therefbr~, lo determine {he cross
sectionat area of a strelched bar one mi}', using lormula (2.1), ",,.ite
clown Ihe slrtllglh run/iWm; this condillon statcs Ihat under the ac\ion
of a force P. Ihe lIclual str~s in a slretched bar musl not exct"l!d Ihe
perrnissible slress 101:
(2.2)

From {his coodition lhe rnmimum crossseclion.1 area of Ihe bu

may be determined as

A,

P
fOi

(2.3)

Wilh the help of formul. (2.3), one call Sol'led lhe crossscclional area
of lhe bar.

Ch. 1}

SI.as

llN

SIra;" lVithi~ ElaJllc

'""iI

31

Somdimes Ihe cross-secliOllal &r('1I is prest't. Then, rom formula

(2.3) we can find lhe permissible load
POS; AloJ
(2,01)
Retuming lo Ihe design ol lhe w<lgon coupler ( 6, fig. 4), il is
requirfd lo selKt I~ material and ItI! Pf'missible stress. The coupler
is made of .5t~1 wilh an ultimate strenlh 01 ilboot 50 kgfimm". The
maleriill is selected.such Ihat he coupler is nol too heavy. Ihis coodi
tion lKoing lullilled only by wsing a highslrmglh material. Al Ihe.same
time. the maledal should have good rtsislanct' lo shocks and impacls.
A steel of a very high ullimale strenglh cannol be used b3use il is
britlle.
The coupler should 001 only witllstand Iraclure bul <lIso r~ist any
noli~b1c pia.stic deformation to preven! jamnling of the coupl"
thread. lhe elaslic limil lar the selecled sleel is approximately 0.6
limes ils ultimalestrength 0 We shall see I.Ier Ihal the slress unde!'
suddm loadlng is nearly Iwice ils value undel stallc loading. Le. ils
value as delermined undel taboralf)fY conditons. lhe permissible
stress should Iherefore nol exc~
0.5 X0.60. _ 0.30.
Hence, Ihe safelY factor
I

k-r]::t:I3.3
Therelore, in Ihis case we lOa)' take lhe JX!rmissible stress

[oJ-"; _0.:lCI.=50xO.3= ISkgfrrnm'-I500kgf/crn'

fhe requlred crosssectional area at P=25 ti is
p
" ..
A~I"I-l5OO-16.7tml

Tile diameler ol the coupler d is compuled (mm Ihe condUion

"':"-A,16.7
\,!herefrom

d~ Yll;.~"4 -4.5Sclll :=t4.5c.m

'The ca1culai~ diarn~ll'f corre3ponds lO lhe base 01 Ihe Ihread lJ.'ilh

lhe mlnlmum crossseclional area. When Ihe crossseclional area of
Ih~ bar is decreased in a parlkular place. for eX31l1ple due loa bolt or 11
rivel hole, a circular cut or a groove (lhreadmg). il is essenliallo delermine lhe mlnimum cross-sedional area, caBed "et aret1 and denoled

32

by

J~I,od.u'I'-O'l.

T~n'M

and ComprrsJiof1

[P.ar/ I

A~.l

Of A." The crossscc( ional area wthout weakening 15 called (he

aTea and denoled by Al""" or Arlo Having computerl Ihe ntll
areil An> we can obtain Ihe gross area A , ftom design consideralions.

gr{!s-~

Tlle formulas derived above are val id fOf Icnsion. rhey can be used
ior compression as well wi,thoul any changes. The difference wlll be
in ,he direction 01 normal slrcSS('S antl Ihe magnitude of the-permissible

stress, 10"1. The compression of bars ls morecomplex in Iha! lhe bar lIlay
becorne unstable, Le. il may suddenly hendo Designing IOt stability
will be discu.ssed in Parl VIII.
Figure 1 shows normal dislribution in a secUan perpendiculaF lo lite
axis of Ihe bar fOf lension and compression. ror a number oi'materii1ls
(l.'.g. slceJ) the perrnissiblr slress value is thesame in tension ancl comr('n~iOll

p-E!3i EEj-P
Ir

COl!lprt~iOll

p->I- -I-J~ ~ -1- +P

F)G. 7

pression (lor short bar,;, i.c. bars in whkh lhe Jenglh does nol exceed
five lilll~ Ihe diame{er or UQI;S secUon). In other malerials (e.g. cast
iron) (he permissible slress is different in (ension and compresslon,
depending upon Ihe ullimale Slrl'nglh lor the recrdcd dl!formations.
In a number or cases. compressive stresses are IranSlnilted from one
eJement 01 conslrudion lo another through a comparalively smaJl area
01 conlad between Ihelll. This type 01 slress is generally caHed the
/Jrorillg. or amlart s/,,!ss. Slress dislribution arollnd the nea 01 conlad
is \'er~' comptex and can be analyzed only by melhods 01 Ihe !heary
01 elastkity. Usuallj\ in si mple designing. these stresses are ~'Qnsidered
as ..:ompressive s!resses and a special permissible slress limi! is Fixed.
Laler on Ihe qlleslion or sele<:ting permissible stresses in spedal caws
will be deall with in grcaler details.

8. Deformations Under Tension and Compresslon.

Hookc's Law

To have complete idea about (he \\"orking 01 a slrelched or eompressed

ell!ment, il is l!5Sl!nlial lo know wa)'s or calculaling Ihe change in i1s
dimensions. lhe corrcsponding laws c<ln be oblained onl)' on lhe bass
01 e~perimenls with a slrclched ur compressed spedmen or Ihe given
material; tl1l'S<' cliperimenls also hl!lp lo slu\ly the slrl!nglh or Ihe malerial and tlelerminc its ultima!e slrenglh and o!her charac-terislics

& 10).

Ch. 21

SUtil' a/ld. Slrairt Wilhlrt E/a.nc Lim/J

33

These cxperimenls are conducletl in Ihe laboralor)' on special ma

chines which delorlll the specimen lill il breaks down snl! measurc Ihe
force required for Ihis purpose.
Simultaneously. Ihe delormation or Ihe specimen is measured-with
lhe help 01 sufftcienllr accurale measuring inslrumt'nts - slra!n
gauges (Iensolllcters). The testin8. machines are capable 01 appl ,ng a
sufftciently large load on lhe specimen and accurately measure Ihe
sorne. Whole parls of struc!ures (columns. portons of lI'all5) can be
Il'Stetlfor compression-on presses having a capacHy 01 up lo 5000 ti.
Tension fesl can be conducled in- Ihe laboraler~' on machines wheh are
capable of exerUng a lensi1t' load 01 up lo 1500 tr. However, in a majorHy 01 Ihe laboralories machines 01 considerably less capacitl' (from
5 to 100 tr for lension test and 200 to 500 tllor compression test) are
employed.
A detailed de5Criptlon er these machines ond measuring instruments,
parUcuJ~rly or the well-known Gagarin Press, is available in Ihe book
LabofQtry Experlment in Slrenglh 01 Ma/erials, and also in special
manua)s on mechanical lesling 01 malerials. With Ihe help or lhese
machines and measuring inslrumentsone can eslablish how Ihe mate
rial specimen wlll change its dimensions under ension or cornpression ..
Experimenls enable us lo concJude Ihat up. to a certain limit of
loadlng, lhe elongation is dired.ly propertional lo the lensile force P
and length 01 Ihe specimen 1 bl~t inversel\, proportional lo Ihe crossseetional art'a A. Denoling by Iillhe t'longation of Ihe specimen rJue
lo force P, we mal' write rJown the following relation between Ihese
quantilies:

A/=.E..!.
EA

(2.5)

where E is lhe proporlionalily lactor which depends upon Ihe m<lkrill.

Quantity iiI is called lhe absolule elungalil)n ol!he bar tlue to force P.
FOTluula (2.5) is callt'd Hooke's aw after the scienlisl \\"ho founrJed
lhe la\\' of proportionality in 1660.
Relalion (2.5) mal' be pres.enled in a difierenl formo Ll't us divid~
bolh sides of Ih~ relalion by l, the initiallen,llh 01 tho: bar:
M
l'
=L4

The ralio ~ oflhe absolule t'longation lo Ihe inifiallength I iscallttl

the relalit'C clongalOl1 (slraill); it s denolcd by Ole letler >:.
Relative elongalion is a diuH:nsionll'S$ quan!il\" as il is Ihe ralio
hetween l\\'o lenf.!ths lllmll tmd is Illlm~ritally equa1 to the elonRallon
91 a unit len~th of (he bilr. Rt"p1acing
by ~ and ~ by Ihe rlormal

7-

[Pan J

strm

0', '4'e

gel anolher expresskm 101" Hooke's Jaw:

12.61

'"

0'=t.E

(2.7)

Thus, the normal slress under lension or comprmion is diredly

proporlional lo the relaUve elongation or shorttning 01 the bar.
ProportionalHy [actor E, which Iinks Ihe normal strl$ .....ith Ihe
relative ('Iongation, is called the modufus vI tlaslicify 01 the material
under lcnsion (compression). The grelller the moduJU5 01 elasticily 01 a
malerial, the le.ss the bar is slrelched (compressed) provided all olher
condilions (Iength, crosssedional area, lorce P) renlajn unchanged.
Thus. in physical interprelalion, the modull1s01 elasticity characleri
teS lhe resjstance 01 a material to elastic deformalion under ttnsion
(comprl;:SSion).
Since relalive elongalion t is dhnensionless quanlity, it 10Uows from
formula IZ.7) Ihal Ihe! rnodulU5 01 elaslicily has lhe same unHs as slress
0', i.e. il is expressed in unils al lorce divid<'d by atea.
11 should be BOte<! lhal t~ modulus of elaslicity E does not remain
constant even far one malerial. but varies slighlly. fn sorne materiais
t~ modulus 01 elasticily has the same value under tension and compres.sion (sltel, oopper), in olher malerials il has dill"eren! values far
utb ollhese f.!efornwlions. In general this dill"trence is jgnored in designing, ::and lor a \'ast majoril)' 01 materials a single valuc al E is
actepled bolh lor ll!nsiofl and compre:sslon.
1t should be borne in mind that Hooke's la\\' 1135 been represented by
a formula which SIlIllS up the experimental f.!ata only approximalely:
ji canllot lhcrelorl' be considered an accurate relalion.
In al! mnlerials Ihe derormation unf.!er knsion or compression more
or lcss deviales (rom Hooke's J:l\\'. In some materials (mast or 1he!
melals) this deviatiOl1 IS ncgligible and il may be assumed Ihat {here
is exacl proporlionality between deformation anf.! load; in other mate
rials (casi iron. slOlle, concrete) the devialioll ls conside-rably greattr.
liowever. far practica! purposes we may ignore Ihe small deviallon
rrom Imulas (2.5) and (2.6) and use lhem as such in delermining
defOflnalion of lhe bar.
The mean values of Ihe modulus 01 elaslicily E for a number of
1I1ateriais are given in Table 1.
From formula (2.5) it is evideot Ihat the greater ils del1ominator the
1m is Ihe elongalion fpliability) or, in other words, lhe grealer is I~
ri,(idityof a bar. Therelore, lhe dmominaior oi formula (2.5). Ihe quanlily EA, is called the tigidi/y "1 l!le bar Uluiu kllslurt or romptnSiOfI.
\Ve sec Ihal lhe rigidil)' 01 a bar under tension oc compressi<ln de!pmds,
on Ihe one hand, upon he material (modulus al elasticilv El and, on

Ch.

2J

S"eu Qlld SI'Pi" IVithi"

Ela$li~

Limil
Table 1

Mg~ulus

01

Ela'tlell~

and Lalual Delormallon Coo/llc1enl (Palsson'5 'talla)

l>loJ~I".

Co"rf;,;l<nt 01

01

lo'er.1 d.lorm.

d.d'<lly F.

110' "'l."')

1..~'I.60
2.0.2.1

lron grey, ",hile

Co/bOJ1l 511
AIIOJY sleel
Rol1ecl C'lf'f'er
RolJed pho'pltor bronz.
CQld.drall'" buss
Rolle<l naval br~>s
Rolied m~nl!"aneSl' blonte
Rolled aluminium
Rolled ,.ine
LUd
Glass
Granil., Iimeslon., marble
Sn",lsl0ne
110m I!ranlle
Ma>(lnry' 110m Ilmestone
( Imm brick
Cnnerele I!aving ultima le
slren::lh
Thnher olool( lhe libres
Tlmber auoss lhe f,bres

kc al temperatures

0.230.27
0.240,2g
0.250.30
0,310..3-1
0.32-0.%

2.1
11

l.J5
0.910,99

0.:120.~2

0.36

1.0
1.1

O.'"

(l~ ~:~~~

200 kgl/cm

-,"<:
_3'C
( -5"<:

and below
Rubber
B.kelile
Celluloi,j
Texl(JlIle
Lamillaled Bakente in.'"I~li"n
Rll!ld l'''ly\'inyl ehimi,le (PVC)
Cap",larr
Highpressure pol)'otbyiellC
Pltenoplast
Polyearl"'llale
Plexlglas

~~\Wr..II-!7.75

ti"" l'

(SfoI1P .1,"d. lor Cco'l,u.lIo"

O-m

0.32-0.3(;

0.84
0.17
0.56
0,42.0,5lj
0.18
0.090.1
0.06
0.027.0.030
0.14GO.l% }
0.lC"0,214
0.182.0.232
O 1.0.12
0.005.0.01
0.04 ,
0:07 ~

o."

0.~2"

0.25

0.1130.34

0.160,18

",0.36

O,ln)

0.00008
0.020.03
0.01740.0193
0.000.1
0.10.17
0.040
0.020.(121
0.0020.0025
O 150.20
0.022'0,024
0.028

Sl>t.l~<.llc", ond

0.47
0.3'J

0.220,3
0.~a.0.3~

0.<4(l0.4G
0.220.27
O.2~-0.21l

R:l1l"I.llon. (lO 11><

PO'I I

"

ih~ othn- hand. upon i1s c:rossseclional area A. Somelimes il is more

C'Onvenitrlllo U~ thl' lerro ulatifJt rigidity E/l, Le. Ihe ratio of rigidity
lo lhe length al lhe bu.
Formulas (2.5) lmd t2.6) enable us lo tll'l~'fmil'M! lhe elongaUOll or
~bortening in liJe bar o( a structure uoder Imsion or rompression.
Con\'tI~ly. koowing lhe elongalion, dirncR$ions and lhe material 01
the bar onc ma)' cakulale lhe normal stres.ses acling in l. Thus. normal
stress can be deierminrd by 1"'0 methods. If the !eosHl' or compressive
lortt P is knoWII, o IS calculated from he formula {2.l):

o"""A
H lhl' externa! force is nol lmown bul Ihe elongation 01 the bar can be
n1l'usurctl, a is de-terminl."d frum formula (2.7):

o=tE
The relalive t'longaliOll ma)' be eakulated according lo lhe follo\\'ing
formula lhe {olal elona:!Iion M lar a lenglh 1 aflhe bar can be mea
surl'd:

A'
t=T
We shall show lalt'r lhat lhe sond mdho<! has lo be employed \'ery
ofltn lo de~(rmine sllUSotS in a number oi cases.

9. lateral Ddormalion Codficienl.

P(lis$On's R,atio
\P3rl

[rom longitudinal dcformalinn. Ihl" ban workinl umll.'r len

or eompression an:,' a150 slIbjeded lo Intt'ral (if'krmnlion.
!cpt'riml.'nls show Ihal under tension tFig. 8) lhe !,nilJh 01 n hnr
n('rellses by 6.1. whereas its wldlh de;creases by o.b_(u_u,). Tlle relatlve elongalion

si

.,

t=

:md Ihe relative l:lleral derormalion

,.

f l - .

In compre:ssion. lhe shorlening 01 lhe bar is illlongiludinal deformalion aM lhe incRase in its erosssn:lional area is llit' lalNal IIclorllllllion. 11 has been expefimenlally proved Ihal for 3 majorit)' f !he 013lerials ti Is [rgrn 3 to 4 times less th.m e.

SIU>5 <lJld SI",;" 'ViII,i" t/aMic Umil

Ch. 21

The modulus 01 (he ralio of lhe relaU\'e laleral dc!ormation tI lo

ihe relativc longitudinal tldorUlalion P. is calle<llhe c()effie/lf uf 1l1fefll/
tltformatiun, Of P(}iS5'.Nl's ratio JI:
(2.8,
Like the modulus 01 elasticily E, Poisson's ratio fl is also charac(crislic of elaslic )lroperlies 01 malerials. fcr malerials whkh ha\!"
idenlkal elaslk propcrlies in al! dirC'Clions, Ihes!' properlics can be
eomple.lC'ly characlerized by conslants E and fl. Such materials are
caJJed iso/fllpic. Wilh sufficient accuraey as far as practical applic3tion
is concerned, we may ;onsider
sleel aod olhcr llIelals, mosl of Ihl'
slones, (oncrele, rubber and nonlaminalt' plaslics as belonging lo
(he group uf isolropk matel"ials.
In 8l.hlition lo Ihe isotropic matedais. we "bu have ClJlisolrapic rnalerials, i.c. m"lerials having dissimi lar propcrties in differenl direclions. ro lhis group (JI materials
bC'long \\"ood, lamlnale plasties,
solJle 01 lhe siones, doth, ele. \
single value 01 E and II eannol clmracterize their das(ic properlics; il
is essential lo have a number uf
values of (heS{' const1lOts in YflTious dircetions.
For nurnerieal dclermination 0-' !', iI i~ essential lo measurc simul!a
neously the longiludina I and laleral deformalion of 8 bar unt[(r lellsion
or tompression. GenHally, tbese deforllla!icns Me rneasurr] in slretth
ing a sjlceimen in the lorm 01 11 long and wide plte (me!als), or
for a prislIlalic spedmen {slone) under colllpression.
lhe volues 01 Ihe coeHicielll of lateral deformalion 01 various ma
lerials art' given in Table I lor delormalions withio Ih{' elstic limUs.
Knowing the value of [l, we can calculate lhe ehange in ihe volume
01 the specimen under tension or compression. lhe lenglh of the deformed specimen is J (1 +1;). ThC' cross-sectional arca of lhe deformeJ
~pecimen is A (1-~f.l). lhe volume 01 Ihe dclormed specimen is

Pt

v, =

Al (1

+ 1:\) {I-flel .... V (1 + el (I-.e)'

\!!here V is Ihe initial volumt'.

Sinee f, is a negligibly slllall quanlity up lo {he limil 01 proporlionality, we may ignorC' i1s squllre. lhen valume VI becoml'S

V, = V [1

+2o( l-2fL)]

38

{"lrodudiOtl. TtnJlDIl DIId Cwnp"JJiatt

[Parl /

The relative ncrtase in volume (vofume (rain)

[5

v,-v (
-,-_~ 1-2,,)
11 Poisson's ratio }I=0.5. lhere is no changf in lhe \"()Iume duf' lo
deformation. Ho\\'ever. si/lC(' Jl<O.51or a majority oi the- materiab,
tmsion is acwmpmied by 3n incr~ and compressioo by a decrta5e
in Ihe volume. For rubber }I~.5, therdore lh!l"e is al1TlOl51 no change
in Its volume WMlI il is strelched.
The latenl ddormation that aceompanies he longiludinal deforma!ion has great practica! signilicaoce. More light ....'HI be thrown on this
aspect in lhe wcceeding dSl.:ussion.
ll>l os ronsider the followif" example rl applying Iht' melhods aOO

formulas derive<! aboye.

Eumple. A load 01 Q=4 lf is suspended lram brackel ABC, consisto
lng 01 a \\"ooden rod AC and an ren pull rod AB (Fig. 9). Pull rod AS

I@
N,

4'-.lO'

/t.-J(]"

'l1!il

N,

F'IE.

~"

Flg 10

has 11 round .stion and rod AC a square slion. Find diameler d el

rod AB and sides a olllle square seclion 01 rod AC iI Ihe permssible
strm lor wood is 10' .1=25 kgl!CIII:, lor st~1 10' .1-900 kgi!cm" (11'.1
is Ihe Pffmissible slm.s und~ comprmion. 10',1 is the peT'!1iMiblt
slress under lension); del~mine lhe V('l'tic.l and horizontal dIsplacemenls 01 point A. The lenglh al rod AC i5 I,=-l m.
Forces N, and N. in rods AB and AC un be dtltrmined IroID lhe
equilibrium condilion al hinge A, al whclllhe gven force Q and Ihe
unknown lorcts N, 2nd N. are applit'tl.
By plolling lhe equllibrium triangll,' 1(11" lhese lOlas (Fig. 10), \\~ gel

N,= s'?:JIJr:a:02Q=81f
N.= Q (QI3O'- QYJ -

6.93 ti

Stress and Slro;n Wi/hill C/mUe Limit

Ch. 21

lhe requircd crossseclional areas 01 rods AB and AC are

N

"

HOOO

A, = 1" ~J = 900 = 8.89 cm'

N,
G930 277
A '=l"-J=Y==;
cm
Diameler o[ rod AB is
d=

~=

y' ~X:.B9 =3.34 CJn:>:$ 3.4 cm

Side of Ihe square section of rod AC is

a=

'JI""A: = 11 277 =

16.6 cm

;=::

17 cm

80lh 1he values have belln rounded-Ior Ihe slccl rod lo the nearest
mlll, and for lhe wooden rod lo Ihe neare;,t cm.
To determine 1he displacement f 01 point A. lI'e dlsconnecl the rods
and represen! Ihem by lheir new lengths 8A, and CA,. increasing and

,e
(b,
Fig. 11

decreasing thcir initiallengths by M,=AA,- and 6.I.=AA,. respectiveIy, wilhout ehanging Iheir diredion (Fig_ 11(a)). lhe new posilion 01
point A can be located by bringing logether the delormed rods by rotat
ing thcm aboul paints B and C. Poinls A, and A, will move along
ares A,A. and A.A., which duc lo their smaJllel1gth may be considere<! as ~traight Unes, perpendicular to BA, and CA . lhe horizontal
displacelllent al point A will be
f,-AA.=~I,

JlllroilucUOfI. TClllion Illld CClflprtuifJlt

antl Ihe v('fliu.1 dispraccment {fig. II (b

t, =A.A. =

The segml'llt

A,A.+ ".A~

B,'
Therdore

A A _(.11 cosox+M I_'__ .)/,cvs

.,

IJlI"

' M,ros'"
U"

Consequenlly,

II

-A A +A A _l'

.,

lS,"~

+~I!rotla:+:1lt<"osa:_j./I+61.eos
...
IIIICl

.. ,,"

Deformalioll of Ihe rods is determined by Ihe formulas

~""~_
-t.
M, - ',A,
1(lO y. 17' - 2.4 X 10
(ln

.1

,\',1,

~lIOOXIOOx2

<""',

2X10""~l<.lrr

,_....--:;-""

_507
lO' cm
.
X

Hence !he horizontal displacemenl o poWt A

\'l,'rlkal disptacement is
(I-

~ {.=0.24 mm, and the

Ir

.\1,+ 411, lS a: O.507+0.2~xT

SIn"
=
IU)
_1.43 mm

Total displ3Cf'ment AA. is

f - Vli+~ = Vr,J~.'"'3"+"""O."'''4_IA5

mm
CHA.PlVI )

Experimental Study of Tenslon and Compression

in Varlous ftlateriais aOO the Basis
01 Seleeting the Permissible Stressl.'s
10. Ttmlon Tes.1 Diagram.
Mhanlcal PropttlitS oi /tlalcrials
In Ihe prev,i0us (hapier. lI:hf1e dC'lermining !he crosssectional area
and tleformallOn, \Ve can"~ across a number 01 quanllliC!i whkh characterlz.e a material nol onl~' "ilhin \he limil 01 proportionalilr Imodulu:;

ClI. JI

E.pcrimcntal Sludy 01 TmslOll Il1ld Comprfss;on

01 elasticity, limil 01 proporlionality) bul also beyond il up to lis

comJllete breakdown (ullimate strenglh). To have a goorl idea abau!
the mechanical Jlroperlies of malerials under tcnsion orcoll1prcs~ion, il
is essential to study expel"imenlaJly lhe phenomena Iha! accomJlany
lhese processes.
By the differcnce in their mechanical propert ies under simple Icnsion
or compression al room temperature, Ihe malerial~ may be classified
as britlle and durtile. The brillle malerials break down under a very
small residual deformation. The (ailure in case of ductile malerials
occurs afler a considerable resiclual delonnalion. Casi iron, slone and
~oncrete, are examptes of britUe malerials. Tlle low...:arbon stcels and
copper belong to (he group of duclilc malt'rials.
Let us examine Ihe behav iour of bolh Iypes of material when subjl'Cl
ed to tension Iill !ailure. A prismatk speclmen of roundor rectangular
section is prepared. the working porlion 01 Ihe spedmen i~ calibraled
In centimelres or [raclions of cenlimelre ,lo be able lo ascerlain
Ihe change in iis lenglh arter lhe experiment. The specimen is placed
on the lesling machine ;Jnd ils ends are clampl.'tl. B)' straining the SPl.'
cimen axially il is slretchetl with a load, which incre;Jses graduall~'
wilhoul shocks or impacls. A number 01 successive loacl vallles are
applied, antl Ihe correspontling ncreases in the length I marketJ on
!he specimen are measuretl.
The experimental resulls can besl be represenled in the form oi a
lension test tliagram; a majorily 01 Ih~ lesling machines llave an attach
menl wheh aulolllatically plols Ihis tliagram when the specimcn is
stretched. In this diagram. 100ld P is plottC'!l along Ihe verlical axis ami
elongalion M along Ihe horizontal axis.
The lensiOIl lesl tliagram for a specimen !rom ducHle material, e.g
low-carbon sleel, is of Ihe pa1tern sholVn in Fig. 12. The first par! of the
diagram up lo the point A correspontling lO Ihe timil of propor1ionali
Iy is a straighl lineo Ordinate DA, is Ihe value orlhe lensile force lhat
corresponds to Ihe limi( o{ proporliurla/ily <J p , Le. the maximum stress
which, ir exceeded, resuHs in devialion [rom Hooke's lalV; lor 10IV
carbao stccl <Jp is approximately equallo 2000 kg[lcm ' . lhis stress is
determined from lormula (2.1) in whidl the original value'Of lhe crosssectlonal area A is used. This slress is known as rondilional slr('ss.
In lulure, no special mentioo w1 be made when Ihe original crO$!;
seo::iional area is used. The word condional \Viii also be tJropped.
When the lensile force is inerease<! beyon(1 ordinale OA ,. Ihe delormal ion slarls increasing more rapidl}' than he force-the diagram lakes
a curved shape bulging oulwards. Then we notice a sharp change in IhlO
behaviour of the mllterial; at 11 cerlain value of Ihe lensile force OC,
lhe malerial begns lo ~llow". Almosl no force is required lo further
tleform Ihe bod~', A horizontal (or IIlmosl horizontal) plateau is ob
lained on thediagram. The slressat which the material slarts lo rlow,
Le. al whlch the de!ormat[on increases al an almosl cOMant load, is

Inlroduclion. Tmsion a/ld ComPltS.<iOtl

IPar! I

called lhe yil!ld stress (J~. For he malerial under eonsitil.'rlltion (J~ is
approximalely equal to 2400 kgficm'.
During Ihe 1101\' 01 melallhe !.liders {Iuw litU's appear on Ihe surface
01 he maleriallllo~ or less distinclly (Fig. 13). These Unes are caused
by rclalive Ilisplacemenl 01 Ihe malerlal pllrlicles when consir!erable
plaslic deformalion of lhe specimen lal({~s placl.'.
Afler lhe yielding wnr Ihe mat(>rinl again slarts resisling lurther
!cnsle slrain and !o clongate it by a kngth tJ.l lhe force should b('
n(reased. Poiol D of the diagram (orresponds to lhe maxiUlllln load.

P
JI
21

Xl

~;

Al

..!..
---- ~

.........

-T-/7l----

7t""'
~

K.

i1

iI

I
I
I

I
I
I

,f-----cof,-o~,--",'-;o!-.,,~,
F,!( 12

fig l;

Al this instan! lhere is again a sharp change in he behaviour o[

(~e malerial. Up lo Ihis poinl, Ihe whole bar was being drforl1Jl'd;
('nth unil length of lhe specimen elongated nlmast f'qually. Similarly
lllere was a uniform decrease in lhe crosssectional area ollhe speci melL.
From lhe inslant Ihe load achieves Ihe value 00" Ihe, dC'formalion
gels eoneenlraled in a certain parl of thE' speciml.'n. A small porlion oi
lhe specimen around Ihisspol s from no\\."on subjecled to Ihe m;lximum
stress. This resulls in a loealized redudion 01 Ihe er<)Ss se<:tion, amI a
"ne;k" is lormed (fig. 14).
As a result of Ihe decreasc in IhecrOSS'Sl'dional area af lhe ddormed
portion, a conlinuousl).' decreasing load is required lo furlher tlon::ate
Ihe specimen. Finally a( a load OK 1 (he specimE'n breaks dO\\IJ.
Jf \\'c slop lhe cxperil1lcl1t al a load k:lS Ihan DA, amI unload Ihe
specimen. lhen he relation belween IhE' force and deformalion will be
represenled by lhe sume straighl tine as durillg loading up lo 0,1.
The c1eformation disappcars when lhe force s removed. implying thereby thal the delormation was elaslie.
1( ~:e ~[arl unloa~ilJg lhe specimen [rolll a poinl Z on the, diagram,

(;h. 3)

Eperimenll1l SlUdfl 01 TensiOtl "n~ CompreS$i{m

Iring bctwe<'n points e and D, Ihen unloading will lake place along
tine 20" whlt'h is alrnost paraJlel lo Ihe line DA. The specirnen in
Ihis case will nol regain its initial dlrnensions, segmenl 0,0, .... ilJ
represent Ihe elastie delonnation, which, as in Ihe previous case, ehanges ln direc! proportion wHh Ihe load al constant modulus of el<lsUc ty.
Segment 00, will represenl the fl'sidwl deformaliull and segmenl OO.
lhe tlila! dl'/ofmalillll al a load 02," We mav ~nd a load 08, below
whkh only elastic delornwtions OCCllr. The' oorresponding polnl B
on Ihe diagram llsu<llly lies a titile <lbove bul very <:lose lo poinl A,
whieh represents Ihe limil 01 proportionalily. lhe stress which I[
l'xce<'t!l'd results in ver)' smllll (o[
Ihe order 01 0.001-0.03%) residual
delormnlions Iseallcd theelaslie limil {Ie.On Ihe lenslon lest dlagrarn
~
(Fig. 12) Ihe load causing Ihis slress
iSH'prj!Scntcd by Ihe ordinateOB,.
Poinls A <lod 8 aresodose lo eaeh
olher lhal Renerall)' lhe 1imil of pro
porUonality nnd Ihe elaslie limil
areconsideret! lo belhesalrle. Therelore a1though it is commonl}' said
Ihat a l1lateri~1 lollows Hooke's law
liJl il reaehes Ihe elaslic limil, il
would bt more prC'Cise lo say lill it
reaches Ihe limil 01 proporlionality.
lhe fl13xi lI\um lensile force slrelch
FiS. 14
ing Ihe speciluen is reprl."senled
by Ihe ordinale DO,; il Is cOlllmonly referred to as Ihe cruslling /ood,
because il is essenlial lo apply Ihis load for ruplure lo begn; lhe
ultiuwle breakdown occurs al load rt"prest'l1tell on lhe diagram by Ihe
onllnale uf poinl K. lhe stress cauS<'d by he maxlnlum load is called
Ihe ultimale slrcngtl or ultimale r"sistancc 0 . Thl.' ulti mate slrength,
obln.ined as 11 ratio of Ihe nwxilllum load lo the initial crosssectional
area 01 Ihe spt'Cilllen, char<lclcrizes the force required lo crush the specil"en 01 lhe given maleral under lension; for lowcarben steel iI
reaches 4000 kgl'cm'.
While sludying the lension lesl tll<lgralll, we nlDrked 00 iI a number
e[ ordinales represenling loads connected wllh varous mechnic<ll
properties 01 Ihe material. Table 2 contins a summary of [hese loads
and lhelr corresponding characlerislics (~tresses) wilh lhelr notalions.
Any 01 the requ ired stress can be ebtained by d ividingl he eorresponding
load by Ihe inilial t'rossseelional arca o[ Ihe speclllen.
Alllhe mechaneal properlies(limit of proporlionalityand ('Iaslle
linll, yield stress, nd ulUmale strength) characterize Ihe Ilbility of
a IJlnleral lo resisl lhe lensile force.:; tendlng to deforl1l lIud crusll a
spt'Ciml:n .made Irom j[,

..

TtllsJon rmd ComprtssiOlt

tltt,cd~tIiM,

[P"d I

Table 2

Mt<hanlul

Properll~

01 Material,
Cono,pon,lIC1a _tr... ,,,d
lu n.t~t""

Load

corrtSJlOndn~

10 Ihe tnd 01 s1ral:ht IIl1e

OA,

load clll'r~sp')lldin: lo Ihe begillIllng 01 residual

Mlwmations 08,
load corre,pondnl: t" lhe no", 01 lhe mat~,lal
(inerca!. In ddQtmall<)1l al ('\Jn~talllload OC,)
Muimum tO~ld 00,

Limll Df proKIrlianaJiI)"

Elblk IImll
Yleld slre\.>

<1 p

It.
lJ

Ultima!. strell:th 0< ullimale

reshtance (la

The xcoordinaies olthe diagram characterile anolher properly 01

he material. namely, Ihe abUi!y to dciorm lo a cerlain dt>gree belore
breaking down.
Segmenl 0.0, (Fig. 12) givcs he' valuC' of elastic delormalion al (he
lime 01 breakdown, which disappears as roon as he breakdown occur:..
Hs length OO.,=L\I, is thl." residual d('rormation of the spe<:imen or
ll.'l1gth l a!ler ils bnakdown. The grealer Ihe measured length 01 the
specimen and Ihe grealer the pliabllilr of lhe malerial, the greater
will be this residuol derormation,
The ralio of elongalion 6f. lo Ihe inilial length 1 is a measure a[ l/U!
plaslicily of the material, i.e. ils ability to undergo considerable
delormations before breaking down.
This ratio exprcsS<!d in per cenls is dl'lloled by 05 and is called Ihe
residual fl'laliue e/a/lgalifJl! of Ihe speci men afler breakdown and for the
commonly used grades oi sl~cl varies rrom 8 lo 28%. Thus,
05

=,:. x 100

1t must bt' noled Ihallhe residual relalive elongatlon oi the specimm

rlepends lo a large exlenl upon ils shape and chiefly upon the ralio of
i1s l('ngth to its cross-sedional :!Tea. There\ore, in laborafor)" eJlperlments the residual elongalion afler breakdown rs not measured over
Ihe fulllenglh of the specimen, but only over Hs eertain par! ealled Ihe
redllud lenglh. In round speci mens the reduced length is generally taken
equallo IOd; sometimes it is taken as Sd. In rectangular specimens the
reduced englh is seleded in such a way Ihat Ihe ratio oi lenglh and
crosssectional area 01 a round spe<::i lIlen having the same cross-sectional
area A as the rectangular specimen remains Ihe ~ame. For example,
he reduced length 01 a rectangular speci men correspondln~ lo Ihe lenglh
Od of a rOl/nd specimt>ll should be 11.3fji. The speci mens are.]lfepared

"

CIl. JI,

SllCh lhallhe Imglh belween the heads somewhal exceeds the estiro..I~ lenglh.
Tht pliabilily al a material under tension lit oompressiOfl c.m abo bl:
3SCt!flained by anolher quanUl)' called lhe ptI71UJl/Lfll (tlarhlt ,rola/ion
(01 area). AHer the maximum load i5 reached. a "neck" starls iorroing
in a partic::ularsedion 01 lhe bar. and
al the place of failure the CC0;S5'SC'CIlonal area of lhe sptdmen is gene
P
rall)' 1m than ils nitia! value (Fig.
I~). Lel us denole the lnitial cross
sedlonal uea by Al. and the area of
lhe secUon al which the specimen
breaks dawn by A.; Ihe quantily
$"",A.-II,X 100

A,

(in per eenls) is called Ihe relalive

reduclion aHer breakdown. The
41
Iln'ater is this quantil)',lhe more
(lliable is the mall"rial.
Finall)'. Ihe ll"nSiOfl test diagFI,. 15
ram $ho\\'f1 in Fig. 12 enables us lo
sludyone more mechanical property 01 malerials relal~ lo their ~.
si$tance lo impad loadin. Thegrealer is the amount oS ...."OI"k required
lo break the specimen. the higher is ils re:sislance lo impacl load
in. Therefore. lhe alllOUnl 01 ......o rk done in slretc:hing Ihe specimen
up lo Ihe elaslic limit or c:rushing poiot ma)' be {akm as a c:haracteristic: oIlhe resistllnc:e of malerial to sudden!y applied loods. This wock
is reprcsentl'd by thellrea of he tension tesl diagram (Fig. 12).
Let us considl"r the part or the diagram whic:h Is wilhin Ihe limils "f
apptitabililyof Hookc's 13W (Fig. 15). Wheo the spedmen ftxe<! 3t one
end ls slrelc:hed by applying a radually increasing rorce P al lhe alher
end. lhe displac:emellt or Ihis end is equal lo lhe gradually increasing
elongation l=;~; his relatioo is e~prtsSed by Ihe slraighlline 08.
An clongation l (scgmenl 08. in Fig. 15) c:orrespoods lo a partku
lar value of Ihe force P (stg"ment B,B.). JI we ocrease the orce by dP.
lhe. elongalion inc:reases by dl and Ihe lensile force havng an average
nlue of P+~dP wi1l perform Ihe ....'()I"k

dIV -( P+tdP )dl =Pd~l ++dP~

For

&,~~ttr

~IaJl,

1i9.

..

lP",/ I

Negltcting the $CCOnu-order ferm ydP dtil, we gel

dW = Ptill
Graphically "'Ofk dW ls exprt;$~ by the area o lhe wded redangle
ol helghl P and base d~l.
Coosidering lhe gradual incrcllSe of lorce P as 11 number 01 SUl"C1!S.~ivt
elementar\' atltlilJOf\S 01 loads dP. we find tha! lhe \llork doJJe by lhe
externa! fOrce; in glddually slrelching he spedmen is the sum of he
area~ ol lhe elementarr t\'1:langles (Fig. 15). Whtn he load P is in

crellsl."d cool inuous]y. l.l!. IIP and df,l are infinilesimal quanlities, lor
11Ilrlkular values of P anLl Al, Ihissum ma)' be obtained liS lile area
cf (rangle OB,8. tqual lo

28,8,08, ='jPtil
Thll5. lhe work perlorrned in elaslic Jeformation of a bar by
may be l."xpres.sed by Ihe formula
1

11" -'2Pj,/

c.l

(3.1)

nd graphic;lIty represenled by lhe corresponding part 01 lhe tension

test diagram.
TIK' ~lTK'argumenl holdsgood lor Ihe w'hole ollhe lension lest dlag
raUl (Fig. 12). The arra of the digram repreents th" to!al v.-ork 11",
~xpend~ in breaking /1 ~imen oF lenglh land Cfoss-secUonal are/l A.
To obtan the quanlity \vhich is a characleristic of a material and
nol lhe specimen, ~ divide work W by Ih" "olume of lhe specinlen.
The ralio a=:;' is called lhe sptcifu; r.wrk "/ e/as/ie di!/urllltlli()1l unuer
[,.mslon.
Sirnilarl~, we may del"rmine lhe lo/al sptci~c IJXIfk WI=;; (his
is lhe work. required lo break he specimen The grea!er Ihis quanlily.
Ihe more rdillbly lhe material wilhslands ~hock and sudd!'nly applied
loads.
We have.set'n above thallhe specimen malerlal conlinues lo ellpericnce elaslic deformalion in acrordanc:e wilh Hooke's law even alter Ihe
yield slrMS has been pas.sed; in Ihis tase are added residual deformalions. ThlS is observed v.-hile unloading the specimen aher loading it
be'OOd tbe yk>ld slrtsS (point lon Ihe temion test diagram in Fig. 12).
f ....' e now slart slrelching Ihe specimen alter unloading it, Ihe
l(IIding diagram will be r~rf'$('nled by alnJO!>llhc same unloading Jine
O,l parallel lo DA, and bll'yond poinl l, by the ume curve lDK as
prior lo unloadi!li. Hence, il \\"ecomparc tension lesl dilllUam OClDK
01 a specimefl nol expcrienting unloatling wilh dillgram O,ZDK 01 a

<>31
spechnen of lhe !.ame material, whkh has ~erI :rl.'liminaril)' loadetl up
to poinl Z ami Ihen loode<! back lo poinl O,. \/'1.' see Ihal he limil el

proportionalily increases lo rl'ach lhe slrm up lo whkh

n~

specilllfn

has been preliminarily loadl.'d. w!rel"eas lhe plasti<: delormal)of decmses by 00.. Le. by Ihe residual delormation inrurrt'd during prclimi.

nary loading.
This incfl.'3SC in Ihe limil al :roporticnalily and de<:rcase in plaslic
ddormalion due lo Freliminary loading be)"ood yieltl slrrn and sub
.stqutot unloatling is called ({lId h(rdming. Under oold h.mJl,'lling. ror

ftsponding pollon 01 lhe tensioo lest diagram s, so lo 53)', cut 011',

resulting in a deocrease in Ihe lolal specilic \\'Ork

la,_ In Jacl, rold I1M-

dening is much more complex Ihan lhe simple process by which i! has
bC(!n exv1ained heTeo In particular, ir Ihespecimt'n is allowed lo"resl~

am] reloaded onl}' om,llI'o hours llfler unlO:HHnl/, 'he correspon<ling

part ZDK ofllie l('n5;on lesl di~gram passes a litoe higher lhan wilh
Ihe abS<'nce o Mrcsl".

11. Strtss-slrain Olagram

The Irnsion lest diagram sho,,"Jl in Fig. 12 iIIuslrales he 1lehaviollr

of a maleri.ll for a spedmen or Ihe g;vM dimensioll5: Iherefore. lo gel

a Cllrv(' characleristic of the ~avbJr 01 Ihe material itrtSpec:li\'e or

Ihe dilOO\Siorts 01 Ihe specimt1l, Ihe trnskm tesl diagram is slighlly

modifi~.

lhe ordinales orlhe curve in Fig. 12 depicling I08us are ui"ided by

the nitial (helore Ihe slart of uperiment) ctOSBttlional area of the
speci men A.. and lhe absdssas Al are divided by 1M eslimaled ltrlglh l.
Then in lhe ne..... dillgram "'01' plol along he vertical axis
p
11=-

'.

llnd along the horizontal axis

SlKh a diagram, s.hown in F;i!, 16, is called Iill' giresss/rain dill!lram

lor {he given malerial lUid" 'lIsiO/l. JI is similar lo Ihe lensiGn lesl
diagralll in Fig. 12. In this diagram al! lhe slreSSfS Ihal chatllClerize
the mtthanical properties 01 lhe malerialare markecl: Iimit 01 propar
tion.lily a,.. yield slress a. and ultimje ~Irenglh 0.
11 \l'e oonsider a portion of lhe diagram .OA. up lo Ihe limil ol prO'
porlionalily. Ihen lar a crrlain stress a and lb corrtsponding r('lative
elongalion t. lhe area oflrlangle OAB (Fig. 11) equal lo ":.....ill repreaent Ihe spedlic: vootk in slrelching lhe malerill lo slress!J. We k~'

..
lbal
~

Knowin tba!

t.=.z.

P.11

-r-:lAJ-::l

one may ,.,Tite do\m lhe exprcssion lor sp:ille

.. '"

\\uk 01 dcformation "",ilhln Ihe dastk limi15 as 10110""5:

f:J=

T "'" 'il

(3.2)

By analogy. lhe tolal area of he diagram shown in Fig. 16 reprt'SCnts

lbe total spific \\"Ork Wl al lhe mOffi(!n{ 01 breakdowTI 01 a specimen of
lhe h'en material. fbis quantity may be expresscd lIS lile produd 01

,,

"
lhe 1eng1.h 6 by he maximum ordinale lJ~ and a roefficie~t '1 whieh
O

Fi(. 16

F1c

repre5tnls lhe raBo 01 Ihe atea o tllt' diagrllm to thal 'Of a te<:l:mgle

ha"ing sides 6 and

0M:

(3.3)

Tllus, lhe total specilic work al rupture depMds lo a cerlain dcgree

upon lhe product of lhe ullimate strength llnd Ibe slrain aHer the
mplure. Tberefore. very oflen, ihe abilily of a material to Wilhsl.:IO<1'
shock! is judged by lhe product aM.
From lhe diagram in Fig. 17, JI is evldtnt thllt

iana,,",~ "" E

Hence, graphically lhe modulus or elaslicil}' E

slope or lhe slrlghl porlion of lhe diagram.

rtprestnttd b}' the

12. True Slress-slrain Diagram

The slrtsS-slrain dlle:tam ror lension shown in Fif. 16 mar be
c:onsidered as characlizin the proputles al the e:iven material under
lenslon.

o,.

..

JI

Howcver, {bis diagrlllll ill only a condilional characlerislk or Ihe

mhllnical propcrties oi lhe mah:riill. In Ibe initial slages or lhe lesl,
Ihe crosssccliona1l1rea of Ihe spec:inlM almosl remams constanl, bul
beginninl: from lhe l'icld slress a noliccable reduchan lakes place,
whkh is initilll1y uni orm over the ","Iire Imglh of the specillM'fl., and
artl/f c!cming Ihe ultilnale slrength il becomes localjztd. Therefore.
tk'yond lhe ultima!e slrenglh Ihe ordinales 01 lhe curve shown in Fig. 16
represen! rondilional slresse.s ca1culated lor lh{' iniUal cross-sectional
area amI nol Ihe real one.
Similarly. unlil Ihe ullimale slrenglh s reached Ihe abscissa.s in
Fig. 16 depcntl only uponlhe abilily oi rnalerialto ekmgate. Howf.'ver,
once lhe neck is forme<!, Ihe relative elongaUon also beconK'S dependent
upon the dimensions 01 Ihe lIpedmen (its lenglh amI diameter) 3nd
(lius is no 1IJ0re a chllraclerislic or the material only. Therefore-, lo
oblain a more precise dingram charaderizlI1g lhe rroperlles 01 Ihe maIL1"ial, lhe Irue slres.~~lrain diagfarn ill plolted. I i1tuslrales lhe rrla11011 belw{'cn slress anl! slrain in Ihe sectton of rupiure.
To plot Ihe lru~ stress-slrain rliagram it is essenlial lo regisler Ihe
tensile IOIW al various moments and at Ihe sanie lime mossure lhe
cross-sectional area of lhe speclIlt'n in Ihe narrO\l.'t'$1 place.
Lel lhe ltu<' stress be denolt'd by;; and the IrUf' cross-seclional area
in Ihe narrowe:sl seoclion by A. then
p

(3.4)

0_..".

When deformation is large, the original lenglh ollhe specimen also

changes considerably. Consequenlly, Ihe lrue elongalion
must be
rclatcd lo I~ actual lenglh 01 tlJe. bar al Ihe iven inslan! 01 les! and
may be catculaled by lhe formula

..,- .'(--,

(3.5)

'.

where l. is lhe original lenglh of Ihe specirncn, and 1, i15 lel1glh al

lhe lime or measuremenl. When Irue elongat ion is large in magnilude,
it is denoted by inslead 01 8.
Lel us eslabl ish the relatiomhip bel....~n Irue and condilional slrains
:lIld Irue and condllional slresses.
When Ihe specimen deforms tmilormly along lis lenglh

'.
e= 'J. ~-'nll-Inl,-Inl.-In~-In'i.t
Finelly

'.

'rcoin(1 +e)

(3.')

ro

{Par! I

where
8=~

'.

is th(l condilional slrain.

Formula (3.6) cannot be used in case of non-uniform deformation
because il is diflicult lo rneasure 0./ lar computing e.
It is known lhal the specimen I/alume does nol change uoder nonuniform deformalion br.ginning ram Ihe momenl of neek formalion.
This is known as the lawof constancyof ooLume and may be expressed as
A~l.=

Al

where A. is Ihe original crosssectional area. lt ensues thst

AJ. = (A.-aA) (lo+M)
after dividing by Aol.
1 =A._AA I.+ll.l
A,

1,

wherefrom

I+e=-',->
Upon subsliluting thellas! expression in formula (3.6), \Ve finally ob-

tain

-e=ln-,
J-'~

(3.7)

It should be noled lha! lf is determincd in the narrov..'es! part 01 l!Je

neek.
In arder lo obtain the relationship belween Irue amI oonditionlll
stresscs il should be re<:alled thal

P-=oAo=aA"
wherc l] is conditional slress, Le. stress rclated lo the original cross
secUonal atea. Furlhcr.

-:4 -A.-M 0=0 A. =a--:::;-=a(l-Ijl)

,-,,

a-a--

el_

J)

Experime~1111

"

Slud o, TenslO/l Ilfld CompresWm

Considering lhe relationship between ( and 'P. earlier oblained for

conditions of uniform deformaUon, we obtain

ii_o(l+e)

(3.8)

Under condilions 01 non-uniform deformation, beginning from the

momenl of nKk formation, lrue stress is found dirKlly from formula
(3.4) as il is meaningless lo determine conditional slresses in Ihis slale
of Ihe specimeo because of the large dilference between A and A._

orup

~UP'--

F"ig. 19

Fig. 18

The Ime slress-slrain diagram is shown io Fig. 18. However. !or

practica! use lhis diagram is somewhatsimplilied.lI is considered {hal
:~~::;HJI1 and a small portion 01 the curve jusi preceding ruplure is
ignored. The diagram is then ploUed as shown in Fig. 19.

P,

Yield slress 11~=A;' The [rue ultima[e slrengt} 11~ is calcuJaled lrom
Ihe formula (3.8).
The (rue rup/ure stress is lound from formula (3.4), Le.

at1.I~ =~
Ji
The

troe unifarm

elongation is determined from formula (3.6) Le.

e~=ln(l+e), where a is lhe conditional strain at lhe mament when lhe

neck begins lo formo

Finally, Ihe lo/al true rupfure s/rain is found from formula (3.7),
where.p is compuled lar the cross scctioo 01 rupture:

erop=ln l_>/>

11 is evidenl from Ihe diagram of Figs. 18 and 19 Ihul the stress

inereases righl up lo Ihe moment of rupture, rapidly al firsl but comparalively slowly after Ihe maximum (stress a~) is reached. Al lhe

,.

"

ftllroduetlOll. Ttllsfutl and ComprrDarI

IP", J

momen! of ruptUfl: lhe stress corr~pondillg lo the actual ('roMsec

liMal area is more han lhe ullimate slrengthoblai~ by thecoo\'enlional IDf'lhod.
HO\\"t'ver. it ...."ould be ermneous lo use the laller yalueforcalculal

illl: lhe maximum lo.ad whieh lhe bar can wilhstand belore breaking
ckr,1m, \\itich i.s very importanl from the practical poio! oi "iew. This
is dear {rom Ihe lension test diagram in Fig. 12. lile maximum load
that the specimenwithslandscorresponds nol lo lhe morncnt of break
dowII bul lo an earlier moment-the magnilude of Ihis load is charac
terizect by lhc ulttmate strenglh oc lhe Spl'l.:tmen of a given crossK"Ctional area. Th... aclual stress increase in Ihi~t<lS<' is due lo Ihe
sh3rp redlletion in Ihe \\"orking cross-sedional ~rea of lhe specim~n,
Le. du(' lo Hs fuplure.
Wc II1<1Y se! a number 01 mechanical properties uslog lht! fUe stressstraln ctiagram. lhey were I'nunleraled (m<lrked b)' ilalles) \~'hen Ihe
plotling or Irue stref.Sslrain lension test diagram was explained.
lhe- onlinates 011111" lrlle stressstrain dial:ram show Ihl' abilily of
maleral lo resisi plasti<: deformation.
lo increase lhe ptasllc (residual) defOfmalion, \IX' musl subject Ihe
malerial lo a continuousl)" increasing slress; lhe grt'ater lhe plMlic
tlelornlallon of Ihe malerial, Ihe ~ater is ils resistance lo such a (lefornll1hon. This is knoo.t."J1 as Urtngfhrnillg. The abilily o[ 1I material
lo sln.'nglhening is judged by Ihe sleepness oi lhe true stresssirain diag:r3m, i.e. by lan .
lhe dilTl'ferK:e of Irue lolal and unilorm elongalion is characlerislic
01 the abilily of malerial lo deform locally <al lhe- IlI!Ck) !lid is known
M loo! elungaUQfI.

13. Stress-str.ln Diagram for Duclile and Briltle A1aterials

In Ihe preceding sectlOIIS. we have discussed Ihe ph)'sical ospecl 01
the prOCeM in which a spe<:imen of eludile malrrlal, such as low
carOOn stee-I. is suhjeclcd lo lension. Stressslrain diagrams similar
lo lhe one shown in fg. 16 art' oblainl'd far other ductile malerials
<:apable 01 plaslk deforma1lon.
Sorne (special) grades or sleel. copper and bronze do 001 have Ihe
)'eldinglOlX'. Thert' is a sflIooth lransitioo of the slraiJ!ht1 lne porllon
oJ tiK' (]lagTalll inlo the curved portian. As an t'Xample. he siress-stra!n
(]iagraJtls 101 c851 st~1 (uJ, bronzl' lb), nickel sleel (c). and manganese
steel (d) are shO\l:n io Fil. 20.
For Ihl' I~alerials which do not have a }"K-hling znnr. he )"ield stress
is coodllionally taken as th~ stre.<>s for which lhe residual deformation
is lhe saAl(' as ""ith a yielding lonc. The residual Il'laliveelongalion in
Ihis case s usuall)' lakl"O as 0.2-.
Brillle llIal,fial~ :lr\' th3ftlCle-ril.l'll b)" lile bll'flkdo\\"J1 CVI'fI al sm:JlI
deiormallOflS. \Vhcn a ";I,'.:ill1l'll (r01l1 a IYPlcal britlk matrrial, such

Ch.

31

as casi iron, i~ strelched, lnconsitlerable dcformation is observed righl

up t Ihe mOlllenl of ruplure. The spedmcn breaks clown suddl'llly.
The relalve ('Iongalion !lnd relafive reduclion in area are iountl fo be

~t~k~~

~./~t
do -

9f55tgl/'ff! t

!~zg,,9'"

8Ql10

,o

6000

Ip ..ZZ.5% ".-7f3fxpf/Ut t
:
d'-5J.8%

,I ,I
I I
I I
,
I rs,.-JJ78Kf/CIf/! :
I
I
I ,
I
'i
I
I
I

lIIiJO

(b)

800

.!
"1

':\. '.
'QlI

I
I
I
I O

1:247gg~% rI
11d'-

lOi'

Fig.

"
"

O'---~,,;-'-~z:;;o

fZOO

JO

-'--\:;--':llt,;--'=--t-r;,.,
JO
50

'"

o.!Q() azoo {MUO %

fig. 21

very sma!!. The slresssirain diagram of casi iron under lension is

given in Fig. 21. 11 should be noted lhal in Fig. 21 lhe horizontal
scale of lhe diegram is appro:dmalely 40 limes more, ami lhe vertical
scale ls approxllnately 6 limes more
Ihan the corresponding scales in
Fig. 20.
As a rule, briltle materials have
poor resislance to tension; ther ul
limale strength is less than tha! 01
the duetlle mall'rials.
The rl'lation belwt'en stress and
strain when slrelehing briltle ma
terials does nol concur well wilh
Hooka's law; even al low slres>e$
we get a slightly curved line instead
OL-_-~,
or the strnitiht Jine on the diagram, Le. a slrclly linear preparo
tionalty bel\\'l'C'n the lorce or slress
Fig. 22
and lhe eorresponding delormation
is absenl.
Therelore, lhe modulus 01 elasticit)
which is equal lo lhe
slope or lhc ,liagram (see 11) cannot be eonsidercd a eon~l;nl lJu~n'
lily lor britllc l11~terla1s: il changcs dependillg lIpOtl (he strl.'!>S lar

r.

54

IPwt f

whch lhe deiormalion is to be calculated. As lhe stress iocreases, lhe

modulus

or e-Iastkly increases

Q(

decreases clepending upon Ihe direc-

lion in which lhe curve 15 bulging-upwards or dO'l\Tlwards.

HO'o\1!:vtf, Ihe devialion from Hooke's law i.s insigni6canl rOl lhe
stres.s tange in which lhe malerial! groerally function in slruclurn.
Thereiore. in procHce. lhe curve<! portion 01 lhe diagram (fig. 22) i5
rrplactd by the rorresponding chord. and lhe modulus el elasiicity E
is consid~ constant. This ls permissible, Ihe more so becallSt' fOl
dilJerent specimens lhe mechanical properlies of brittle material!
change in a grealer range than Ihose 01 ductile malerials; !lenet', Ihm

Is no sense in using a ve.y accurale expression for lhe relalion between

stress and slrain.

14. Rupluu In Compression 01 Ductlle and 8rlllle Materials.

Comprmion Test Diagram
Speci~

in Ihe shape or a cube or a

C}']

joder whose heghl is jusi a

IilUe lllOn' Ihm ils diameler are uscd in studying Ihe slrtllglh of malerials under coUlprt55ion. In longer specirr.ens 11 is dlfficull lo avoid
bending.

The !liizt of the sped~ns varies for different malerialsand i1uctUlltes

(lor lhe cube tdge) from 2 cm (....'00<1) lo 2).30 cm (concrete).
Under compression al strases belov.. lhe Iim!1 el proporUunality or
yidd stress. a $petimen lrom ductile
material behaves as under tension.
The IimH 01 propocUonaJily (as also
the yield slrt55 lor slee!) alld lhe
modulus of elaslicily are almosl
equal um!er tension and compreMion
lor duclile malerials.
/
\
After passing lhe limit 01 proporlionality. noliceable residual de,.-~--I-~,
i ,
formalions appear resulting in a
~ __ ~J--r-"-L_ ...'
shodening 01 Ihe specimen and all
increase in lts dialll('ler. The lateral
deforrnations el the specimen al Ihe
ends are bindered due to fricHon be(wtt-"/l Ihe: faces 01 Ihe speci men antl
Fi:. 23
the bearing pl:lles of lhe press; the
spedmen acquires the shape of a
barre! (Fig. 23).
As lhe cl'OSSsecliona! area el Ihe specimen increases. il requires I
realer lorce for furlher d<!formation: the: specirnm continues to compres alld ullimately becomes obiall". Th(' stress which may be yid lo
be anaiogous to ultimate slrength in tellsion Is not observe<!.

,-

---f

el<. 3\

"

A Iypkal str'l?SS-slrain compression diagram 101' a dudile material

(Iow-carbon sleel) is $ho"',," in Fig. 24. As uncler tenskln, cold harden
in takes ph:ct' under compresskm too.

.. ..

6..,..,qt

-r/

/
/
1

'"
""
,'-------..,

."...'

""
""

."

.,
"

Fic

"

D.llfJ

(1,1;(111

.,

461JO Q8fXJ tfKJO

Fl,. 26

As under tension. the briltle materials, suth as slone. cast ron.

Ind ooncrde. fail alter I smlll delormation under c:ompression. Figure

25 shows tbe stressstIain diagram of a stone specimen under compres.

sion (a granite cube IOX IOxlO cm). Figure 26 shows t~ stressslrain
diagram for a cast ron spel'imen under compression. Here also I

should be note<! Ibat the sea les al diagrams in Figs. 25 and 26. espel'lalIy tbe horiwntal enes. are much larger Ihan lhe seale of the diagram
in Fi. 24.

WIlft /

The nalure 01 ruplure In a sl()lle spccimeR is shown in Fig. 27; th('

cru.;!led specimm represents truncaled p)'umids joined by Iht'ir
smaHer bases. This lorm 01 ruplure i5 due lo Ihe friclion lar' bet'A1.'efI
the spccimro and Ihe bcaring plates 01 I~ preu. If we renJOve this
rriclion, rar examplc. by rf:lISing Ihe specimen rllCC5 ""ith paraffin.
lhe nalure of ruplure "'.11 be difterent: the stone ",,U break into parls
wilh crac.ks running parallel lo t~ dirl'Ctioll 01 t~ compressi\'e force
(Fie. 28). The crushing load lor sllcil a cube wlll be less Ihan lar a cubc
usted by the col\\Inon llIcthod, wilholll reasing. Tberel"0f('. thc ulll
maLc slrenglh in comprCS5ion is to a considerable exlent a COfldifiol/C1
p

Fil. 29

"

characleristic of lhe slrenglh 01 material. TIlis musl be laken inlo

consideralion when fixing Ihe salety lactor.
lt has beef observed Ihat ""hen a prismalic specimen madeof slone
or COOctete is compresse<! slowl)', lhe ruplure slarts with Ihe appearance
oi leni1hwise cracks pnrallel lo lhe direction of Ihe force. Thereiore,
we may say lhal lhe malerial 01 the specimen IInder compresson rup
lures npp.llrenily due to Ihe l.lIilure oi cerlaln portions.
The nalure of ruplure forcasl iron is clase to Ihat observed in careol
slonc. Figure 29 shows II cylindrical caslimn spedmen crushed by
ulal compression. 1t must be noled that the resisiance of britUe ma
teriais to compression i5 much grealer Ihan lheir reislance lo tensioll.
Compr~ion al a limber spt'Cimen gives sharply differing rcsults
depending upon the direction o( compression wilh respecl to lhe fibres;
timber is an QIV."sofropic material, j.l'. iI hu dil1"erl'flt properljes In
different direcHons. The ulti mate strmgth of timb rompressed along
the libres is aboul JO UfIlt'$ more lhan u1lm it ls compressed 8CtcM lhe
fibres, whereas !he deformalion is much les.s. Figure 30 sOOv.-s the como
preMian lesl diagramfor a timbercube leste<! along and across lhe libres.
Table 3 contains data on ullimate slreng IInder tension and compression rOl' masl impol'tanl materials.

\ f1

n al 1ft

In
tral x ,
lrou~h
le
el

eh

26)

",.

In ..taticall\" int!t'tHminatt' bl'an s 1111.' formatlon)f nl' ductlh hl

I~ not l.'nou~hfor full ulilization of Iheir bl'ndln!: .. pae 1 11
l n
Ji I Ihal 1 Il' .. t om more dudJlt' lunge be fo md \\" f4J1l c\p1 111
th \\ ith tlil' Iwlp of 4J1l t'\amplt'

:;:J.

,,

z:,.

"

,,'

.;1'1 r:'l?'iT

PI

~'-

J
'!

"t'i.: 1101\ hy
fhe

:'olJ 11

r' l
eq

p;

.,,

, -i
,

1J

on I)rlJl hl
rt~

n "ore,

,,

anJ
Ihl.'

~l S('(IIOI1.

t'

+,

Sl't.'

(~

tha!

"

6"
K

r r. "
1\\l:r haln'S
1 t:umlJ 11011

(2G 5)

prt ,1.:111.:(' of

Ld

U\

rfll1 .. idlr

a Iwo-.. pan t'onlinllou" !Jt

;~;'l (jr;lphir ,u!Jtradion 01

fOl forn'P and ,upport tllOllll'lll .\1 1

tlw diilJ.:rallls is ,110\\'11 b~ dotle(l lint... lhe r(.. ullan! lwndin.: monwnl
dLIJ.!fam i" halt'iw(1. TIH' milxilllUIll ... trl''''I'(I ~tdiOlls rt I1w '('1,'1 ion 01
application of thl' Icl<ll\ \\ith;1 1l101l1l'nt ,\1 ,
tlw lIIiddh' "upJlort withlll0lllt'nl\1 1

~_.2.Pl
..

h.

~PI ,lI1U

Id

'P'j< ;IN \\"111'1 llll' 10;1(1

LlKrt>il"l'lJ. In: "l'" 1I1 Ihl.' tlt'am b~()ml' lqual lo lht )1t'ld In!'i n
f1r t uf all m tht top and botlom la~H of Iht' ('(:11011 JI1dt"r load P,
n 1 ma~ b(" l'\fm", t'tI b\ Ihl' rC"alion

alio
, dt:ll r 11-

of lllliform l'dlon

lJl

(f J.: :377111)) 11 .. Ill'nding: 1ll01llt'nt dilgralll ior \\orl\ \\ Ilhin tlll' l'I,1 tll.:
lir lit-; fig:. ;~7i/'J) i" !1It' difTt'rt'nn' uf 111l' hl'nlting muuIl'nl dlilcrlm..

JI

r"

(J,

\\

lh'rt'frurn

P11

.
1

" The amounl ai wark required to crush dutlile materiaJs

lnlrod..e/iOfl. Terls/an and Campre!slon

[Part 1

i5 grealer
than lhal required for brittle maleriaJs. Therdore, ductile mate
rials are moTI" suilable lor struclures designed lo absorb the maximum
possibJe kinelic ellergy al impact wilhout [ilure.
lhe brittle materials {aiJ easily undee impacts jusi because Iheie
specific work af delormation is ver)' smalL Oue lo Ihe!e small deformalion up lo stresse5 c10se lo lhe ultimatestrength. thesame belltle mal<.."rials are sometimes eapable al bearing far greater stresses Ihan lhe duc
lile materials provlded delormation is under the aclion 01 a placid.
gratlually increasing compressive force.
The second dislinguishing feature belwe<.>1l (hese maferials s that
in the inltlal slages 01 derormalon. the dutUle matcrials may be consldered to behave jdentically under lension and compression. The resislance olnn ovcrwhel ming majorily 01 the brittle materials lo lension
is considerably lo\\'er than Iheir resistance to compre.s.sion. This reslricts
the field or appl ication or briUle materia ls or requires thal special measures be Il'ken to ensure their sare working under lension as, [or exampie. in reinforcemenl 01 L'llnCrete elements, workjng under lension,
with sleel.
A sharp difference is cbser\.'ed in Ih!! behaviour of ductil!! and brittie
malerials with respecl lO Ihe so-called local slresse~, which are dls1rlbuted over a comparalively small portlon of the cross seclion or (he element bul the magnitude al which ('xceeds lhe average or nominal
value, cakulaled rmm commen formulas. Local slrcsses will b~ diseussed in delail in 186.
Sinee \\le do nol observe nny consierable dcformalion in brill1e
malerials almost up lo Ihe moment ollailur<:', the non-unilorm stress
dislriblltion shown aboye remains Ilnchanged under tension as well as
oompression right untillhe ultimaleslrength is reached. Due lo this. a
weakened bar 01 brittle malerial wilh local stresscs wil1 lail Of crack

al a much lower value of the GfJf!rage normal slress a=~ as compared

lo a similar bar withoul local stresses. Thus, we may say IlJal locl1
stresses greatly reduce the slrenglh 01 brittle materials.
The ductile materials are afiected by local slresses lo a much lower
degrec. The role of ductilily as regards local stresses is lo level them
lo some exlent. The mechanism behind Ihis levelling wilJ be discussed
in Cbapler 31.
\Ve have given a very simplified piclure of Ihe working 01 a bar with
a non-uniform distriblltion of stresses. Aclually, levelJing out of slresses is hindered nol on!)' by slrain hanlening. but also by the change in
the slressed slale al the location 01 slress concentration. ils lransition
from a linear stressed slatC' to a ihrCl'-dimensional stressed slate. This
oompound stre.s.sed sta le will be discussed lat<:'r in Chapter 6.
There is olle more aclor which stipulales Ihe seleclion or one or the
other lype 01 material for praclical purposes. Oiten, while assembling a

CIt.

31

"

,lruclure. it is nec~ry lo bcnd er lo ,Iraighlen a bent elemenl.

Since Ihe britile material, are eapablt' of willulanding only very mall
dclormations, such operalions on them l1Mlalty ive rise lo Cfad,s. The
ductilc rnalerials. eapable ol taking ronsderable deformations "'-'ilhoul
ruplurc, elln be bMt and straightened wiihoul an)' duflcullY
Thus. britt1e mal~'fials ha"e poor resislanee lo lemion and impacb.
are ver sensitive lO local ircsses and eannol bear ehange in lhe
shape el t'terr.ents made from tlern.
The doclile malerials are free from lhesl'. drawbacks; therefore ducHlii)' is one of Ih(' most important and dt:'Sirable preperty in malerials.
The poinls in favour of brHtle malerials are Ihal Ihey a~ usually
cheaper and often havc a high ultimale strength under compresslen:
this properly ma~' be ujj]izecllor work under placd loading.
Thus. we sec that ductile Imd britlle materials llave cxceedingly
dilferent and contrasling properties as far as their slrength under
temion ami compres.slon ls concern('d. However, this dilJerenee in pro
perlies is only relalive. A brittle material may acquire the properlies
of a ductile material. and vice versa. 80th brillleness and ductilil)'
depend upon lhe trealllK'nl ollhe material, strM&td slate and lemperatune:. Slone. ""hich is convcnlionally a brillle malerial under compresSlon, may be made lo deferm like a ductile malerial; in sorne eJ:peri
IIJtnls Ihis W2S achicvt<! by p~ing a c}'lindrlcal specimen no! enly al
ils laers bul also on iu ide MlrlnCt'. On Ihl' otMr hand. mitd sleel,
COIlvenlionall}' a ductilc- material, mar under ceruin condilions.
t.K. Iow Ic-rnptralure, bchavt exacl1y Iikl' a britlle material.
Hcoce Ihe proptflits ~britUmess~ and ~duclilily". wheh \\oe assign
lo 11 material on th~ bllsis of compressien and lmsion tesis., arl' rtlated
lo lhe malerials behaviour only al ordinary lem~atures and ror lhe
ghtIl kinds of deformalion. In general. a briltle malerial mayehanee
into a ductil.. material. and vice versa. Hem~e it would be more precise
lo speak nol 01 ~briltl('~ and ~ductil('~ mal('l"ials bul 01 brllle and pla.
slie stales 01 materlals.
II musl be not..>d that a companliively srnall ncrease in {he ductilily
01 a britlle malerial (even up to 2% relalive elongalion before breakdO\\~l) enables lis use In a number el cases \\'hich are olherwi5e preclud
ed lor briltle malerials (in machine parlsl. Thert'!"ore, re.search \l:ork
on improving Ihe ductili!)' al brittle malerials such as concrete and
casi iron demands lhe maximum poMible a!lention.
16. Considuations .in Selec.tion 01 Saltty Faclor

A. In the preceding sedions, \Iooe discussed the ~thods 01 computing

slresses, delermining lhe mechanical p~lies 01 malerials under ItIlslon 2nd compre<.sioo, and gave rerornmendations lor sdecling onc or
Ihe oUJ<'r Iype ol malerals (ductile or britlle) dependingupon lhe \l:ork
ni condilions.

lllfroiJurfiQl'. Tmsiu1I aml COmprtniOfl

1P~FI

However, Ihe in[ormalion given lill no\\' is nol surticien! to flnd out
the pcrmissible stresses suilable lor differenl types o[ loading. Tlle- values 01 atl the mechanical prpperlies of materials (ultimJlle strenglh,
relative elongalion. limil 01 proportionality, elc.) are obtained from
laboratory experiments under sta tic loading, Le, when he load inuea
'" raduall y wHhout impacts, shocks and change 01 sign. Similar1~'.
{he ormulas correlating normal stress 1] with the lensile or compressive
10fl;e P have becn derived lor stalic looding. lt was assumed lhal the
external (orces and stresses acting on the cutoil portion 01 Ihe b;lr
balance each other. In pracliee, however. we often come aeross dynamic
and s)"slemalically chllnging loads.
As compared to lhe slalic load, he suddenly applied load has a Iwolold effect; on Ihe cne hand, Ihe briltle and ductile rnalerjals read
differently to lhe dynarnicadion of the load and, on lhe other hand, the
stresses are also differenl. This problem will be discussed in greater
delaijs in Ihe chapters on dYllamic loading. Here we shall pay altenlion only lo Ihe ad hal stresses are generally higher under a dyn~mic
load Ihan under a static load 01 the sam~ magnitude. This statemenl is
conlirmed by experimental resuHs and may also be proved Ihoorellc.1I1y, as has becn done in Parl IX.
Tb~ ratio or stress 0,) due lo dynamic aetion 01 Ihe load lo str~ (J
due lo siatic adion or the same load is called the coe!rcienJ of dynamic
reSfJOIl~ and denolcd by Ka:

'!i = K

The coellicient of dynamic response depfmds upon the typc 01 dyname looding and has a very large value in a number 01 cases.
B. The slrcnglh 01 TIlalcrials undc.r loads systemalicaHy changing their
lIla~l1itude or lnagnilude aud sign is mllch dilTerenl hom lheir strength
lInder slalic ami impact loads.
1, for eX<llnl'l(', we al!eflln(ely snbjcctll slcel bar lo a large llllTIlber 01
tensions nml comprcssion.~, weshall obscrve (hat after a dclinite number
01 sueh cltangC's in slress<'S, {he bar in some cases cracks and lIJen ruplures al a stress considerably luwcr Ihlln ilsullimale slrength. Even lor
plasllc maierials Ihe plstk deformation 01 Ihe specimell belore breakdo\\"n lInder similar loading is ver}' srnaj]: a brHlle fraclure lakl'S
placo:.
The railure of lJIatcri:lls undcr a variable load at slresses lower Ihan
the ullimate slrength is called faligue. This name does not reRecllhe
physical nature 01 the phenomenon. but il has become suth a cuslomary
term thal il is used lo this dal,
Experiments show thal under alternative lensioo or cnmpression a
decrease in the acting force results in an incrcase in lhe: number of
alteralfons 01 this force required to break Ihe specimell. Each material
has a maximum normal slress a at which the specimen can wilhstand

"

practlcally an unlimiltil nUIllber o alleraliOfls al Ihe force without

brellking down. This slres.s in denoted by Oc anri js <:81100 lhe mdlUOru:t
limil or lhe faiiglU' /mil. lhe e1emenl will nol bit unlrl.slresses in it
do not exceed Ihis limit, irr~tive 01 th(' number of alleralioll5 el

Ihe slresses.
Thus, in s)'slematically varying loatls. iI b ~tial to specir)'
another mechanical proptrty of Ihe material, nalnel)". endurance
1mil: il dctermin~ Ihe resistance o lhe materIal lo alternating slres.5t$. The fallgue of maleflRIs fOf various l)'pes oll~ds ....ill be sludkd
in greater deail in Chapler 31.
AtI tha! has been slaled aboye mllS!

sdtcling !he

permis.~ible

1)('

lllken lnlo accoonl wh"n

slresses in tension nI' compresslon 01', which s

Ihe same. when delerminlnR lhe sarely factor k Irom lhe [ormulu
(scc .. ami 7)

[o] = ~

(3.9)

TIle salely faclor should be so seJeded Ihal the normal slresses ad iug
on tbe ",hule sedion tia nol I'Xceed Ihe elaslic lliTllI (or \'il."ld slro;sl
of Ihe malenal, olherwise Ihe bar will gel plaslically deformed; undeT
a varying load Ihe normal stres.ses should oot rxCffil lhe- endurance I i
mit, whieh is usually lower than lite yil"id stress.
Ji should bl' l:lken iuto consideralion Ihal lhe strt'$5C!i are grotrllll~
higher under impacl loading. Since Ihe slresses in this case are a!so
usually delermine<! br assuming 1M Io,d lo bestalic.lhed~namic
actfon of lhe load musl be- occounted ror by a oorresponding incr\'..se in
the !afely factor.
C. As (;Ir as the local slr\~'S :lrt! COOCl"fn<.'d t~ 15). JI is IJossible lo
reconcile lo Iheir cc~dmi Ihe elaslic lillli! or yield stress in Ihe Cas'
01 duclilc In:llcrial5 provided the allem:lling load is :lbsenl. In lhis
case plllSli<: dc!orJll:llion occurs over an extremel)' 5mall porlion ollhe
seclion and does not nlTrel Ihe working or Ihe conslruclion. Due lo
plaslic tleforlllalions the local slresses slop increasing antl parlially
approach Ihe nornlal slresssl'S in lhe reUlaining portion or lhe seclJon.
Tite britlle L1llllerials do 001 have litis properly (see 15): in Iheir case
a higher sarety faclO( has lo OC> laken, the more so bee.1use Iheir strenglh
under Impacl loading is IU""et Ihan lhat 01 duclile materials.
Undcr an allernalLll:: load, \\Ohm we have lo reckon wilh Ihl" possib1 i.
Iy of devcloping craek$ due to faligue, il is very essenlial lo lake inlo
consideration lhe local stresses, which .seriously alfed Ihe selcclion 01
safely laclor el duc!ile malerials. Fur lhe criK'k due lo fatigue to appear,
fhe actual slresses in a pulK:ular section musl exCffil !he endura~
limil. Sioce Ihe local slrts5t$ are grealer lhan Ihe ~tresses elsewhere
(acUne over a larger portian of Ihe secUon), lhe chances of Ihe crack
appearlng are due to name.lr the local stresses e,tcee<!ing the endurance
limil: As lhe dimensions o lhe .seclion are compuled Irom considera

"

{Par' 1

lioos el the maximum gMml\ slresses Irom lhe formula

a.... -~llO;[(fJ=~
lhe ~{ely faclor wleded lar lhe general permissible slresses should
ensure that lhe local slresses do nol exceed the endurance limil. This
requres considerable increase of lhe salely factor k as comp.red to
iu v.lu!' under static loadiog.
In lhe case of ductile materials, when lhe endurance timil tXl:eeds

lhe yield stress. lhe local stresses mar be Ignored as yielding reduces
Ihe pOMibilit}' af lhelr spreading. playing Ihe role of a buller.
Far brittle materials, which do no! have a yield platean, Ihe danger
01 faligue cracks appearing under variable loadiog la lUore pronounced,
and tllls requir(!S lhal Ihe corresponding safel)' musl be inct(!aseu in
comparison with Ihal under stalic loading.
Thus, sillCe lhe choice 01 Ihe safe!)' laclor dt'pcnds upon Ihe proper
lies of Ihe malt'rial aoel lhe method of applying the ulemal lorces, ils
value I.S generally grealer lor brittle malerials lhan 101' duclile ones:
similarly. a higher \'alue ollhe salely faclor hasto be taken 101' dynamic
and varying 100ds as compared lo slalic loads.
D. A number DI olher laclan ha\'e lo be takm inlo accounl when
selec:1i1lR Ihe- ~mi5Sible stres.ses. The mllgniludes 01 lorces require-d
Sor compulatioos are 001 koo'll..n exacll)': the mec:hankal properties of
maltfials frequently devlale considerably from lheir krlOllm values;
lhe methods 01 computlllion and OUt koo'll.. led~ al lhe: inletadion beIween dilf('ftJlt parls 01 slroclutes ar? usually slmplilied amlllpprollimate. The salcly fllClor must COVef all these unavoidable inaccuracies
of compulalion and designo
Tlle les.s lhe hornogeneily al malerial, Ihe poorer Isour knowledge 01
Ihe lorces ading on il, Ihe more simplilied is our presenlalion oJ lhe
inlcracHon between various e!cmCflls of Ihe slrutlure, and the realer
has lo be lhe sarely lactor. In opetlllion, machine parls we-ar oul; there
lore, in 11 number or cases a '\\;ear factor" has lo be provided lor.
Similarly ('orros/on and ro1ting have lo bl' tllkp.n iolo 3<:<:ounl in Ihe
desigo 01 metal and wooden structures.
Ihe olher haud, il! <:ertain machine.~ laeroplanes), lhe salel~' faflor
has lo be reduced lo lhe lower possible vall)(! to ensure minimum weight.
Hence. proper selcctlon al lhe permissible stresses is a highly compli.
uted probl~m. c:onnecled wilh Ihe method of c:omputalion. investiga
lion al properliesal lbe mateorial and alargt Ilumbef of olher c:onsideIlItiON inc:luding ec:onomic one. A partic.ular vah:e of Ihe permissible
slress dell'l"mines Ihe consumption al Ihe gin'l'\ mat",lalllnd "".. )~ of
lb U5(" in lhf' strudure; lhis v.1lue determines lhe life al Ihe slruc:ture
and the 6eld al .1ppllClllion al lhe various materials.
In a large numbef of slruc:tures Ihe standard values of permissible
slresses are deli~ by the slandards, and lhe enineer should only ~

en

EXp~,imtlltal Slufg ~! Tt~slan all4 Compnmion

CI>.31

able lo properly apply lhen\. However, in e:'cplienal cases, sal'. ler

cxample. during war timt:, lhe enginecr has lo abandon tlJ{' slandard
vlllues; he mal' Ihen 101l01V Ihe general considerations, 1ald down in
this .secUon aud in Chapler 3l.
E. Summing up al! that has been stated above, we may lormulate Ihe
following main poinls.
The sarely lactar should be seleded in a .....lJy so as lo provh.le a
defioite reserve againsl the appearallce 01 Ihe so<illled ai/ieal sta/e
o{ Ihe material, which milY endanger the .....orking al the machine.
Under slalic OT impac! dynamic looding. this slale is characlcriwd
in dudile materials by Ihe appearance 01 large plaslic delormations
(yieldlng), and in britlle malerals by Ule appearance 01 cracks preceding ultimate lailure. Under repeatedly varying loads Ihe crilical
state 01 material is characterized by lhe appearance anl1 development
of fatigue eracks. We shall denote Ihe stress corresponding lo the
slart uf crilical state by 0"". This stress is
Cfv

o =

l".

0""
u

(yield stress) when {he dudi1e material

begins to yiell!
(ultmale slrength) when the brHUe
material ruplures (cracks)
(enduranc<, Umit) when Ihe fatigue
crack appears

Hence. formula (3.9) ma)' now be wrilten more precise1y anl! r(>placed
by Ihe Ihree lormulas depending upon lhe nature of crilical slale:

foJ=~.

v .

[o"] ... ~;
~

[o]=~

(3.10)

where k~, hu and k. are the corresponding safety fadors. lhe three
formulas lIlay be generaUsed in Ihe form

[o"j=~
Hereo o implies eilher o"u. or o"u, or a., and k implies eilhl'T k~, or ku,
or k"
Howevcr, formula (39) slilJ relains its prilclical importance. As
the yield slress and endurance limit are lo a cerlain exlenl relate<! 10
Ihe ultimate slrenglh. the salety factor lor al! lhe critical slales may
be expressed in lerllls of Ihe ultimate strenglh.
Thest: in general are Ihe basis consideralions essenlial for properly
eva1uatiog Ihe permissible slresses.
f. Passing over lo Ihe considerations in assignjng lhe value of the sao
fety laclor. we shall gjve some very brief inslruction5. lhe nonhornogeneily of lhe malerial, inaccuracy in force deterrninalion, error of
computation, Le. the cornmon factors are ae<:ounled lor by Ihe main

..

IPutt 1

:sarely faclor k. For ductile matCl"ials (sleel) it b laken as k~-k.

_1.41.6, lor brillle matE'fials and \\"000 k.""k,=2.5-3. Olher laclors.
suc:h as the d)'namic nalure 01 the rorces, alteralion al their adion
and lhe decl of Ial slre!>5e5 are takl!n lK'COtJnled far by addilional
coeflicienu. by which he main safety lactor is mulliplied.
11 should be borne in mind that lhe perrnissible stress 101 obtaintd
according lo formula (3.9) should be comparcd lo lhe actual slres.5eS In
Ihe part of lhe slructure .",.Hhout considering Ihe d)'naU1K:: icUon 01

the forre and olher addilional factor!.

JF only lhe general poinls are coru.idered while asslgning the safel)'
factor, Le. Ihe overall salel)' factor is laken eqllallo (he maio safel)'
faclor, the d~'namic lIelion al ortes and Ihe local stresses are taken
account or, as lar as possible. in he value of the actual stress, multip.
tring Ihe lAajn slress under slaiic loading by Ihe coeflicients of dvnam c
loading and stress ooncenlrations. lt is IlOt diHicult lo see tla\ Ihe
resulls in both Ihe cases will be identical.
Table 4 oonlains approxlmate vaJues 01 Ihe ov('rall salel)' factor
wHh respecl lo the ultimale strength ror varlous Iypes of materials
and loads induding the f.elon. accounting lor lhe d)'narnic nalure
of loading and local slrtsseS.

'.
D~W ..

( 8rillle

Sblic INU
"I(lad Iwd
V~ryln<: lo~d (lenl.ion ~lld
eqll~1 "I3~lIltuoJcJ

comprC5Sion 01

Ducllle
Ductll, Mcd)

:U-2.6

3.0.9.0
2.85.0
5.0.1~.0

The lable is onl)' 01 n lentaHve nature; it flives an del! abOUI Ihe

change in the salety lactor depending UJlOO circumslanccs. NUlllerous
aspects afTecling Ihr sarety factor under impacl and allernating loads
will be tliscussed In grealer detals in Otaplers 30 amI 31.

17. Permissible Stress Under Tension

aod Compruslon lor VlriOUS Malerials
In lhf. precedlllg seclion Il'e lried lo elucidale Ihe numerous faclOl'$
which arreet lhe ufely lactor and con:sequefllly Ihe vllue of permlsslble
streu. lo Table 5 are Iven the lenlalive values 01 permissible stll':\.St$
under tension and compression lar sorne imporlanl materials used io
eflgi~rng and m:lehine buildin:. The table has beeo L"Ompilfilon the
basis of present Soviet standards.

Ch. 3)
T~bJ"

Tent'tiv. Valuu 01 lh. Permlsslbl.

~lat .. ial.

Strrs~s

fur Son,. Commanly U... d

/1101,'1.1

Und.. IO",iOn

Gral' tosl lren

L,,"",cMbon 51ccl
Structural cariJo" slcal u..eJ in machinc buil<lIng
SlIudu,.1 .lIe; ~1...,1 u",d in .,achine bulldin:
Capper
B,~

p.... ,lon

""-800
10002000
llOO.2500
JOOO4l)OO and 1l1.:IJC'f"
300 1200
1()(1I-WI

Brome

Alum!,,!um
Aluminium bronze
DuroluminJ"m
Texlallte
Lamirl1led Bakelile lll$ul,Uon
Bakclit. ;mprq<nated vwet:t
Plne .long lbe libres
Pino 'cro~ Ihe fibres
Oak alan: Ih. libres
O,k 'oToSS Ihe 6bru
Slonewark
Brlekwerk
Concrete

t'ud,., ''''''_

6001200
300-800
BllOI200
IJlO!SOO
~4()(1

O.IOO

800-""
400500

00130

lOO_I20
1520
130150
2(135

up to 3
up lo :2

,-,

440

fJ25
10-90

The malerials enumeraied in lhe Table 5 must satis!y lhe requiremenls and llorms (or slrenglh, duclility, produclion process, chemi('al
eolllposilion, ele.) 01 the corresponding slandars. It does nol ~O\"H all
malcrials, nor the dlverse conditions in whjch (he\' Il"ork. In eaeh design problem the pl'rmissible stresses should be Slle<:ified in accordancc
with the olficial technkal specificalions and d~sgn slandars lor Ihe
given structure, ando in their absence, on Ihe basis 01 raclof:5 lHscussed
in Ihe preceding seclion.

PART 11

Complicated Cases
01 Tension and Compression

CHAPTER.

Design 01 Statlcally Indeterminate Systents

for Pennissible Stresses
18. SallelUy Indetl:rminale S)'Stems
Our abilily to ca!eulat!! lhe ddormation oi baTS under lension and
compression enablts lIS lo determine tbe changes in Ihe shape and ize
01 parts 01 slructures under the ctiao 01 exlernal forces. Usually Ihese
deformatJons are ~ snwll tho! lhey seem devoid 01 ;Jny pradical Imporlance.
However. in a numbel" o trutlures, it s impossible lo check the
slrenglh lInd determine Ihe crosssectionai area ollhl;' variolls elemenls
""ithalll lhe knowledge of deformalion; lhese struclures are known as
stalica/ly jndr:~rmira1e systcms: linding Ih!! fon:es acting in lhe e1ements of Ihe5(' slnx:lul't'S in a sUJJical/y illdrft'fmillalt probltm.
In all Ihe uamples \1.ilich \\'E' have ronsidered lill now, Ihe ensile
or compreuive fOl't't'S acling on the bar were determined [rom slalic
conditions of a salid body.
In case of weight Q suspended (rom hI..o bars (Fig. 31). AB and AC,
we find tensile Jorces N, and N. strttclling lhe ban rrom lhe equilib
rium condilions 01 poinl A. Three rorces appl ied lo poinl A musl satisfy
lwo equations 01 t'quilibrium: lhe sum 01 the projections of Ihese
forces on lhe two coordinale axes mnst be ~ro. Tllus. we ~ Ihat Ihe
number 01 unknown quanWics (Iwo) is equal to the numbcr 01
equaHons (tu'O), thereiore forces N, and N, ma)' be determined
Irom hese equations. This is slatical1y t1elermilUlte probll'tn.
The oonditions will be different il weight Q is suspe-nded rom Ihree
ban (Fig. 32). In Ihis case poinl A is in equilibrium un~ Ihl' actioo
of fout ion:es: Q, N N,. and N tbree of (he forccs belng unkno\lm.
The nllmber al eqllations rem.ins lhe same, Le. 111.'0. Hence, Ihe number- o unknown qu.nlities eJ[c~ by one tbe number al equalions.,
lhe strudure is one dtgree indelerminate. and lhe problem cannot
be sol\-ed wiUl !he help al slalic equalions only.

Ch. 4'1

Deslgll 01 Sta/ieal/v fnMlrrmillal~ Syslems

G7

The addilional equalion required lor lhe solulioo 01 Ihe problem

can be eompiled using Ihe ideas gained in passing over rrOIn Ihe thoo
relieal mechanics to the slrength or materials. We must lake accounl
lar the ddormobility 01 maleria!. One more equalion eao be lound
in studying lhe delormations of Ihe slruclu]e. 11 lurns out Ihal it is
always pessible lo fintl as man)' addHional equalions as is requirerJ
lo complete Ihe number 01 slatic equlltions so Ihal the number 01
equations be equa) to Ihe number or unknown quantilies.

ng. JI

Flg. 32

The extra equalions are lormed on Ihe basis oi lhe eommon principIe;
they should express Ihe condilions 01 joim deformatioll$ 01 Ihe syslem.
Any slructure dcforms in such a way that IhITe are no ruplures
of the bars, Iheir disconnection or ;lOY unrorescen relaUve tlisplaccment
ef one part of Ihe struelure with respecl to the olher. This in briel
ls the principie 01 joill! deformalioll of lhe elements 01 a s)'slem.
lhe general melhod 01 solving statically indelerminale systems is
as follo\\'s. Firsl 01 al1 we must decide whal are the.larces to be determlned, lhen wrJte down alllhe slatie equalions 01 a salitl body, and
final1y derive the requirec\ number of exlra equalions to nd Ihe unknown forces.
A course of Ihe solution 01 Ihe problem js shown for Ihe particular
I?xample (Fig. 32). Suppose the side bors 01 equal cross-se<:tional arcas
are made 01 steel, whereas Ihe mitldlc bar is made or copper. The length
01 Ihe middle bar is l. and that 01 the sitie bars, {l. Suppose (he permissible stress for sieel is [0.1 and Sor copper la,1. 11 is rcquiretl lo
determine the sale dimensions of the cross sections oi Ihese bars under
the aclion of suspended weight Q.
Pirst of aJl we shall determine the forces acting on eaeh 01 Ihe three
bars. Since fhere are hinges at points A, B, e and O, all the Ihree bars
can be sllbjected to only a}ljal lorees. Let us eonsider lhese rorees to
be tensile. In order to determine lhese forees, we must eonsider {he
equilibrium of point A to whieh the only known force Q is applied.
A schemeollhe rorces aetingon point A and the local ion 01 coordinale

axes are vi ....en in Fig. 33. Lel us equate to:ero the SURI or projeclions
of Ihe forces acling on poml A 0fI Ihe eoordinale axes:
N.sina-N, SilH1 "'iO
Q -N.-N, cosa-N. cosGt= O
From the nrsl ualion \\"e gel N,=N.; replacing N.
cond cqualloo, we oblain

b~'

N, in lile se-

Ns+2N,coso:_Q

Now we have ene e<uation wilh 1Il."O

(4d)

unk~lls.

To oblain Ihe exlra l'qualion we must study lhe ddormation of lhe

slructure. All the Ihrei! bars will clongate under the acHoo or lorce
Q, ano poin! A will descent!. Since N, nnd N, arr equal aod bars / an1l2
8

are of tl~ ume ,"lIterial. elongaHons M, and Al. will be equal ir Ihe
ban are of equal length, poin! A will destend verlically OOwn\\'ards.
Le! liS denote the elonga\ion of lhe Ihlrd bar by Al,.
Th~ elongallon 01 aH lile three bars isl.ained, Le. Ihe bars remain
hingell ut poiol A !jer ddormalion. To ntl Ihe O<!w posilion ollhis
poin!. wc assume Ihe bars lo bc disconnl.'Cled aod rlOI en Ihe dlagram
(Fg. 3-I) lhe new lenglhs of Ihe side bars CC~ an( BB. by iocre3sing
ll~lr loilial ll'flglhs by l, ... AB, and L\l.=AC~. The ncw posilion of
poinl ti is oblaincd by ro13ling lhe elongated bats CC, and BB. abollt
poinls B and C. Poillls B, arW Cs will coincide al point A" moving
310ng Ihe ares CoA, and B.A, which dUe lo tho SllJall dt:-iormalion
ma)' be considcretl 3S slraight Ines perpendicular lo CC. and BB,.
respt.'C ti vel y.
The l1ew posHion or the side bllrs BA, and CA, is shown by dotted
Iines. Sincl' tho entl 01 Ihe middle bar s also laslened lo lhe hinge,
il will also come to poiot A and elongalion bl. will be equal ta AA,.
Aceording lo Hooke's latw. ihe elongallons .dI" 61" amI 61. of al!
the thrce bars will be directly proporlionaI lo Lhe {ensile lorces slrel

Ch. 41

Ddg~

"1

Sla/icul/'l I"d.>tmll;nille SI/51rms

ching them. \fler linding Ihe relalion between Ih<:'SC elongalioM frOn)
the ligur.., IH' shall oblain Ihe extra equation correlalin Ihe:' Ul1knOWll
iorcel; in (he bars. From Iriangle A,AB. we have

AB,=AA,cosr.l.

or

6l,=~1. COSr.l.

(4.2)

Lel us express tl/, nd M, in !erms 01 Ihe lorces N, and N,. This

is po.<.sible only iI we know Ihe cross-scdional area oi the bars. Hl'te
\Ve musl stale a \'ery importanl fealure oi Ihe stalicall~' indelerminale
systems: lo determine lh" lorces acting in bars we mus! kno\\" helorehllnd eilher Ihe cross-sectional area of Ihese bars or lheir ralio.
Lel A, anl! A. be tlle cross-sed ional arcas of the bars; [el us denote
Ihe moduJus of elaslicily 01 sleel by E, aod Ihal of coppcr by E.

TtJ<:n
'1
LI

N,I,

(4.3)

= E.A, ;

Pultiog these values 01 tl/, aod M, in equalion (4.2), we gel

N,I, = N.I.

E,A,

COSIZ

E,A.

1I is eviden! from Iriangle ABD (Fig. 34) Ihal

I,=l,c.osa.
Thereiore,

",A,

N , = N E:A:
, cos o:

(4.4)

Thus, by eXlllllioing the joinl deformation of lile systelH, we hove

oblained an etra equalion correlaling N, alld No.
Joinl delormation lakes place jn slalically delerminale slructures
loo, 'bllllhere it does nol impOSl' ani' conslrainls on (orel' dislribulio.
Only one system of forc~ salislying lile equilibrium tondilions s
possible in Ills l'ase. Sincc lile nUlIlber of unknowns js ..-qual lo thl!
llumber or siatic equalions in such slruclures, Ihe dciormalion is
cOlllpatible wilh lhe conditions 01 joinl dl"fornalion. For exampte,
Ihe rorces acting in Ihe bfS C<lll be flllly delermined Irom (he equilibriuUl con<!ilions uf poinl A. 80lh Ihe bars may ...Iongale under Ihe aclion of thl'SC 10fClos wilhout gelting di5\.'Onnecled, ami Ihe candilion
01 jojnl Jeforlllation is aulomnlically fulfilled.
On Ihe contrary, in slalicil1Jy inddcrminole 5Irudur~, Ihere can
be any nUlllber of lorce syslems saUslying Ihe C!quilibrium conditions,
be<:lIuse Ihe number 01 unknowns s greater thao Ihe number oi equalions. From alJ the possible combinations 01 lorces. Ihe combination
whkh actually occurs is lile one Ihat corresponds to Ihe condilion 01
joint delormalion.

Complimlcd CD$t$

(JI

Ttnsion and Comp",ssion

" In thl' statically indelerminate systl!m (Fig. 32), Ihe localion of

[Parl 11

poio! A alter dcformation combines Ihe elong:nions 01 all Ihe lheee

bars. For lhe condilon 01 jOlol deformalon to be satisfied it is es!en
lial Ihn! lhe elangalions should be in a definite ratio. This coodilion
gives U~ lhe extra cqualion (4.4) requlr('] for determining lhe unknown
force.
v,HIlinuing lhe sollltion el Ihe problem \Ve pul Ihe value 01 Nj
rom (4.4) ulo Eq. (4.1) and oblato

EA,
N +2N "r;:::-;coso;=
Q

whencelrcm

N,

(4.5)

and rom (olA)

(4.6)

II is evideo! (ram Ihe formulas obtained Ihat Ihe value al N depends

no! upon Ihe absolute values uf lhe cros,s-sediona] arcas A and moduli
01 l.'lnsticily E, bul upoo tlleir ratio. By selting difieren! vallles al
Ihe ratio 11we ohlain variou~ combinallons 01 the forces N"

N" and N,.

Knowing lhe force" and Ihe pe-nnissible stress we can find Al and

A, hum Ihe CQndilions

N

t";;:[I1];
,

(4.7)

calculaling Al from Ih(' lirs1 conditon and knowing lhe seJecled

ratio II=AA....!' we can lind A."'~, This value ran be checked up
"
by seeing II"helher il salisfles Ihe second conrlition o[ (4.7); jf not,
the value 01 A, is lound {rom this condtion, and A, IS delermined by
Ihe formula
(4.8)
A, =nA,

Thus, in a slatirally ndeterminate slrurlure witl! a given load we

may obtain a number 01 dilfl.'rent modifirations 01 force dislribution
belween Ihe bars by changing Ihe ratio 01 Iher cross-sec\ional areas.
Le! us lake a oumerical example [or greater clari6calion.
Let Q=4 U; a-3O'; (cr,l=lllCXl kgl/cm'; E,=2xI0' kgl:cm',
Icr<I=600 kgi/cm'; E<-l X 10' kgficm'.

Ch. 41

Dcsign 01 S((Jlical/!I fndfltrmlMlc S!ls(rms

For preliminary cakulation let us assume sn arbitrary value of

n=~=l
A.
Then
4X 2X 10' cos '30-

N,=N,=

i'X'i'Oi

2x 10"

~~M

1.67tf

1+' xfXi(iicos"V
N.=

2)(10'

+ 2x i"XiOi (OS' 30'

=1.lItf

From strength condilion we oblsin

A ,"" ~-!E!!
cm'
la.1 -1000'" 167
.
As we have assumed A,=A., lhen A,=-1.67 cm'
Let us check whelher these lIimcnsions will satisfy the strength
condition lor Ihe middle bar:

~;= :~~~ = 667 kgf/cm'> 600kgfcm'

The assumed value 01

A~

is nol enough; It should be

A ,-=~=
N.
lUlO
L 85
600 =.
cm '
To maintain Ihe conclition A,=A. which lormed the basls 01 our
calculation, we musi lake A,=A.= 1.&5 cm' instead 01 the rrquired
value 01 1.67 cm' oblained fram the first l:ondilion. In this way we
shall have an additional reserve in Iho:! side ban.
lf we wish to avoid lhis extra reserve and lake

A,=A,=1.67 cm',

A.=I.83 cm'

(4.9)

Ihen forces N" N,. and N, will change immellialcly; Ihe ratio A,/A,
will no longer equal 1, as assumed earlier. bu! wil1 beO.9. In formu13
(4.5) the denominator becomes less and N, ncreases; in formula (4.6)
the decrease in Ihe value o[ the denomnalor will be less as compare<!
to the numeralor, therefore N, and N, wHl decreaSE'.
By decreasing lhe crosssectional area 01 ihe side bars as comparM
lo lhat 01 lhe middle bar, we reduce lhe lorces ading on Ihe side bars
and ncrease Ihe forces acting on lhe middle bar.
This refleds the generallaw which govcrns the force dislribution
bctween lhe elements al all stlltically ndelermnate svstems: the
forces IIre distributed in accordance v"ilh the rgidity of uie bars; the

Compliwrtd Cast:s 01 TensiaR "nd Comprtssion

12

[P<lft fl

grealer he CfOSS'$eCtionai area 01 a given bar, he greater is the ShJTe

01 total force (hal il lakes, and vice verSil.
Ir we approximate Ihe aTeas A, and A, to zero, Ihen forces N, and
N. will lend lo lera and N, to Q. lf,on {he othcr hand, wc decrease
A" then N. wil! decrease, wheTeas NI and N. will ncrease.
For a vatul.' 01 n=O.9 [formula (4.8)1, N,=N.=I.60 r, N.-I.20 tf.

This requires A.=2.0 cm l and A,= 1.8 cm l instead 01 1.6 cm' as found
rrom the ~lrength coodilion foe steel bars.
Had wc assumed A,=I.G cm" lor !he sitie baes, he ratio 11 would
llave been reduce<! agaio. and he mitldle bar would have gain f!ot
over]oaded. Thus we should again be rcconcileu with Ihe res('Tve in
sirle bars. From formula (4.4) it 101l0w5 lh! a particular rallo, 11=
which ensures Ihat Ihe stresses in al1 Ihe bars aceequal to the
permissible str<'SSl;S, is possibleonly for a delinite value o Ihe anglea.
Jndeed, had we detertl1ined he areas A exactly in accordance wilh
Ihe pennissible stresses, we would have gol Ihe relations

=4;.

N,=A,[O"sJ,

N.=A.[O"e]

(4.10)

PuHing lhese valucs in (4.4), we get

A, f<J.l = A,

f<JcJ ~;~~ cos' a.

(4.11)

whererrom we have

(4.12)

i.e. in arder lo select the cross-sectional arca wilhoul excessive reserve

for anr va[ue 01 {he ratio 11 it s cssential that cos el. should satisfy conditioo (4.12).
T abl~ 6
Rtlulls 01 Calcul.lloM for VuJous V.luts 01 n
.4, .. .4,

ft~ ~;

o.,

0'
LO
L2
0.,

!'I,-N,

lUl

(.5(;

l.(jO
1.67
1.75

0."

m',

Uf)

LOO
1.20

1.11
0.97
0.82

r.q"I .. ~

LOO

0."
0."

1.()7

1.75

...uroed

1.74

LOO

I.lI.~

1.94

2.06

N.
(,ro')

2.17
2.00
1.85
LO'
1.37

eh.

"

.fJ

In our numerical nample ,"-e oolllin

ct_

l000XI)(IO"
llOOX2XIO"

E'nce

Since in {he given slrudure ct-JO', then for an atbilrary n we !hall

eilher hllve lo gi\'e uce:;.s reserve in one group of bars, or overload lhe
other ifOUP. The valut 01 /1 ilseU should bE' seleded frolll ecooomic con
sjdefalions. Table 6 conlail1$ lhe values 01 dilterenl quanlflies rar
various values of /l. KnoI\ring Ihe crosssedional areM, lenglhs nnd
]lkllerials of Ihe bars. we can select a combinalion whkh is economi
cally mos! etieclive as [ar as Ihe cmt oS material is ooncerned.

19. The Eftect of Manulatluring Inact.urades

on the Fort.l'S Acll ng in Ihe flemenls o/ Slallt.8lly Indeterminate
Slruclures

In Ihe pr~'l;CtIing secliom wt' cstllblished Ihe main ealures oS tlle

I\'Ol'king ami dcsign 01 slalically indeterminale systems.
1. Th<- ('dra equalions rl"quired lo calculalc llit rorces roay be oo
I.ined only hom lile condilion 01 joinl deformalion o/ lhe syslem.
2. lhe force dislribulion belween Ihe l'lull'tlts or slalically indeterminalt slrudures depends upon nO(' ratio 01 lheir cross-sectional
areas, moduli o/ elaslic:ily lInd
lenglhs.
3. 1be more rigid an e1tment,
6
I.e. Ihe smaller lis length and lhe
greater i1s cross-seclional area ami
modulus oF elaslic:ily, the greater
.....ill he IIx.> shart of force Ihal il
will tah.
in Ihis seclion we shall study
anollltr propl'rly of slalically indeterminate slrudures which is 01
greal Ilractkal imporlanee.
11 is impcssible lo manuracture
parls of struc1ures with absolute
fll. 35
accuracy: small manulacturing errors and inaCCllracies musl always
be laken i"lo acCOU"1. In a sla!i
eally dtlerminale struclure. Ihese
inaccuracies cannol give rise 10 slrl'SSl'S in Ihe syslem. Thus,lor eJam
plt, if bar AB (Fig. 31) is madea liUle shorter lhan ilshould be according lo the drawing. alllhat will happen is a slight diSlorlion al triangle CAB. In Ihe a~ of force Q the forces in bus AB and AC
will be equal lO tero irrespedive or Ihe manufaduring accuracy of
the bar lenglh.

C<Jmpficaf~

Cast's 01 TtlUiOll Wld ComprtssJOtl

The slalital1y indelerrninal~ slrudure shown in Fig. 32 will behave

in an cnllrely difierent manner. Ltt lhe manuFaclure<! lenglh of lhEbar be Iw than lhe requirNl by AA.=li (Fig. 35). To join the ood 01
lhe middle bar A. with Ihe tnds A of the side bars sollJe'o\'here al pomt
Ah il is necwary lO slrelrh lhe rniddle bar by 4/.=A.A .. and lo
oompre:s.s th(> side bal'5 by 4l,-A8._AC,_ Orawing Ihrough poinls
C. and 8, ~diculrs lo lhe lnilial posHions oi Ihe sde bars as
explalntd in 18, we get lhe point 01 junction A, of the ends of al]
lhe lhree bars. From (he figure we may wrile dmrm the c:ondilion of
joint defOlmation:

"

(4.13)

Sin' lhere are no external forces and N, is a rompressive force

whertas N. is tensile, the equilibrium condition (4.1) takes Ihe form
N.-2N,cosa=O

(4.14)

Replacing in (4.13) tr.l, and 6f. by Ihelr values

M, ~.!0,'AI.
E,A,

M _ N.t.

and

N,I, cosa

'-l';A,"'~

and solving equations (4.13) and (4.14), we have

N

OC.A,

.- [
l.

O~'

1+ 2E.A,

fc J 7iJ

N_2L
,
2COSll

(4.15)

The plus sign befare Ihe values 01 N, and N. signifies that our assump
lions abaot Ihe dlf('CIIOI1s 01 these lorces are ccrrt'C1.
II should be poinledoot lha! in formula (4.3) ttK-length of Ihe middle
b;r can be replllced b)I. and not b)' l. -, bause 6 is an infinitesimal
as fomp<lrcd lo f,. Thi!; smpllficalioo can al'l.a)'s be applie'll whm Ihe
manufaduring in<lccuracies are being COf'lSidered.
The bove oomputations re'\'eal that Ihe manufacturing inaccurncies
Vi i11 ~,ve T1Sl' lo !>lri55l'S in lhe bus even if thl're are no utanal
acling on lhe slruclure. Hl"OC(', the possibilily 01 lhe so-<:alled jnilial
strases is aho an importanl propn-ty of Ihe slatical1)' indelermill<'lte
slruclures.
If alllhc three baTS are of lhe same material and have lhe same crossseclioTUlI are!l, then under \\-eight Q (Fig, 32) Ihe lensil(> force in the
mjdJle bar will be grealer Ihan in lhE-side ban (4.4). The manuradur
inlllnaccuracy gives rise lo an addjtional IrnsHe force in lhe middle
bar and lo t'Ompr~ive forces in Ihcsidl.' ban. In Ihis particular example

rOlUS

CA

"

41

Ihe nitia! stresses i"mase the non-unilormily In the ..,rorking 01

lhl' bars and are therelort harmful.
Had the middle bar been !onger by ti, Ihe initia! slres.ses ....,ould have
h.d opposile signs .nd \\'Ould have levelled 011 to sorne ulefll lhe non
uniforrnil)' in force distribulion beN:een tlle middle and the sitie bars

"1
FIJ, 36

un&!r Ihe adion or weight Q. In Ihis case, the particular properly 01

Ihe statically indelerminale s}'stems discussed .bove lIo'Olild have
helped in belter \\:orking o lhe slructure.
Anothef eumple 01 Ihe expedienl use 01 iniHal slresses is putling
on the tyre on the ""heels 01 a roIling slock. The wh~l consists el
t....,o parts: the central cast porlion and lhe st~l tyre ....hich is pul on

If

~~~'
--" 91
11
Fil", :I1

11 (Flg. 36 (a) and (b. The tyre is fastened lo the central porlion by
mean5 al special flxtures; besides, iis interna! diameter d~ is made a
lillle less han d 1 . Usually this dilfereflce is 01 the order 01 ~ drapproximatel)' ~ d" Befare slipping the tyre on the cefllral portion,
It is hule<! so Ihal lis inlemal dlameler btcomcs gJ"l.'ater lhan Ihe dia.
neles- 01 the cenlral portien; the lted l)'re oontracls upon caoIin
and pr~ the central portion. A iensile force N appears in tbe IvTe,
and a reaction p, bc:tween Ihe Iyre and thecenlr.1 portion (Fig. 36 (b.

Compliooted Ca.... o(

T~,l5ion

and

[Part 11

CO"'I',,~5iO/l

If we cut Ihe Iyre across Ihe diameler (fig. 37), lhl.! 1\\"0 forcl!s
N lllusl blance Ihe lotal pressure on the inlerna! surlace 01 the
("U 10fT portion of Ihe Iyre. Le! us wrilc down the equilibrium
condition by proj~'{:ling all Ihe forces on Ihe y-axis (Fig. 37). A preso
slIn.' J ds atls upon Ihe elemenl or lenglh ds or Ihe lrrr; i1s projl'Clion
on Ihe yaxis Is equal lo -pds sin a--/l; sin a da., brcause ds=

={ da..

The cquilibrium condilion !ak<'S the form

2N -

S p{sinIl.OO=O,

or 2N-p

'"o

2N-pd=O

aml,V

='4,

-"

z f sin

11 dll. =

2N

P=(f

Thus we llave one static equatilln for 11'.'0 unknowns N and p: this
is a slallca\ly indeterminate problem. The unknown [or<.:ffi can he
de!erlllincd onl~' by consiMring lhe joinl deformalion of Ihe slructure.
Thl::: lension in lhe lyre and the compression in lhe cenlral portion
should be surh lhat lhe,. level the differencc belween Ihe dialllelers
d, and d. Neglecling the derormalion 01 lhe cenlral porlion dUl' lo
ils tIloch greater mass as compart"d lo Ihal of Ihe Iyre, we lind Ihat
Ihe lev...lling 01 the uiff"rencc. in diarnelers takes place chieRy due to
elongation 01 Ihe Iyre. jf Ihis difference is ~ oi the tyre diameler,
Ihen (he relative elongaUon En Or Ihe rJjamekr and, consequently,
of Ihl;' whole Iyre will also be 1...

"

:A'

The relative elongation of Ihe tyre unuer force

is Eo;:=
where
A is the cross-sectional area 01 Ihe tyre. Equating (he v<Jlues En=
=t:s, we obtain an extra equalion
N

_1..

I'A-n'

N=EA
rt

whellee
(4.16)

rhe slress In Ihe Iyre is 0= ~ -~.

In formula (4.16) d mar be replacerJ (inslead of lhe original rJiameter
d,) by dio bccause Ihe t/ilfl;'rence in Ihe diamelers is inlinitely small.
Lel u.s consider a numerical example (Ihe Irre of a Ircighl wagon
13 cm hrond nnll 7.5 cm Ihick). Lct d .... tl l ='.X1J mlu; ~=~; E=

eh 41

Dtsign of StutlC"l/y lnr/tluminalt Sy&ltm&

"

-2x 10' kgf/cm'; A =7.5x 13=97.5 cm". lhen we have

0=

2~~' =2000kgFclll'

N = 2XlO"x975 = 195000 k,f -. lD5 tf

1000

p=

2X2XIO"x97,!i
9Ox\l)OO

4330k l'

g,lm

20. ICl\liion 8nd Compression in Bars Made

of HeterogeneOIlS Materials
This lype of bars belongs lo the group oF stalically ndeterminale.
As n example. we shall discuss how lo determine tlle dimension~ of a
composite column (Fig. 38) under Ihe aclon 01 l"ompressive forces
P. The column conslsls ul a rouml steel bl!r 01 diameter d, and 15
+-d~ ......

',@},:
,

Jlttl

't

, d, ,'"-

located nside a bronze jacket 01 external diameter db anu wll Ihick

ness t.

Lel liS introduce Ihe lollowing notations:

Ab - cr055wetion1 arel! 01 Ihe bronze pipe;
A.- crosssectlonal arca oF Ihe steel bar;
10",,1, 10,1. Eb E,- permissible stresses and moduli of ('laslicity of
bronz(' and steel, rcspcclively.
lhe reqllir~1 dimensions 01 Ihe bar should be such thal ('nable
il to wilhstand load P.
Lel us find slresses Oj. and o,due to load P over arcas A~ and A.,
respectively, und write oown the slrenglh condilion.
lhe bar is axially compressed by rorces P applied al lhe centre or
gravHy 01 lhe seclion llirough rigid slabs S whose delormations are
oonsidered negligible (Fig. 38). lhe parl P~ 01 (he comprcssive [urces
is transmilt<>t! Ihrough lhe brom.e jacket, <lnd part P ,. lhrough Ihe
central slee[ bar (Fig..19). We have only one equaliOll 01 statics (o
uelt'rllline Ihe;e two forces which give rise to slresses in Ihe sleel bar
alld bronze jackel:
P,+P~=P

Thi~ is a slalically lllllelcrminale prohlem. lh<>

(4.17\
~rnrl

cfllwlion
is ob!ained from lhe oondilion o[ joint delormation a<;:conhng to

"which bolh lbe bronu: jacket and sleel bar al !.he column (Fil!. 39)
must shor1l?'n by Ihe same length M. since the top and lhe boltom
planes el both roinc::ide. From Hooke's law we have

t1l_.!Y.. ...
ctA.

P,I

(4.18)

l;r.

This is the second equalioo correlating PI> and p._ From (4.18) \lie

'o,

A,E.
P,= PtA;!;

Subslituling this value 01 p. in (4.17), \Ve gel

P1>

(1 +~!L)_p
A b El>

'"'
(4.19)

('.20)
The dislribulion al rClrC'tS betll.~ the demenls 01 slalically inde
ttrminale struclUre5 depends upon the ralios or their crosssectiona[

~",-----~"P'

----- -----------W

~~'
+\-._._._._._._._.

,~----------------- Fil_ 39

areas and moduli 01 elaslicily. From

~ullion

(4.18), taking into

consideration (hat

'"'

p.
A, =0,

,,e find that the ralio of Ihe stresses in brome and steel depends only
upon the ralio ol their moduli el elasticity:
~= E,

If.

E,

o. 41

"

and Ihe sl~ are directly proporlional lo Ihe moduJi 01 elaslkily.

Aswming Ihal under compres~ion E.-2XI0' kgl!cm' aod E.=lx
X 10' ktf/cm" (Table 1), it is obvious that slresst'S in steel bar will
alwl)" be 1\00 limes higher Ihan lhe slresses in brome jacket. rhe permissible slresscs for sl("el are U!ually Ihft.'(' llmes grealer than permissibIl" stresscs lar brome. TherefoR', if !he stres.ses in lhe brome jacket
a~ ;qual lo lhe pcrmissible slress Inr bronU', Ihe stre:sses in lhe sltel
IJar will be smaller Ihan Ihe permissible stress lor sleel. Hence lhe
dimcnsions of Ihe colurnn are oblained (rom slrenglh condition of
bronte jacket under compresslon:

o~=o

E -

A.+A.'t A.

p
A

t. )

1+ A: i''

'-;.[0.1

(4.21)

Let P=2S If. rhe ratio A,IAb of Ihe cross-secllonal areas is usually
seleded rom designconsiderations. Let AJA.-=2, and lhe permisslble
stress [ObJ-SOO kgf/cm'. Equalion (4.21) will lhe" be wrilten as
2>000

A.(l+2X2)';;;;SOO.
\loMe/mm

''''''

A~~~_IOcm"

and

A.=2xlO_20em t

TIte diameter of tbe sleel bar is calculaled from lhe coodition

~ ;> A.,

wherelrom d. -

~=

-V ~~I~"CO S.05an z 51 mm

TIIe dimensions of thl" bronu jacket scetion can be round ir we assume

a particular value 01 waH Ihiekn~ 1 lrom design coosidentions. Lel
I-S mm-O.S cm. No\\', applying lhe approximale formula lar a nng.
Wl" have
A.:ro;; 11 d.t,

wherelrom db~ ~=
3,,10
ti' _ 6.48 cm ~ 65 mm
ni
_ x,~

lhe ddormalions of such structures are calculllled according to the

gl"neral principies. Sinct Ihe sleel and bronze porlions 01 Iht' colurnn
$horlen by the same amount, it is imm31erilll ....hich al the formula.s
in equation (4.18) is employed for calculaling al.

21. Slresscs Duc to Temperalure Change

In $talically indtltrminale $yslems. s1r~ withoul any external
looding occur nol only due lo the inaccuracy oC manulacluring and
assembling, but lllso due lo a change: in lernperalure.
Considerable siresses 01 Ihis lype may arise: in rails weldl"d into a
amlinoou.~ llne. Tht rails are subjecled lo tensile or cornpressht slres-

..
S('IS

Ip"r 11
whef1 Ihe lempenture changes wilh respect lo Ihal al whl.:h lIK'Y

...."re "",,[ded. lile problem may be chemalicaJly exprC'Ssed as 1011(N:s:

\\'e ha ...e a reslran~ bar Ilo'ho.sl! both ends have bten rigidl'l Tixedat a
tempcrlllure t,; ftn lhe stresses rising \\'ntn thetempeulurechanges
lo t. lFig. 40). Tite length al he biU is 1, cross-setUonal area is A
and modulus o elaslkity is E.
Lel us ilSCertain Ihe forces which \\'m ad on the bar 9.'heo 1M lem
perl'ltureri.ses 'rom tI lo ' . The bar will tl'nd lo eJangate and push apart

/A--~,
fl

.--

ti

Fil(. 40

lhe supporls A and B. lhe supporls will resist Ihis wilh rt'adions
,Iirecled asshown in Ihe figure. These l()("ces will cause lhe bar lo be
rompressed.
These lorces cannol be round from static condiUons, becausc 1111
Iha! Il~ come lo know Irom Ihe single equilibrium condmoo is lhal
the reactions al points A Ind B 3rt equal in magniludt and opposile
lO each olher. Th~ value 01 the reactiol'l P rernllins unklJO\l,T1, and ht':fIQ
lhe! slrudur~ may be oonsidered slalically indeterminale.
The! addiliooal equalion can be writ\en 100m lhE' oonsideration lh81
lenglh f 01 Ihe reslrained bar remains unchanged in spiteol !'le change
in ltmperalure. This implres that shortening lJ.{p due lo fo.n P is
tqual in ils absoluh.' \'alue lo {he temperalure elongation t'!.l, whkh
Ihe bar \lo'ould have experienced had lhe end A been fixed and end 8
Iree lo loove. Hence
(4.22)

This is Ihe oondilion 01 joinl deTorrnation; il shows thal Ihe lenglh

01 [h... bar remains constan! despite lhe tcrnpcrllture change, since JI
~ nol tear away frOll1 (he fixOO supports.

Sioc\!

"

/p-n.

and

lJ.1,_4/(I,_I,)

where ~ is fhe linear th<ormal e}lPJInsion ooclficienl of Ihe bar material,

we have

"

:r.;:-o.l(f.-t,)

"d

(4.23)

el,

41

D~"grl

o{ 510.1ko./I'I frldtle""irlille 5gsltm&

"

Leo. lhe stress due to lemperture change in a reslrined bar 01 uniform

crossseclional area depends only upon the modulus of elasticily or lhe
mlerial, lis linenr expansion coerftcieont and Ihe lemperalure differencc!
ami nol upon ils lenglh or lhe cross-secllonal areoa.
force P may be calculated from Ihe expression

P_aEA(l._I,)
In lhis example. if 1;>1" slress a lIIill be compressive, beca use lhe
diredion 01 reacUon P illSitle lhe bar has been considered posilivc.
1f \\'e follow Ihe generally accepled oonvention of writing Ihecompres
sive slresses with a minus sign, and the tensile slresse5 wilh a plus
sign, lben formula (4.23) should be
.." ,rilten in lhe following manner lo
,
automalic<llly give Ihe proper sign:
o_aE(t,_t,)
I
I
Jf lhe crosssectional area of Ihe bar
fO~Z
I
is not constanl along ils lenglh or ir il
I
is made from diff~ent materials, or if
I
Ihe supporls permit a slight change in
I
length,or ir al! these condiUons take
I
place simultaneously, Ihe melhod of
I
delermining Ihermal stresses somewhat
I
~,
changes although basically il remains f1.-Z0
I
lhe same.
I
I
The variability in lhe cross-seclional
1
area and Ihe use 01 differenl maleria1s
mus! be laken into accountwhencaku
lating M; it is deternlined as Ihesum
iJlt II ~
01 elonglltions calculaled S{!parll!ely for
each portian. Tlle possibilily of the
bar lo si ightly change ils length is reFi. 41
l1ected in Ihe equation of joint deformation (4.22); the difference of deformations caused by the temperalure change and lhe rorces is in Ihis case
not equallo zero, but equal lo Ihe lenglh. by which the bar is fre lo
elongate.
A sleel bar consisting of two porls of length /,=40 cm and 1,=60 cm
and crosssectionnl arca A=IO cm' and A 1=20 cm', respeclively,
has one end rigidly lixed whereas lhe olher end misses the support
by .o..c>O.3 mm (Fig. 41). Find lhe slresses in bolh the pars il lhe temperature increases by 50C, a.=I25XIO-'.
locrease in lemperature caU5:CS elongalion 01 the bar by 61 10 and
Ihe compression from the support reacUon P resulls in ils shortening
byM". The dilf~rence 01 thestl two deformations (in absolule value)

PI

'1".
j

__ JT

4_1110

Par! fI

"

is 4. (see Fig. 41):

AI,-fJl'=,

This is lhe condition 01 joinl defonnation. The

fJ, IInd &1,. are

6.I, ""'cd{'.+IJ.

Thererore

EA,

PI. _ PI,

"I'A;"lA;

valul'S of

[1+"A'J
l,iI.

al (ti +l,)-:!t [1 + ~:~:] _A.

whencefrom
p

l,\ll'=~+

respecti\'~

[a/(/,+'.)

a.IEA.

- 1.['+.:6] -

1125xtO- 1xlOOx50

/, A.

O.03]X2X10'XlO

,,[,+"lXlO]
4O'X!ii3

= 9300 kgf

Stress in the upper porlion Is

0'_ :, -~=930kgfcml

Stress in

{!le

lower portion is
0"_ Lc:~=465kgI/cm1
A,
20

(bolh lhe st~ are compressive).

Had lhere been no gap A Ihe force as well as lhe slresses ,,"ould
ha.e increased 1.92 times.

22. Simullaneous Aceount for Varlous factors

Sometimcs, in slalically ndeterminate syslerns, we have lo consiller

simullaneously lhe elfecl of external rorces, change of ternperatllTe

and manuFaduring inaccuracies. lhe problem can be solved in two
ways: fint method-simultaneous account for alJ the fadors. In lhis
case Ihe eGuation of jolnt deformation must conlain terms reOtcling
the elfed or alt the faclors (load, temperalure and manufacturing inac
curades). The orces and strwes oblairll!d as a rtsult o soch a COmI"Utatian an' linal.
Jn he sa-ond melhod, f t compule separately lhe forres and slresses due to lhe load. lemperature and manufacturing inaccuracies. In
olher Il:ords, a number of separate problems are sol'led. each problrrll
taking mIo account only one factor. The final forces and slresses are
obtained as the algebrak: sum of lhe values oblaintd Imm each 01 lhe
solulions. The setOl1d method is often slmpler and more convenlenl.

CIl. 41

aHhough it calls for more clI!Cullltion. 1t is known as the metlwd al

CWllulative action ollorces. This method is valid beeause 01 Ihe applicability 01 Ihe principIe 01 superpositon 01 loras. When dE.'formaliom
aresmall in magnilud". Ihe ddormalion eallsed by a force or a group of
forees either does no! affed Ihe dciormalion due lo another lorct' or
group of rarees, or lhe effed is so small (less by an arder) Ihal it may

,"

"

"

) ..-,
L ,er-

.~

,
1

iJl,-o- ...

pi

1._iJz_1 ,

----~-~,

FJg. 43

Fig. 42

be neglC'Cl('d. This principie is nol applieable for extremely l1exible

or highly deformable slructures like long thin bars, membranes,
rubber parts, ele.
\Ve shall solve Ihe rollowing example lo illustrale Ihe lechnique
01 simultaneous aceounling 01 various [adors.
Three parallel verlical rods 01 equai length 1=2 m support a rigill
beam AB lo which a force P=4 tl (Fig. 42) is applied. lhe dislance
betwt'en lhe rods and rrom Ihe middle rod lo Ihe poinl of applicalion
01 force P art' a= 1.5m, b=l In and c=O.25 m, respectively. lhe middle
bar is shorter than its design lenglh by 05=0.2 mm. Data aboul the
bars are given in Table 7.
T~be

No 01 r<Xl

,
2

M.!.".I
COJ'~er

Ste.

Sl.el

"
I'm')

fl<tl<m'j

2
I

IXlO'
2;<"10'

17XlO~'
13xI0~'

2Xl0"

13xlO~'

During op<>ration Ihe- te-mperalure 01 (he slrudLlre may rise up by

by 20"C.
Find lhe slres:;es in each uf Ihe Ihree rods.
Let us suppose Ih31 forees N t , N" and N, in alllhl' roos ar(> tensile.
Tht' re.adions at Ihe supporling points, equal to Ihem, are shown in

,.

..

(Patt 11

Flg. 42. As lhe rorces 3re paullel, IVe can "'rite down only \Va cqullibrium equalions. Tlle flrst is Ihe SUIIl 01 Ihe projcclions 01 lorcl'S on
lhe vertical axis and has lhe lollO\.1<'ing lorm:
N,+N.+N,-P=O
(4.24)
For lhe second equalion 11'1 us talle lhe slIm 01 momenls of all rorces
lI'ith respecl lo Ihe poiol 01 support 01 lhe second rod:

NJo-N1 b+PC=

(4.25)

Thcse \\\'o equalions are insuiflcienl lo determine Ihree unknown

\Ve musl consider Ihe deformalions. Figure 43 shows a sketch

rorc~.

diagrarn 01 Ihe structure, with the assumplion tha! all lhe three r(){)s

are sub"ected lo ensile forces. From his diagram we may write clown
lhe fol owing cORdillon 01 jolol deformalion:
!<I,-M,

~I,

1'.1,

a+b

h--,-

(.t.26)

lhe values 01 Ihe dl'fofllla{ions enlering iolo lhe equalion {Iaking

ioto accounl [he temperature change) wlll ~ as lo!lmn;;
M, ...

-.!!4 +,I_\!,

",.'1,

ul, -

M. _ ;"~l

'_,",

+ 'X.Ut

L::~I, + ,I~!

Putting: these va[ues in equation (4.26) lI'e gel

N.,j.

~A +.,j.
"~.'I3

ilI-..,......"....-' -a,/M

",11,

/ EN,!
1\
b
t,A, +t:1,61,A,-t:1_'R,I

/1+1>
u

(4.27\

Solviog equalions (.L24), (4.25), amI {4.27) simultanoously, \Ve

determine N" N,. and N. Their valut"S are
N, = 792 kgf. N,= I020 kgf. nnd N, =2188kgf
Hall om assumpllon about Ihe direction of Ihe lorct'S becn 'l\Tong
lor an)' of the rods. lhe value 0111131 force woulll ha\"c becn oblained
wilh a negallv!' sign.
l<ot us no",," determine Ihe corresponding str~es:
in the rst rod O'l-~:=Zi=396kg'Clll'
in Ihe second red

0', =

~'; = ll;ro ... 1020 kgl 1'111'

in lhe Ihird rod 0',=~>",,2~S8""129kgf/cm'

"

CIt. 41

lile probl..m cnuld also have ~ solvf'd by considering separaltly

lhe etet 01 load. It;'lnjll.."falure llnd mnulaclurin m,ll'Curac~ anJ
sub5loquently adding Iht;' slresse:s. lile resull would ob"iousl) 1111\'" betn
the HUle.

~ of
Slr~turt'S

23. Mace Compllcaled

Inilelenninale

Sfaliully

In alllhe stalicalll' ndeterminat... s)stems 111111 we llave C0rt5Idf:red

(111 oo\\', lhe number 01 unknov.'n lorces execNW by one Ihe numm
01 stalie equalions. lhey \\,t;'r~ aH firstorder Slatically indeterminale
problems: ene of lhe unknown orces mar be eonsiderell as o redundanl
unknown, \\-hich eannot b~ llelerminell IrOlll Ihe s11l1ic equalions.

lhtre may be

case!

when lhe number 01 these rNundanl

unk~'m

is grealer; in SIJI:h cases il beromes n~arr lo wdle down an equal

nUlnbtr 01 exlra equalions Irom lhe condillons of oinl deformaliOI1
of the S)'slem. lile slructure shown in Fig, 44 lila)' bt laken as an
l'xaluple: a \'ecy rigid bar is hinged to a f.>;etJ supporl suspendl'tl
from thre(' rods nd lcacle<! wilh force P.
We may wrile down Ihr~ sfatie equations for bar AB. lhe numb~r
01 unknowfls is however five: forces ifl Ihe three rods and lhe horiton!al
and v('rtical eomponenls of lhe reaetion af hinge A,
lhe extra equaiions can be wrilten by conslderlng Ihe delorm&lion
lhe syslem. s~ v'e &reeonsidering bar AB lo be very rigid. ils
deiormation may be i~ored. Remainng slraighf, ji v.'ill oo.:upy po:si
lion AB,. From lhe slmi1aril)' 01 {rangles we may lind the relalion
belll'l!'ell M" i., and 111.: Ihis will ve us 11.110 ulra equalions. name

or

I~';

~_.!L
.11,

<ro

and

Furlher solulion is lhe 5ame as in fhe example discussed abo,e ( 18).

86

CQmJUcaiM. Cases 01 TtflSiI)lI amI

Compre~oll

[Parl 11

CHAPTER S

Account for Dead Weight In Tension

and Compression. Design oi Flexible Strings
24. Selecting the CroS$-~ctional Area with fhe Account for Ihe
Dead Weight (in Tension and Compression)
Tl1l no\\', in delermining tlle externa! lorces stretching or compress
ing Ihe elements al slruclures, we gnoTed lhe dead weighl of Ihese
dements. rhe question arises: Ooes nol Ihis simplificalion introduce
a considerable error in lhe oornfutations? Le! us therefore determine

lbe slresses and deformations o a stretched or compressed bar aecounling for lts dead weigh.
Lel a vertical bar {Fig. 45 (o)) he lixed al its upper end and load p
suspended from ils lower end. The Jength 01 Ihe bar is l. Hs cross-sec-

"
I ~

- 1,
N

M-

LI J
p

"!
Fig.

~5

lional area is A, modulus of elastieily E and specilic weight y. Lel

us calculale Ihe stresses in secUon MN located at a distance x froln
Ih' Ir'e end of the bar.
Cut Ihe bar Ihrough section MN and se-parate Ihe lower parl 01
Jength x loaded by force P and Hs own dead weight yAx (Fig. 45 (b).
These lwo lorces are balancl!d by stressl!S acting on face MN lram cutoll portion. Thes!' stre.sses will be normal, unirormly dislributl'd lIntl
tlirected outwards 01 Ihe portion 01 bar under consideration, Le. they
will be lensile. The magnilUdl! of these strcsses wJI be
P+,\,Ax

a (x) =-A--"A+Yx

(5.1

Thus, when Ihe tirad weight is acrOLlnled lar, Ih(' normal slre5S('s
arE' loLlnd lo be nol constan along the length of the bar. The mosl
stressed and lIenee the crilieal section will be the uppennosl section

Ch. 5]

[or which
\Vill be

Dtlld
X

W~gh(.

Dcsign 01 Flr;(wk SIring5

87

has lile maximum valuc cqual lo 1; stress in lhis sC'Clicn

It is lhis seclion whkh mus! salisfy lhe slrcnglh condilion

0 ....... (

~ +"l)~[(l]

(5.3)

Herefrom the required crossseclional arca may be calculaled as

p

A ;;;a.lol_yl

(5.4)

The only dil1erence belween Ihis formula and Ihe one ror deler
mining Ihe crosHectional area of a strelched bar wilhoul accounl for
Ihe dead weighl is lhal quantity ,,1 is sublracled From Ihe permissible
stress.
Let us calcula!e Ihe stresses for both Ihe cases lo evaluate the im
portance oF Ihis correclian. Consider a mild-sleel bar 10 m long having
101= 1600 kgf/crn" and Ibe quantity ,,1-7.85 X 10' x lO'", 7.85 kgf/cm'.
Tbus, for a mildsleel bar lhe correction in Ihe cross-sedional area
will be ;;:. Le. approximately 0.5%. Lel us now consider a brick
column also 10 m long, which has [01= 12 kgl/cm' and Ihe quanlily
111= 1.8x IO-'x 10'-1.8 kgl/crn". Therefore, Ihe corred ion tor Ihe
brick colulnn wHl be!J, Le. 15%.
It is obvious that Ihe ell'ecl of dead weighl in tension and compreSsion may be neglected if the bar (column) is not very long or if it i.s
nol made from a lowstrength malerial (brick, slone) with a greal
weighl. The dead \veight has to be considered when designing long
elevalor ropes, varlous Iypes of long rods and high slone slruclures
(beaoon towers, supports of bridge trusses, ete.).
In such cases il becornes necessary lo delermine the mas! expedienl
shape 01 the element. If we selec! Ihe cross-sectional area of a rod
(Fig. 45) according to lormula (5.4) and take il uniformalong Ihe whole
lengih, Ihe malerial of Ihe elernent will be poorly uliHzed: Ihe norrn~l stress will reach the permissible 1mit only in lhe uppermosl seco
tion. In all other seclions we will have rnargin 01 stress and canse
quenllyexcessive material. ThereJore. it is desirable lo deslgn Ihe
elernen! in such a way Ihat the normal slresses are lhe sal11e in al!
ils seclions (perpendicular lo the axis).
Such an element is classitied as the bar 01 uniform strenglh wu1er
tension alld COlllpression. The elelnent will have minimum weight if
the slresses are equal lo Ihe permissible slress.

..

(P.....I JI

Lel us consider a long bar subjected to eompression by {he {orct: P

3nu i1s own weighl (Fil/:. 46). lile oearer a sa;tion is lo he base, Ihe
grcat{'f 15 the {orce C8using slresses in lhe sec!ion and therefore lhe
reater must bt- Ihe dimensions of the section arta. !he bar will ha\"l~
" shape contlnuousl}' v,'i(\('nlng dov.'J1w;uds. Crossseclionai atea A
will change along Ihe hcight depending upon the value 01 x, Le. A-

-'(x).
Let us establish a relation between lhe cross-se<:liona] atea of a Sl'C"
lion :md ils dislaoce x rrom lhe top end.
The Cl"OSBectionai aTea 01 lhe top
tnd A. is dclermined {rom the
slrength condilioll:

f -rol

OT

A,=

I~I

WhCTI' [al L'I th{' pcrmi~sibr(' stre~

under compres.sion: .strt'S5cs in all

olber scclions must :lIso be equa] to
p

o .. ro}=,,A.
Lt't U5 take 1""0 inlinitl'lr dOS('
sections at I distanct' x (rolO lhe lop
~
end lo elucidate the varialkm af
crossseetional aTea wlh lhe hl.'lghl
of lhe secHan Lel Ih~ distance Ix-I....'een lhe stCliOllS bt" d:f. bt lIS denote the area of lhe upper SKtion b)' A (x) and lhe art.a 01 lhe adjoining
K'<:lion by A (x)+dA (x). Jncr~menl dA (:f) o lhe area belween thf' t\\"o
sedions must bear lhe welght i'A (x) dA: al the elemenl of lhe bar enelosetl belween Ihese lwo .se<:tions. Sinee it should cause a slress equal
lo Ihe permissiblc stress tal on tne area dA (xl, we may determine Ihe
Inerenlent 01 area dA (x) Irom lhe condiUon

.
ro,

yA(x)d.r
dA (.e)

[J

= a

(5.5)

I\'her~from

dA (Jf) CJ ..!
JI (Jfl
"l

dx

InlegTlIting bolh sides, we el

lnA(x)+C""'~;

(5.6)

Al x-O lhe area A (x)-A.; putting this vall1f' In equatlon (5.6),

~ h.1ve
InA,+C"",O, or C __ lnA,

el, 5)

DfOd Weight. Des!l" 01 Fltxlble SI';"18

Thererore,
,

4)

"

A (x)

1"1.1:""111. (x -lnA u =\n""""A,'""

A(x)=A.e l;1

(5.7)

lf Ibe croSNectional arca I.:hangl'S exaclly accordin;:: to thh III\\",

Ihe Iill<:rill [ilCes 01 Ih" bar luve curved s[illJe lFig. 46). \\hkh complkales the machining operalion allll ncreases protiuclion casI. Fur
lllis reason uSllally a shapc approxi
lllalely eorrespomling lo lhe shape
uf II \lniform-slren~lh bar is employed, ror example a lrllncaled
pyrlInid with plane faces.
lhe above c.ompulatioll is oHI}'
,,,roximale. \VI! hlld assllmed lhal
on }' normal slresses are lransmitlt'd
through lhe whole seclion 01 lhe
unilorm-slrenglh bar: cluall\'. near
Iho' edgcs. lhe slre~ses are d'irc<:lcd
3long lhe tangenl to the laleral surrace_
p
In long ropes or slrelched rods
Iho' shape 01 a uniform-strenglh
FII!_ H
bar is oblained approximalely by
dividing the bar lenglhwise inlo a
llllmbcr o[ parfs. Ihe cr05S-seclional area remaining conslanl owr each
s1eparale secUon (Fig_ 47)-a so-cal1cd stcp bar is oblained.
por a gven lenglh Ihe cross-sectionill arl'as A" A _ .. an' tlelerminecl in the rolloll'ing 1l\anner. lhe cross-seclional arca 01 lh~ lirsl
portian rom lhe boltom will, aecording lo lormulll 5..l), be

A --_P_,

1(TI~yll

Thf' cross-seclOllaj area of the sccond porlion can bc dclcrrnincu

by considering lt lo be loaded by exlernal lor<.:o! P ami Iht: \\'t'ighl uf
Ihc [irsl potion 'A,I,:
A _ P-,-y;l,I,
- l(Tj y/,
The <.:ro:,s-se<.:tional arca 01 lht' lhird portian is delerminl.'d by adcting
the weight of holh the rirst amI s!"Cond porliolls to force P_ Th("aoss:;<.oclional are;] al all olher portions <.:<111 bl' tleterlllined in iu>nticallllan-

[P"rl 11

ner. lei us consider Ihe lo11owing example lo compare the eil"ec:tiveness

01 using uniformslrength bars. slep bal"$ and han 01 COf'Gtant seclJon.
A support ",,lh height h_42 ro is SUbjKted to eompression by axial
force. P~400 If . Assumin the uni! weiht ollhe laying as 2.2 tf!m",
and Ihe permissible stress under compression as 12 kgf/cm", compare

lbe volume el lario: lO!"

support ol constanl sectlon;
support made 01 three prlsmatic parb el equal IMglh;
support of unJorm slrenth under compression.

We $hall (aff)' out lhe caltulalions in tans (force.) and ml'tres.

For Ihe firsl case Ihe crosssedional area is

[(It

A_

~X:2.2-14.5ml

hy -120

lile volume

v_ Ah -

14.5x42 ::: 610 m"

In fhe second C8SC. Ihe area 01 the upper portion I.s

A,"'"

P le
Illl-

a'

1:!)_~X2.2-4.48ml

The crnsssectiooal are.a ol lhe second portioo is

A.=

P+'l'A,'i
10

'fOO+2.2X4.48XI4
-

10 1-'31'

120

14)(2.2

6.04 m"

rhe crosssecllonaJ area or lhe thircf portion Is

A
l -

P+yA,3'+l',"'s
h
(<7]-"3 V

4()J+2.2xulIxI4+2.2x6.04X14

J2U

14X2.2

8 lO

,.. . -

TIte lolal volume of the laying is

V =(A, +A l + A'}j'"_(4.48+6.04 +8.12) 14 _251

m~

The um~ r~1t may ~ oblained from the condiliorJ Ihilt the rClfC~
lit the botlom or the Ihird portion. ~ua' lo P+G (whl'ft' G is Ihr tolal
wciehl DI" lhe support), is simul1aneously equal lo I(JIA~; thtl\'foce

V_.E..=-I"IA~

=261 m'

eh

Sj

"

In Ihe case of suppofl of unifO/'m slrenglh undtr compression, the

crosssecBonal area of lhe upper ra~ is

A. -1=1 "",m=3.33m'

!he area 01 Ihe bollom seclion is

., _

txn

A... _ A~ "" 3.3&--:- =3.J3tO n ... 7.15 m'

lhe weighl 01 Ihe support of uniform strenglh G is determined from
the condilion

P+G=[ojA...
whererrom

G _ loj A... -P _IZOx7.1S_400_ 460 U

The volume oi the support is

V_..Q.=460=209m
2.2

1/.!hich is 20% less Ihan Ihe volume of lhe slep supporl :ilnd :ilpprollimalely Ihree til:1ts less than thal ollhe support 01 <:onslanl.5el:tion.

25. Ddormations Oue fo Dud Weight

In determining Ihe eft"ecl dead o.'eighl on deformation uoder len
sion and comprl$!ion \\"e musl take inlo acrount lhat the relative
eloogalion of variollS porlions of the bar will vary jusi as tUl$! o (x).
lo calculate the tolal elongation o the bar of constan! sed ion lel lIS
6rs! determine Ihe elongation of ao inlinilely small portan of length
dx, which is localed al distance x irom Ihe end 01 the rod (Fig. 48).
The absolute elongalion 01 Ihis portion (equatlon (2.5)) is

~dX_P~~'Adx"",~ [~ +l'x]
The lolal elongalion of Ihe bar

r dx -iT
r"l'-;r+vx]-n+2F
l1/=r~
PI

,1'

As fO/' deformalion in uolfO/'m-suength bars, !he relative elongallon

is Ihe Slm!' ove!" Ihe whole lenglh beeause lhe normal slresses are
the same in al1 (he sectlons and equa! [o the permissible stress 101:

"1
'--y

[f'ilrl 11

The absolule elongalion of a bar of leng!h / will be

1"1 I

PI

..\ /-e/=-r= EA.

(the notalions corrt'spond to Fig, 46).
Th<' deformat!on 01 stt'p b~lrs shollld be determine<.! by parls, cn!cll'
lating lhe deformalion separately for each prismalic portioll. Thc de
forlllation 01 l'ach podion has lo be
delermined by considering nol cmty
its dead weight, bu! also Ihe welghl
o portioos which aifC'Cls ils deformation Jn addilion to Ihe exlerna!
A
forc('. The total deformation is oblained as lhe sum of deformatiOllsof
separate partions.
f

26. Flexible Cables

A. In engineering practice, \\'e come

across one mort' type of a slretch('(!
elem..n! in which Ihe d('ad wcight
plnys 'In importan! part jn delermining its strenglh, These are lile
socalled {lc;dllf> cabft>s. This term
covers lhe flexible elements in electric Iransmission JinlC'S, t"ablell'nys.
suspcnsion bridges am! olher struc!ures.
Lel us consider (Fig. 49) a flexible cable o{ constant scclioo toaded
by ils own weight and suspended Ir011l two supports al dilierenl heighls.
lhe cable SllgS along curve ADB under its owo weighl. The horizontal
projection 01 lhe dislance belween lhe supports /ponls 01 li~ationl is
caJlctl lhe srmll and is denoled by l.
'\5 lhe cablt' is 01 a constanl S<;'Clion, i1s wcighl musl be c1islribtl!ec!
lInilormly oyer its length. Generally, fhe sag 01 Ihe cflblc i~ smal!
as compared lo lis span, anc! Ihere is li\tl!' differenrl'. (not mOfe thilO
10;') belween the lenglh 01 nlrve ADB and ls chord AB. In lhls case
\\"e !llay consider \\'i!h a csulticienl c1egre.:: 01 accufacy thul the weight
01 Ihe cable is dislrjbu!cd uniformJy not OI't>1" its lellglh, but oyer lile
horizontal projecllon 01 ils length, Le. aloog Ihf' -"pan J. We Shllll
sludy only Ihis Iype of flexibl~ cables. Let liS aSSlllRe lhat lhe inlen~itr
o Ihe load uniformly dislribuled alon~ the cllble span is q. This 10lll.
having dimensionality 1l0rcelllJenglhl. may be nol only dUe to the
weighl 01 the cable pt'f unl span but also the wcighl of ice or 30)'
olher lood also distribult'd unilormJy. This assumption about lhe la\\.'
01 load dislribu!ion considerably simplifies lhc cakuliltlons, bul si
multaneously renders [hem approximllle. In exacl calculajions (load
p

uishibulion aloog Ihl' ("urvt') lhe sag curve i.~ a c:alft\arr. when..as in
approxim.:Jle clllculalions il .s lound lo be a quadral~c parabola..
ul us lakt the lowtsl poinl 01 ~ O as Hit" ol"lgln of coordmlllt<(fig. 49). iis posiOon. which is as rel unknown. obvlouslr dtvenus
upon the magniludc of q. uPO!1 Ihe ratio of lhe Ie:nglh of cable alone
lh( curvt lo Iht span and also upon lhe relali\'c localion o thc !oup(lorl.5. E\iuenlly. tllrtitnt lo Ihe curvt' al poInl O 15 homon!.:J1. lel
us t1iMt the x-axis lo llit' (lghl lllong Ihl!o lang!'nL

y
h

,
Q

'

.--

,~,

"
--O.
1

"

",,' "a:1 \
"'r--7--'

- :

Fil. 50

Let us ("ul a part or lhe cable br two scclion.s---(lot passing lhrough

Ihr ,)l"ig;n or l'OOl't1inalts and Ihe olher al 11 dislance JC rrom il I~lion
,1It11. :"lIlce lhe nble is nexible. 1.1'. l"apable of resisling onlr Icnsion.
Ihe IIiSCllrtk'11 porlioo can lIet on lhe remaining porlion olll)' i11 the:
lorm oI a orce directed .Iong lhe tangenllo lhe sag CUf\t al Ihe poillt
nI 5I.:dto1l. Any olher llirerliOll 01 lhe force ls ruled 001.
rll!:ure 50 okp.ds 1I1t ("ut-oul portion 01 lhe cable ",..ilh lhe lon.'eS
l\I;ting on I- The uniforml~' dislrlbuled load 01 inlensllrq js drre:cled
wrllctllly downWllrds. The adion 01 lhe leH discanled porlion tilomontal locre H is direcltd lo lhe Idt because the: cable ls .....o rking
IIndcr lension. The action o Ihe right discarded portian. force T. is
llire:ckd lo Ihe righl along lhe langenl lo Ihe sag curve al 'his point.
Lel LIS II'rile down lhe equalion 01 cqllilbrium for lhe cut'Ollt Ilor
tion of Ihe cable. Let LIS lakc Ihe SUIJI 01 Ihe momenls 01 all forces
:Ihout lhe point 01 application 01 force r and equale illo tero. Pro
ceedlng from the approimation inlroduced earlitr, we conslo.ler Ihal
Ihe rl'Su\lant 01 o.IislribulW load of intellSity q is qx and (h~L it llds
nt Iht' rnidpoint 01 5eglHent X (Fig. 50). We gd
x
qr
fly- qx,! =0, wherelrom
(58)

Y-m

It loIlows from his NJuation that the sag curve is a pllraOOla. Whm
OOlh Ihe supports are al Ihe same level, 1.-',=1. In this case 1 ls
c.all\'d lhe sag. It can !:le easily c1etermlOed from tqualion (5.8) Ihat
dUe lo symmelry Ihe IQ'I\'esl poinl of lhe cable is al lhe middle of Ihe
splln, snd a~b-+" Substituling 111<- \"alues of
and y=1 in

x-=b-{

Complicaled CaSl'S (JI TenlliM (J/ld Comprtllllioll

[Parl 11

equatlon (5.8), we gel

"'

f- JH

(5.9)

From this formula \Ve determine the value of H:

,l'

(5.10)

H""'ijf

The quantity H is calle-d Ihe !Iorironfal fension o/ Ihe cable.

Thlls, ir load inlensilY q and lensile force H are known, 11'1' can detenoine sag / fmm formula (5.9). Ir q and f are given, {hen {be lensile
force H may be de!ermined by formula (5.10). The relation between
Ihese quanlHies and the lenglh of \Vire s along the sag curve may be
established with (he help of Ihe well-known appraximale mathemal
ical formula ..
$;;:::;/1+37'
( 'l' )

(5.11)

Le! us return lo Fig. 50 and \\Tite down one more equilibrium

condition for he cut-out portion 01 the cable, namely, lel us equate
lo zero the sum of projections 01 all the forces on the x"axis:
-H+Tcosa=-Q
From Ihis equation we lind T, (he tensile force at an arbitrary poiol:

T=....!!......
<OH>:

(5.l2)

It is evident from equaUon (5.12) lhal force T iocreases from {he

lowest point of tite cable lowards jhe supports and is maximum al
lhe suspension poio(s, where (he tangent lo the sag curve makes the
maKimum angle wilh Ihe horizontal axis. Thls angle is small when lhe
sag ,is not considerable. Iherelore we may consider with sullicien( aecuraey for practical purposes that (he cable Is subjected to the :Jction
a( a constant force equal in magnitude to horizontal tension H. The
slrenglh design 01 a cable is gencraJly carried oul for lhs valuc. Ir,
however, it is essential to design for the maximum force at the supporls,

Element 01 eun"e 1w:lh

(5.10) 1I 10110...'S Ihat ~-'fT
d ... 4~

d&~dx{ 1+(~)';

.. II~~'

fmm

lormu~5

(S,S)

~nd

Therelore

64/'''')''' ",dI< (3Z/'''')

l+r;( I+r-'

MIel" inlegratlllg froro ",=1)10 1<=/12 lUId mull1plying by 2, we oblalll

formul. (5.1 J).

'"

.,

ils value for a symmelriclll cable is determinec! in the folJooNing mannft".

The vertical romponents el support reactions have the same vahK'
equal lo haH oi Ihe total load on lhe cable, I.e.
lhe horizonisl

.1}.

componeots are equlll lo force H .."Inich is delermined by fOl'"lr,ula

(5.10). Tolal reactioll$ af lhe supports al'!: obtained as the geometrkal
sum of these components:

T .... ~

V(~)'
+ (.2!.)'
~ .,
8f
2
&f

V' +1",r -

/I + --r"P

If lhe cross-sectional atea i5 denote<! by A, lhe slrength condilion

for 11 flexible cable may be wrilten as
H
a-A~[()'J

Replacing H by ils value from formula (5.10), we gel

'"

8JA';;;;:[a]

Sag J can be delermirwd frOIll this formul. provid~ J, q. A and

101 ate kJ1own. The solution is muro simpler ji q 15 considered lo at
eoliO! loe lhe dead weight of lhe cable OOIYi liten q""'lA. where y is
1M unit \1r'eight of cable material, and
yi'

yAl"

l- IIA1<l1

='i"'[a

Le. cross-sedionaJ atea A does nol allecl the value of f.

B. If the suspension poinls are al difterMt levels, we lind ,. and "
by pulling x=-a and x=-b In equalion (5.8):
qa'

""""2FT'

qb'

f'-'JH

(5.13)

Prom he second cxpresslon \\le determine tenslon

lf - qtI'

(5.14)

-IJ;

Dividing the first expression b}' the setond one.

:~=-~
Kteping in view thal

bb

or

find

a=bV';'

b+a_l, ....e gel

~'e

4;-=-1 or b-

1 :e

i'h..

"

..

(PQI!

ti

5ubstituting Ihis value (OC' b in formula (5.14), we linOllly d..terndne

fC'
=
(515)
2(YTt VII)'
.
T\l.'O signs in the dmominator indicale Ihat he cable ma)" ha"e h':o
maio shapes of sagging. The finl 1llOde. corresponding lo he smaller
Vllue 01 H (plus sign ~ore lhe .second root), ves us Ihe peaK of the
pnabola betwt'ffi he cable supporls (Fig. 49 and lhe dashM turve
AO,B in Fig. 51). Al lhe higher valul:' o( tensile force H (minus sign
be[ote Ihe second toot) Ihe peak of lhl' parabola will be located lo the

ff-

/~: n
~~~~Jll
'"L ,
t

. I

_~".

:'

~;f

.1 /IIt't

..... . ,__
1 " ' '_
' __ +L
I "/
~l

.1

Fil. SI

Idl 01 support A (salid curvt' O.AB in ri~. 51). \\'e gel thesecoml mode
01 lhe curve.
A third shape lintermedia!e belween Ihe 1\\.'0 malo) of sag is al.so
po:s.sibJe: il ~sponds lo lhe oondilion f,-O. In Ihis case lhe orign
01 coordinates O. coincides with poiot A. One or he oth~r shapl.' will
be oblaine] ]epending upon the ralio between the length o[ cubIl.' lllong
sag' curve AOB (Fig, 49) an] chor] A B.
If saj.!s J, and ti are not known for a cable hanging lrom supports
:11 diflerent heights bul lenslOn ff is known, then the values of u ;md
b as "'1.'11 as sags J. and can ~ easily delermined.
The dillerence / in he level of supporls IFigs. 49 lInd 51) is

t.

h=fl~J,

Lel

U$

~lIbslilule the V3lues of

ti and f, from equation (5.13) in Ihe aDo\e

v:pressioo and Iransform il keeping in mind Ihal o+b=l:

qIi'
q.."
'lb

' . +0)(-u
'
) '""Uf
"~C. -o)
ll-w--m=rnl
'-al~m(

file lcrtIwLl for /110 lh" ... m ..... Irst oblabll!d by P'rol. I y~. Sbl_m,\u
(....wk I TtJrIlnikJ:. Odeau Pt>JllfCl~lK'al Imtltute Joun~l, 1925).

"

Ch. 61

.,

wherefrom

~H~

b-a=antl sira o+b-I.

.n'

,
ff'
o-T--;r

'+ qr
ff'

b =1'

[t should be noled Ihat lor 0>0 Ihe lirsl shape of sag wil! ocwr
lFig. 51). at a<O. thesecond shap<' of
and a\ a=O, the third shape.
Pulting Ihe \'al~ of a and b in expressiolls (5.13), we gel the values

sac.

of fe and

'"'

ti:

ql~

f1h~

fl-m+zqTT

C. Ld lIS I'IOW see what will happen lo a symmelrical cable covering

a span 1 it i15 lemperature incre,ses to t. and lhe. load inlensty to q.
lsay. for example. dlR to iC'e<Overing). Ihe initial temperalul"t" lInd
load inlffiSity being /. and ql. respectively. We assume Ihal in Ihe ni
tial coodiOoo eilher s.,fIt t. or lension H is knO'il'Jl. [I(nowing COl' of
Ihese two quantilles we tan always detefmine Ihe otherlromlormula
(5.10).1
While calculating lhe deformaUooof the cable. whith isoonsilkr3bly
smallt'l' quanlily as compar~ lo Ihe cable lenglh. -.>t' make 1\\'0 assump
Iions: Ihe lenglh of the cable is equal lo Hs span. and lensile forte is
constanl and equal to H. Thesc ~sumpllons givc ulI1all error in genll}'
sloping cables.
In this case {he cable ~longalion due lo lhe ncrease in lernperaturc
will be
(5.16)
whcre Ct Is lhe linear lheflllal expansion coeflicient of Ihe cable male
nal.
The cable dongales when lhe lemperalure ncreases. Thi! wiU I't".
sult in 3n increase in lIs sag and, con.sequenlly. in accordan~ v.'ith
formula 15 10) decrease in ils tenslon. On Ihe olher hand. [rom the
$lime formula (5.10) il is evidenl that lensile force will iocrease due lo
nc:r~se in load. L('l us lI$Sume Ih~t Ihe final ded is lhe tightenhg
01 the cable. Then. according lo Hooke's la\\". lhe 1'Iongalion of Ihe
cable due lo iocrease in It'I\Slon -.-i1I he
,

~s._

(H~-H.II

t.~

(5.11)

98

Clmlplicaltd

CI1S!5

of Ten.slon lUId ComPrt!3l'on

Par! If

If H,<ff" l!.s, wlll be negative. When Ihe lemperalure decreMes,

M, is negative.

Thus. theJength of Ihe cable in its second condilion \\'ill bethf' wm

of its lenglh in he Ilrsl condJ!ion 3nd !he deiofmaliolls due lo the illcrease in lemperature and tensile force:
s.=s,+<1s,+ds,
(5.]8)

The change in [he lenglh of (he cable will also cause change in its
sag. lnstead of', jI wilJ becomef.
Lel us now subslilule fOI SI and s. in equatlon (5.18) heir expressions fram formula (5.11), and for he deformations M, and oS, thl'ir
values {rom formulas (5.16) and (S.l). Theo equation (5.18) takes lhe

following forlO:

1(1 +~)~I
(1 +Jr
8{:)+01"( - t )I+"-If(/
31'
""""EA
1

Replace

(5. ]!JI

t, and f. by lheir values from formula (5.19):

q,l'

f,=srr,

and

q,J'

f.=W;

Alter cerlain transformations, equation (5.19) may be wrilten in

the lorm
Ir,. =

[E2~~: +EAa(fl-IJ -H,] H',.-~=O

(5.20)

Having delermined lensien H, from cquation (5.20), \\'e can find l.

Irom formula (5.9).
11 Ihe transition Irom the 6rsl oondition lo the sccond one OCCllrs
enly due lo a change of tcmpl'J"alure withoul allY change in the load,
Ihen in equlllion (5.20) load intensity q, is replaced by q(. If lhe tran
sition occurs cnly due lo a chan!e in Ihe lood inlensily wilhoul a
change of lemperature, the midd e term in the square brackel is
equated to zero.
Obviously. equalion (5.20) is also valid fer decreaSl" in temperature
and reduction in load intensily.
When lhe sag is not small compared to Ihe lenglh 01 span, the fol'mulas derived aboye strictly speaking aTe not valid. lJ.ecause the actual
sag curve---catenary-will differ appreciably rom Ihe parabola oblained by assuming uniform lond dislribution over Ihe span and not
over lhe Icnglh oi the cable, what in reality take:s place.
Aceurate calculations reveal thal the errors in lhe valuc af H are

f<~ the error

reache:s 1.3'~, nd 101'

as 100Io\\'s: for
lhe ('rror

han 5%.

does no! exceed 0.3% for

f=t

+=~I'

the ('rror is .:>lighlly more

ComptJfi.lI4 Strns. Sfl'CSl and Srllltl

Ch. 6/

Oi ..... TER'

Compound Stressed State. Stress and Strain

'l7. Slresst:s Along Inc.llned Sections Undtr Axial lemion or Comprcssion (Uniuial

Sl~)

In the preceding sections. while lesling the stre:nglh ol a slrelched

oc compr\'Med bar, we dttermined slresses ouly in a scdion ptfpendicular lo its axis. HO\1rf:vtr. propcr evalualion 01 lhe critical stresses
in lhe bar is possible only ir Yo'e know lis slate completely; Ihis rtqllires
thi!: ablllty to calclllale slresses nol only in seclions perpendicular lo
Ihe axis.
Le! us calcula le slrcsses acting in an arbitrarlly incline<! sedlon.
LI'I us consd~r a prismalic bar slrdche<! by rarees P (Fig. 52). Suppose
p

'<'1

""

Fil. 52

p
Fie. 53

Ihe bar lseul into 1\\'0 portians' and TI by plnne mil forminganglea
wHh cross section mk perpendicular to Ihe axis. lhe normals lo Ihese
sections also rorm Ihe same angle.
Lel \lS assume thal angle a is posilive if mk coincides wHh mn when
rolatrd counlcrc.lockwise. We shall call normal DA dirccled oulwards
wllh rcspecl lo the cut-afi" porliOll 01 lhe bar Ihe outer normal lo seclion ron. Let us denote Ihe cross-sedional area mk by A. t1nd Ihe aTea
al seclion mJ1 by Aa.
lo determine Ihe slresses transmitted through the iven sectk>n (rom
fhe upper portion (1) lo lile lower portian (11), \l.e imagine Ihe upper
portion lo be removed and ils action on the lower porlian replaced by
slresses Pa' To majnlaln lhe cquilibrium afilie lower portion, S!ces5C5
~ must compensa le flX" force P and musl be diredtd parallel lo lhe
axis 01 Ihe bar. I t is n>ident that theslresses are nol pcfl)endicular lo
Ihe plane on which Ihe)' are actlng. Their value will abo dUler !rom
that in .seclion mk.

IPaf/ 11

100

Assuming lha! al a suflidenl dislal1' (mm lhe poin! 01 applkalion

or ulffilal fon:cs P slressf$ p", arE' uniformlr dislribultd over SC'ttion
mil, "''i! find
p

P",--

A.

A "'''''~.
A
Bul slnce
P~.

P.. - A;- =

(J.

cosa

00-;'

~'here
is Ihe normal stress in section mk perpendicular lo lhe
<Iirecllno 01 lhl" (ensile forel".
rhe magnituuc 01 stressl'S P.. changcs wilh angle a. In order ha!
\lIe may llave lostUllyonlyone and Ihe same t}'pe 01 slrcsses rrespective ol Ilngle ti, wt' Tl""Olvt str~ P.. ioto tIVO componen!s: cne in
planc mil 1Il~ lhe olher III aplane pNpt'ndicular lo il lF'ig. 53). ThhS,

.'

.~ :-~

-,
I
I
I
I

r.,

r')
Fill;, M

<lreSSP.. acting al poio! A 01 plane 1I111 may be replaccd by two mutllaJ

Iy p.erp('TJdicular strcsses: normal stress ff.. llnd shl'aring stress f".
The magnilude 01 thest' sln"$SCS will depcnd UpOll angle a \\"hlcli thr.
nornlal lo tIt' .seclon forms wilh fhe diredion of lhe lensile forte.
Frorn Flg 53 \\~ havc
o.. _p.. coslX_a,C"O!'U

T.. .., p.. slnCl_ a. sinCl('()SCt". to,Sin 2Cl

(6.11
(6.2)

lel us lay down lhe foHo\\:ing condilions liS regards the signs 01
slrt'$SCS a. and T., Tensile slr~ a... Le. slresses f'Oill("jl!ing \\'ilh ti...
dlreclion oIlhe ouler normal will be l'OllSldercd positlve. ooflu1 stres

'"

CII 61
<;('S

in

Ih~ opp(5lh~

dlrf'CllOn, .e. compressive

sl~.

"1'111 bt-ron

sidl!l'eO negalive.
\Ve will consider the sIleanng slresses positive if Iheir direclion is
suc::h Ihat Ihe otlll'f normal has lo be rolaleil clockwise to make il coII'Iride 11.. ilh IlIero. The re"c.-se direclion of Y" \\'ill be coosid<'fed ntga.
ve.
Figure 5-4 shows lhe accept~ conventien as regnrds Ihe sigm of
0:4, (J, and "1'.
We alway~ have en!y t\\'o t)'I~ of stresse5 actlng at ever}' point 01
lh;,' cutling lime irrcspective o its angle of inclination 01: norma! alld
1IIoc.nillg.
F~ure 55 sliows these slresses acling on a Ihin layer of lhe maleTlIlJ
(hatched in Ihe figure} cul out of lhe strelched bilr by 1'.\'0 paralltl
!toeClions /-/ i1nd 22. Each of Ihe planes experi~nce'lll(ll'mal tensile
strC!&'S o" as well as shearing slresses f" \\i!ich make secliolUi /./ 3ml
22 shear ene paralle! lo the olher.
It lDeans tha! the two l)"pes al slresses correspond lO 1\\'0 t)'lJeS ef
t1clonnaliom; lengthwise t1eformation (efongatiOll or shorlening) Ind
shear. Corresponding to Ihese two lypes of deformalions v.'e llave I~'O
11I00es of failure 01 the material: by lJretkiflg awo.!I and by shturiflg.
lo chc<:k the slrength 01 Ihe material, il s esS<'f\tial lo determine lhc
/1lllximum values ef 0a alld T.. depending upon lhe loclllion of plant Inll.
11 fol!ows rroltl formulas (6.113nd (6.2) thal 0'" reaches ils 1lI11;'{imum
valuC' when cos' 01 is equal lo unll\" Le. a_O. lhe maximulU value
or f", is obtained when sin 2-1=1, Le. when 2a=90~ or 11=45'. The
llIaximuUl ylues o( Da lInd la wlll be
p
muo... -o'-A;'

max1..... '.
T

(63)

Hcnce. th~ maxilllum norTll31 slres.sH a~ acling in setlions perpmdi.

rular lo lhe axis of the bar: Ihe ml'lIimum shearillR sltcso;es acl in
"l.'Ctlons (ormlOg an angle of ~ with Ihe axis o lhe bar and are hall
oi Ihe maximum value of the IlOfmal slresses.
" loginll queslion Ihal ariS<!$ is lor which oi Ihese slresses should
lhe bar be lesle<l, which of these stresses plays lhe <leclsive role m Ihe
lailurC'o! material. Tht'SC' polnts .....ill be discussed in delail in Chapter 7.

28. Concept of Princlpal Slressts.

T)'pes of SlresstS 01

Malerlals

fn the preceding chapters we gol acquaintcd 'Q,'ith Ihe behllviour

al matl.'dals unde! uial (or, as il is orlen calle<!, simple) lensLOn or
compressioo. Ho\\"eVtr, Ih~", may be cases in praclice when the elelIJent ts subjecled to lension or compres.sion in 1....'0 or three (Iire<:tions
under the atllon of v:ttmal forees, i.~. it tinds ilseU in 11 composite
slressed 51.11.'.

'" 111 27 ".. soo..,. ed Ihal even under simple lension

~

P,rl 11
1\1.:0

type or stres-

ses are possible: normal a and shearing f. It lollows from formulas

(6.11 and (6.2) Ihat in .sa::lions perpendicular to lhe uis of the

slrelched bar (0=0). wehaveonly normal SI~(1_0). and insecUons

pllrallel to ils axis (a-!X),'). ~
hav!' neitMr normal nor shearing
slre-;ses lO-O and t __ O).
lile planes in which Ihe she-aril1,l!

"
"

"

F" ..

slresses are. lolal Iy Ilbsenl are call1'd

prirripal planes: lhe normal stresses

ading in these planes are ealfed

principal s/rcsses.
11 has been proved In lhe theory
of (']aslicily tha! Ihree mutually perpendicular prIncipal planes through
which three principal (normal)
siresses are lramlerr!d can be drawn
through an arbitrary poin! or a

slressed body. T'Ilo'O of them hav!' extreme values: one is lhe maximum

normal sues.s. lhe other is lhe mini.

mum normal sttl5S; Ihe third prindpal slress is in[ermtdiatl!. bel","t'eII the aboye two. In evf':1:Y point of
a str~ body we can isolale an elementary culle whose faces are the
principal planes. The Cllbe material i.s stretc:hed oc oompreo;.s~ by
Ihrte mutually perpendicular principal str~ whlch are tran.smill~
throu2h he principal planes (Fig. 56).
In ihecase of simple tenslon ( 27) one principal plane atevery poinl
i.s perpendicular lo the bar axis (ct-O"), and Iheother lwo are parallcl
to H (et-get). Sine!" Ihe normal $lres.s is nol uro (11...""'-0) in the first
principal plane and in Ihe oth!"r Iwo il vanishes, iI may be concluded
ihat in sImple tension and compression out 01 the Ihree principal slrcs
ses only one is nol equal to zero al any point 01 lhe bar; Ihis principal
stress is parallello lhe lensile for(e and the bar axis. This stress of lhe
material is calle<! uniax{af. Tlle elemenl isolated from lhe bar is d~
forme<! in only une direclion.
There are cases when Ihe cubic element Di lhe malerial is subjected
lo ltf1sion or compression in two mutually perpendicular directions
oc even in all thret' dlreclions (Fig. 56). When til,'O principal slresses are
not e<uallo zero. Ihe material is said to be in biaxial (pJne) strns.
When all the three principal stresses are not equal lo uro in the gh'en
poinl, this perlaios lo lhe most general case of stress di.stribution in the
material, the triaxial (voIumtlrit) sirOS; lhe elemenlary cube is subjeded lo tension or compression in all Ihree mutually perpendkular
directioos.
Jn future \\'e shall denote he principal stresses by ti., a. and a.

0:.6J

CompoaIl4 S11ES:I. Si"" tJII4 Sira!ll

103

The ordef of numberin the principal slresses will be sel in such a

way that 0, rqlresenl$ the maximum stress in altbreie value, and
o. the minimum one. The compressive stresses will be lakm, as belOf(',
negative. TherelOfe, lf, ror example, the principal stresses have I~
vnlue5 01 +llXXl kgf/cm', -600 kgf/cm', and +400 kgl/cm', Ihe numeratlon should be
o, = + 1000 kgl/cm"
0. =- +400 kgr/cm\
01 z=_ 6OOkgl/cm'
then lhe condition O,>a.::>a. wiIJ be satisfied.
lhus, we dislinguish thrl"e kinds or stressed st3t~;
1. triullll slrm, when alllhe three principal suesses are not equal
to UfO (ex- eumple, lension Of compr!SSiotI in lhree mulually pt'Tpeldlcular dirte:Uons);
2. biaxial slress, when one principal stress is equal lo uro (tenslon or oompression in two directions);
3. uniaxial stress, when two principal slresses are equal lo zero
(Iension or compressioo io one directlon).
In 27 we sludied the stress dislribution in unlaxial slressed slale;
below we give examples 01 planar and volumlrlc slressed slstes uplaining hO\\' stresses are distributed in dilferent planes in lhese cases.
79. Examples of Bluial Ind Trlula' Slresse:s.
Deslin of I Cyllndflcal R~vor

A. As an example of a composite stressed state ....~ shall con.sid the

in lhe malerial 01 a thio-walled cylindrical ms('fvoir whkh is
filie<! with gas, steam orwater al pres.sure of q alm, I.e. q kgfJcm ' . The

slr~

,.,

side walls and Ihe boitom al th~reservor lite subjeded to a unilorml)'

distribulcd pTl.'SSUre q. lhe dead welhl of lhe fluid in the reservoir is
ignored.
lhe pressureon the boltom will lend lo break the cylindrkal portian
across the cross secHon; on the olher hand. the pressure on lhe side
u'aHs IIlilI leml to burst Ihe reservolr along the generatrlx 01 the cyIindt1'. lhus, il u-e isolllle rectangular elernent ABeD from Ihe cylin
drical portion o Ihe TeSl!voir, tbls elemenl vll be subjeclffl to lension

'"

in lwo direcUons: by stress~ o' in seclions perprndiculllf lo he g<:ne

ralrlx and siresses (Jo in sedions along Ihe generalr!x (Fig. 57).
lhe meihod of SKtions will be emp]oyed [or ca1culaling stresse-s
o' and o', Suppose lhe irllernlll dlallleler 01 Ihe reservoir is D, amI
lhll Ihkkne5S 01 its \\'3115 is l. \l/e shall consider i lo hesmal1 as comperN!
D

lo D(l<W"
Le! liS imagine lhe reservoir (Fig. 57) cllt along lile plane ami con
sillcr lhe tquiHbriullI of lhe cutolJ par!. lor lnstann', UlI.' rgh! :me

(Fig, 58 (o)). lhe resultan! 01 the rort~ acling on lhe botloJl1 anel

~lrl'!{"hjl1g

lhe c}lindrical portion 01 Ihe r~ervoir 1I1ong l!le- gcncr::Jlrix js

:lO'

P""'r-,-

lhe atea of thering (a thin sll'iJ llhickness 1and approximale lenglh

nO) upol1 which lhis force llds is

A-:::< InD

Hence normal stress in this sC'Ction is:

"D'

lJ' ...,

~T
qD
-.:rp ~"TiiD
= 4T

Ch. G!

COlIIPOfMd

S{tr~.

Stress all<!

Slr~ln

'"

Stresses o in sedions parallel lo lhe cylinuer generalrbc wi1l be

founu by isolaling a ring at sorne dislllnce from lile resen'oir boltom
cul by sections mn ami m'n' al a uislance a from cach other anel by
con~dering a dia metrlcal secUon of lhis ring (Fig. 58 (b). The diamelrical surlace 01 he gas (or lIuid) experiences a pressure q which has 3 re
sultant P,;>qDa. The area of lhe rHamelrical seclion (t\Vo \\'aJls)
which bears this pressllre in A,=2/a, and slresses in lhe walls lIre

"

'iDa
'10
~2i=2T

These 5tresscs lite two limcs greater than stres.scs rr' ading in lhe
ring se<:tion.
Since there are no shcaring slresses in the ring and diamelrical seclions. Ihe scdions 11 3nd Al qua!i[y as principal planes, and slrcsses
{J' and o" as principal stresses. The third principal stress o"'-.-q
acting on {he reservoir wall in lhe racHal direclion is negHgibly smllH
llS compared lo (J' and (J"; il may lherefore be C<lnsidered equ3[ lo Z('fO.
ConseC]uently, elemenl ABCDcul out of Ihe reservoir I\"all (Fil.:. 57)
is subjected lo plane slress (biaxial leuson). In accordance with lhe
1lCcepted numeral ion, lhe principal slresses are
qD

01-2/'

qD

0'=41

and

0.=0

(6.4)

BiaxiDI .~tate of stress also IX'curs in sphericat, conical and olher

Ihin.....alled vl:'ssels, plales, variolls types 01 shells, etc
El. The example of a lriaxia( slress is Iransler of pressure from the bnlls
lo (he race in a oallbe:lring or Irom tbe .....heels al a roHing stock lo
th~ rails.
As Ihe conlad between Ihe rail head and lhe Iyre mar be looked
upon as that belween 11'.'0 cylindersol dilrerent diameters ami crOSSl\"ise
generalrices, lhese surfaces musl toucb each other al a point. The normal slresses llrising al {he point 01 contad when pressure is tran5mi! lecl
Irom one body to the other are known as conlad stresses.
When lorce is lransmilted, Ihe malerials of fhe Iyre and lhe rail
get (lelonneci around the point of coniad, and pressure is traflsferred
Ihrough a C<lntaet surface of elliptical shape. The area 01 contad depends lIpon lhe pressure and Ihe radii 01 the conlaeting surfaces. H
we cul out a Slllall tube (for example, wilh sicies of I mm) of lhe rail
material al Ihe centre 01 Ihe conlacting surlace, and il lhe laces 01
lhis euoe are parallel and perpendicular to Ihe rail axis (fig. 59),
then the stresses ading on Ihe faces \Vill be nOflllal compressive ".
Thus (Fig. 59 (b)) ....'E: have three mutually perpendicular planes loadeci
by principal slrl'SScs l1', o~, anul1". The emergence 01 laleral slresses
These struses are ca1culated in Ibe Ibeory of elasticily.

..

W:rl 11

a" ami o'" ean be ~xplalncd liS follows: IIndee lhe adion oi :slre.\5 o'
ptrpendicular to the plaM ol lr'.ansmission el pC('SSUCE', lhe ClIbe material tends 10 upand laterally, and Ihis result:s in reac!iOO$ aO and
o'" from the raH material surrounding Ihe {libe, Ihat hinder transvfne
delormation.
The: computed values oi these stres.stS s!lO'N Ihal Ihey 8dua1ly
aHain high values. Thus, ror eumple. thevalues or o', o, a'" al Ihe
contad betwa>n lhe Ioc:omolive runnef' and mil are
a' =-_110 kgf/plm',

a'" --BOkgr/rnm'

el" --90kgf/rnm',

By applying Ihe conventlon 01 numeration d principal stresses to

this example. we gel
Di ""o'"

.... -80 kgfrnm',

o, -ct" __ !.lO k;f/mm t ,

0,_0' __ 110 kgr,'mm'

In the given example all the three principal slresses are negallvl!'.
This is a case al Irjaxial comprt;SSion. An example d lcictlcia] It'~ion
15 Ihe yielding el material al the neck in a specimtn subjeclt'd lo I~',

'"

"..

,,

'd"

,.

,L
,
o'

lbJ
Fig

"

.sion. Wf.' ~I'\O oflen come llcrosS <:a~ al composite Iraxial slreued
~Ial~ in whlCh thf.' principal slresse; have oppo!ille signs: 0,>0
anrl (f.<O {rOl" insla~, in thf.' 1l'1I11 or a thck..alled boHerl.
The Iriaxial slrmf.'d slale is lhe lIlG5t general slalf.' of slr!o'SS al a
poin!; lhe biaxial and uniaxial !tlres.wd stat~s ilre lhe particular case
,.hffi ene oc two el Ihe three principal slresses beco/tle f.'qulll lo UfO.

Ch. 61

Compoullll Sirtos. StrlSS ami Sfrain

30. S1resses In a Biaxial Slressed Slate

'"

1t is es.senlial lo Mlermine Ihe rnaximum normal and shearing slres

ses 10 check lhe slrenglh 01 a material in biaxial or triaxial stress.
Lel us begin wilh Ihe biaxial str~. Lel us assume that principal
sesses O"i and 0". are ading on Ihe side laces of a right'angl~d paralle.
lepiped (Fig. 60). 80lh Ihese stresses are lensile. There are no stresses
on Ihp. lronl faces 01 lhe elemenl; Iherefore Ihe Ihird prindpnl stress
is zera. Ir ane 01 Ihe principal slresses 0"" 0". or bolh are compressive,

G,
Fig. 60
Ihen Iheir values in Ihe succ:eeding formulas mus! be laken wlth a mi
sign, and Ihe numeralion ShOllld be allered in accordance wilh Ihe
arder given in 28. Thus, one 01 Ihe principal slresses is tensile and
Ihe other is eornpressive. then Ihe first will have lo be nurnbered 0 ,
and Ihe selnd 0.; if bolh 01 Ihe stresses are eornpressive. lhen the stress
having lower absolute value will have 10 be nurnbered o,. and lhe
grealcr 0",.
Our aim is lo delermine 1he maximum normal aol! sh('aring slr~l'$
io scdions perpendicular lo Ihe fronl laces.
Lel us draw a seclion lhe normal lo which forms angle 'Xi wilh di
redion 1 (Fig. 60). The same normal forros angleo:. wilh direction 11.
This seclion wi11 be subjecled lo bolh normal stress o" aod shearing
stress 1"", which depend upon Oi and 11,. Their values can beobtained
by studying lhe adion of 0", and 0", separately and sumrning up 11]('
resulls. The fradion olllie normal slrl!Ss caused by 1)", may be ('X"pr~sSt'd
according to formula (6.1) 1.15 O"i cos'a,; Iht othe-r Iraclion nf 11".
cause<! uy stress o .. llJ(lY be \\"rilten accordlng lo the saine formula as
nu~

P...., /1

"lO
(JI

ros (l." The lolal normal slres.s IhM becomes

0" _

a, C'O$' 0:, +a, sinta,

(6.5)

By similar reasoning 811d with he help of formula 16.2) we may

6nd lhe s/l>;ring slreues in Ihe! gh-en seclion:
1...

_~

[o, sin2a, +o.~in 2a..J ={ro, ~n2a, +o,s]n1 (a, +901]

,... -"';"Sin':ht

(6.6)

In Ihese formulas angle (1, has bet'n measured Iroro he dir~lion

d lIxis I \slresli o,) up lo Ihe normal lo Ihe J!iven $l'Clion by rol"Unl!
~'Ounlerclockwise. We shal! 10110110' lhe rules laid dO'V1\ earlier in 27

in choosing proper signs fO(

(J"

and

T..

33 well as for llngles a, oo

el

FI,. III

In lulure. in formulas iving lhe values or o" and T" we $hall denote
a, by 11., 1I1ways meuuring il from lhe muilllum (al~braic) principal
slre:ss in lhe anliclockwise direclion.
Employing formulas (6.5) nd (6.6) whictl ive Ihe stresses in .se::tion
a-o (Fig. 61). we can easily del~mine Ihe stressf'S in p~pendicular
secUon bb which has norlnal
forming angle ~-(l+9Cr with lhe

n.

C~.

61

Co".po.",4 St"j& Sltt'" """ SIIfIIIt

'"

dirtction of lhe muimum principal stress:

a~ =a, l'OS' P+ a.sin'f' -o, cos' {a + 9O")+o,~in' (et +90')
} (65')
a, _a, sin' a +a,.,;o",4 et

16.6')

Th~ formulas derivl!d aoove c1:lriiy lhe- propcrli~ cJ slresses aclin::

in lIl\ltually perpl.'ndicular planes. FuI normal slr~ses we llave

a.. =o,cos'a+a,sin'u
o~ = o, sin' a + 0". COSO et
Summing up, .... e get

0" +o~ =0, +0, = consl

16.7)

j.c. lhe sum oi normal s\resses in 1\\'1) mutual1y perprndicular plane5

js conslanl an<! equal to Ihe sual or Ihe principal stresses.
r
For tllt: she.1ring sl~, by comparjng (6.6) and (6.6 ), lIo'e gel
T,~-'t.,
(6.S)
HellCl', toc. sh<>:lring slre'SM'5 in 1Il"O muluall)' perpendicular plan<'S
are equoll in magmtude bul opposHe in signo TIIls properly i.s generally
ealJed Ihe Ur.ll o( romplt~III(V!I s/rmriJlg sUts:!itS, Ihis h1\\' being vali,J
lO al! C8StS in which shearing slresses are acting.
lile s)"slem oi stresses (Tu, o To.' T, depicled in Fig. 61 acls on Ihe
fa~ 01 an elementar)' parallell'piped turn~ IlIrough angll' a with
res]leCt lo lhe dirtctions of principal stresses o, anll o. The pair 01
sheJring slresses Ihal trmls lo rolate lhe element in Ihe c10ckwise
dir('Ction will be eonsidered posilive. In Pig. 61 Ihese slressesare deo!.
e<J by 1"". It should be oled lha! !his rult' lor choosing {he sign for t
coincides wi(h Ihe convention already decided upon ( 27).
It is eviden! from formulas (6.5) and (6.6) Ihat Ihe normal :ml!
sheClring slres:ses in aplane dept'l\d upon lis lnclination.
Let us study expression (6.5) lor maximum to determine lhe IDallilllum OOfmal stress. By dilJerenllaling .... i1h resptct lo o: and
equating lhe fin{ derivalive lo tero. we gel

=:

=-20,cosas!U<2+2a,,.inacosa=0

4;:: __ (O,_0.)5io'1a_0

(69)

{Pa, 11

'"

A comparison oI tlI"presskms (6.9) and (6.6) reveals lhat ihecondilion

rOl" muimurn 01 a.. js Ihe same as oblained by equaling to uro IIllO
shtaring stresses in the cormponding p!ane'S. From lhe sameexpTCMion
ji 10110""5 Iha! 0.....0, cos"a+a. sin'a is maximurn eilher fer a::aQ
or for (I-9l1'. Sm" t 0,:>0 then
m3l1: o.. '" a,

(ata_O)

mino._o.

(ata-m

e. ,he rnaximum Ilnd minimum normal sltesses al lile given poinl

are lile principal slres.ses 0, and o. acling in mutually perpt'mhculllr
plan<!S fft'<! 01 shearing slresses.
It is evidenl from formula (6.6) {ha! the maximum shearing strl'SS is

maxTa_"l";'" (atsin2r,r.=1. Le. lit a_45)

(6.10

Heoce. the n13XimunI shearing stress is half 01 {he differenct' of he

principal slresses and 8eh in planes indined al 45 lo lhe prinl.'ipal
ones 3nd perpendicular to Ihe p[ane 01 Ihe diagram. In planes paralld
lo o,. lhe maximum shearing slres.s is

maut

0;

(6.10')

31. Gnphic Ddennlnltion of Strcsses

(Mohr's Cirde)
The calculalion 01 aA and T,.. from formulas (6.5) Ilnd (6.6) may be
rt'plaet'd by graphic determinalion (Fig. 62).
Let us lake a ~langtllar coordinalt> s)'slem wHh all"es a and 1.
Tht>I1-axls dir('{'tt><1 lo the right IS taken positive. On tht>o'lIll"is we plol

segllM."nls DA and 08 reprl'Senling in a enlajn seale Ihenum{1'jul \ alul'S

do, and a.(i1ls convenienllo draw Iheo'Uls parallcllo Ihe olall"imUlIl
principal slro!SS oJ.

OJmpou.ruJ SI.tU- Sfrttl lJIII1 SIra,,,

CA "

'"

In Fig. G2 botll lh~ slresses are cor.sidered Imsil~ and are Ilid 011'
on lhe a-axis in the posili\'(' di~1ion. Had ene oc bolh 01 Ihe slresses
~ compressivl', wt' would have laid thelD 011' in lbe opposill' directlon. Taking segment AB as the diamE'ter, we draw 11 circle with the
<:entre al e, whidt is ca1led the stress circle (Mohr's circle). To delermiM normal stress (f.. and shearlng stress T.. in a flane lhe normal lo
which makes a'lgle a with the maximum princ.ipa stress o,. we mus!
draw a cenlral angle 2a al poln! e, plotling ils posltlve valuc from he
a-axis counlerclockwise. Poin! D of lhe stress ('irete will eorrespond
lo lhe required plane; iis coordinales DI( and DI<. will be equal lo
a.. and'f... respective!)'. This can be easily proved. From Ihe diagram,
the rlldius af he stress tircle 15

eD =

Ae =

,018' 0,01-08

From lhe righfangled trtlngle K,DC we havt

DI( =CDsin2~-o,-;a sin2cx

Further

01( _08+ Be +CI( -0.+ a,-;O',+

-11. + 0',-;0'.

-o, +0,

<l,-a.

8e -""2=--2-----r

_T.

0,--; o'c0!l2~

(1 +cos2l'z) =0.+~2cos'~

cos~-I1.C:05lX=o, COSO a. +11.sin' a.

=0.

Tbl':'i, the coordinales of points on the drde determine lhe strcsses.

Th~ values of a.. are measured by the segments along lhe a-uis. Po~i1ive \'alues 01 a.. are ploUe<! in lhe positive dlrecUon 01 lhe o-axis.
Tlle "alues of 'f.,. are measured by lhe segmenb parallel to th!." yaxis.
Posilive values
T" are direded upwards, because acc:ording lo the

or

convenlion dedded upon by us, Ihe values or a. between Oand 900 corresj>OlId to positive values 01 fa: thls Is also obvious fmm the formula

0',-0, . ,,_

T.. ---y-sm"",

in whic.h Ihe maximum principal stress is laken as a"

Iiaving determined slresses a. and Ya from Ihe stress clrele, lel us
represen! t~m 011 Ihe diagram of Ihe culolf element, laking care
01 their slgns (fig. 62). Let us re-::apllulate Ihat we have decided lo
plot Ingle a. specilying t~ localion of the ouler normal to he c:utling
phme .lwll}'s from lhe line 01 ectionoi the mui;um (algebraic) principal stress. Lel us Iherdore bring Ihe direc!ion afilie rnaximum prin
:ipal stress o, In line wilh theo-axis on the slreu citele. 11Ien line BD
Inclined al an angle a. lo the oaxls will be parallel lo the normal lo
Ihe c:utting pl:me. .e. parallel to o... tine BM will be paraJlel lo ......

112

Compl/((Wd, CUMS

01

Ttnsiun ",Id Compn:$3'0I1

lPall 1I

.-\s is qlear [rolO Fig. 62, Ihe lnaximum shearing stress is equal lo
scglllenl eD., l.e. Ihe ratlius 01 Ihe shess drde:
max

la

a,-a,
=----r-

angle 20: corresponding lo this conditioll is OC!' and, consequenlly,

0:=45~. In Ihe slress cirele max T" is represcnted br lhe ordinale CD.
whosc abscissa is OC=",;o', Le. in Ihe planewhereT"=T",,,x, the
normal stress has sn average value.
[t is similarly tlear [rom Fig. 62 Ihallhe maximum normal stress
is represented by .segment OA which is equal lo o" 3nd lht: minimum.
by u-gmcnl 08 equalloo. JI ensues lhat lhe normal stress in any plan!'
al an anRle o: musl be between thE' principal slresses o, anrl Oo.
Thus, knowing the principal stresses al 3 poini of a body in biu:ial
stress we can ~l1d IhE' s(rt'SSeS and their directions in any other plane
passjng through litis point wilh Ihe help 01 l>iolir's eirde.
(Jj __ 7!JtJIg'!t,.1

,
,/
"...

r~"'~ ""_+JOOl!!f/t,,Z

;.---

Plg. G3

Let, lor example, lhe principal slresses al some poin! o[ the material
be O",-3IXl kgllem t ami 0,=-700 kgf.cm t . We shaU find the normal
and shearing slresses in aplane nclined al 0:=-3(jO lo lhe direction
of o,. Th'e construction is shown in Fig. 63. For lhi' chost'n seale Ihe
stresses were found lo be a,,=50 kgf/cm' and T,,=-430 kgl/cm'.
Their di~tions are shown In Fig. 63 on the right.
Ir lhe principal slresses a, and 0 0 are kno\\'n, then with the helll of
lhe str~ clrele we can delermlne Ihe slresses in Iwo mulually perpen
dicular $ecHons a-4 and bb Ihe normals lo which (Fig. 64) make
anglps tX !md~, respeclively. wlth. the dlrection of the maximum prin
cipal stress (l.

Cfr. Gl

C1trtpollld SIJUf, S/rn<; lIN1 SI"';'.

'"

~l LIS

plol angle 2a al point oi the stress eire/e (Fig. 64), Poinl

D... ....'i1I correspond lo sectioo a-a, and segments D...K.. and OK... ",itl
r~resent the respecti'n she./lring and oormal slres.ses In lhe plane.
To delermine lhe slre55eS in seclion b-b we musl plol angle 2/1.
Le. add 180" lo anele 2a. AlI tha! is required lar tluil is lo extend Tadius CD..; poi ni D, I,,'ill mrespond lo section b-b.

-. --.,
1

>-- -, ~""--:>"
Fil. 64

1',

(J.

SIres.ses
and
are ~pre5l!nled by .wg~nts D,K, and OK res
pedively, It is clear lrom Ihe diagram Iha!
and
0",+0,=0, +0, =cons!
The stresses acling on the lace; 01 the element cul by planes a Ind b
are shown in Fig. 64 00 lhe rrght.
By bringing in line the direclion 01" lhe maxlmum (1I1gebrai<:ally)
prin<:ipal slress o( wilh Ihe oaxis 011 lhe slres.\ c.ircle (Fig, 64). v.'e

'",--1'.

Fil. M

lind that line BD", joining the extreme lelt poiot el Ihe c.ircle ...i1h
js parallel lo slress o... and line BD, is parallel lo slress ",.
The IrTQWS are put in accordlloce with lhe sigos oblainfi1.
Figure 65 shows how lo construct \\ohr's circ1e when both 01 lhe
principal slresses are compreuive.
~inl D",

5-111.

114

[PaTI 11

32. Determllllllion uf Ihe Prillclpll.[

Help 01 Ihe MICM Cirde

Ma~scs

wllh Ihe

SomctilllC$ l' j~ requlfcd lo salve a problem npposite to lhe one discuS5ed in [he pre<:eding sectiOll, .e. determine lhe principal stre5Scs
lhe slresses 0'" '[ti. l1~, 3nd T~ 3fe known. lhe easiesl way 01 doing
tha! is by pl"ltillg Mohr's circle.

AMume thal Ipe nOfmal and sheZlring strcsses in t\,Va mutually per-

pendicular planes having normals n" and I/.~ are kllown (Fig. 66). Le!

..---.,--~

Fi a:.66
us denote "the nO[;lIal slresses in lhe vertical plane (11,.) by
O"~

(1".

and in

sinee they make (erlain angles a and ~

(~""ct+90!') ....th lhe principal stre5SCS a, 35 yet unkno\vn. lhe 5h('11ring str~s~ are correspondingly denolcd by 'fa and 't"~: according lo

lhe horizontal Ilane, by

th~ law 01 complelllentary she<lrin; ~lresse~, T=-T~. For Ihe ske

of deflnileness while conslrudin: Mohr's cir~" let us assulIle Ihat
a... >lJr>O and '(,.>O.
,.
L<-I us plol slrl'SSe5 a .... (I~. T.... llnd T~ using Ihe coordinate system
of the requifed stress cil"Cl~ (Fg. 66):

Since points D... and D~ corresponding lo mulually perpendicular

secUons lllusllie al the opposite ends 01 the crele diameler, lhe point
of interseotion 01 !ine D.. D~ with lhe a-axis will give cenlre e of the
slress circ'te. Circumscribing a circle 01 radius CD... or CD~ around
cenlre e, ;we get segmenls OA and 08 on Ihe a-axis whkh represen'
Ihe principal slresses: OA=al and OB""'o,.

",

",-"

The direction of o.. is reprtsenled on the stress drtle by BO.. whlch

1$ inc:llned al a positive angle a lo lhe aaxis. Constquently, angle (Z
should be plotted in the anlk:lockwise dir~lion moving from point A
lowards D. in der lo pass over ltom Une 01 fo Une 00. in lhe circle.
In OUT uample. II.'t 3SSUme: 1M diredion al a. lO be known. This means
lh.t in ocder lo represent the direc:tion of a, in Ihe diagram ollhe de-

ment under comidffation, -,,-e musl plol Ingle Cl in !he opposite direc-

tion from o..' Le. in lhe ciockwise'(firection. The Telalive dispositlon

ol streues o, and (J. shown on lhe stres.s c:ircle by OA and BD.. must be
relaiT\fd in lhe di.gram of fue eltmen! as "'e11.
We may .Iso show on Ihe stress cire)e lIle troe direction of principal
stress 0, as toincidinf: wilh the dirtction obtained on thediagram of

lhe tlu)ent by lhe mtthod

~plancd aboye. For Ihisfrom theexlteme

leH poin! B of lhe circle, v.oe mll$l plol .n Ingle tl in the c10ckwise
direction from the o-axis which is parallel to a., in olher W<lrds, poin!
D. should be brougflt down lo D;'. Une BD~ coincides in diredlon
with stress ah and a: U'ill be direcled perpendicular lo it. While representing Ihe principal slTti5es (in our example o, and o ) it is essentral
lo lake care 01 their silV1s oblained by plotling Ihe circil.', and also fol-

low ht' rule of numeration 01 lile principal slresses.

I.,t us poilll oul [hat in Iheproblems on biuial slress discussed here,
Ihe thln] principal stress is 7~ro. Thereforeo, if both principal stresses
oblainl!d rrom the slress dn:le are posilive (Fig. 66), Iheon the hlgheor
onl! will be (1, and the lower o.; j[ one 01 Ihe slres.ses is posilive and Ihe
olher negative, then Ihe rarmeor wlll be 5, and Ihe lattcr o..; finally,
il both slresses are n~alive. Ihlm lhe one with Ihe reater absolule
value wilJ be o. and one with the smal1er absolule value o..
Angle a may be delermined by Ihe formulas (Fig. 66)

<1_

O~Ka:?'r.

} ,

an==-CJ?:""--~

(6.11)

lana. = _ O~Ka __ ~=_----!!......

8/(",

"--".

a,_a",

The minus sj~ Is usa! because for positi~ \alu.!$ of o.. and t". angIe DI
(the angle 01 rolalion of plllJlt o.. to lht principal direclion) is mea
sured rn lhe dockwise direclion.
From Fig. 66, ....", can ~t Ihe formulas lor raJculaling the principal
slresses in biaxial stress; thty ~ rq>Iesented by segmenls OA and
'II."C have

OB. From lhe diagram

OA=OC+CA

and

DB-OC-a

Further
-

,.

lI,,;-ot

CK.. -CK~---r

o, Te,ula"

Comp/lcaftd Caa,

,,"lid ComprtssIon

IPar/
'"
The rallli 01 he str5S circle CA.,.CB are equal lo CD ..""'CD(I which
/1

may be lound ram the foHowing expression:

CA-CB=--CD",_VCK~+l("D~_

=+ V

(1(1)'

(0""

y(O" 411~)'+'t"'

+4l~

Therefore,
(6.12)

In praclice \Ve aiten come across lhe cases 01 biaxlal slress when
0(1=0. For lhese cases Ihe formulas for principal stresses wiJl lake the
form

a. \
'[
V=ro=]
a, ="2C1.. 0"+4T,,

(6.13)

Here the mininlUm principal stress is denoted by o. because Il is negalive (lhe quantity under lhe radical sign is greater than 1],,).
Tlle angle or incJination of lhe first principal stress lo the lJ-axis
is determined by formulas whieh are a carollary 01 (6.1l):

130'20:= _ :ha }

(6.14)

0"

lan a; = -

..!!.

".

Given below are examples on delermining lile principal slresses

wilh thl' help of stress cirele.
5upposc we know lhe stresses a{ a given point af {he material, acting
in {wo mutually perpendicular planes:
0",~"",400

o~ = -

kgi,'cm',

-r,,=-300 kgf/clI\'
-r~ =

200 kgi/crn"

300 kgi/cm'

Figure 67 shows Mohr's cirele conslrueted lor Ihese tlata. lhe principal slresses are
0 ,

=530 kgf!em',

0".",,-330 kgicrn'

and lhe angle betwl'f'1I 0"" 3nd

In another e.\ample

(J,

is a_22".

o" = 1000 k,gfcm',

"'t,,= 400 kgf,cm'

..,.~_O,

kgi;cm'

"t~=-400

(0,=0)

'"

Ch. 61

lhe plollil1R o In!" slr~s ;irclr is shl,lwn in Fil:. 68 from which i!

ensues that 0,=1141) kgl.cm T ami o.,=-14U kgl,,;,:m'. On the fronl
tace thul lies in Ihe plane 01 the ngure, 0,-0.
T.t;;(I&~l

r,tfl&mz
B.

"
~,.-fOOO

u"4!J

~.~"
'.
.
'.

"

uJ

:".4

FI~.

68

For bolh example;; the reader is advised lo cakulale Ihe principal

slresses according lo formula (6.12) and compare Ihe analytical valuc~
with Ihose obtained by graphic eonstrudion.

33. Stfesses in Triaxlal Slressed Slate

In lhe general case o[ a state 01 triaxial slress, normal as wdl as
shearing, stresses acl 00 the faces 01 an elemenlary ClIb~ cut out oi the
malerial of a bady (Fig. 69). In accordance with Ihe law 01 complemen.
tllry shearing slresses, 1". =1~", 1;"""1,,,. and "1.11'='f rv *. lhe sel of
sil{ stres.se.s 0x' O~. 0r and Tx 1"" 'fu eompletely describes the stale
of stress at a polnt aod is knolVn as the s/re.o;s /('usor.
lt is established in the Ihoory 01 elasliclly {hal arOllnd any poin!
of slres.sed material IV';: can always i$Olate an elementary cub(' in which
no shearing stresses ael on lhe faces by rotation ef planes. In Ihis caS(:
Ihe stress lensor ls determined by three principal stresses o,. o. and o,.
The subwipts on t should be dedphcrcd as /olluws, IhQ nnl subscrlpl de
notes lhe pl3ne in which they 3d (diredion 01 the "ormal t~ Ihe plalle), the ocro" I
sub=il'l denotes lhe dlrettlOlI 01 sllurltJa strw (aIQn~ "'lIlch AX'S T is ,ctin).

C{}I/1plicofed Cases 01 Ttnsiotl aIll! Comprtsslotl

'"
In particular, when lJ,=O'.=o,=o (uniform triaxial (ension

Par! JI

DT compression), lhe stress tensor is known as sphericol.

Suppose we have a cubic elemen! cut from the bady. The faces of
lhe cube are subjeded 10 principal stresses 0'1, o, and (7. (Fig. 70). OUT
3im is lo determine he normal and shcaring stresses in 3ny inclined
piune cutling (he given cube, provied O,>I1'>C v O.

"

"
F1e. 69

First \l/e shall determine Ihese slresses in planes paralle! lo ane of

he principal stresses, for example o." This plane is hatched In

Fig. 70 (o).
We have seen earliet ( 30) that the principal stress parallel lo a

given plane gives tise lo neithe! normal nor shearing stresses in it.

Therefore, stresses in the planes under considerlllion will depend only

upan (J, and lJ.-we wUI again deal wilh the biaxiaJ slrl'SS. Points on
Ihe stress circJe dr8wn for the principal stresses (1, and (l. {Fig. 71) wjlJ
correspond lo these planes.

el.

'"

~l

Identically. slresses in platles parallel lo o. (Fig. 70 (b will be

represented by lhe (3OTdinates of lhe poinl$ of t~ slress cirde consl
rucled lor s1resses o, and o . In planes parallel lo o, lhe slr~ wiIJ
be represenled by poinls ar the stress cirde oonslruded loe o, and 170
(Fig. 70 (e)).

,f---f--+.!,.LJ>-f4

1.-- .,---1
fi. 71

Thus, coonlinates ar Ihe [)Oin!s on Ihree stress clrdes (Fig. 71) represent Ihe normal and shearing stresses in sections or lile cube which
are parallel lo one oi the principal strt'SSe!i.
As for Ihe planes culling all Ihe Ihree axes or pril'lCipul stresses, II
has becn proved in Ihe thoory or elaslkily lhal slresses 0n and 1:.
are: represenled by coordIna tes of poinl! D in Ihe: halched area of
F;,_ 71.
The values of Ihese stresses may be ca1culattd by Ihe following formulas:

a. 1:. =

0, COSO a;,

+!J, (OS' a;.+o. cos' <lo

Vo: COSO a;, + a: cosa 11. + olcos' ~ <f. -

(6.15)
(6.16)

Here(lf. lI, Ind (lo are angles whidl (he normal ti lo lhe plane makes
with !he ditlions 01 pril'lClpal stres.ses o" a. and (JI, respeclinly.
It is dear lrorn Fig. 71 Ihal in Iriaxial stress the muinlUm and mi
nimum normal slres.!eS are ~uallo Ihe muimum and minimum principal slresscs. respectively.
T11e maximum shearing slress is ~ua[ lo lhe radius of lhe largesl
cirele and, consequefltly. hall 01 Ihe dilJerence of the macimum and
minimum principal stresses. ft acls in plane incline<! al 45" lo lhe
t1irecUon 01 Ihese rrincipal slresses. lhe normal slresst$ in Ihese planes
being eqUlllo hat of Ihe sum of lhe maximum and miniruum prlntipal stresses (ol><J.>uol.
TIII". in Ihe ntoSl ~nNlll CIlSl!' 01 Ihe slresK'!I slllle of a malerlal,
\\11l~n all Ihe Ihree principal slres.<t'S ilre nonzero al the gven poin!.

".

[rur! fI

Compliculr<1. CUs.-. <JI TtIl..'"" ""d CIJlllpre.s"'J/1

we have

minon=o
In planes paralll.'l lo one af Ihe principal stresses and inclined al
45" to lhe olher Iwo, (he shearing slresses will be max 1=1"". acconJing
lo formula (6.11), and {urlher

"l-a.

(5.1?')

"t", .....- , -

The slressl's

TI, l' "(:1.

a. and "'" are sometimes called the prinripnl

shearing s[resses.
For che<:king lhe strength 01 material in compound stressed staic
(see Chapler 7) il is of nteresl to know Ihe stresses in the octa/lcdra/

"

"

J'

,t
FIg. 72

plane, the /lormal lo whieh makes l'qual angles with he firft-tio!ls of

all the Illree principal stresses (Fig. 72). Bearing In mind Ihal
COSO 0':1

+coso ce, + coso ~ =

anl! when he angles are equal (<<, =.=0:.=),3 cOS'et= 1, orcos' a=

=113, Irom formulas (6.15) anu (6.16) \.\"1.' obtain
I

(6.18)

o."=::r (o, +aa +0'.) -a m..n

To<l

=+ "JI

(a,

0'1)' + (a,

a.1 + (al

0.1"

(6.19)

Using expres$ion (6.17) for lhe principal shearing slresses, we get

'I/'+~"
To<t"':
T'.I 'I,.,T".

(6.19')

C/J. 61

CQlflpotInd Slrtss. StITS3 alld Slrain

'"

11 ls evidcnt irom expressions (6.18) and (6.19) lhallhe normal oclahedra! slress is equal to the arilhmelic mean 01 lhe Ihre;: principal slresses. whereas lhe oclahedral shearing stress is proporlional lo tite gromelric sum of lhe principal shearing stresses.
An expression of Ihe Iype (6.19) will be used in Chapler 7 under (he
na me of stress illtensifll. which also charaderizes he slresses in a malerial:

a,= V"211(O',

a,l'+tO'

O'.,)"+(a,

0'.)'

(6.20)

It can be easily seen thal wh..n (J,=0.=0, Le. in lhe case al simple
uniaxial teU$ion, Intensity 01=(J,.

34. Ddormaliuns in Ihe Compound Stress

When testing lhe strength 01 an elemenl (Flg. 56) whose faces are
sllbjeded lo slresses e" a!, and (1'" il becomes essenlial to determine
lhe corresponding delormations. Let us number Ihe edge parallel (o
principal slress lT, as lirst, ami fhase parallel lo principal stresses (J,
and a. as second and Ihird. Let us now determine the relative longitudinal derormations 01 the elemenl alorlg Ihese edges by conslderirlg
the effed of each slress separately and lhen summing uf> the resul1s.
Under slress (J" Ihe elemenl will gel elorlgaled in the iireclioll al
Ihe first edge, and lhe relative elongation is

. 0'
e,=-;
The first edge, however, is simultaneously fhe lateral dlmension
ior stresses o. and (J,; therefore, theelement llndergoes relalive shortt'ning in the direction of lhe first edge due lo slress lJ. and slress e"
which is equal lo (see 9)

.
"
e:,=-fl.T'

",
f,

n.

=-ll7

Tlle tolal relalilie tldarmaUon in (he dircdlon o! Ihe firsl edge filay

be wrilhm as

1~2

Compllcaftd CaSlS 01 Trnsion ond Conptrs1<QT.

(Parl I1

SlInllllr exprcssions may be written for deformatiolls in the other

wo dlrections, and \\'e finally get

t.=i-It(i+?) 1

,.~~ -.(-']-+ ';;)

'.

e'=T-~

( E'. +T" )

(6.21)

If sorne 01 Ihe slrl'S.~('S \J" (f., (f, are compressive. lheir numerical
values should be pul in formulas (6.21) wilh a mmus signo
Now fmm (6.21) \Ve can easily get eXfJrl'SSions lor ension or compression io 1\\'0 dire<.:tions by putlillg one 01 the principal slresses equal
t<> zero. For eumple, far Ihe case shown in Pig_ 60, we have

',~-']--I' i
(1,

(1,

(6.218)

t'=E-~E
(1,

".

e'=-~T-fl-T

Lel u... calculale the chaogl.' in Ihe volume of a redangular parallelepiped having edges. of a, b and e, ir It is I,;nder Iriaxia! stress. lis
volulrJe bdore defoTlllalion is V.=abc. Alter deformalion, due lo e1ongallon of its edges its volume be<:oOles
V, = (u+ 6a) (b+M) (e + .c)
or, negleding he product of small d('forlllations,
V, -abc+ab.1c+acM+lida-l'. (1 +e, +t.+lIo)
The relaUve change in volume is

V,-v.
+ I'.+p.
ev=-;--=e,
Repladng lhe

SlllJI

(6.22)

or relaUve e[ongalions by sorne lllean

lI'e express the relative changc in volume as

t,. "" 3e"'..n
Replllcing in 16.22) lhe VIIIUl'S or t"

ey-e,+e.+e.=

;."

and

(6.22')
f.

frolrJ (6.21). \Ve gel

~
1:; (cr,+(fI+<J.)

(6.23)

Cn. 61

C~mpound

Slrtl>S. Strtg and Stralll

+, '"

It is evid~t lrom (6.23) Ihat il Poisson's ralio Jt is equal lo

the
relalive change in volume is zero. Wl! have already ob(:Jined this re
sull for uniaxial slress in 9. It is clcar (rom Ihe same formula thal
il lhe sum uf Ihe three principal slresses is equal lo zero, Ihere will be
no change of volume within the Jimlls of elastic deformation.
It shuuld be noted lhat formulJs (6.21), (6.22), ami (6.23) can also
be used for 3n arbitrarily oricnlated clement 01 the material the faces
01 wlllch experience both Ihe normal and shearing slresses (Fig. 69).
For Ibis all Ihal is required is lo replace 0"0,, and o. by normal strcsses o." ,,~, and 0" and lI" 80, l . by lI",. Eu' amI E,. I t will beshown laler
( 36) Ihat shearing stlesses change neither Ihe linear dimenstons of
the clemenl nor ils ,olume.
Le! us r('lurn lo-formula <6.23) frolll which ti is obvious Ihal the
change in vu(ume depmds unly on the sum of Ihe princIpal slresses
and no! on their ralio. This means thal the volurnc will change by lhe
same value il he cube's faces are subjected lo equal mean slrCSS('s

m.u =

,
0,.1."'+0,
J

The relaUve change in volume may in this case be eJlplbSed as

(6.23')

Thc quantily K- 311 ':' 2 ) is called lhe bu/k modu/us. Introducing

Ihis notalion in formula [6.23), we obtain

"....~ 0"'+".+0.
3K

(6.24)

= Kev=3Ke....n

(6.24')

EV=-r-=

0'
O"'.. n

Formulas (6.24) alld (6.24') deUribe Ihe general Hooke's law silllllar
lo Hooke's ]aw lor uniaxial Imsion. 11 is evidenl (rom Ihese formulas
that il equal mean slresses

forming the spherlcal slress tensor are applied tu the cube's lacC'S, al1
the edges eJlperience identical sira in
(6.25)

'"

IP"rl 11

In Ihi... ca.o.e he change in yolUlIte 01 thl' cube is nol accomp.::mied br a

change ol' Is !ha~-lht cubt- r'maim I cu!x'. bul t~ dimensions el
lhe nrw CU~ are diiftt'MI. Thertfore. if,,~ .re interested in problems
~131rd lo the chang4' in volume and shapr under compound stress. il is
con\'enienl lo represenl each of Ihe principal slresses as a sum el 'I\'O

slresses:

0',""""_+0;.

0',=11_ +0.:.

0",-6_.+0;

lile! gi\'eI1 s!rt"SS tensor formed by the principal slresses (1,. o,. and
o, l:'OnsistJ of lwo lerms: lhe spherical tensor (made up of equal stresses

o_) and 3 supplemenlary IfflSOl'" krXJllo'n as lhe slressd~iafor (Fill:. 73)

whicb rl'presenls a s)'$tem el norm.al st~

11 can bfo ~Hy seen Ihal lhe sum al these .5upplementary stresses
is equal lo lero. Obviousl}'. o;+o~+o;_a'+"I+(J.-30 .... "'O.
therefore lhey do nol cause any change in ,>,olume ( 34). rhe stress
(~ator fFlg. 73 on lhe rgh!) i5 onlr reponsible lor Ihe change
oF Sh3JK'.
\Ve shall rtturn to the problem of Ihe change In volurnc amlshllfle
later whilc discussJng pro[)lems or strength 01 materials in compound
stressed state (Chapler 7J.

35.

PoI~ntiilll Enery 01 Elaslic Ddormalion

in Compound Stress

Polellllal energy 01 defocmaUon is lhe energy acc:umulaled by Ihe

malerial as a resull oS elastic deformalion c.aused by ulernal forces.
To calculale lhe polmtiat energy ~umulated by 01'1 ela.slic S)'slem,
~ may use Ihe lal'o' or e:onservalion ol energy.
Let us first consider Ihe case 01 simple tensioo (Fig. 74). Ii we load
a bar statically by gnadually suspending small 1000ds !!P, lhen aHer
each addiUon lhe suspended load C'O!IteS dou." aOO ils polential enern
decreases. whereas lhe potential ener-gy 01 delormalion of lhe slrelched
bar neceases.

o, Gl

e_pe",,,J SIr=. SfrtSJ

o~d

S/,o"',

12S

Whcn the load increases slowly and gradually, lhe velocily of displ._
-ment of Ihe iree end 01 lh~ bar is ver)' sm.U. Thtreiort', 11:~ mar ~
glect he inertia 01 Ihe moving mass ando consequenlly. assume Ihat
thfo deformalion IS 001 accompanied by an~' change in lhe kinelic enero
gr of Ihe 5)skm.
Unoo thl'SC.' rondHioN liJe polential tflf'l'gy 01 Ihe loU'ering load 15
lransfofnted iolo lhe poh'ntial energy of elastic dclorlMlion o{ Ihe bar

(",e neglect lhe dissipation of eneriY due lo lhcrmal and eleclromag

1'K'lic proc~ accompao)'ing (he
c[aslic deformation). Thus an t'lastic
system undcf slalic oadiog may be

consicterNl as a machine transformo

ing cne form 01 polenlial energy jolo

analher.
As Ihe potenlial energy losl by Ihe
load is equal to Ihe work accomp
Iished by il in IO\I:ering, lhe problem

of determining lhe pottnlial energy 01 deformationcoOll'$lo calculal

in Ihe \\'Ol"k done by Ihe externa!
fortei. In 10 ....-e obtained expres-

dP

FIl:. 74

sm (3.1) rOl' Ihf wock done b)'the

external lorces in simple Icmion:

IV

-,

_ plJ,/

This implies that the polential energy 01 lension is siso

P'I
,,'Al

. o,

smce~,

U_w ... 2EA

=v

(6.26)

PI

=EA'

rhe potential encrgy accumulaled by a unit volume 01 mulerial 15

~

00

u-w~E=1'

(6,21)

Lel us now passover lo tht detCf"minalion 01 potenlial energ}' accumu

lated in a unU volume el a mat!'1'iat \I.'hich 15 in a compound (planar or
\'olumelric) stress.~king U5e 01 lhe principIe of superposilion of
lorces and assuming that the princip"l stresses inttease gradually, "':1'
can determine lbe potentiall'lle1fY as Ihe 5UUl of the mergies accumulalee! by a unit volume olthe material under the acliOll 01 each of lhe
principal stres.se:s a" a. and u. aa:ording lo (6.27)
U_Ul_~+ "2r.,+~

'"

Qf

Complitllffd e".., ~1 Tmst"" ""d ComprusiOll

[Parl JI

artes- multiplication

=it. [0'1 +a: +0:- 2J1 (0,0. +(1',0", +o,o.lJ

(6.28)

Hence, Ihe tutal /'lIerrJI (JI de[lNma/ioll accumulaled in a uuif volum/'

of Ih~ material (8 eube wilh e<lges of unit lenglh) ma}' be calculaled
from formula (6.28). It lIlay be considert'd as consistlng of two parls:
(1) II~ dUe lo lhe volunlelric change in the ('ube under considertion
(l.e. unilorm changc 01 all ils dimensions wilhout any change in ils
hape) and (2) u,, due lo lhe change in its llape (Le. ellt'rgy spent in
IransIorlUing lhe ClIbe nto a parafleJl'pipe-d).
Thls division of lhe polential energy in Iwo par15facililales he sludy
of slrenglh al materials in volumelric stress (Chapler 7).
Le! LIS c.:J1culate lhe values of bolh lhe compooenls of thr spedlk
polenliaJ energy. 1I liad betn .mOWlI earlier tlJ.,J) hal when Ihe edgcs
of lhe cube- delorm unirormly.l.e. when lhln IS a thange in Ihe volum.e
onty, lhe relalive ~Iongation ol each edge of the nlbe may be cakulaled
frolll formula (6.25):
<1_

t. ..., ""31[""
Ik
1"

wh<'reo..... =<l"!+"
3 .J..o, an d"h,., bU'moduUSf\-;lt1_21l)'
The specific energy due lo {he change in volume will be

"

o'"!'"~"'''
=3
2

,,:n.,.

""2i(

(o,+(I.+o,)"
laR

(6.291
lhe polential enere:y rorresponding to lhe change in !hape of the
isolated elerneni mar now be calculaled as he differenee

u. _ u-u" -21' I~ + ~ +cr.-2~ (0,0. +0,0, +o.o.JJ

-~(o.+o,+a,)
After !lmplifying,
Uoh""

\\'e

get

IV (o:+a:+~-a,Ot-a'O"I-O".o.)

(6.30)

01_ J

Formula (6.:K ma)' .Iso be expressed Ihrough oc:l.hedral slres.ses

(6.19) by writing Ihe ellpression in br.tekels as the dill'trence or squares:

utIl =

Iti/' [(o,-oJ' + (o,-a,)"+ (O',-o,j'J= 3\2t rl ~

(6.30')

In simple lension. when 01=0=;.0,=0, and 0,=0, the spedlie

potential energy corresponding lo Ihe volumelric chan::e in the elementary cube js
Ur""

and due lo change in

(l

~J o'

(6.31)

sha~

(6.32)

Obviously, the sum 01 the 111'0 will glve Ihe total spedfic energy or
tension:

36. Pure Shu!. Slresses and Slraln$.. Hooke', Law.

Polenlial f.nery
A. Whilt' dealing with rompound stale <>f stress ( 33) il was ooticed
that 1tke in simple tenslon or comprt'Mion ( 27) planes inclined to the
diredion or prinripl slresses ellperlence normal stressl'S Ihat resull
. in elongatlon (shorlenlng) lIS wellas shearing slr~ which correspond
to shear.
In sludying shl'1lJ' deformation il is desirable to lilld planes in whieh
enl)' shearing slr~ acl. i.e. planes Ihat are Ir' of normal slresses.
An anal)'sis 01 formulas (6.5) i1nd (6.6) reveals that in biaxial stress
undee certain conditions ""=45" and 0,+0.=0) Ihe normal stresses
in the indined plane vanisll (0..=0,-0); on1)' shearing slresses 'ta=
_T.... act in Ihis plane.
.
The slr..'SSed slale in whieh only sht'aring strcssts ael on lhe raees
DI' an element oF a mattrial is known as purc shl'ar.
Consider a eubic elemenl wilh a rronllare abcd tFig. 75). We Ilpply
equal shcaring ~tresses t lo the laces perpendicular lo the fronl race
(re::all Ihat to.=-t,). Tlle fronl lace experiences nellher normal nor
shearing S(f('.'se5; it is, Ihtrefore, a principal plane in which (he principal strw is U'fO. Tile lwo other principal stresses can be round by
soIving Ihe reverse problem: we determine them through known stresses
acting in two mutually ~dicular planes ( 32). Ld us use MOM'S

(P", 11

lO'
dre!e for solving lhe problem .....i1h lIJe following dala:

en lhe vertical (ace 0 .. =0.

on Ihe horizontal lace 0',=0.

'('1""'(

t, __

'f

$inc:tthenormal slr~ laidolf on Ihe o-axis are equallo uro. lrom

plo! 5egment OD..._T.. _'f upllo'ards and seg.
mm! ODa=tJ=-l' downwards. As poinls D.. and D, lie al !he ernJ

poiot O (Fig. 76(b n

":"7=7::;'

T~
4

~i
)

,~

/
, /I.-!-,' ,

.,~t ,J...:

"

/
~~

","

l'

// -r-~

1/

(1

~
'*'".,..
V

,>1

d
Fig. 75

Flg. 76

points 01 the diameter 01 ,\Iohc's tirde. ils radius is equal lo OO.. =T.
The sements DA and 08 cut by lhe tirde on Ihe oaxls :lre also equal
to Ihe radius and determine Ihe magnitudes of Ihe principal stresses:

OA=O,-T,

OB,,",O~--T,

ldmtical results are obl.ined il we pul

00

11,_0

-=0',-0 and

t ...... T

(633,

in for-

mulas (6.12).
1be dirtCtion o principalslress lJl is silo""n on Mohr'! tircle h~' lileUne BD, ....ilich makts ao angle ni 45" with ihe normal lo pl3Ill' ti<:

A sImilar c:onclusion ensues

fro~

formula (6.11). liJe t1ement ClIt out

of lhe malerial around Ihe same poin! by lhe principal planes (Flg.

76(0 is strelched by stresses \J, along diagonal bd and comllresst'd br

Ch. 61

ComplXllI4 S/nJ.I" S/1'tU aIId S/rcIl1

'29

stresses lJ, along diagonal QC. This can also be proved by considering
tfw, equilibrium oondiUons 01 a parl oi lhe cubt cut out by a diagonal
plane (Fig. 77).
Thus, purt shear is equivalen! lo a combination of 1.....0 l'qual prin
cipal slres.ses--ont d Ihem Imsile and the olher oompressh'(' (Ihe
Ihird equal lo zero). In other u-ords Ihis is a parlkular case oi biuial
sltess whm al=--(I'~. Planes inclined at 4s- lo tht't1irtclioo oi prjJlCjp
21 stresses experieK:e only shearing slresses whkh subject lbe ele-

Fil'. 71

IIlKIt lo shear. Al lhe same time, lhe malerial of lhis elt'ment is

strelched and compressed in the direction of principal slresses.
lt should be noted Ihal shear is alwa)'S accompanied by lension
(coll1pression), and v~ versa.
R. We $hall l1O"N consider ckformalions in pure shear. Let a cubic
elelllenl of lhe malerial be in a slale d equilibrium in pure shear
(Fig. 78). 11 ..re fix thefoce AB 01 lhis element, Ihen Ihe shearing stresses will displace lhe facc CD paralte] lo AB by a dislance DD.=CC,"'"
-I.\s called thl.' ab:vlufr: displareml'lll. The eJemt'fll A BCD gets warped
amI the righl angles lnmslorm into acule or obluse angles changlng
by.1 value V. This angle iscallcd IhO!re1aliuesJ('(jr or angll" o shear, Itnd
serves as a mea5ure 01 dislortion (warping) 01 the angles 01 he reclan
guiar element. Since in strudures we usually come across only e1aslic
deformalions. lhis angle is extremel)' smal!.
Tht' m8glliludc- 01 lhe angle of shear s oonnedl'd with lhe absolute
displa<.:cment and dislance a belw~n Ihe planes AB aod CD:
(6.3<)
Le. lhe Ingle 01 shear is e<ual lo Ihe absolule displllCemenl divided
by lhe distance bet.....een the shearing planes; iI is expr~ in radill.TlS.
It can be 500....n thal Ihe angle al shear ls direetlr proportional fo
shearing slr~5 T. Thus the angle of shear nUQk'ricall)' dl-fi~ Ihe sM>ar
deforIJallOil,

,.,
Lel us study Fe:. 78 lo estaulish lhe relalion between T ar.d ,. Oue
lo \\'.rping uf lile gi\'ffl eltmefll. diagonal AO getselongated.This eJc.n
gation mayon lhe one hamJ be ~[aled to the acting 5tr~ .nd on lh"
0100, lo tht ani1e 01 sheat; combinng the \\"Q rt!lations ....-e tan estab
lish thedependt'llt'c between 1 and y.
",'
Frolll F;~. 78. we can oblain Ihe
absolute e1Gnglllion 01 Ihe diagonal
by culting Ihen('w diilgQnal AO, by
liD are wllh a centre A and cadius
AD We gel a right:lngll'l.i lriangle
ODIO. inwhich afm DD, represenl5
Ihe absolu!e elongallan s and arm
D,D, represenls Ihe elongalion Al
Di he diagonal. lhe mgle al poim
[j, may be laken as 45" dUe lo he
sllIall value al (\eformation. Then

"

-,

AI_lI.scO'!i 45'

Fil:. 78

lhe tl"llllh'c elongation d lhe diagorl31 is

'"

~-T

where 1_.... na~5". Thertlore

15"".!!. (OS

45"sin 45"

Sloce ~ =1'. a"d (OS 45" sin 45"=0.5, W~ get

"

t="!'

(6.35)

On the othl'f hand, lhe relalh'e elongation or lhe diagonal cau~cd

by lhe principal streMeS a,-=t ami o,""'-t (Flg. 76 (a)) may be expreso
sed by formula (6.21):
11,

O.

,.,

e-t'-T-Il 7-7"1 +11

Pulling lhls \'Iue al e in formula (6.34),

\\'t:

get

~(I+l-l)-t'
whererom
(6.36)

Ch. 61

COIrlfI<JUnd SlflSS. Sf"ss

(In(!

S"(lin

,JI

Thus, angl~ 01 ~heJr '1 and shearing stress Tare diredly proportlonal
to ~ach other, Le. in shCllr toe stress and corresponding slrain lIre related by Hooke's law.
Denoling th~ proportkm<llily factor
by G, we gel
T=G'I

2(1 ~f')

cQrrelating T llld '1

(6.37)

\\'here
E

G=~(l+l')

(6.38)

Quantily G is calle<! Ihe nwdulusof elasticity ir shear, or s/car madu

lus, aud expression (6.37) is Hook, law ror shear. We Sl'e Ih1 it is
colnplelely id,'lltical lo Hooke's'lalV lor tension (o"=ce). Shear 100dnlus G, like E, has Ihe dimensil)ns 01 stress.
Slnce In formula (6.38) lor the shear modulus 001'1 two or Ihe three
elastic ccnslants E, j1. antl G ,(lre independent, Ihe third may be ex
prcssed through the lirstl\\'o. However, it can also be determine<! diredly rolO experiml'J'ts on torsion 01 round bars (Qlapter 9).
The absolule displacement dl'pellds no! only upon shearing stress
but also upon the lIirnensions or the isolated element. Let us denole by
A Ih" area of Ihe lae<;:s on which Ihi! shearing slresses are acting; fhe
dislante ul'tw~n Ihi! parallel fact's [s denoled by a (Fig. 78), and lhe
raree cting alung these laces, whkh is a resullant nf slrl'SSes t (with
Ih., assumplioll Iha! shearing strE'SSes Tare unilormly distributed over
area A), by Q=-tA. Substituting 1: and i' in equatioll (6.37), we obtain
Q.
"-,
(6.39)
, =~G, whl,'reirom 6.S- U

AbsoJuh: displacemenl is dircctly proporlional lo the shearing force

and the dlstance between Ihe sheared planes nd inversely propodional
lo Ibe crosssectionai areasol theshCllred plant's and Ibe shear modulos,
.l'. we have a formula IVhich expri!Sses Hooke's law for sht'ar that is
identical lo Ihe formula lor abwlute elongalon under lensioo:
PI

6/= EA
.WHh thl' help of expression (6.39) we can Iso calculate tbe potential energy or shear through Ihe work done by forci! Q. Considering lhal
force Q is applied slatically, gradually ncreasing rolO zero lo a finite
value, \\'" can express the 1I"0rk done by Ihis force in affecling a displacernent l!.s as

132

Par! 11

Subsliluling &s from equafion (6.39), \Ve get

U

QIII

~IAQ

'""w;;r=2G

(6.40)

Dividing by volume V=aA, we find lhe potential energy in pure

shear as

u "
H=-V-RJ

(6.41)

The ~me resull could have b~n obtainecl Irom formula (6.28),
35, by considering pure shear as a compound slressed slale wilh
principal stresses <J,=T. 0.=0. and <J,""-T.
In should be noted lha! in pure shear the potential energ:y is sprmt
only on changing the shape, as the change in the volume in she-ar is
zero. This beeomes clear from formula (6.23) ir jI is !aken inlo aceount
Ihat in pure shear lhe sum of principal slresses is equal lo zero.

CHAI'rER 7

Strength of Material s in Compound Stress

37. Reslstance

lo

failure.

Rupture and Shear

Sorne problems relaled to Ihe slrength of lhe elements of siruclures

under uniaxial loading were discussed in 16 and 17. 11 is well knO\\'n
tllat amorlg olher conditions. lhe design of structure musl also satisfy
the strenglh condition \I'hich requir~ Ihal lllaximul1l stress in eaeh
par! of a 'mlrhine or slmclure must nol exceed the permissible stress
lha! eonstilutes a eerlllin fract ion of the fail ing stress. In order to seleel
the perll\issible slress JI is essential to study lhe behaviour of material
during its defonnalion [rorn the momenl the load is applied righl up lo
[aHure. The la!ter is aIro requiretl lor olher pllrposes, for instance, for
conlrolling lhe plasUe deforrnlltion processes (wire drawing, stamping,
rolling, forging, melal cutting, pressing of lamiualed plaslics nd
olher materials),
\Ve do not nieel ilny lmncu1ty in experimentally invesligating he
behavour of lIlalcrials in unillxial lension or cOlllprl'$Sion with ma
chines comrnon!y inslatJed in Inakrillllesling laboralories. The tensinn
or compression lest diagrams oblained as a resul! 01 ihese experiments
give a clear idea about lhe resistance of a given rnakrial to elastie or
plasUe deforrnation aud enable liS lo determine rnechauical characlerislies l ike yield stress llnd ultilllale slrength whieh are so important for
assessing !he strength 01 material and speci[ying pt'rmissible stress.
The behal'iour 01 malerial under loading depends upon ils properlics
and lhe slate 01 stress. In sorne cases sira in remains more or less pro

Ch. 7)

SlrmglJI uf Mu/tri,'s " C""'/IU""d Slr~:iJ

lJJ

porllonal lo slr"SS right up lo lailurl.': lailure occurs wilhout any plas

tic delormalion IFig. 25}. In other cases elils!ic ddorrnalion is sua;l!el(ed
by plastic deformalion o[ considerable magnitude thal ends in failure
(Figs. J6and 18). A conlinuously increasing plastic deformation may
nol necessarily lelld lo [ailure (Fig. 24).
The lirst diagrllm (Fig. 25) describes the behaviour 01 a brittle mlitnial in uniaxial lension or compression. In Ihiscase filure should be con
sidered as Ihecritical staleo[ the material, nI! the ullimale slrenglh
as Ihe lailure slr"SS. Under tension failure occurs in a section perpl'n
dicular lo lhe lensile rorce, and under compression (with regular lubr(cation of Ihe specimen faces thal come in contacl with the pre~s plates)
in secllons paralle.! to Ihe diredion o[ compressive lorce Wig. 28).
In both cases fai!ure lakes place through separaton ollllaterial particles from one another, Le_ through rupture. [n lhe case of tellsion. ruplure can he caused bolh by lhe maximum normal lensile stress and
lhe maximum elongation in the direcliun or aciion ollhe lensile force.
In the case 01 cumpresson, ailure may be considered lo occur due to
considerable tension in the diredion perpendicular lo lhe compressive
far.:.:e. 11 is noteworlhy thal under compression briUle materials olten
fail in sedions Ihat are inclined with resped to lhe direclion or tlll.'
compressive force. lt mar tnereiore be assumed Ihal lailure is more
complicated in nature than described ahove and Ihe cause 01 [ailure
are nOflnal as well as shearing stresses ading on lhese indine<! planes
(see 4DB for a more delailed discussion).
The second diagram shows lhe behaviour oi ductile materials under
unia.lal tcnsion (fig. 18 depids Ihe Irue slressslrain diagraUl lur
tension). Th' .:.:rtical slatcs illlhiscase may be the bcginll;ng 01 yielding, neck 10flnaBon. and ruplure. The corresponding ailllre sLresses
will be yield stress, ulliltlate slrlnglh and true stress al rupture. The
appearance 01 sheaf lines (Lflder's Hnes) alter ))l:'rmanent plaslic
delormation (Fig. 13) ami failure 01 specimens in planes ndined al
~/4 lo Ihe dircdioll of lens.]e force ( 27) enal.l!e us to consider thal
the starting and growlh 01 plasUc delormalion and Ihe final [llure
occur due to slip and shear under lhe aenon 01 maximum shearing
stresses. Such a filure is known as failure due fo S!C(lT.
The third diagram describes the behaviour 01 a ductile material under
cOl11pression when plastie de[orlllation does nol lead io [ilure (Fig. 24
shows the compresston lesl diagram). The beginning 01 rield ing should
be considered as Ihe critical stale, and yield stress, which does nol
differ mueh Irom yield stress under lension. as Ihe lailure slress. In
this case plastic deformalion begins and d..velops due to shear under
the aclion 01 shearing stresses.
lhe t\\lO dilierent concepls o[ failure of malerials discu~ abol'e,
namely (1) lailure in the lorm of rupture due to elongation or mainly
under lhe adion 01 normal lensile stresses and (2) lalure as a shear
under the influence of shearing slresses, hal'e been known for a lon{!

IJ'

time.

concep led lo 1Ilo'O Iypes 01 resistante ol malE'rials lo fal-

lure: resistorll% to r"ptufl and resiS/ann

lo

Wtv.

TiII recen! pasl it was considere<! lhal tvNY mateFial

onlyone tylM' of resistan~ lo failur~ithef resislance lo ruptull' or

resistaoc-r lo shear. SlKh a o~sded concept of f.ilure pr~'enled I
general $Olulion lo lhe problt'nl o slrength 01 materials from ~ing
round.
Al.., 'e3l'S ago 11 new concept lbat has a sound txperinlffilal support
lilas pul orward in l~ Soviet Union. AccOfding lo Ihis eoncepl every
material depending upon 1M working candillons may fail bolh duE' lo
ruplure and shear and may therelore possess resistante lo bo!h types al

f.llure. Tllis new approach lo 1.Jure helped us lo clarily the

co~pl

Di laHure. Therefore, al thlO presen! stage 01 Ihe science 01 strenglh Di

materials only lhe new approach should be considere<! correcl.
lhe possibilty ollaJlur~ 01 mllterials due to ruplure, supported by
experimental evide-nce was not subjecled lo lIny doubls tUl nol\', On
the eontrary. mmy .scientisls lena lo explllin al! cases 01 laiure by
lhl! rupture ptK-nomena.
The nature al failure due lo I1Jpture depMds both 0fI the I)'pe or
malerialand the slale of lhe stress. In principie it i$ possble that fai
Jure may occur in $Ome cases on aceounl of brillle ruplure wilhoul Iny
plaslk delorma!ion and in other cases due to dutlife ruplure atcompa
nied by 1!'Ie plasBc deformation of more or le.soonsiderable magnitude.
Thus, far nslaoce:, jt i5 expermenlally est.b1ished tha! SOPle grades
o brome and aJuminium alloys are capable ollailure due lo rupture
even afl~ tmdergoint permanent sel al aboul 20%.
The resistance lo ruplure is best sluded by lhe ttsting 01 briitle
IlOnml'lallie materials (glm, plastics, concrete, and SIOnl').
It is extremely difficult to sludy Ihe resislance to rupture 01 duclile
materials because during tesling it is, as a rule, imp~ibJe to avoid
the slage 01 plasUc delormation and henee the shearing stresses al a
considerable magnitude. On aceount 01 the fad Ihal duetile matcrillls
hllVC a much lower resistance lo shl'aring stresses (shear) as compared
lo their rl'Sislanee lo rupture, il is dilficull lo achieve rupture of Ihese
materials by conventional tests because faiJure dUe to shcar lakes place
earlier. Therefore in arder to determine Ihe resjslance lo rupture the
lesl condilions (Iype 01 siressed sta te. temperalure, rate al deformation)
shonld be altl'f"ed so lhallhe resislance lo shear improves considerably
wilhoul any change in lhe resislance to rupture.
Avallable eXpe1"imenl.1 data VIable us lo consider that resislante
to rupluf'l' does oot depend muth upon Ihe rale of deformation and 1l!$1
lemperalurt'. It thefore rollOUlS Ihat by conducting dynamic tests
at low Il."mperatures we can lind, with certain approximation, Ihe resislance lo I1Jpture in normal condilions.
Numerous experiml"!llal investigalions reveal thal the resistance lo
ruplure of briltle malerials is const.lnt ro!" difterent types 01 loadi.n.

OJ'
However, we do not have suflicient data lo be lIbll' lO ~'Ome lO a similar
condusion 101" ducllle matcrials. Sorne expl'f"imCfllaJ sludll'$ poi"1 oot
Inlt tesistance to rupture d~ds upon cold hardenlng-it incr~ases
wilh the degree el cold hllrdening.
Failure dile lo shear is more oomplicated Ihan rupture because iI is
usually preceded by considerable plastk derOfmatlom whicn result in
r!islribulion of strenes and ot!ler complicalioos. The existence of
I\lis t)'pe or lailure. caustd maiol)' by shearing slresses, is confirme<!
by a numMr or experimental dala.
The lailun! or materials under tension accompanied by neck forma
tion. shear, lorslon and bending usually occurs along planes clase lo
the planes ar ma~jmum shearing slresses. Although il Js nol always
po!>Sible lo conclude abou! (he Iype or lailure tupture or shear) rnc~l)'
Irom lhe angle 01 rupture, 11111 number or cases the location of Ihe plane
ollallure and t.he appearanee oF Ihe breakdown surlace can be decisive
factors in tbis resped. Tbus, loc Instance, il lailuTe under torsion occurs in planes perpendicular lo Ihe bar axis, il is undouhledly caused
hr shllaring slresses because in Ihis case lhe surface 01 b!\'aktlown plane
is complelely lree of normal slres.ses..
11 is much more difficult lo dilfercntiate betwem faHures dUe lo
rupture and shear when the body is under a compound stress. Slill in a
number of cases 01 complex loading il \Vas eslablish~ thal shearing
stresses playe<! a major role in many irnlances el lailuTe. whic::h \\--ere
carlier considered obvk>us examples 01 lailure due lo nrplure.
In ductile materials shearoccuffing wilhout prC!CCding perrnanent set,
usually 01 a considerable magnitude, is higllly improbable. because
lailure due to shear lakes place due lo ~ring slressn. which also play
lhe major role in plasth: dclarnwlion of materlals. Al leasl ji has not
!leen possible till now lo practicaHy achleve such failurc in melals
allhough sorne 01 tbem (far exampll', eompressed magnesium and lts
alloys) fajl r1ue lo sllear afler small plaslic ddormallon (5.15%).
This is known as the $O-called ~brillle shear~.
Experimental dala show tllal resistance lo shear practical1y does
not depend upon lhe typc 01 slressed slale for pure metals (copper,
aluminium, iron) and sorne alloys. 1I is alsoeslablisbed lhal it depl!llds
upon Ihe rate 01 delormation and temperature to a mueh grealer exlen!
litan lhe resistance lo rupture. Resislance lo shear increases wilh
increase in rate of delorlJlation and reduction in templ'f"ature.
Tite assumplion aboul malerials havlng resisl.nC'e to both types of
.Iure is ronfirmed by expcriments on 11Iilurc 01 cold-short mel.ls
and $ODIe brillle matetials. For one and lite saine material the mllfl1lludes of resislance lo ruphtre and shear are difi"erl'flt: lor duclilC' male
ri.1s uslI.lIy T"...
. ! on Ih~ centrar), for briltle matcrialsT"...
lhe laws governing 'foil and an;, may ditler depending upon thecltangtS
in compositioo of material and its machinin and heal ireatment.

<o...

>a:"'.

".

(P,"I J1

The. aboye dillcussion lIobout the resista~ of materials lo lailure

mar sen'e 8~ a basis ror slrength tesl in simple and oompound slaLes al

stress. TIt! application al lhe resislance charocleri,lics is discuoo

in succeeding secUons. The considerabll' growlh oF rmaTCh 011 'ailure

or materIal, in re<:enl years js lully refledl'd in Ihe hook Fundwnelllals
01 lhe Medlllllics 01 Fai/IITt by L. ,\L Kachanov. Nauka, J'olosoow, 1974.

38. Strenglh Theories

As has been alre..dy 'laled, in lhe case DI uni..):ial Joading it is
oot diflkult lo find lhe breakdo..m stress which is ustd as a basis rOl'"
designating permis:sible stresse:s
It is moch more difficuJl lo find Ihe brE'lljdo\l,.'fI S!reIS in compound
slressed stallO \\'hich is in general chllractt'fized b}' lhe lhree diffeTent

principal slrl.'SSeS. Experimenls sho.... Ihal Ihe breakdo\\'n state 01 an

tlement 01 struclun- (yieltl. rupture) dl'pends IIpO" lhe nature
0,

, .-

o,

"

0,

,
,,

.,

KIlllIIIIf:

K_

c,'<:I"z""'J
S.....

.,

or slres-

",; .. ~1
Jl-D

ISJD

CIIIIIt(IIa!

F,

"

Sl.'L1 sIal!.', Le. upon Ihe ralio bdwl'Cn Ihl.' Ihrl!e prindpal slrases.
SillC(' Ihe nllmbcr or various possible ralios between lhe principal
slresse:s is infinilely larqe. thl.'fe uisl a rorrespOJuting Infinil!.' nllll1ber
ni po!~tla' sial...... oIf<ulllrt' 01 lhe slructure elemento Hence. lor each
new ralio betwl"l'fl lhe prlOnpal slresws il is n(-'('l'$S.Iry lo experimcn
1,,11)' linLl the pamissibl~ slresses anew. It shoold be borne in mind lhal
il is moch mor~ L1ifficul! to condoct tesis in compound stresse(:htale as
compared lo simple lension or compression: these leslS 3rt' more time
conMlming and expensv~, ando as a rule, require special 8cccssorit'S
lo lh<' machin~s 8vaHable in laboratories.
Therefore, it is ne<:essary jo lind wars or expressiog the slrenglh
coodilion under compound stress in lerms or 111 and l1 u oblained Iroln
I'xperiml.'nls lar lhe uniaxial stress.
ThllS, in UM! general case. when all lhe Ihree principal slresses are
nom:('fO, Ihe stret1glh 01 lhe malerial is lestfil .ccordiog lo lhe folIow~ lIlao:
(1) lbe Ihrce principal slresses 0,>0,>0. are caku1ll1ed;
(2) lhe material is seleded;

",

01.71

(3) Ihe crilica! slre<i5l'! O"=I1 J oc 0"=11. and lhl' pmi~ibll' slresses
are dettrmi~ experimenlally or Ihe given m~lerial under simple
lension or cOOlprt:!i~ion.
Jt i5 rrquired lo Vo'rilt' down lhe slrength condilian rOl' lhe rompound
strw knowing (J" o., and (J, and retaining lIK> satn{' ~rely fllCloc k
(Fig. 79).
TM aboye problem can ~ solved only on Ihe basis 01 lhe assumption
(l1}'POthesis) about the I)'pe of (undien relaling Ihe slrcnglh d male
rial lo Ihe value and sign 01 Ihe priOC"ipal slresSC$, and Ihe factor lhat
causes lhe critical slale.
T~ foctors may be numerous. As a Olallcr of lacl, e"en in simple
lension of a bar or ductlle malerialll."e ma)' put lhe question: what is
Ihe cause or yielding?
We may assuzne Ihat ylelding 51arts when the maximulll normal
stresse:s in Ihe bar re3ch the yiel:! point o~. However, one mayas lVeJl
look al Ihe problem rmm a diITerenl point of vle-A' And llssume Ihat
yielding slarls ",hen Ihe maximum elongatioll 01 Ihe material reaches 11
terlain timit. One ma)' also assume that Jarge plaslic driormatiofls
begin lo occur when Ihe maximum shearing slresses achieve a cerlain
vallJe.
Thus, "re can pul fQN,'ard a number of hypolhe:ses and on lheir buis
formulate various throries of slrenglh. We .shall we laler Ihal in simple
lension or rompTeMion (in uniaxial stress) lhe mulu oblained by lhe
strenglh tesb are the same irrespecliye of lhe hypothesis used. This
Is.so because lhe slrength tesl is base<! directly upon exptrimenl;l dala.
TIle mallen .... iIl be very much dilTerenl in compound stress. In
lhe succeeding .se.::tiom we $hall show how Ihe slrenglh condilion chan
ges depending upon lhe aepted theory. One or lhe other Iheory is
selecled far praclical applicalion only aftl."l' it has bf.en experimenlally
\'efified lor lhe compound slressed state.
Whichever slrmgth hypothesis we choose, a can be expresscd analy
Ucally as sorne function of principal stresses
$(01'

a"

(J.)~consl""C

(7.1)

In Ihis form Ihe strl'ngth theory expresses Ihe condition 01 oonslanc)'

(irrespective of the nature ot stressed state) of the sel of principal
slresses thal has one or lhe other ph)'sical interprelalion. Al the same
lime, equalion (7.1) also describes saine Iimiling surface in Ihree
dimensional space 01 lhe principal stres.ses. Thus, lor eumple. il
or
lhe corresponding limiting surfate is Iht' surlace. ....hich
delermines the conditions under which yieldiOi oc lallure d mattrlal
takes place.
1klore we begin lo expound various Iheories of slrenglh, lel us lake
note Ihat the a-il;ca) state loc duclile materials (appearance of large
plaslle deformations) as well as britlle malerials (appearanee d cracks)
Hes at Ihe boundaryd appllealion of Hooke's law (with known approxi'

e-a, e-a",

'"

Complica/td CaJ/lI of TNISi(Jt1

"na:

CumprtSSiun

IPMI 11

mation sulfic:ienf for practlcal purposes). This enables us lo use {he

Formulas which hal'e bem derive<! in lhe precedin< se<:lions and which
are valid only w\thin lhe limits al application of Hooke's la\\! for cal-

culalions relaling lo {he strcngth tes!.

OUT tarller di.icussion about he resislance af mille.rials lo Tl/plure

ami shcar emphasizes lhe nred lo dislinguish belwcen Ihe strellglh

theorjes lor malerials lha! raO due lo ruplure ami lhe theories ill whirh
Inilme du", lo shemr is cOllsidere<! Ihe hreakdown 5Iaft'. These lheoril's
are deal! \\11th in .* 39 and 40 separal\:[y.

39. Theories of Brittle Failure

(Theories of Ruplure)
As las be<>rl already slated, failure in lhe form 01 Tupture may be
considered lo occur eHher due! to maximum normal lensile stress or
due lo max.imum elasUe elongation.
A. Tlle assumption lhat failure is relaled to Ihe maximum lensile
stresses was pul [orward as early as the sevenleenlh cenlury 3nd sub
sequl'IItly supporled by G. Lam (1R33) amI W.J.M. Rankine (1856).
Al present [he Iheory ln whlch Ihe maximum lensile stress is 13ken as
[he slrenglh criterion is known as Ihe Iheory uf maximum ten.sile stresses
or the {irst stren.gth theory.
rr O';;;;'0l>O., lhen Ihe stress 0, will be the maximum lensile slress
cr.., .. According lo the first slrenglh theory, [ailure wil] occur irresp~'
live of the stressed slale when
",hert' (1", is the resislancl' lo rupture which s constan! for II given
malerial. For many briUle material! o,,,p is equal lo Ihe stress o"
al lhe mOlllenl of lllilure under {ensile loading. The safeslate wil[ obviously correspond lo Ihe condition

= 01 <-,- =[olr
II","P

0"'"

(7.2)

whe!re 101, is lhe permissible slres in lension. Equation (7.2) represents lhe ~tr('ngth conuition acoordillg lo lhc firsl strenglh Iht.ory.
lt s applicable only when 0,>0.
This [heor,' is confirmed by lensile tests of brittlc ma{crials such
as slonc, brick, concrele, glass, and porcelain. In Ihe case of compound
stress thl' theory oflen comes inlo conAict with experimental data be
cause il does not take iolo account the olher l\Vo principal stresses
upon which Ihe str(!nglh of material depends in many ca~es.
B. The idea Ihat briltle laiture is conneclerl nol wilh Ihe rnaximum
lensile slress butwilh maximmn slrain was lirst expressed by FrE'nch
scientisls Ed. Mariot!elin 1686) and C. M. L. Na"ier (in [826) 3nd tater
sllpported by other French scientists, J. V. Poncele! (1839) and

(;1,.

71

S'rtlllllh

o/

M"f~rlal$

11\ COmpOUM SrrtSJ

139

B. SamlVenafll (IB37). The strength Iheory based upon Ihis supposiHun is klli)\vn as Ih" fheCJryCJ! maximum strailt, or lhe seconrl )/renglh
l!loor". According lo 11m Ihl'Ory raHure occurs irrespedive of tile
slllle 01 stress \vhl:n maximulIl elaslic sira in t m" become~ equal lo a
rerlain valuc l';,up which is conslanl for Ihl! given malerial. in general
E",. . ""'1';,

--rrI [o,-f'(o,+(J~)l

whereas In simple lension e=oIE; it is obvious that t,"p=a,u.jE.

In Ihe compound slress, faiture \Vil! Ol:<:ur wh('ll

0,- lA (a. + o.) = o","

The slressed slale may be coosidered safe iI in Ihis expression o,u
is replaced by {ol,. The slrenglh condition in Ihe sa:ond slrengl~
Iheory may be \VriUen as
<1,"~

a,-IA(ol+O.)~-.-=[o

],

(7.3)

Thus in Ihe [hoory of maximum sira in, lhe permissible stress under
lcoson is compared nol lo one 01 the principal slresses bu! lo a combi
nalion 01 atl of Ihem, called lhe reduud stress and delermined by the
formula
aro<! = o, -1'- (o, o,)

This hypolhesis is also nol supporll!d by sorne experimenls on Ihe

slrength 01 duclile malerials. Il it \Vere true for ductile malerials.
Ihen Ihe specimen slretched in l\Vo or three directions should be slronger than Ihe specimen sire[ched in only one direction; this is nol
confirmed by experimenls. This hypolhesis is similarly no! confirmed
lor unilorm bulk compression.
For brltile malerials, the theory 01 maxJmum slraln generalJy gives
resulls which match well wilh Ihe available llxperimental dala. Expression (7.3) may De applied Ir a,-~(al+o.O. Appliralion ollhc
second slrength lhoory ror Ihe case of compression enables us to satisfactorily explain Ihe reasol1S behind the failure or britlle malerials along
planes paraHe! lo Ihe direction 01 compressive force and also explain
more or less correclly why Ihe slrenglh of britlle malerials under
compression is coosiderably higher than lheir strenglh in lension

(in leosion tm..=.1f=e",p and oT-Ee,up, whereas in compression

fe

e.",..=-fa~=e."p and I ~ 1= wp. Le. ~ times grealer). However,

lhe second strcnglh theory is also conflrmed rnainly by experimenls
on britlle malerials only.
80lh Iheories discusscd aboye are theories of rupture: none of Ihem
is universal, i.e. ",al id in all Ihe cases 01 lailure due lo rupture.

'"

Comp(/e(ftd Cfl$tS D/ TtlUiDII (md c-.p,n,slQfl

PQrl IJ

Somelimes lhe 6rst lheor)' ccnrorms beltl'r lo l'.~permenlal dala. sorneIiIMS Ihese<:ond. For a solid uniform body lhe SKOnd theocy 3ppc8TS
lo be RlOl"e logical and \\''ell lounded Ihan the: lirsl ()I'l(!.

40. Theof"ies 01 Ducflle Failure

(Tht:ories of Shear)

A. rhe fael hat shear IJnes appear 011 lhe spl'Cilll('n liurlaec during
plutic: deformation and Ihat under tension duclile materlals Ii) 31011i
he planes of maximum shearing slresses enables us lo aepl lhest'
slrcsses as the criterion of sirength. This idea \\'85 lirs! proposed by Ihe
French physicist Ch. A. Coulomb in 1773 and suppotled by lhe experi
ments Df H. Tresca (1868), J. J. Guest (1900) and olhers. The slren"rth
thoor)" basetl upon lhis assumplion carne to be known as lhe l1U'ory o{
lIlaximUnl sJwulng siresses OC' Ihe Ihird s/rellgth lhrory. According lo
Ulis !Ieory Ihe critical slafe af material (in lhe forln 01 yield or lailurej
OCc.urs. irrespective 01 {he sl~d slalt', when IIK' maximum shearing
stress f." becomes equal lo a eerlain \'Ilue" wllich is constan! for
lhe ven material, 1.1'.

where 1'. is Ihe yiehf slrw in shear and 1'.. is lile maximurn shearing
5iress when the material fails due lo shear. lhe sale funclioning of

material is obviously governed by Ihe strenlh condition

(7.4)

In compound slress 1' .... =(0',-u.)i2. Ir we assume, lollowing this

Ihcory, that permissible slress !TI does nol depelld upon the Irpe or

slrrsseiJ slale. we shall find ils vslue from experilllents on simple lension in whkh aHure occurs as 3 resull of shellr. In lhls casea.=O and
1'. . .
IF stress a, in Ihe righlhand side or the lasl l:'xpression is
raised lo permissible stress lal, the leil-hand side of Ihe Slllle expre<;slon will ~rest'nl the ptrmiuible value of shearlng stress 1'; IhllS,
Id_';!. Sub.stiiuting now Ihe valUfS el TilO> ::md hl in expres.sion
(7.4), we oblain

-1-.

, (o,-a.) 7[a]
,

T-., -2'

o::;;;:

(7.5)

'"

CA. "

Thus. for strengln check aecording lo Ihis theory lhe permissible

stress in lensioo (J( compression is cotnpared nol wilh the maximullI
normal slress, bul with Iht dilJefenct bttween fhe muimum :md minimum normal (principal) st~. The reduced stress in Ihis case is
11... =11,-11.

The advanlage oi lhe thtoryaf maximum shearing stresM'S lia in

lis simplicily and the linearity or fhe strenglh eondilion, as in Ibe

firsl and 5l!COnd Iheories. [t is wel1 supported by erperimenls on ductil/:'

malerlals that have equal resistil.l1ce 10 tension and t'ompression, antl

also by experiments on bulk compression. This Iheory usually ensures

sollDd dimem;ions af fhe rlesigned elemenls al structures; somelill1es
lhe dhnensions are even slighlly on lhe higher sitie.
lbe drawback of th(' theory nI maximulII shearing slresses, which is
seen irnmedia!ely, is that 1I completely ignores Ihe elfecl 01 Ihe average
principal slress on lhe \\-'Orking 01 Ihe material. 11 implies lhlll far
constanl maximum normal slress 0", and minlmum normal stress o.,
lite may var)' Os in any wa~' withoul changing \\.'Orking condHiom or
lhe matefial as langas it is less Ihan o, and grealer lhan o. This slalemeot is quite dubious, and txperiments revMI Ihal (l. does hove an
elI"ed upon Ihe slrenglh or malerials. The lheory al!oO umlereslimates
t1-e danger oi failul'l' oi elemenls subjtded to approximalel)' !"qual
tenslle stresses in the Ihree principal a.tts. To Ihis nay be .dded thal,
aoc::ordin lo this IhfOl'r, Ihe s(ressed slates in cubic elrmenls bol.le<!
near ir.:!ined planes (Fil{. 5~ (ll) and (b must be idenlical rrorn lhe
point al view ollailur~ ir sh\'aring slr~ T" in th~ plant'S are equal
lo each olher. A$ la: increases the yielding nd failure In lhe material
in t~ elemenb begin simullaneous1r. ExpKiments show lhat for
materials having higher resislarn:e under compres.sion as compare<! lo
lensioo, case (a) in whkh lhe normal stresses in Ihe plane of shearing
stresses are tensile ls more dangerous thao case lb), when (he /lormal
stresses in lhe plane of 1" Ilre compressive. As Ihe shearing stress l"
incr~ases, the material or the element will begin lo yield ar ruplure
earlier in case (a) than in case lb). Thus, lhe slrenglh or material is
influenced nol only by Ihe shearing stress bul also by lhe normal
slress acling on thl' some plane. This faclOf is taken ioto acrount by
MoI1r's lheocy (19001 which is discussed below.
B. TIle breakdowo C'OodHians
Of
t1iscu~

(I,;02",",

n,;".=,..

aboYe shoutrl be looketl upon in a broack1" aspecl han as mere interpretation 01 the Iheoryof maximum shea.ringslresses. AC('()l'ding to these
formulas, it can be consldered Ihat crilical slate is determined only by
Uw: maximum and min;mulIl principal slre\5eS. Ellperimcnls do nol
fully conhm Ihis hypolhesis; hO\\~er. lhe maximum possible error

due lo ignoring medium priRripal stress Ot does nol CJlceed 15% and in
majorily nr cases is considenably smaller. Therclore whilc wrltin

;1

,.,

[P4ff 11

the slnngth conditions il is permissiblt to r~lric:t oursrlves to sludying

the eff:t on strl"nglh Mly 01 the maximum and minlmum principal

stre..."SeS.
!lis common knowledge thal various cases af stress can be graphically
Tepresented by Mohe's stress circles. Figure 80 dt'picls a numlx!r of
such drdes: cJrcle J represenls simple {cruion: lJ,"I"=Q. 0,-0'0-0:

,
JH

fig. 81

circle 2, simple compression: lJ,=a."'"O. a.+O: cirde 3, pUTe

<l."'"--<l" !J,-O. The stress c[,eles construded for principal
values corresponding to lhe critica! slaleor malerials will be
(imilinll s1r~ ClfCleS. The 1imiling stress circles corresponding

sh('ar:
stress
called
lo Ihe

,,
I

,,"
1.--

"""~-dU

r"+t- :",,--.J
Jo..

l1d--O<

FIl:. 82

slate o stress depided in Fig. 80 are shown in Fig. 81. The diameler
of Ihe limitng circle which depicts lhe critica] slate in simple tcnsion
is (1# ro Ihe ul timale strength in tension: in Ihe case or si mple compres
sion the ultirnatedrde diameter is a._ , ullimate strt"llgth in compression: and in theC3Se 01 pure shear ihe fimiling cirde diameler 15 equal
te 2foll _

ell. 71

"3

O. Mohr postulated Ihat all Ihe limiting shess circles ronslrocted

Imm arbitrary eenl~ can be inscribed inlo a smoolh curve, Ihel'flWlopt'

"11M 'ami/yo{ limfling strrn circle.5. which is (angenl to all 01 Ihem
(Fig. 81). T~ tllvelope intf'f'secls Ihe o-axisal a certain poin! H, .,.. hich
rorresponds lo unilorm ltiaxial lension (il 0',=01=0'., Ihe stress cirde

btcomes a poinl). Th<- l"fi\'tlope is open on Ihe opposite side becauSl'

Ihe lallure 01 mall"fial under uniform Iriaxial eompression is im~
ble. Plolling the envelope can besimplified byronsidering il. in lhe
linol approxirualion, as a slraighl line Langent lo the limiting circles

t,
N

,
_

t:::::::~'~~oJ

~~[a1---+l
1,

F(. ll3

al lension and eompression. If lhe ultimate slrengths under {ension

and oompression are equal. Ihe er1VeJope branches remain paralll"l lo
Ihe o-axis over a large dislance (Fig. 82). In Ihis case Moh"s Ihoory
coincides wilh lhe Ihoory of maximum shearing slrmes.
By reducing Ihe diameters of al! limiting cireles k times. whl'T1! k
is lhe sarely laclor, we oblaln a ramily of circle.~ which represenls Ihe
permissible slrcssed states inslcad 01 Ihe Jlmiling str<!SSts (Fig. 83),
In Flg. 83 segment OA (Ihe diaml"ler 01 cirele /). represenls Ihe permlssibil' stress under simple tcosion 10'1" segmenl 08 (lhl" diameter 01
circle 1) rep~nts >ermissible stress under simple compression 10"1~.
!he inlermediale tirde 3 wHh cenlre al O, touches lhe em'elope C.c,H
al poinl C. and represenls 11 slres.sed slate wilh principal slreso;es o,
and 0'
From lhe similarit)' al triangles 0,0.0. and O,M. it ensues that
o~.

o,z;=O,O,

a.c.

o,c,

00,+00.

or O::. OlC.-lfQ,+OQ,
By subsliluling correspondn, slresses in place al segments.....'P obbin
/T,
o. rol! I"J, {o,+o.l
I"I~ 101, [oh+lol.

JH

(P"'f IJ

Alter sorne Iransformaliom we gel the slrenglh condition according

lo '\Iohr"s theay:

~ '(JI-OI-pa.~[(J"
(J'_I"I~

(7.6)

The same cundition can ~ derv~ ....,lthoul lISing stress drcles"

ir il is kepl in mind Ihat shelr (KCOfding to />\ohT) leadinll' io lailul'!'
occurs in that (breakdown) plane .....bkh hu t~ mosl unravouTablt
comblnalion oS norma' Ind shearing stresses, Tht rondilion te!ITicling
lhe value or a particular rtduetd shearing sl~ "fr<' in Ihe bl'!'akdowll
plane may be wriUen as

'f<d"'I'tI+fO',;r'-J,od

(7.7)

wher"'l ti ami a arestresses in Ihe. breakdown plane (the sign 01 normal

stress is taken illlo aceaunl) and f is lhe coe.rncient 01 friclion. Th~
tocalion 01 lhe plane or maximum reduced shearing slress (in Fig. 83
this plane cOtresponds lo point C.) ls del'trnined br angle el which
Ihis plane makes wilh Ihe plane ol principal sltl!S5 0',: lan

2CJ.,,+=

=1':' s ,

It can be shown (Fig, 83) Ihat

(= 1;!~-IOI'
2 101, 'oJ~

and

r,-j,'d.,.'!'lfa],[al~-OG
2

....1'Ien (=0 slrenglh condition (7.7) changes inlo lhe similar condilion
al Ihe third strro:th lh!or)'; if 0'>0 (temion), rondilion 11.7) is salis
fied 01111' ",,"heJ lhe value of 1,-1 is reduced u compared to lhe value lor
0'=-0; i a<O (compression), condilion (7.7) is saUslied even wilh a
higher value of I'tI ascompared fo lhe value fOl" OElO. These conclusions
are slIpporl'd b)' expetlmenls discusse<! earller at the end al 4UA.
11 can be easily seen lhat {he strength condition (7,6) according lo
:\tohr's theory coincides wilh lhe strength condilion llccording lo the
IhecT)' 01 maximum shearing stresses ji p_l, Le. 100J,=[al. H Ihe
perlllissible slress um!er lension is very srnall (brittle malerials),
Le. if 1I can be considered lhat [01 1 -0 and p-=O, /tlohr's lhecry
changes inlo {he lneory 01 muimum normal stresses. In hiaJl:ial slren,
when 0.=0 and P::=~. Mohr's theory coincides wilh fhe lheary or
maximum sfrain. ThU$, lo a certain eJttent J'!1ohr's lheory genet'alizes
th' lirsllhree slrength lhtories; it corrtdly deseribes plastic deforma
tion and (aiJure due to shear al m.a.lerials having differenl resislances
lo lension and compressioo, AH e:cperimenu thal verify lhe firsl and
Ihird thoories and sornt e:cperimenls vcrilying lhe serond iheory also
supp1 Monr's lheor)'. 1I undoubledJy rtpresenls a forward slep as
~ S. l. Dnizhillill lIld VII. l.
1933 (111 R~~).

Y~. Sl~

q MaItr..,1s, l(ublldlo.

Gil. 71

Slrcnglll 01 Molaiul~ In Com{J<JImd Slrrss

'"

oompared lo lhe finl Ihrl'e IhlQries. Yel it cannol be ronsiJered uni

versal, sinc,," in a numbl'r 01 ca~ il does not correctly rellecllhl' nature
01 failure due to rupture, and like lh(> hift! s!renglh theory it does no!
take into accounl lhe inlermerliat(," principal $trC$.~.
B. A number of authors suggesled lhat the appearance or lhe crilical
stale in lIlaterials depends no! upon ttlc magniludc of deIormatlons
and stresses separalely bul upon ttleir eombination i1nd olher laclors
like Ihe pol('nlial energy or Ihe numericlllly equal lo il specific work
01 deformallon. The amount of Ihis 1I'0rk is expressed in lerms 01
aH thc three principal slresses.
By 11It" end 01 las! cenlury (1~) Italian scienlisl F. Beltrami proposed IhJI the lolal polenlial energy or deformfltion prr unit volume
01 the Inaterial should be taken as Ihe crikrion or pliahility and
slrcnglh or materia1s. On Ihe basis of Ihis hj'polhesis the rondition
expressing Ihe approach of the critical state may be wrl\ten as

u ""u
where UO is Ihe polential energy accumull\led in a unit volul11c 01 the
malerial when yield or ruplure seis in.
T1Iis hypolhesis was nol confirmt!d by experiments amI is only or
historlcal imporlance. 11, however, lormed Ihe rounf!alion upon whith
Ihe new energy lfu?ory o{ slrellgth was buill: Ihe lat\er general1y gives
resulls malching weJl wilh the experiments.
Considcring Ihe (ad lhal plastic deformation takes place wilhojJt
any change in volume. F. Huber in 1904, R. Mises in 1913 and 1--1. Hen
cky in 1924 proposed lhal inslead or lotal polen1ial energy 01 delormation only Ihal parl 01 Ihe energy which was spenl on changing'theshape
01 a body should be accepted as the strenglh criterion. A;cording
lo Ihis hypothesis, irrespec.live of lhe stres~ yieldjng or rupture of the
malerial slarts when lhe polentlal energy of dlstorlion per unit votume,
Uott, reaches a cerlain limiUng (crilical) \'alue lf,~ for the given
material. Le.
(7.8)
wherc r4~=u,.h ..1. nr U:h""'U",. ,"p'

11 ls known Ihal in compound slressed stale (see lormula (6.30'),

35)
U'h= .!.f.[{
GE
0',-0'. j'

+ (0',-0'.1'+10'.-0,1'] = 30-1;")'
21;
T""l

and in uniaxia1 tcnsion

I1we accept, as airead)' slaled, thal the;rilical value of the polental energy 01 distorlion (lor example, corresponding lo the beginning
6 _allO

..,

/P",l 11

of yielding oi material) does nol

~pend upon lIJe ty~ of stressw stale,

\\Ie can consider Iha! in uniaxial as weU as in any olber type of stres!

U-...... ~2~
Subsliluting Ihe expressions rO:' u... nd t4 in l"qualion (7.8), dhld
in bolh sides by 2~ and e:clracting (mm lhem squart 10015. \\.t
gel Ihe following t!xpression ..\'hich determines lhe beginning oJ criti
eal slate:

, V(a,
1""2

0'.1'+(0".

0.)'+(0.

01

)' -

3
JI'll~,t",,(J,

11 can be casil)' nollc~ Ihat Ihis equallan represents lhe ccndilion

of constancy oI slTes (or eonstane)' 01 lhe octnhedr.ll shearing stre5<).
TIJe strrngth CQnditioll according to his heory, known as Ihe thwry
cf poIerial tllUgy c.{ dislorllOll or Ihe fourih sirtngfh (heory. ma)' be
wrilten as

,-V(O,

O'I)'+tO.

0,)'+(0.

0',)"
3

=0;"" ~ ~

",

.liO;--=[oj

(7.9)

1lK' theory of poltnlial energy o dislorlion is well SUpporlM by

experimeuls on doclile malnials, bul rails whl'fl applied to britlle
maleria15. This ts nalural baUSE' il is Ihe theory or octahedtal or me
dium she<lting stresses un1ike lhe thitd theory. which is the theor)' of
maximum sheating stresses. fhe fourlh sltenglh Iheory lakes inlo
nccount aH Ihe Ihrce ptincira1 slres.se-; and is th('f'efore more completr
Ihun Ihe thoory of mllximum shearing slres5{'S. Unlike Ihe tirst thfl~
strenglh theoriesand .~\ohr's theoty, the fourth slrength theory Is non
linear, which somcwhat complicales its practica1 applicalion.
Keeping in mnd thal lhe resistance of maletials lo plaslic deformation is to some exlent alfec!ed by Ih('. m~all norlllal stress q", ~. llie
condilion expressing lhe onset al yielding according to lhe Iheory 01
polcntial encrgy oi dlstorlion may be II.'rilten mote precisel)' as
o, + Ao..." = &1,

(7.10)

whm A and B are constanls Ihat depend upon Ihe properties 01 a

malerial. The strenglh condilion ma)' Ihen be ....'tillen in fhe fcrm

~1/(0",

0.)'+(0"1

o.)' + {O". 0",)"

+*(O"I+o.+o.)<B, [o}

(7.11)

"'-11

Stftlllll! 01 Ma'ri<>h 111 C<1fTlPOUlId S/~"

'"

This expressiOll ClIlI apparmUy be employed or check!ng lhe strength

lIf parts af machine> and slructures made nol only al dudiJe bul.lso
of sorne briltle lIlaledals. UnfU'lunately lhe possiblllly or applyin
Ihis oondition lo briUle materials has nol been studled sufficienlly
Hit now.

41. Reduced Stresses Accordlng lo Oifferent

Strenglh Theories

In conclusion of OUt discussion 01 strenglh thMries, we mar wrile

the stret;tgth condition in lriaxial stn::ss as follows:

lJd:!!l;fa)

(7.12)

where a,oa \5 lhe redUC'ed slress and \0'1 15 lhe permissible stress in
simple lension oc oompres~iOfl. The reduced stress O'.~ may be Interp-

reted as lhe tensile stress in uniaxialloading equiva(enl lo lhe campo

lllld stressed slate uuder conslderation ~s fsr as Ihe danger ol failure is

concerned.

The expr!S5ions for o.. ~ aecordlng lo differenl thcories are as 101

lows:
O:od""'O'", -O,

o:;'" = Ee -O,-tt (o;+a.)

a~=2-c". .. -a,-a~, O:4-a,-pa~
a:~"'" ~ V (a,-cJ.)'+(a. a.)+(a.-cJ,)'
With a number or theoriu al his disposallor assesslng the strength of
parts fmm brHtle and ductile materials, an engineer must choose. in
each particular case Ihe Illost sllitable theory proceedlng from Ihe actual pmperties 01 material. It is dillicull lo make lhe pmper choice because of fue fact fual in tompound slress Ihe divisiOl1 af materials
into duclile and briUle is condilional. A material havn good dudillly
under simple. tension and compression may behave Iike a brillle m.terial in compound stress and faH wilhout unda-going large plaslic dtfOf'
malion. On the. oiher hand, a material thal shows brittle in uniaxial
lqading may behave as a ductile material when subjecled lo otber
Iypes 01 slress. Hmce, ductili!y llnd briltlene:s.s of materials depend
upon Ihe condition in wh1ch Ihe given slruclure luncllons. Therelore
il is more corred not to speak ar briltle and dllctile materials but of
brittle and duclile stales or materials.
The maln lacton thal a!fecl briltleness and duclilily are lemperalure
{low temperature increases briltleness, high lemperature as a rule
improves ductility), rateol delormatian(in case al fasl dynamic loading brittleness increases, \Vhereas ductil it}' is rel.i~ ....."he" loading is

'"

fParl 11

slalic .1nd gradual), Iype d stress (stales oi stfeM clase lo unorm {riaxial tension are krrown as IOlJgh~ and hey I~d lo hlgher brHlleness;
on lhe contrar)' slressed $lates dose lo uniform triaxial C(lmpression
are kno'A'n :lS ~ft" and improve ductility).
Al present Inan)' rnalerials can be made lo acquiTe brillle or ductile
stale by dilferenl means. JI a material can deform and ral bolh as brit!te and ductile, Ihen. aswas earlier st3ted. it al50 has 1\.\'0 characleristks ol Tesistante to falure thal are delermlned expf'rimentally: resislance to ruplure and resislaoce lo shear. The re:sislance lo (uplure
0'.... is [ollod as t~ maxjmom normal tensileslress required rOl" cat15ing
(uplure <1.... -0. (/irsl slrenglh theory) or lhe reduced nOflua! stress
lI,hkh 15 lhe prodllCt of m.u:imum slrain r.. -e, .nd nJOdullls el
t1aslkily E. Le. (J1,ri-O,--f'-(o.+oJ (secood str<:'nglh 1Morr). The
reo;islarJC'e lo .shear IS det~mined by the maxilllum shearing stress
when ra;lu~ occurs due lo shear t ... -1"~~""--f(a,-<7.)- (lhird slrength
Iheory), by lhe Iimiling valu!! oI stress
al lltt! momen1 01 /1l,lurC!
(fourth slrength lheory) and lhe lirniting vlIlue 01 reduccd stress
( a,-~
in he case of shear railur!! (Mohr's lhl'OfI).
(f t
In lhe light of above, \~i1e designing, ror insta~, the e1emenls o
~tfllc!ures froln mild sletl, a duc!ile material in certain colldilion:s
(st;ztic loading, room lemxoralure, unia.rial slreM), it is nol al""I)':'O
pos.sible lo apply Ihe Ihird or rourlh slrmglh lneori~ ",;haul t.kin"
inlo acrountlhe actual .,..ori\ing oondilions of (he slruclures; similar/y,
while rlesigning paru from ooncrete-a briltle m.1tHi:t1 under lhe
arOl'e-~nlioned COI1dilions, Ihe firsl Ihoory is IlOI always applkable.
The problem of applyin\l:Olleo-theoUll'f strt'n.q1h theorycan beglved
lo lhe rlrst IIpproxima(loo with lhe hdp of the SQcall("d m~'ChlIlicaJ
slate diagrarn proposed by Pral. Ya. B. Fridman 00 Ihe basis 01 re
search 00 lh!! slrenglh al materials carried oul by PraL N. N. Davidenkov and his lollowers."

fU ao uarnple COf1.'lider the transiuission 01 pre5SUre hall! lhe locomolive whetllo the rail (Fig 59). The dementar)' robe wilh edges 01 I mm
cut at the telt~ oi Ihe area Ihrough which the pressure from the ,,'hecl
is being iransmitted to Ihe rail is subjecled to coml'ressve principal
slresses: 0,=--80 kgl/mlU': 0,=-90 kgf'mm'; 0. __ 110 kgflmm".
We sIlall calcul~te by the Ihird 2nd lourlh slrffigth theories the reducC'd
~t~~ whieh sIlould be compared 1I'1Ih lhe permissible stress. According to the thf'Or~' al maximum shearing slres.res

a:

J'

G~~ GI-O~",,---8()+ 110 _30 kgl/Olm~

r .. '.....IIOIIt(', _
jin

R"$&>a").

N.M. Bo:ly_. S/""'/llll

fJ/

M<Wri"J, 10...

tdilillm,f252

Ch.

71

>4,

Slm,glh 01 Molu/o/s 1" Campo/mil 51"'1&

According lo Ihe dislorlioll energy Iheory

oli'd= ~2 l/{

80+901'; ( 90+110)'+{

110+80)'
=26.4 kgfimm'

Since Ih~ y~ld slress for cornmerdal rai! steel is approJ<imalely

40 kgf,i mm' antl Iht' elilStic limil is nearl)' 3 kgrlrnm', lhe compuled
principal slrcs-;es are withjn the permissibll" limlts. This is confirmed
by Ihe behaviour 01 raH steel in exploitation.
Finnlly, it should be noll"d that all the pre<.eding discussions of the
strenglh theories pertain to Ihe malerials which may be sufnciently
accuralely consid~r<:d as isolropic. The formulas derived above are not
applicable lor nisolropie materials. For example, in the case 01 ti mhcr
Ihe direl:tion of force wilh resped lo fibres has lo be takl:'n inlo ilcconnt.

42. Permissible Slresses in Pure Shear

The pl:'rmissible shearing slress in pure she3r could, il seems, be
determined S in uniaxial tension or compression, 1.1'. by e!xperimental1y cslablishing the critical stress Icorrcsponding lo yieldillg or
ruplur...) antl dividing it by the raclor 01 salely. There are, hov..ever,
some pradical dilficulties in appl\'ing sm;h a method. It s very dilficult lo simulate pure shear in taboratory conc1itions; the working 01
bolts and riveted jo!nts is cOlllplicaled due lo lhe presenee or norrnal
stresscs. In the case or torsion 01 salid bars 01 round and oth('r uoss
sedions lhe stressed st1lle is not unilorrn in the whole voluII1e or Ihe
bar. j\10reovl'r, th<', plaslie deforlllation preceding (ilure is accompanied
by redislribulion 01 slresses, whieh complie~les Ihe deterrninalion 01
critical stress. Whem Ihin-walled bars are subjected to [orsion, {he!
bar wallscan easly loase slability. In Ihe lighl or 311 {l1ese considera
!ions the permissible strcsses in torsibn and pure shear are chosen on
!.he basis al onl' or the otiler strenglh theory depending upon Ihe permisslbll:' Il:'nsi!e slress Ihat can be delermined more reliably.
l{~ping in rnind that in pure shear 0,=1", 0.=0, and o,=--T
see rorrnlllas (6.33) in 36)......e can establish relationships between
TI and lol aecording to Ihe differenl slrenglh thoores.
After subslituling (J",=T in the lirst sifenglh theory condilion (J",';;;
~Iallo it may be v,Tilten as T~ 101 / , whererronl

[t:jl_[ol/

(7.13)

lIner substiluting in the second slrength Ihoory condilion

0,- J.I (o,

+",) ~ ro],

Thc malcriRl 01 a bar subjcdod to torsion cxpl'ricl1<;e!; PUf" shcar (sec Chap-

ter 9).

CompllaJled CaSlS 01 TellSlan lUI4

C4mp~S5M

[Part JJ

the values 01 principal slresses in pUfe shear, we get

't-'(-T)={I +.)'t,;;;;[oJ

wherefrom

,+,

['t]Il=...!.2lL.

(7.14)

After subslituling in {he third strenglh theory oondition

O",-O'.:E;;fo-j
the values of O" and

0-

it takes the forOl

T-(-'t)=2't~fO']

Le.

(7.15)
The s{rength eondllion according lo Mohr's {heory is 0',-p<J.';;;;

:E;;lcl l ; in the case of pure shear we gel 't-p(-'t)=(I+p)'t';;;;IO'It.

wherefrom 't';;;;+pIO'II' or

'rO']
[l'JM=r::p

fOIl (01<
(7.15)
1"1.+101<
In Fig. &1 permissible slress ['tJM is represented by segment Of.
Applying the fourlh strength theory, we find
1=

~ V(T 0)'+(0+.1')'+(1'+'t)'=V3't';;;;[al
,e.

't~~

V3

and

['tr= 1"!-

ya

(7.17)

Expressions (7.15) and (7.17) shou[d be used in the design of lhe

1'Iernents 01 structures from ductile materials hal hay!' equal resislance fo tension and eompression. The difference belween l'tl ll ' and
ItF is about 15%. Expression (7.16) must be used in Ihe case of mah,'dals that have unequal reslstance lo lension and compresslon. Expression (7.13) is used rarely. It is desirable lo use express ion (7.14)
only for brittle malerials; howl'ver, il is also used in Ihe design of parls
working in shear (bolts, and rivels). Sine!' .::=:0.3 lar steel, then

I'tJII = l~a[oJI = (0.75-0.8) O]I

PART 11I

Shear and Torsion

CHAPTER 8

Pradlcal Methods af Oeslgn 00 Shear

43. DesJe:n Di R:h'c:ted and Bolted Jolnu

While Slud)'lng tht' slresses ocling In inclined planes ( 21) ..~ saw
Iha! even in simple tensioo or comllres.sion 1....'0 parls of a har cut by
an nclind plane tend nol only lo separate (mm ellch other bul to
shear along lhe sectioning plane. lhis is due lo he rad Ihat oolh normal and she~ring stresses ad in lhe planeo We carne across these types
01 dcformalions-tE'nsion or eompression and shear_while diseusslng
campound 51r~ ando in parlku1ar, in pure shear ( 36).

In praclice a nUmbl'T of paTIs of slructurt's .....ork mainly under shear

tIue lo whkh slrength test rOl" shearing strffies Bcquires majar i mpor
lance. The simplesl examples of 5uth pnrls are bolltd ami riveted oinb.
In many lields rivels have been rcplaccd by wt'ldlng; hawever, riveted
joinls IIre stil1 widely usl!'d lar joining all Iypes 01 Rletal structurl'$:
ranen. bridge trusses. cranes, loe joinlng plates in boilers, ~ips,
reservoirs, el<:.
To make a riveled joint, hales 3fe drilled or pres.sed in both plates.
A rtd-bol rh'e!Ilo'ilh one head is placcd in these boles and ils olher end
is riveled by strokes from a special hammer or by pressure from a hydraul ic press (riveting machine) to make Ihe .second head, Small rvels
(having dialMler less than 8 mm) a~ deformed in a cold .51ale (in
aviaUon structures).
A. Ld us take lhe simplesl riveted joinl lo sludy the-Ilo"Orking 01 rivels (Fig. 84). SI.x rivels pIare:! in t....,o raws join 1\10'0 plales by a 14ppttl
joint. Under the action 01 lorces P these plales Imd lo ~ifl over Me
anolher, this brin hampered by lhe rivels lo ...hich (orces P are lnnsferred .
While checklng the slrenglh of rivels ...: e shallstick lO lhe eslablished
arder of solving problems of slrength of maleriab. r . . , o equal and
1be.

trJlalKt

due lo Irict!Ofl is noI laun inlo 8lXount.

'"
'rposile

PUl! tlf

10rt\"5 a~ Iransh.Tl'l"rl 10l'och ri\'el: one Ilding flOIll ttK- fir.;t

P ale and the olher. !ron theserond plall'. 1I has been experimentally
shO'Nn thal sorntof the rivtls in a fO',\'urry tfeatff load lhan he othn-s.
IiO"I!C'off. al lhe nIOOIM! oi brl'akdo"':n. lhe forces acting 0lJ vanous
rivels IlKn Of less le've! out d~ lo plaslic deformatiOll. ThI'fclO!'P. it
is gmerall)' accept~ lhat alJlhe rivels work under similar rondHions.

fig. 85

Thus ir there are 1I rjVt'ls in the joinl shown in Fig. 84. then ea<:h of
lhe ,ivets will tK> subjecled lo Iwo equal and opposite Icrct'S p,..,~
Fig. 85). Thest' rorces 3rt' lunsmitted lo llw rivel through lhe pressure
al the corresponding plall' on Ihe semicyl indrkal surfac.. o: Ihe Mi.nk.
Forus P, tl'fld lo Mar Ihe rinl along plalll' mk whkh is he parling
plane 01 lhe pistes.
lo detC'rmine lhl' slres.ses aclilij!: in Ihis pla~ Jet U5 imagine Iht' nvet
shllnk lo be cut by seclion mk a!ld the 10Wff portian removed (fig. 85).
Tite inlernallorces which are lransrerred Ihrough Ihis sec:lion lrom lhe
lov.'er poclion 10 Ihe upper one will balance rOf'CC' P,. Le. they will
tK:1 parallelto iI in lhecutting plane and wlll gve a resullant Ion-e P,.
Therelore. Ihe stresses appcaring in this s':!Ct Ion and acling tangenlialIr lo 1I will becalled shearing strcssesT. GeneralJy it is assumed Ihat
they are dislributed unllormly O\'er Ihe II'hole sec!ion. II the rivet
shank has diameter d, Ihen Ihe slress per unll :lrea 01 the seclion wiJlue
P,

T-."T.tf'-"'~

/lT

Oenoling the permwiblc stress in shear by !TI. we rnay \\Tile the

'1lrenglh condition al the rive! under sheM 35 1011004'5;

~E>' ~' =

:d' "'rT)

"-.

t8.1)

Le. lhe actual shearing stress T ading in Ihe rvet mal("l"ial shoulrl not
~~cm lhe permissible shearing stress (see 012).

C~.

81

Prurticaf

M~lhtJds

of Dr&ign

GIl

SIu:ur

103

Prom this conditioll w(' Clln determine the requiretl diarncter or Ihe
rivets if Ihcir numbcr is known, ami viloe versa. Usuallv {he diameter
01 the rvl'.l shank d is given in accordance with Ihe lhfckncss I of lhe
parts lo be joine<l (generally d;::;;:21) and Ihe reqllired number of rivets
11 is determine<! rolO the reJation
(8.1 'J

The dcnominator of this formula represen!s Ihe force which each of the
rivels can withslaod safely.
\Vhile deriving formula (8.1) one more inaccuracy had been allowed.
AcllIally forces PI aeting 00 the riv!!1 are nol direcled along a straigh{
Jloe but con~titute a forc<~ collplc.
This couple i5 balanccd by another
force coup[t>, lormed by the reaclion
01 tlt... rivet('l1 plales on lhe rlvet
head (fig'. 86) md gives rise lo norIllal stresses llcling in planl." II1k.
Besides Ihese normal stresst'S,
section mk is subjecled lo normal
stresses from another SOllrce; during
PI
cooling Ihe rivet shank !ends to
sltorlen which is hindered by Ihe
stop al the rivel heads by lhe plates.
Tltis.on IhE' one-l1arl{!, !eads to 11ghleniog of lite plates by lhe rivets
givjng rise to forcrs of friclion beI\\"een Ihl'lll, anfl 00 the- other han
fl.!:, 86
causes consideT<ible normal strt'SSes
io Ihe sectiOI1S of the rvet shank.
These stre.~sc:s ore nol very harmful. The rivets are madI' of sl~l possessing suflkient ductility; therelore. even if the normal slresses altaio
Ihe yield point \Ve can onJy expect sorne plast!c deformalion (elongalion) 01 the rivd shank. which will reduce the Iridion beiween the
plates. The rivels will however continue to \.\'Ork 011 shear as Iesigned.
These normal stresses IIre there!ore nol takell inlo cOII~ideration whiJe
d~igning riveted joints.
Expres.~jon (8.1) has been derived lar single--shcar riveled joints.
li Ihe joiol is lapped by l\Vo caver plales (Fig. 87), each rivct experiences shear in two planes-mk and gf (Fig. 88). Such rivels are known
as dlmbie-shear riw(s. Jf 11 rivets are requ ired lo tnmslOil forc<' P from
one pIafe lo the cover plates, lhen force- llcting 00 one rivet is r,=
=P:II. TI!e uea or ~hear AI~=2~<l' and Ihe shearing slresses in ~-

,5<

IPllfl 111

Shtf, aNi Tor$)ll

tions n/k and

gf (Fi.

88) are
P

't_

2:14'

"-,-

The slret1gth condilion fO!' a doubleshear rvd may be wrilten as

T';!lJ.

wherelrom n;;;a

p
"ji

(8.2)

:"",,[1:1

I-ience, in a ;onl having Iwo shear planes, the numbet 01 rvets

required aceording lo lhe slrength eondition againsl shtae is two limes
Jess than that required in single sllear (formula (8.1.

@@:@@
I@@:@@

\p

In lhe case al multipl~ar rvels that are so~li~ used in metal

slruelum, lhe shear area of tach rivel is AOII and the strenglh

afI.

<:ondilion s
p

n;;;,;;urr

(8.3)

where k is the number 01 shear planes.

However, the observante 01 strength condltlon.s lar shear alon... loes
nol always ensure thal the riveted JOlot s sulliclenUy slrong. l'he
jalo! will be spoiled il the hol... walls or the rivel shank gd crushed alon
the semicyl indrkal conlact surface when the force s being Iransmitted
lrom lhe piafe lo the civel. Therefore. in order lo ensure rel iable \1rork
Ing 01 lhe riveled }alnt II is essenlial lo check lhl;' rivels (or plales)
against crushing.
Figure89 presenls an .pproximale picture Iransmission el pressuce
lo lhe rivd shank. The dislribulion of Ihis pre:ssure over Ihe cylindric..1 surf~ is nol known; il c\epends lo. large ulenl upon me condiU
ons 01 m.llIufacluring Ihe slruclure. It is assumed Ihal Ihe non-unirorm
pressure lransmilled lo lhe semicytindrical surf~ 0111 rvd isdislrib
uled unifotmly over lhe diametral plane
or me rive\. The stress

se

Ch. 81

Pra~bcal

Melhod, 01 Dtsigrz 011 Shtar

'"

in Ihis diametral pJane is found lo be equa1 to Ihe maximum bearlng

stress lJb al point A of the rivet surlace (Fig. 89),
This conditional bearing stress can be calculated by dividing Ihe
force acllng on each rivet witlllhe area 01 Ihe diametral.section BCC'B'
(pig, 89). This area s a redangle one sirle of which is the rivet diameter
and tbe other Ihe tbickness of lhe plate Ihrough which the pressure is
transmitled to the rive!.
The pressure on each rivet is!.., therefore

"

The strength condiliuo for bearing will be

(J. -

p
rlld';;;

[o.]

(8.4)

wheff' labl is the permis.,ibJe bearing slress. From fhis formula the
required nllmber al rivets may be delermined as
p

tI;;;J:

Id

l"bJ

(8.5)

The permissib1e bearing slress is generally taken rom 2 to 2.5 limes

grcater than the permissibJe stress under tension or compression rol.
because the test for bearing strenglh is actually a simplifted test 01

Fjg. &9

strenglh for contad stresses. Expressions (8.4) and (8.5) are equaJJy
valld lor singleshear and doubleshear rivels.
We shall illustrate with an example how lo calculate the required
number of rivels. Let us compare two Iypes 01 a riveted joint, one
apjoint with singJeshear rivels (Fig. 84) and Ihe other with doubJe
shear rivels (pig. 87). Let P=48 000 k~, 1=1 cm. 1T1= 1000 kgflcm'
and lab l=24Qt) kgl/cm', The thickness or cover plates 1, is aJways more
than 0.5 l.

,,.

[PI/TI /11

(01) Por lap joio! we have

accocdint lo Ihe slrength condiHon IOl shear (8.1)
~

48000

";'-d-'-=JI4X2'
~ (TI
_0_ _ 1000 :::::15

ac:cording lo 111(' hcaring strenglh oondilion (8.5)

P

.. 000

n"'>dlo.

IX2Xz.oo=IO

NumlX'f 01 r'vels requirw is 15.

(b) For 8 bult joiot .....i1h t\\'O cover plales according lo strength
rondJtion loc shtar (8.2)
fl~

IIJi

'-,-'"

:::::8

acconHng to bearing slrcngth condition (8.5)

P

n~ldlo.I=-IO
We should use 10 rivets (on caeh skle of Ihe joi"!).
We see Ihat Ihe number of singlMhear rivets was determined by
thl" s\u~nglh ~'Ondtion lar shtar. whertas Ihal of doublesh~r rlvcls
by lhe be'TinR: slrenglh condilioo.
8. The presente of fivels introduces cerlaio Ch3nges in Ihe mt'thods 01
ch('Cki~ lhe INlsile or compressive slrength of Ihe plales lhemselvcs.
The critcal ~tion of clK'h plale (Fi:(. 90) is IhE' sedioll which passes
(IIrough lhe rivel hok'$, Th~ clTectlvc \\'idlh of lhe pinte is rninhnum
i11 llis~OfI; il is &aid Iha! the secUon is weakene:l by the Tivel holcs.
11 b is lhe total wld!h 01 I~ plale. Ihen we gel the lollowing slrenglh
coIHIiILOf\.
P

tlb

... .s;;; laj

(806)

where m is lhe number of holes in the sed Ion (in our c;ue lhere ar~ lwo
of lhrm).
KoowlJ1Jl: Ihe plah.' thlekness 1, wecan lind ils width b from lhe above
c01ldition. lhe arta oi lhe weakened seclion (b-md)t is call~ the nel
llrea. when'as the arca or the [ull sedlon bt is called the groos area.
rhe account ollhe ('freel of lhe rivet holes on the slrength of riveted
plates Ls gcnerally accepleJ bul is ralhnronditiona1. Acluall)", consid
trable local stresses arisc over Ihe c:onlour of the plate, at Ihe ends
of the diauK.'lt'f perpendicular lo Ihe direction of tension. 1he:se local
slresses in Ihe material may reach the yield poinl and C3lJ5e plasllc
delocmations, lOOugb in J small volumt of tM plale material.

ell.. 8/

15i

The:se local sll'eS$eS are polenlially eapabl~ of Cllusing cracks only

in a material hning low rlligu~ limit when 1I 1$ subjecltd loa variable
load l 16). HO\\-ev~. in lhe usual workinlo! conditklos 01 rivettd joinu
Ihis danger may be rultd out. To avoid [ailure 01 ri\'ettd plales due lo
rivels Ihe latler shoultl be Iocated al a cerlatn distaoc~ Irom each olher
and [rom the edge of lhe plates. The local ion of rivels in Ihe lop Vll'\\'
i.s condilioned nol only b)' lhe slrenglh and lighlncss o! lhe joinl bul
also by mallufacluring considenfio!lS.
C. Like rivl'is. link bolls o lugs and Ihe common bolted joinls experieoce shearing and bearin slresses. Iherelor~ their design does oot difter
from Ihat of riveled joints.
Asomewhal difterent method is employed for c.Iesignlng high-~lrenglh
bolled jOillts which hove fOLlnd wide applcalion In recenl yen;. l.'~.

~--=-------.::qJ ]
FUI

F9"'U

Fil. 90

pedally in bridge building. 1bese bolts are used imlead al rivets .nd
are tightened br means of lorque ~TefKhl'$ 10.11 very high values of
lensile forces. wtlkh ensure such gh! pressing of Ihe joined e1eIDl'nts
that Ihe [ritUonal orces at Ihe inlerface are able lo bear all Ihe forces
Iransmitled lhrough (he joint. rile high'slrenglh bolts experi~
neilher sllear nor bearing slrain.
rhe basic idea behind lhe design 01 (hese bolts lies in provillinll: lhe
equilibrilHJl be!wNIl exlerllal forces P Iransrnitted through the oiot
and the fricUonal forces th3t develop belween lhe joined elernents. If
<\"c denote lhe lensile: [orce for one boll by N and the toeffidenl of
Irlclion by /' we gel Ihe lollowing slrength condilion lar lhe joinl:
P=aNf'l

{8.7)

Here" is lhe num~ 01 bolls ami (l is a coeffick!fll that accounls lor

possible deviations or N and Irom iheir nominal vll~ (0.<1)_ Therequift'd oumber 01 high-sttength bolts s c:akutaled from equalion
(8.7):
P
11;;= <>.NI

In aa:mdance wilh lhe existing slandards 1m sll.'l'1

W"""

(8.8)
brid~.

v.oe

,so

Sfwr and Torsiott

[Part 1/1

wh~e

A is Ihe area or 0011 section "'~akened by thread and (1~ $ lhe

ultimalutrength of bolt material wnich is no! less Ihan 12000 kgf1c:nI,
Depending u~ lhe gra~ o steel. thefollawing values are used: _
-,.783011/=0.4-0.45.

44. Design 01 Welded Jolnts

In manu{acluring melal struclures elec::lric-an:: welding is alten en
ployed. 11 was invenied al lhe end or lhe X IX century b~' Russian engi
neers N. N. Benardos (1882) and N. G. Slavyaoov (1888) and ulti
malely found wide application throughoul Ihe wodd.
{I~trodt

-= d t
-=-

PoO/tl'

flectnt

lIIT

Pi, 91

In ell!'Ctrica~ welding by Slavyanov's methGd lhe eleclrode mate

rial (sll'el) melts under Ihe heat 01 lhe eltric an:: and fills lhe joint
of lhe elements to be welded, which are also heated to the {lISion poin!
by lhe eledric are. As a result, upon cooling Ihe molten melal forrns a
",eld \\1lich rigidl)' joins lhe elemenls (Fig. 91).
A thick protecllvl! eoating is appliecl to lhe e1eetrode to shield the
molten metal from the harmlul n"uene\': 01 the surrounding atmo
~phl!re. When Ihe eleclrode melis. the proteclive eoating forms a large
Illl10unl of slag anli gases whieh isolalo:! the molten melal (rom Ihe
surroulIlilng atmospherc. Thls ensuTes high qualil)' of lhe welli metal.
wllieh 013)' olherwise have very poor mechancal properlies due lo
:llmospheric ox)'gen anli nilrogen (il the el<!Clrode 15 nol ooaled ar 11
\Ill! coaling i5 Ihin).
Al prt'&'fll manual are welding is used mainly in joinls requiring
rt'13lively shorl ';\~Ids, lar example, in welding sl~1 trusses, laeking
of angla. elc. Slruclura requiring kmg \\-elds (slX:h as mass produced
\\'eWed beams. ship bodies and gas holders) are welded by aulomalie
are: welding under a flux layer lFig. 92). In automatic are welding the
eleclrode .....ire rolled inlo I coi! is fed lo the joinl al a ~lain di.5tance
from Ihe \\o-eld. Ihus ensuring constanl are I!fl.gth. The earriage with
Ihteledrode mova along the joint al a rale which 15 deterrnined by Ihe
wehling condilions. The are and weld are protected from atm05pherk
oxyen and nitrogen by a larer 01 BUl( (granul.ted sl.g of special cern

CII. 81

..

posilion) whkh also melis in tm- arc name, lorming a brill1e, easily
removable skin.
Slructures madI' 01 aluminium a1l0)'s, Ihat have won wide popularity
in rKMt Yellrs, are wclded by argonare ",~Iding using an infusible
lungslcn eleclrOOe and an aluminium welding roo. The dislinguishing
lulure of argol'Hue welding u Ihal lhe are .nd molle" melal are pro'
tected lrolO lhe 1Ilmospheric undesirable impurHies by ao argon jel.
Resides are wl'lding, resistatn spot welding is l'lOployed in sorne
t.a5l'S when Ihin metal sheeh have lo be IIo't'lded (Ior uample, welding
oi thin plating and thin proliles). In spot welding lhe parl'> lo be joined
are placed bdwet'n tightly prt:$$td to lhem oopper electrodes Ihrougtl
..,..hich elcclric current is passed. T1H~ melal arotlnd lhe pomts ol tor'Itacl
fu heated up lo a le-mpel'81ure which is sulfideflt lo ensUI\' \!.~Itljn~
01 lhe elemenls.
If lhe joinl desio/!, Ihe electrode malerial and Ihe welding melhod
are properly selecled, Ult'welde-d joint is fnund lo IK' in no way inlerior
lo lhe rivl'lt'd I'oinl under sla\k: as well as dl'IJamlc loading (including
impacl and a lernaling enes). Jn addllioo, declric-are welding has
a number of advanlage5 over rivetlng, lhe mosl importnnf of which
are lower labour consumption olJd Ihe absence 01 weakening DI l!le
secUon of thl' eic'ments due to rivel hales. This gives c:onsiderable $8V'
ing DI resourcl'S and melal besides Ihe economy due lo grealer compoel
ness of the join\. The econOlllic gains Imm el:lrieare welding and
lhe facl lhat it simplilies Ihe s(ruclllres have in the lasl few years
leel lo gradual replacem..nl of riveled Joinls by welded.
rhe welded ;oints. like lhe riveled joints, are designl't! 00 the
assumption Ihat lhe slresses are unilormly dislributed in lhe wl'ld
secUon. rhe dc$ign is c1osel}' connecled lo the welding method; in
particular, Ihis is rellected in Ihe permissible slresses, which are selecled lor lhe parlicular weld material in accordarlCt' wilh lhe weJding
mtthOO (manual or automalic wtlding) and a150 Ihe Ihk:kness and como
posilion ol Ihe e1eclrode <:oaling.
According lo existing standards. lhe permissible slress for weld
malerial is laken the same as foc Ihe base melal in Ihe case: al alllomatic arc .....~Iding undl'!' a l\ux layl'l' and manual are weiding with topo
quality eledrodes. For v..elding with common eleelrodes the permissible stresses are redlX'l by 10-',.
The gau~ len'l'lh o Ihe weld is oIfen assutned lo be 10 mm les.s
lhan lhe Klu.l lenglh to account for peor fusion al lhe beginning and
crall'r larmation al Ihe end o the u'eld lInd also lo take mio consideration Ihe dill'erl'llce in slruclure 01 lhe base .nd weld melals.
Let us discuss lhe design lJ)elhods lar sorne I)'pes o \!.'elded joints.
Tlle bull joinl is Ihe simplesf and lTlOSI reliable 01 all joinls. 11 is
oblaint.'d by lillinlt Ihe gap btlwt'<'fl lhe end faces 01 lhe e-Iemenls fo
be u-eldt.'d wilh fille1 metal. The butl Jolnl, depending upon Ihe lhiekncss al Ihe elements is made according lo one o fhe melhods shown in

,ro

Sfuar o/Id TOfJitm

Fig. 93.

Th~

[Parl 111

strength test is done [or lenslon or compression ,Kconlillg

lo lhe following formula

(8.9)

Here It=A w is Ihe nominal elJective cfoss-sedional area 01 lhe welll

having gauge lenglh 01 lhe joln! l-b and weld height h equal lo lhe
Ihickness 01 lhe plales t.
Taking inlo aceounl Ihe possibility or poor fusian al fhe ends lhe
weld lenglh is taken as l=b-IO mm and Ihe weld has a differenl

strength as compared lo lhe base melal. 1t should be noled tha! wilh

.......,
p

an appropriute qualily al welding lhe strenglh af lhe butt joinl is nol

less \hm \hal al lhe base melal even under impac! loading."
Jn onJer lo achiev!! greater joint strength, il is sometimes mude in
lhe onu al a cross-shapC'd jolnt with lhe help af a plale which is wehJcd

by menns of fiHet wetds (Fig. 94). Similar welds are elllployed in 1;1]J
and bult Joints which are made with the heJp 01 oover p1ales.
The filie! welds 1aid perpendicular lo Ihe direction 01 force are called
eLIge transverse fillel welds, ~'hereas those Jaid paralle1 lo Ihe force
acting on Ihe lap joint are known as side or side fiJ1el welds.
The fillel wehl does nol have a very definite shape 01 section (Fil{.
95 (ll. In Ihooretica1 cakulations of slrength the weld sectlon is con
sidered lo bi! an isosceles triangle (shown by dotled lines) 01 heighl/"
(Fig. 95(b).
,

y~.

1. Kimis, D. l.

N~v("lskj;, /~~lig(lli<m

II/II/cr "'I'0,I. Tr.1Ilnhd<lOfizdlt, J!l56 (In RU5Slln) .

01

SI,"uglll o; W<!ded

Joi!U~

Somdlmes !r~llsve= fillo! welds ar" made '"'Ave ",ilh b.ei~b.1 h<O.71.
Tito calhelns ,,{ lhe welrl may be "ven tess Ihall lhe thkkness 01 thl.' plall.'.

(.h. 8)

Pracfiw/ MrlhrxJ. 01 Duig"

UIt

'"

SIle<JI'

The joints made with IhE' edge (l'nd.lap) we/ds are shown in Figs. 94
and 96. These welds fail in the weakest secUon AB, as e;tablished
experimentally.
Il is c1ear [roln Fig. 95(b) Ihallhe tota) slress acling in set:lion AB
may be resolved into normal and shearlng C(lJnI)(mcnts. As lhe resislance

~-Q~ p~,p
t

,01/:).0")--+

~~:-

(~)

1')
Flg. 95

of steel lo shear is lower Ihan that lo tension, the tr:msverse f11lelwelds

are de.signed for shear assuming thal Ihe shearing slresses are dislributed uni[ormly over the area 01 secUon AB. Keeping in mind (hat

==<1 ,.,,*~
~ t-~L_~L__~
~

II

rorce P acting 011 Ihe joint is laken by 1\\'0 end-Iap welds (Fig. 96),
lhe upper 3nd (he lower ones, we get
T..

p
2A",

As lhe arca of the weld section is A.. =hi~tI cos 45~::>:;O.7tl, and Ihe
gauge Icnglh is l=b, Ihe slrenglh condiLion may be writlen as
'1.. =

I~II ~I\.]

(8.10)

lhe crossshaped bult joint depided in Fig, 94 is designcd similarly.

'"

P", 11/

SMaf i11UI TOrMIHI

Ac.tuaJly, lhe weld material i.i subjl'Ct lo compound loading, thc

distribuliorl of slresses in tion AB being non-unillU"m. A stud)' of

lhe

~lds

by the mcUxxb of Ihe theory 01 elaslicily, which has a

sound experi IllefIlal supporl, reve.als Ihat Ihere is a high stress roncen!
t~ cor~s

ralion ai

oJ welds.

Aparl from this, due lo shrinkage of lhe joinis in lh<' \\"elding ZOfle
durlng coo1ing, addilional slresses occur not enl)' in lhe II.-eld material

bul also in the base metal, thus subjocting lt lo a compound slrw.

~I

1~6

...- l'

.:-

Ii

"

'"

.#-t.

Re. 97

Thi5 factor mar rt':Sult in 10\l,"ef" ductilil)' of lhe weld melal hus maIdng lile joinl (wilh transverse fillet Vo"flds) less reli.ilble. especilllly

undtr mpad or a1ternaling loads. as

C()mpa~

lo butt jaln!s wilhaul

CO"tf plales.
A joint wilh side (longitudinal) fillet Wl'ld is shown in Fig. 97(0).
11le \\.'t'ld shown in Fi. 97 (b) fals aver a considerable lenglh of lhe
joio! due lo shearing 01: Ihe weld lIIetal parallel to lhe weld in Ihe weak
l'$t sec.lion AB. The strenglh cundilion ror t\\1l symmttrkally placed
welds may be wrillffi as
p

T"-2XU.711'[t",J

(8.11)

The number or wldds t10ubles H two overlapping plates cover the

joinl. IInd the slrcngth COlldilion lakes the form
p
'.= 4.>(0.711
:;;;;[T.1

(8.12)

1e requircd gauge hmglh 1 of lheside fillel welds is genrrally ulculated from formulas (8.11) and (8.121. The aclWlI lenglh o each weld
is aken as 1.=1+10 mm.
E.~periments slxn\' lhat lhe side lillel wt'lds f.iI in a way similnr
lo Ihe failure al dudile matetials wilh large: pl'l'manenl deformalion.
This makes lhe workinof sldt fillel welds mote fa"our.ble ascompared
lo lhal of end-Iap (Iransvt!"Se filld) welds. HO'olo"ever I il should be borne

ell. 8J

Pr<u:IiCfJI Mtthol!s 01 Dtsillll- 0/1- 3/M1U

,.,

in mind that there is high 5tress concenlra[ion al lhe ends 01 side filie[
welds loo.
In designing welded joinls grealer reliability of Ihe joinl i5.soughl
lo be aehieyed by using, inslead 01 a but! joinl, or in addition to it,
overlapping coyer plates, which are welded by side fillel \Velds or edge
weld5 or both. As wasearlierpoinled oul, uoder impaci and alternating loads such "slrenglhening~ 01 Ihe hut[ joinl may do grealer harro
ihan benet.
In design 01 a combine<! join! using cnd-Iap welds and side fillel
wclds simuHaneously, it is considere<! lhat Ihe join! re-sistanel.' is the
sum 01 Ihe re;islanees 01 individual welds, Le. p=p~+p., ..... here
Ihe resistanee of lhe edge weld for a gauge length l. is P.=0, 7 ti. {I.. I,
ami Ihe resistanee of the side .....dds is P,=2xO.7 tI, iTUl ]; here I.=b,
..... here b is the width 01 the cover plateo By subslituting Ihese values
\Ve gel
(8.13)
p = (0.7tl. IAU,) [t..]

The length of Ihe side llel weld l. can be delermined if lhe length
01 lhe edge w.... ld is knoll'n. lf cover pla(es are used on bolh sides, the
number of welds doubles, Le. the righl-hand si de oi formula (8.13)
shou\d be doubll.'d.
The wide applkalion of eleclric-arc welding in melal slruclures has
led lo the development oi varlous types 01 wE'lded joinls, lhe design
and analysis 01 whieh are dlscussed in speclallilerature *.
The nlcthods discusserJ in this chapter on Ihe design or riveled and
wl'lded joinls for prrmissible stressE'S Me accepted in mach:ne building,
ship building. airerar1 building, de. A fundamrnllllly new melhod
01 design for limiling sta te (Chapler 25) is applied in the Soviet
Union lor de.'1 ?nlng I'ngineering- sttuctures (civil aOl) industrial buildings, bridgt'5, lunnels, etc.). Thls method, howevcr, dOl':S not differ
nluch from thl' design lor permissible stresses.
The joints in timber slruclures (grooves, keys, ele.) working under
shear and bearing are also designed by the Iimiting-state method.
The distinguishing leature 01 timbcr s ils anisotropy due lowhich it
has dillerent shearing and bearing strenglh depending upon the angle
between Ihe direclion 01 force acling on the element ami lhe direction
01 libres. Timber has higher shearing and bcaring strength along the
libres Ihan aeross lhe fibres or in an inclined diredion; this is taken
into account by means of coeflicienls. The design and analysls olthesc
jolnts is avalable in special literature .
Stt. lor

eumpl~.

G. A. Nikol.l:V. S. A. I(Il'kln. "nd V. A. Vlnokrov. Ana

Vysshaya Shkola. 19i1 (in Rns-

I~si.,. Dl!Slgn and PrtptUatilJll o{ W"dtd Slruawl<S,

sia,,.
, See. lar example, A. P. Pavlov, Timbu Strudw"S. G()$lesi~dat. 1959 (hl
Russian). See al"" Bul/djll- Strudum, edi1ed by G. Ove<;hkin, GosslroJitdal. 1975
(in Ruuian).

HU

IP"rJ 111
CHAPTU 9

Torsion.
Strength and Rigidlty of Twlsted Bars
45. Torque
Th~ resutls obtained durina: lbe study oi shear tl'lable us lo pass
over lo lhe study of slrenglh under torsion. In praclice wt' colJle across
lorsion very dlen; the eXllmples al rods y.'OI"king under tOTsion 3fe
axes 01 a rotaling whe<.>J, Iransmission sharts, elements of three-dj
mensional mechanisms. sprlngs and even an ordln.3ty war key.

,," .

'

F',- 98

We shalllirsl sludy torsion in rollnd shafls. Lel us Imagine (Fig. 98)

.',hall Cf on which (wo pulJeys. I and l/. are litted tightly. Thl' shafl
is supporl~d by bearings e, D, E, amI P. Pulley I ratates lhe shaH
with lhe heJp ni a belt drlve from an eJeclrlc molor. Pulley 1/ transmils l!Jis rotation lo Ihl: madtine too! Ihrough anolhcr bel! drlve.
Pulley I is aded upon from Ihe light and slack sides 01 lhe I>ell by
pulling forces T, and t" respective!)', which lie in aplane perpendi
culllr to Ihe shart lI.~. Similarly pulling rOl'ce:s T. and t. act on pulley
1/ and Iran~rnil lo il lhe resistance olIered by Ihe machine tool. On
Ihe oue lIand. these fol"Cl!S exert Jlressure on Ihe bearings (in Ihe sanie
way as Ihe d~llJ w~ight or the pul ley) and, on theother hand, lhey cu/!
stitule fon:e oouplt"S Iying in aplane perpcodkulu lo Ihe shall ui.s.
Omoti~ the r.. dius ti. any or lhe 1....1 ) pulle)., by R and keepn,g
in mnd Ihal tension (n of Ihe ligbt side is grealer Ihan t('flSion ti)
olthe s.l8ck side. we can write the follov.;ng equalion of rnoments wilh
nos

of lhe bot.incs has

berome netll:.ble.

.,~t

uf IIH! shof!

m~y

~n

decidtd llpon 10 thai thio bPndinc

CI,.

9!

105

resped lo Ihe centre of cireJe (Fig. 98):

M,-TR- IR =(T-l) R

t9 .1)

Thus forcl.'s T, Imu ti form <1 lorque (T,-l,) R, whieh Iwists lhe
shaft in one diredion (shown by arrow), wherens Ihe resislanee 01
machine tool gives a lorqut' (r. -r.) R. which is dirl'<:lt'd oppositcly.
For unilorm operalion 01 Ihe machine al! Ihe orces ilcling on Ihe
shaft lI1usl hl' jn equllibrium; the lorque (T, -I,)R, should aH Ihe
lime be balanced by the resisting torqut' (r, - I.J R" Ll'.
(T,-I,JR,=(T.-I,lR,=M

(9.1')

There always exists an equilibrium bclween Ihe lorque transmit!ed

from Ihe molar lo lhe machine loo! Ihrough {he shaft amllhe reactivt>
lorque on Ihe shaft due lo Ihe resistance oITered by lhe lllachinc tool,
irresprclive of Ihe type ollransllIission cmployed (V-be!t, loolh gearing,
riclion gearing, elc.).
Tlle portian of Ihe shafl betwet!n Ihe cenlrt!S of lhe pulleys is subjected lo lhe aelion 01 hl.'o equal and opposile lorce couples, acling in

~-.
Flg. 99

parall('lplanes, that rolde one \\ilh resped lo lile olher: Ihe shart gels
Iwistt'd. Thus lo~ion is callsed by force couples Iying in planes perpendicular lo tht' shafl axis.
We shall cmploy the method 01 seclions in arder lo invesligale {he
inlernal rarees aelng in cross seclions of Ihe shait under the aclion
oL lhese force couples. L~l us consider, for example, Ihe par! of Ih~
shaft which is tocaled lo lhe leH 01 section mr (Flg. 99). It t'nsues
from Ihe condilions af cquilibrium af Ihe parl under considcralian
Ihal th~ internal rorces Illust rcsu!! in a momenl M -M, {hal balanct's
Ihe t'xlernnl mOllll'nl, Le. aels in the opposite direclion. Similarly. if
\Ve consit!t'T tht' equilibriUlll of Ihe pllrl io Ihe righl 01 secUon mn
we lind Ihal in Ihe 511mc secUon Ihe inlerna! lorces crcale 11 moment
M,-M,.
The momenl of internal rorces acting in an arbitrar~' section of the
shaft subjeded lo lorsion thal lends io rolale Ihis secUon about lhe
shaft axis is cal1ed lorque or twisl/1/g memenl. The magnitude and di
red ion 01 lorque dcpend upon the magnitude of Iht' external momenls
acting on the length of shatl under consideralion.

".

IP",t 1/1

11 is easier lo determine Ihe signs el torql!e5 lhrough (he direclions

of externa! mOll'll'nts. Torque M, will be considere<! positi\'e if Ihe tx

ternal momeot acls in lhe anliclockwise diredion when seen from lhe
si(!e e1lhe secUan; in Fig. 99, M ,>O.
Thls Sil" conv~lion lO\' M r corresponds lo Ihe direclion of intemal

forces Ihal .re lransmitted from he parl 01 the shaft under consideration lo the olher parlo lor imtanet. from leH to righl.
In Ihe abo\'e case Ihere ",,'ere only hoo pulle)'s on t~ shalt, which
transmitled lo it equal and opposite ques (9.1'); his re$ulted in
tonion of lhe portion of Ihe shart belween lhe pulleys by the torque
M,=M.
Th~ are more romplex situatiOflS when a numbe.- DI pulleys 8re
mounled on the shaft, ene of them being Ihe driving pulley and Ihe
resl dri\,er Each pulley transmits ils torque to lhe 5haft. and jf Ihe
shaft is runnine: uniformly, lhe Stlrn of aH lhe mornenls acting on Ihe
shaft must be uro.
Figure 100 shows a shaH which is aclcd ul)On by tarsional mornents
M" /11., M M.: 1000que M, ads in one diredion (from Ihe driving
pull<'y), lInd M., M. ano M. in Ihe opposHe diredion (from Ihe driven
pul/eys). For uniform rotalion af the shaft

-M,+M.+M.+M~-O

(a)

The lorque will have dilferent ..alues in dilfcrenl portions 01 Ihe

shafl. The portion of lhe .~haft to the leH oi se<:.tion }.J will be in
eqllilibrium under the aclion of torsion3t montenl M. and Ihe torque
Thus. M t lor Ihis .seclion will be equallo M. with
in section
a minus sigo because M. acls in Ihe t10ckwise dlrec:tion whell sft!n
from lhe side al Sttlioll. Therefore.

'.J.

M 1,=-/I1,
SimHarly. iI we consider Ihe porlion 01 lhe shah located lo lhe Idt
o section 22 (Fig. 100). we find tha! lhe ITlOITIffit o inlernal forces
in Ihls secUon ls M,,=-M.+I\1,. We \\.'ould have oblained Ihe same
value al arque in section 2-2 if we consjde~ Ihe equi/ibrium ollhe
portion al the shart lo tbe rlgb! or secllon 22. In Ihu ca~ the eJ[pres5ion
lar lorque would have been M,.:.M.+M.; moreover, aecording lo
condition (a)
M.+M.""M,-M,
Finally, rOl" scc:ljon 3~1. consldering Ihe rlgbl porHolI of lhe shaft.
we gl!1 M, =M. or M,-M,-M.-M . From the expressions ior
M, whkh are given here ~t js e\'ident Ihat lhe lorque in all arbitrary
.scclion oi lhe shaH is llull'H!rically equal lo the algebraic sum 01 Ihe
monlenls of exto:!rnaJ rorces acling either lo lhe Jeft or righl 01 this
seclion.

Ch. 91

Torslon.

Sfr~n(Jlh

alld RI(Jidi/1I o{

8ar~

"7

The value of lhe torque in dilferent portions 01 (he shalt may be rep
re;enled graphically by plotliog lhe SO'"Clllled lorsional moment diag
ramo For Ihis, Ihe x-axis is pioUt'li below the shail drawin: and the
ordinates represenlng the value 01 lorsionai moments in Lhe parli
cular section are la id off Irom il with proper signs (positive upwards).
N,

N,

<Da
Flg. lQ1)

The torque diagraffi is plolted in Ihe form of reclangies because wilhin

Ihe limits oi a particular porlion, he value of Ihe torque MI doe.s
oot depend upon lhe position 01 the sectlon hetween the pui leys.
Suppose inFig. IOOM,=6OQ kgl m, Ai,=3OO kg!' m, M. = 100 kgl m,
and M,=200 kg{ m. The distribution 01 torsional moments along Ihe
lenglh of Ihe shaft is shown in Flg. 100.
46. Calculalion of Torques Transmitted to Ihe Shalt

To Iind lhe torques 3cting on a shaft we must know the moments,

IransmiUed lo it by a\J the pulleys. These moments may be delermined
il we know Ihe number 01 revolulionsof theshaft and the power Irans
milted by the pul ley. Let a force coupie having momenl M be acUng
on Ihe pulley (Fg. 101). We can imagine the couple lo be consisling
of two forces P applied al lhe contour 01 lhe puliey. Upon rolation
the couple performs work; the magni!ude 01 Ihis work per uni{ time
s equlll to !he power Iransmitled by the pullcy.
Le! us caiculate the work done by (he couple when the pulley ;5 rolaling. As Ihe puHey revolves Ihrough 1lO angle (1, each force 01 Ihe
couple covers a distance Ra, where R is lhe radius 01 the pulley. The
lolal work done by Ihe cOllple or orces will be

Wa=2PRa=Ma

168

IP", 111

Thus. the work done by a 101' c:oople when ji is m'olvetl Ihrough

an angtea is ~uallo lh!' molJlfl1t d Ihecouple mulliplitd by the angle
of rotalion (in radians).

--..
p

fll. 101

If Ihe shalt :omplelnm Tl!VOlutions pe!" unil lime, Ihen U~ \\'ork don\'
will be W=2,.,mM. On Ihe olher hllnd, work pcr unil lime is Ih!' p<l\\\.'I'
N. Th~ore. lhe torque may be expressed Ihroull lhe gin'n values
of IlOWl-'l' and lJumber of revolutlons per uni! lime of lhe shafl:
M
.,
(9.2)
-21ii

Ir lhe power is elven in h.p., lhen N-L h. p. or N-75 L kgf'lII/sec

anJ ir lhe speed is m=1I r.p.m., or >er seeond n/OO, Ihen
M_ ~)(IjQXL ... ~_716.2.!;,.k.r.m

2""

;tJI

(9.3)

..

The powt'r may also be given in kilO'Aatfs, N-K kW. As 1 kW is

appreu:imalely equal io 102 kgf m/sec, we gel
102 X 601(

J(

M =~ii" kgfm _973.6-;-kgf.m

(9.4)

For given L or 1( we calculal!' 111(' momen! lransmi! lal by l'llch pul ley
from formulas (9.3) and (9.4), plol lhe Iwisling llJOBlCflt diagram ami
find lhe critical seclion in which MI-M,.",...
47. Oelermlntng Stresses In
Torsion

11

Round Shalt Un<kr

Having plotted the Mfdiageam, wt' cm find in any sedion of lhoo

s alt lhe twisting momenl made up ellhe mOlllenls el internal for<:es
,tCling in this wcUon. Let us tey lo determine thcsc inlernat orces
:lnllth(" corr~pon,lin~ str~ in tlle Sf'Clion. For solving Ihis probltm
\\'e shall use lhe resulls 01 exptfimenlal researt'h ivel beIOll..

TOrfi(JII. Slrvt/h QM RJgidllr

o/

Sil"

'09

A. EXpl."illtt'flls sho\\" lhat whcn a room! shafl is t\\'isled by a couple

oi M (Fig. 102). lhe lollo\\'ing points are observed.
Al! the gcneraling lioes re...olvt' through an angle y, and squares
dralloll 0fI Ihe shart surface warp changing inlo rhomb. Le. Ihey are
subjl!Cted to s!lear.
Each crllM $('Clion revolves w.r.t. lhe olhtr about the shaft axis
through an angle callrd Ihe t1flgfe uf IwiSl. The vallJe or this angle is

,T
H

,
FIg. 102

direclly proportonal to lhe torque and lhe dislance bi'lllo-een lhe seco
liom.
TIle end lace remains a pl.ne and Ihe con.toun oi all the secUons
remain undistorted (clrcles remain cirdes). Radii marked on lhe ffld
lace. renlain straight lioes even aiter deformalion.
The distance belllo'tel1 adjacent sectioos praclicatly does nol change.
Le. secHom 11 and 2-2. while tuming with respect to Olle another
through angle Alp relain lheir re!alive dislance d.t.
Thus. the experiments show Ihat a bar in tonion represents a systern
of rigid disc.s rnounled cenlrally on a common nis 0,0. Upon delor
mation aH these discs lurn w.r.t. one another withoul changing their
slUlpe. si:ze al1d relativc distance.
The experimental observlllions enumeratel1 aboye ive liS lhe basi!
ror fonnulating lhe rolJowlng hypotheses:
1. all cross sections remain planes;
2. radii on Ihe sections remain slraighl Unes:
3. distllrJCeS between lhe secliom remain unchanged.
Tht' appliclIbilily oi these hypotheses is furtlter supponed by lhe
facl Ihat thfo formulas oblained on their buis ive resul15 which agree
well with lhose oblaint'd experimentally.

8. Let us now pass ovtr lo dttermining stresses in seclions perpendicular to Ihe sharl axis. ul lIS imagi~ (Fig. 1031 lhe twisted shalt
0,0, to be cut in t ....,o porliOl15 J and JI by a stdion 1/ pe1~dcular
to lhe shafl axis and Jocated al a distarxe x frem secUon O,. ut lIS
remo"e >ortioo 1f and consider pol"lion l. This parl m~t remain in
t'quilibrjum undel' lhe acHon of eJ[ternal momen! M applied in Se(tk'fl O, and torqueM,actln in sectiOll /-1. The equilibrium candilion

'"
or lhe rutol( portian may be upressed as

[Parl / "

M,-M
Actordlng lo ib delinilion, torque M, is lhe momeol of interna! forces lhat repl~ lhe aclion oi thf' removed portlon oi he !halt. In
order lo ~ able locreale mOll}(!flt M" the internal forres in these:lion
OInd lhe- corresponding slresses ml.l'St be tangential lo the section Illd
perpendicular lo he radi! . For calculaling lile momenls el thl!Se

F'I_ [03

t'lemenlary fon~es and lheir .sUffi !M.=M " lel us consider an arbitra/'}'
poi"! al a distante p froro Ihe cenlre al' lhe cire!e and isolate an ele
menlary ared dA around it (fig. 100). The force ading on Ihe elemenlary area will be dP=t dA, where t" is lhe shearlng stress al lhe given
poio!. The mament o lhls rol'l.'t about poin! O is

dM._T,.,pdA

Considering arel! dA lo be infinilely small, we can find (he um 01 {he

nlOrnenis 01" atl lhe forces as a defin le integral Dller the alea of lhe
s~lion;

,~ 1'o(>dA =!\-I,

(9.5'

Ir ..... ~ Iblt T 11 nol PftpeMkular 1<> radhas. IhM 1I IIILlSI lave: I compo.
_1 llonr t~ l.dillS, '-b!dl. lICalrdil:l( lo tllPI.w of eunpJementll}' shfarine stm.~. mllU llft ri50e to ~.'l\ll stresses akq: 11M: cyll!ler ~Ilrices, ipc!udine
IlIt onlIl 011 l~ ulrmal smace of lhe mil! cbidl il te 01.11 slteDei (leerl(. 122).

171

CII. 91

Howeyer, we <:annot ytt nd "f 100m Ihe aboye equalion as we 00

nol know how the .shearing slresses are distribul~ over lhe :secUon.
C. It is nol possible to delermine lhe slresses in seclion 1/ wilh

-+llh . -

Fil. 104

'"

the help of slatic equations only. It is a statically indeterminale proo.

!em, and fo solve il complete!)' Wl' musl take Inlo accoont lhe deiar
matlon of the shafl shown in Figs. 102 and 104.
Let u.s iso/ale (Fig. 104) 011 the surfacc o lheshalt, prior lo deformalion, a reclangle ABDC by 11m adjacent genating line.s ab and cd
.and two portions o secUons 1-/ and 2-2.

AUer deformallon both secUons /-1 and 2-2 turn about the fixed
end Ihrough angtes (section 1-1) and ff.+dlp (section 22). On
lhe basis o the accepted hypolhese, \l;e can sa)' that bolh seclioos
will remain planes. radii OafJ, O,A, O,e and O~ \ViII remaln sfraight

Sltror and

T~r;i""

/parl 111

lines and dlstance, dx betlVet'n sections ]1 and 22 ,,iJ1 rema In unchanged. UmJer these condillons Ihe whole elemenl ABDCO,O. wiJl
be displaced and warped because its rig111 lace which lies in sedion
2-2 turos lhrough d,p w.r.1. the left luce II'hiL'h les in secUon ]-1
RC'Clangle ABDC OC'cupies Ihe position whlch is shown ;n Fig. 104 by
hatehed lilJes, The w<lrpro elelllent
A,B,D,C,O,O. is shown In Fig. lOS:
on Ihi; sanie figure Is shown lhe lorm
ollhe element il it hao remained
undisJoried, Le. il its Jefl <Ind
right
f<lces bolh had lurned
through lhe same angle.
The warping eaused by unequal
lurning 01 sedions ].] and 22
transrorms right angl('S of re<:tllngJc
A8DC inlo acule ami obtuse angles:
he matt'rial of the eJemenl expl'r
iences shcar (Figs. 102 ami 104).
Fig. 1/)5
lhe magnilude of this ddormalion
is characlerizcd by the al/g/" of
distorlion or lhe nngle of shear. On lhe shafl slIrface in reclangli'
A,8,D,C, this angle is equar to BA,B,; ji is uenoted in Fig. 105 by y.
We aIread)' kno\\' that shear is accompanied by appelmlnCe of
shearing slresses in the faces 01 Ihe warped eJemenl ( 36).
Figure 105 depkls the stresses acting on an el('mentar}' mw B,D,O,
cncJosed belwel'n (he right race (se<:tlon 2.2) aod Ihe horizonlal sur
race of Ihe eJerneol A,8,O.o" Their value may bt' e,;presscd Ihrough
Ihe angl(' f shenr y which characlcrlzes lile warping of tbe rectangleo
A,8,D,C, by formula (0.37):

As (he absoJute displaceolnt!nt of lhe element on the shaft surrace

is 88'=r d'r. althe aogre 01 sheoar '1'= ~~; =r~. lhe stress around
point 6, will be

't,=Cy=rC

d,'
"

Le! us nolV de!eorl11ine lhl:' stress TI' al anotht>r poinl of st'C(ioll L"
whkh is al 11 dlslance f' from the 'nlre {Fig. JOO\. For this 11'1" must
find Ihe angle 01 shear of lhe material al po;nl L l . In Pig. 105 the
angle of shear or ht' angle of waf]ling L/(t, is c1enotNI hy 1'1" 11 will
be less than the angle of shear l' at Ihe shaft surface. By lhe same

Ch. 91

TarsiOtl.

Sr~nglh ~nd

Rlgidily DI Bar;!

173

reasoning as in determlning y. we fin that Yl'=fl~~ ami gel

l p

"

=(lG/li

(9.6)

The angle of shcar an lh~ shearing slress at any poin! in Ihe cross
section or Ihe twisled shaft are irectly proporUonal to the distance
p of lhis point Iroro Ihe centre of lhe secUan. Graphicatly, tlle variation
01 lhe shearng stresses may be depicted by a straghlline {Fig. 1(6).
The shearing stres~, are maximum al poin!s Iying on Ihe edge af Ihe
sectian an zero aL lhe cenlre.
Thus, we have eSlablished lhe law 01 dislribuLion of shearing slresses in cross sedions 01 a twisted shaft.
D. Th.... shearing stress mal' now be determined IrOlO cquaLion (9.5).
Repladng tI' by ils value fram equalon (9.6) and taking Ihe quantity
G~ (which is conslilnl when integrating over llFea) out of {he integral sign, we gel

G :~

S, pidA =M

(~I"dA, i.e. Ihe sum of lhe producls 01 elementarl' areas oto lhe

squares uf lheir distantes Iron! poinl 0, is calle Ihe polar

uf inerliu. and denoted by Jp . Consequently,

I/I(JI/I(!/t/

G -J,=},j
"
From lhe equalion wc can fin Ihe Iwisling angle per uni1 lenglh 01
{he rod
(9.7)
d'f'
SubslituLing 7X
into (9.6), we gel

M/
'fl'=il

(9.8)

The shearing stress is maximum al points 01 lhe secUan whkh lie

at Ihe rod surlate, Le. when P-P",,,=r:
t ... ,

IUtI''''''
M/r
--r;=--r;-

(9.9)

lhe Formulas lor ".." may be \\.Tilten in llnolher fonn;

I>I,P",..

..

M,

Al,

=----;--= (" ) = \v,

1".....

(9.)0)

[P<v1 1/1

'"

The ralio ,,-,

...2._W, Is calle<! lb!' str:tiO/l. mcduJus: as the momenl d nerha JI' isexprnsed in unib of lenglh lo thdounh JIO'A'ff.
he ~lio!1 moduJus IV, Is measuml in unils 01 lengtb to lhe third
power.

TIle quanlities J,. 4nd 11"" are geomelrical characleti!lics of the seco
1100 unde! tmkln, .l'. they show how shape and siu of !he seclion
inOumce the torsional resistanc:e oi the todo As described lata- ( 48),
Ihl'lt "alues are dtlermined through he rod's dlalMter.
48. Delermination of Polar Momenls 01 Inerlla
and Stdlon ModuJl of a Shafl SecUan

To determine J p = p1 dA we $01ale a circular ring betwWl radii

P Ilnd

p+dv (Fig.

dA. We

SUtil

107). NOIll in Ibis ring we isolate ;In elementary arca

up lhe producls p'dA lor the ring and then .sUtil up he

Fil. 108

vs1ues oblained from 0111 Ihe Tings intowhich lhesection ma)' be divided. As aH lhe elementar)' areas in a particular ring are located al a
fixed distance rom {he celltrt', (l. we have
~p'dA=p'1:dA

In a ring LA is the area oF a hin circular strip; !dA-2np dp and

therefore pl!dA _2rtp 1dp. Summing these quantities loc the whole
01 the section. \\"e ~t

J,- ~21tpldp-=2:t Spldp_~

ot upressing , through the diameler

J,~;:~O.ld'

(9.11)

'"

Ch. 9)

This Is lhe polar momenl of nerUa 01 a circular sed ion. The seclion
modulus 01 a circular seclion under lorsion will be

/\f'.r

J,

11(/'

W'-~=1f=T-1G:::::O.2d'

(9.121

TI is (\ur Irom Formula (9.8) that shearing slress 1" is no! large III
pemls of lhesection clase lo thecenlre (where p is small). The lwistirog
momen! is ba)mced. chiefly. bystresses acling in lhe section near ils
surlace; lhe mate-ial of the central porUon 01 the shaft experieuces
low slresses and dots not conlribule rnuch lo the rtsislance to torSlon.
Therelore lhe shaUs 01 lare diameters are sometimts made hollow
lo make lheln lighler and cheaper (Fig. 108). In Ihis manner \\'e remove UIf' unlral portion o lhe shall. which is inddenlally tbe weakest portion of th~ forging, alfecled mosl by harmful inclusions.
We shall delermine lhe momenl al inerUa and sectioo modlllus 01
such a tubular ~Iion. Le! us denote lhe oul('r radlus by R and lhe
inner radius by r. Then substituling dA ... 2np dp, we gel

J,,,,,,.C r'dA =2n ~ p'dp_% (R'-r')

~.

(9.13)

,-f:! (D'-d')::::: 0.1 (D'-d')

The secUon modulus is

W

Jp

p""" P;;;-

;t(R'-r')
2R
-

l'l(D"-d')
16D

(9.14)

Jf ~ assllme (he ralio dlD-a.. or t"""o.D, wc gel

'O'
Jp-~(I-o.)

(9.13')

W... =~~(I-{l')

(9.14')

lf the thic\mess of the tubular sedion is small (t<O.IR). then de

R ;' and keeping in mind
noting !he mean radius of the pipe by
lhal R-r-t, we oblaln

r._

J,-.;. (R'-r') -i(R' +,~)(R +r) (R-r)

':eplacing R by r. +tand , by r.oi lhe lhkkness t \/Je get

-f and

=i (R'+r')2r.t

neglrcting the square

'" Similar1y lhe seclion O)odulus may be found

W,~

(PDII fU
ll$

2nft

(9.16)

The5(' apllfOximale- fonnulllS are ver)' comenienl lar practical c.d

culalions.
rt is obvious lhat for eoch cross sedion lhe polar monleJll of nerlia
and lhe se<:tion lIIodulus have a single definite value which depends
upon lhe dimensions of Iht' sbalt se<:tion.

49. Sfrength tondlllo" in Torslon

K.nO\ving the stCtion modulus ....e can determine mlx

te

lrom formula

(9.10).

According lo lhe strenglh condition lb!.' muimum .shl'aring slrt!SS

musl nol exCfffi lhe permissible stres.s, i.e.

maJC1"O=;:'';;;;[tJ

(9.17)

Froln tbis formula we can determine lhe se<:tion modu1us rar a known
lwisiing Inoment and lhe aSSUll1ed permissibJe stress, llnd lhen lrom
lhe detennined section modulus we can calculal/! the required radius
or diamclCf of lhe shaft.
,\5 explaincd taTUer ( 42), Ihe- permifoSible stress [TI should be laken
0.5 to 0.6 or he principal permissibte tensile stress, as In the case 01
pure shcar. In pra<:tice IhE' \'alue 01 ITI lor mild steel vares from 2(K) lo
100;) kgllclQ', and rOl' carbon steel lrom m lo 1200 kgf/cm1, depending
upon t~ lype of load (slallc, alternating, impacl) and Ihe magnitude
or local slr~ that occur in lttle kl"yu'a}'s. bos.ses and olher places
where he shape of lhe shalt sectlOll changes.

50. Deiormations In Tonion, Rilfidity CondUion

We had seen in 47lhal lhe torsiona! derormation of a c)'lindrical
acljacenl stjons. The angle
of rolillion al one seclion wilh respect lo another was called Ihe Ingle
)f lorsion 1('. For seclions located at dlstance dx from one another we
liad oblained expression (9.7)
b~r is distingulshed by relalive rotalion 01

d'f'

,MI

1%'=GT;'
IIlhe dislance

between

or

the sectionl is 1, Ihe angle 01

"'- ~

~,d.
J,

tonion is
(9.18')

<> "

Toujon. SImr:lh tutd Rittldil!l 01 lJ<m

Usually lhe lorque is conslant wi\hin Ihe Iimi1s of a parlkular pottion: therefoce inlcgralin wlth respect lo JC. ""~ oblain

,=a"

Al,/

(9.18)

Formula (9.18) has complete analogy with lhe correo.ponding formula

(oc lension nd compressk)n and txpresses Hooke's tallo' rOl' jon;ion.
It is evidenllrom formula (9.18) that Ihe grea!L'r hE- torsfunal rigIClify
Gl.], lhe smaller is lhe angle oi "''''ist 'P (rOl' a gven M,), Thus, J,
renecls Ihe clTed 01 Ihe dlmensioos oI lhe Cfms section on Ihe deformability 01 lhe TOO undeT lor5ioo, and G lhe cffed 01 elastic propcrties.
If Ihe Shllft is mounlcd by a number o[ pulleys \\'hkh divide il nto
partions subJectM lo dlfferenl twisling mornents MI' then formula
(9.IB) enable liS lo calculate lhe angle af IlI'isl of one en(l w.r.1. Ihe

other lor all (he portions.

ColllpUllllOll o UIl,' ungle 01 lorsion has practical irnporlal1Cl':
lirslly il is required lar delermining lhe reaclionsof suppoct of Iwistel1
shalts in slatically inljeterminale S:<1ilems; howevcr, l!lis is a rare c~.
Sec.ondly, v.-e musl know lhe angle 01 10000SOO lo check lhe rigidity 01
lhe shafl.
The maximum perr:lissible Iimits al angle '1', which should nol be
exceeded lo ensurt' sare \llockingal lhe macbine, hllve been eslabli$\\ed
experimentally. ~ limils are as foHO\l,'s: undcf nocmal condilions
1,1-0.3" pe! unit lenglh 01 lhe snal!: undC'l" allernaUng loads r~l=
-o.25~: undersuddl'l1l,!changing(impacl) loads [.,.1=0.15". Somelimes
under normal \\-'OI"king condltions v.'e iake l'fl- IG per 20 tunes lIJe
shart's diameler.
Hence, lhe !hart dinJensions should be cakl1lled nol onl)' frOIll lhe
strenglh COlldilion (9.17) but also lile rigldil)' condition

qt=~ "'-';;flJ'1

a"

(9.19)

This condition is orten lhe mast importanl when de:\igning long

shalts. We shall explain Ihe rigidilycheck \Vith lhe help of lile rollow
in v::ample.
Suppose a shaft Iransmits N-ISO hp al. 11""'60 r.p.m. It is require<!
lo seled sha(t diame!lY Irom Ihe strength condition ami check il lar
rigldily jf Ihe permissible slress hl=600 kgf/cm' and Ihe permissible
angle 01 lorsion per lIlelre k-ngth 01 lile shaft is 11f.1=O.~. Shear lIIOIlulus G=8x lO! kgf:cm'.
F tomo l!me ,..,., l!lt pmlWblf: of tonlon r.11s tlkm up 111 2'.1Id
nlllrt ~ .... lll! ~b 01 lhe &h.all dfopmoc!inc"pon ,ts IU!lCI,oninc. lh"... f()( ",.bnce.
'1'II1ts 01 lursion d up lo 205 P 1lIt1l Iatct!l lII"f. p,tlltttd Jur .utollloln'" cQldJlll

"'tI.

1 _'110

'"The

Shalr Qild Torli""

par! Uf

molnell! lranslIlitlt:d by Ih~ shft Illay be c<llculaled [rum exp

ression (9.3):
M ...

715.2~..., 715.2 ,,150 R:: 1800 kgr'nI = 18x ro' kgf cm

"

From strenglh condltion (9.171lhe Sff[ion moclulus may be [ound as

W p"""
~~=~=~=300
/1)
11J
600
cm 3
As Wp :=:;:O.2d lIormula (9.1211. the Shilft di3meter will be

d~ i/~=11.45cm
Le! us jake d;o11 ,5 cm and che<.'k Ihe secUon for ri,l:!'idity. According
lo formula (9.11) Ihe polar momenl of i!lertla may be calculated as
JI'::::: O. !d'=O.! X(II.S)' = 1745 cm'
The angle- of lorson per melTe (or lOO cm) length 01 he shaft Is
ca!cuJated Iroln formula (9.18);
M,I

lJ' = al p

18x IOIX 100

= ~xJ1lx 1145 = 0.129 rad .... O. 78" > ['1,1

We see haj although Ih~ slrength condilion is satislied, lhe shaft

(]iameter sh()uld be incrl.'jsed lo 111lprOVe rigidity amI il shouJd be: calculatcd from cxpn:ssion (9.19):

MI!

P#GI''1

whffe!rom, by sub~IHtlling Ihe value of permissible angle of lorsion

in radj;m 1(1,1=O.31~' we obtain
ItlX10'XlJO
1 5
d ;;. -1/
~ OlXtlXIO'XU:= 4.6cm

Hence, lhe shalt's dillmeler should be taken d=H.6 cm lo ensure required rigidity.

51. Slresses Under Torslon in a Seclion Indined

lo lhe Shait Axis
Wtlile s\udying Ihe stresses in <l round shafl untler torsion ( 47).
we saw ttla1 shearing slre5s 1" ads lit every roin\ of a secl jon perpend jtular to lile ~haft xj~. A~mrdjng to lhe law of comp1l'mentary shellring
s1resses, a similar stress (rig. 105) wilI a~t in lhe faces of lhe tuloli
element leng!hwise. Thes!' slresses wilJ also be ma~imum allhesur
face nd will be zero al poinls on the axis.

e/l.9/

Ton/M. Slmlflll Gnd R/gjdJly o/ Bu,

'"

Thus, ir lile cut the twisted shall by a diametral plane (Fig. 109),
the poinlS on straight Une A8 perpt'lldicular to the $halt;u~ will ex
perience shearing stres.ses whlch change Iinurly. There will be no
normal slresses in these planes.
Normal stresses act only in Incline<! planes and are maximum
in planes which are inclintel al
45- lo the shaft axis.
Aclually, elemenl A8CD cut
oear lhe shalt surface (Fig. /10)
cx~iences only shearing slresst'S
on ils side faces. It is in similar
conditions as the element abcd rn
PIs:. 109
Fig. 75, l.e. in condilloRS 01 pure
shear. Therefore, 'here are no
shearing slresses in planes Incllned al 45 lo Ihe shaH a:tis; Ihese
ar!" Ihe principal planes which are subjected lo lensile and compressi'ie stres.ses aj and a. equal lo 11 at each polnl (see Fig. lOS).

FJg. 110

Tne value of tnese stressc.'l vafies Irom polnt to poiot in direcl proporlion lo their c!istance from the cenlre and Is equal lo t. Britlle milterials like casi iron lail In torsion due to rupture In an inclined sec-

flf. 111

tion Be (Figs. 110 and 111), i.t. in a sectioo whtre Ihe lensile slresses
are maxlmum.
}\nowing Ihe magnilude and dim:tlon or lhe principal stresses al
any point. ....oe can determine Ihe normal and shearing slresses in any

"

..

[Po,1 111

inclintoli plane by lhe stress drdc or 9o'ilh lIJe help of lormulu 16.5)
and (6.6). As the lIbsoll.ltc VlIl.le5 01 lhe muimum normal and she:aring
suases a~ equill and Ihe permisslble shearing stress is less than nor
mal one, \\"t can limil lhe strength check in lorsion. as in pureshear, lo

analYling sheuing strases enlr.

52. Polential Enery 01 Tenian

Previously. when we we.-e studying lension. ji ....as shown ( 35)
tha! when an elaslic svstem deforms. H accumullltes energy callt!d Ihe
polenlial cnergy of deformalion.

This phenomC'non occurs in !orsion as well. IF we t\Vis! an elaste

rod willlln Ihe llmil or elasticitv, then, when Ihe externa! rorces are
n.'mowd, il \ViII untwisl snd perform work at Ihl.' expense af Ihe potenllal energy iI had lH:cumulated durinll
deformation. Neglfeling Ihe irrevtrsible
losses (healing. internal Iriclion. etc.), we
can rooslder Ihal Ihe work done by Ihe
intemal forces, whidl is determine<! by Ihr
amount or aceumulalcd polenlial ent'l'gy
U, is equal lo the work \17 done by Ihe
tJl:iemal forces.
Suppose ,,"t' have a shaH eme end 01
which is fixed and Iht olht'l' is k>aued by
a force couplt which ('reales a Ulomenl
Ihal gradually inaeases from U'fO lo a
linHe value M. TIK" iocrease in M \\'i11
resull in a corrC'SJKlnding iocrease or lJ' which is relllled lo M I by
equalien 19.18):
Ip ....

MIl

G/~

H W(' piel Ihe llngle 01 l\Visl (deform~tion) along lhi.-' x-axis anu Ihe
corrcsponding values or Ihe Iwisting momenl atOlle: the yaxis, lhen Ihe
relation between Ihe 1\\'0 will be represenleu b)' an im:1ined slraighl
line OA (Fig. 112). By Ihe samc reasoning as employed in calculatini
lhe work donf.> by a lensile force p. we lind Ihat the work rlonr by lhe
fon:e couple M may be upressed Ihrough Ihe are. or lrangle 0/18:

W=~
T~

(9.20)

conslant 1:'2 in formula (9.20) is dLH! to the f.eI ha! fhe moment

M las !Jot bem applied in i1$ full Ulagmlude al once bul il1Cl?Jsed

grarlually. "stalically" fmm tero lo il, hile vatlJ('.

Replacing <fl by ils va!ll(' from t"tluation (9.18) and keeping in mind

Ch. 91

TMSIOll. Sl"'~gth

",,11 R;Ridfll o(

8",.

'"

Ihat U-I\", \Ve get the expression lor polential energy in lorsion:

U=....!::!.!.!...
20l
p

(9.:21)

The potenlial energy Illa)' 1100 be expreMed through deformation

Ir we r('pla~e Ihe lorque in formula (9.21l} by ils valu" from fonuula
(9.18):
GJ

p
1\11,=-,-"

01 l'

V = 21

'r~

(9.22)

JI is eviuent from formulas (9.21) ami (9.22; (hal the potential energy 01 lorsion, as 01 lension, is a funcHon 01 the square 01 10TCe or tI,,formation.

53. StreS5 and Slraln in Close-coiled Helical Springs

Tension nI! compression hdical springs re U5C11 in wagons. valves
IInd olhcr parts of mechllnsms. When designng such springs, we musl
knoll' how lo calculate Ihf'ir maxirllUIl1 stress (Ior strenglh check)
and ddormaliolJ, ther elongalioll or compr~lon. This is esscntlal
lJ('Cause Ihe load on Ihe spring is conlrollcd by deforming il more or
I<!SS und('r I('nsion or eomprcssion.
Hence, we musl detefmine lhe relalion belween ddormation and Ihe
force, actillg on the spring provilled ils lIimensoilS are Imown. lt
will be s('('n 11Ia1 Ihe spring material expcri('nccs torsiOll when il is
stretchl."d or cOlllpressed.
Wc shall reslrict our discussio.: only to c1ose-coiled helical springs,
i:c. springs in which th<" distanre betWel'1l adjarenl cols (pitch) ls
Sll1l111 115 cornpHed to lhe diromcler. If this condiOon is salislied lhe
~oil inclination may be ignored and it ma)' be. lIssurned lhat any arbi!
rary cross seclioll 01 lhe spring is paraflt'1 lo forces P <lCling along
lhe spring axis and either stretehing or eompressing il (Fig. 113).
Lct us inlroduce the lotlowing nolations: radius o[ lile sprng helix
R; dimel('r ul Ihe spring wire d=2r, numuer of ILlrns in Ihe spring
11 ami shear modlllllS 01 Ihe spring malerial G.
To lI('terl1lifl~ the intocrllal forces an(\ stresses acting in lhe spring
secUon \liben H is slretehed (or compressed), let liS cul one of lhe ooi!s
by a plane passing through Ihe spring axis and cOl1sider Ihe equil ibriuln
01 one of lhe cutofT porlions, for example, the lower one\(Figs. 113{b)
and 114). Externa) [orce P acting on Ihis portion in ,{he downward
direction is halanced by IIn upward acling internal force P,=-P \\"hlch
les in lhe. plane 01 Ihe sed ion and is trartsmiltc<l Ihrough (his section
from Ihe upper 1l0rHoll lo Ihe low('r onl:'.
Since [or~es P and P, form a eO\lple \\'ilh a moment M=PR lha!

'"

s/te(, and Tcrsion

fParl 11/

rotales Ihe porlion oi spring under consideralion in the anliclockwiSl."

diredion, il can be halanced only by a momenl M ,=PR 01 the inter
nal forces lying in Ihe plane 01 the section and acting in Ihe c1ockwi~
direction. Since internal forces PI :<nf! Iheir momentM Io which replace
Ihe acllon 01 the upper portion of the spring on the lower, [ie in {he

...,

pj

'---,

..--=.-_:~:::;"~

;:.~.::>

d~~~

~I' ~
~.". ,,:
P

'"

Flg. IIJ

Flg. 114

plane 01 seclian, they are madI' up DI shearing strcsses. Shearing force

P,=P is rormed frcm eJementary shearing orces dP,-l",dA that
preven! the secUon rom shearing r10wnwards (Fig. 115 (a)). If Ihe
dislribulion 01 shearing slresses ayer lhe secUan aTea is assumed lo
be unilorm, then force P, may be expressed as P,='t,A, wherefrom
shearing stress
P,

1',

""T=iifi

(9,23)

The torque MI that prevenls lhe section from rolating (fig. Il4)
is related lo shearing slresss T, in torsion by Ihe formula
M,

PR

't"'=-;P=J";P

92

t . 4)

Both syslems 01 slresses T, and t. that appear in Ihe spring se<:tion

when il is subjected lo a tensHe force Pare depicled in Figs, 115(0)
and (b). At each point of the secUon stresses t, and T. are summed geomefriclllly as thC'ir direclions coincide only along radius AO.
As Ihe shearing slresses tlue to torsion are maximum al the periphery
01 lile seclon [formula (9.1011, i.e.

-r

_.MJ.._ ZPR
'm" - W p -fi(T

''''

'rOfJlott. Strlflllh 0114 Rltufl/y '" 81"1

a. "

poinl A 011 the interna! l'dge of lhe oontour will be lhe critical poinl
since hl'fl' slresses T, and 1": add up arilh~lcally. Hence, 1M- mall.irr:um
lolal shc.arini stress in lhe ",pring Sl'Clion 15
,-

From

st~th

p
2PR _ P (1
.... '"" i71+""-::T
+,"')

condHion

T...,u~

(9.25l

!TI. or

t ..., '"" :,. (

I+ 2n ,;rT]

(9.25')

As in a majorily of tases the Sl'Cond term nside Ihe brackels s con

siderably greater Ihan unlly, Ihe firsl term is usually jgnoted, Le.
lhe slresse:s due lo pute- shear are negleded and only slresses due to
lor.~ion by momen! PR afe cons
p.
dered. Therefote
I1

2PR

(9.26)

1".... =";j3

I~

lhe elongalion ol lht- spring's

axis under temon. which is deoolcd by}., ean bE' Vf'f'Y easlly calculale<! on lhe- basis of Ihis appnr
ximatlon.
let U$ cut rom Ihe spring a
segment of lenglh ds by h ..o ad
jaeent sedions CO, and COI passin through lhe spring axis (Fig.

116). As we select Ihe sec.tiOl1S very clase to ellch other. it may be- (/J)
llS$llnled Ihal belore tlC'formlltion
Ihe radii R drawn from Ihe
spring's axis lo the centres of the
sec:tions J ie in Ihe!ame plane aod
Fil. lIS
form a triangle O,CO I
Altl'f deformation due lo lorsiOll of thesegment lis. Ihe second sed ion
tums w.r.t. the first by en angle dp- ~. Consequently, radius
O,c lurns \I/.r.t. radius
by he same angl: dlp and point occupies
lhe position eh 'olo'hkh rneB115 that Ihe end of lhe spring IOOves do\\n by

o,e

dJ.,=R.dv-R.~
01,
If v.~ considef thal all similar elemenls lis deform in an idenlicai
manner. hen Ihe lolal dislance by which !he lov..'er spring end moves

".

[Par/ 111

S!,u, I",d Torsion

dow1l, i.e. its elongalion, mal' be

as the 5um 01 di-.:

c~pr~'S.Sed

}.=hd}.=)"n~~d=R~YJ
il

l'

(9.27)

I-Iere l= ds is lhe lolal 1cnglh 01 Ihe spring wire ami ~ is Ihe [('la-

r
J

tive

"

angl~' ollOfsion

ollhe ends of lhe sprlng wire, whi<'h is

det~rmined

under lhe :lssumplion tha! Ihe spring wire has been slraightel1ed.

"'-PI? ,"

_-

r?34," " '~"

"y

r----'
dl
_-'
..t....-.-.

C,

l1.

flg. ilG

Neglccting Ihe inc1inalion 01 Ihe spring coils lo lhe horizonlal

assuming lhe nUmb(!T 01 lurns lo be

1/ \\"1'

311<1

gel Ihe total length 01 Ihe

spring \\Ore equal lo

1= 2J1Rn
Therelore

, .... M,R 2 R ~ 4PR'"

.
aJ,; n
Gr.

(9.2')

A similar formula can be derived by comparing Ihe \\"ork done by

external forces W=-4-P1 with Ihe potentlal energy 01 lor510n

u=

~~ ; Ihe reader is advised lo do lhis independelllly.

Deri'oling Ihe perrnissible elongation (or compression) 01 lhe spring
by P.I, we can wrile the- [ollowing rigidity condition:
=

A=

~~~:" ~ p.]

(9.2~')

Formulas (9.25') IInd (9.28') enable liS to check the slrenglh and find
Ihe delormalion 01 Ihe spring.
Tile greatl?r the permissible shearing slress ITI. lhe more flexible
is lile spring and tile greater will ~ its compression umlt"r a particular 10arJ P, be<:ause it ma>' be lI1anulaclured Irom a thinner wire. The
wagon springs must be sufficienlly flexIble, lhcrcforc lhey are made
(rom tempered sleel wilh a high elastic Iimit. Tlle perJllissible shearing

Torsbln.. S//f/I6th and R"ldJ1V

CII. 91

11/ San

'"

stress may be uf) lo 40 k(lmm" and somelimes as hiRh as 80 kgIlmm".

The permi.s.sibll' slreu lor chrolniumvanadium sleel In tension springs
i.s laken up lo 70 kf nlm' al ,-6 lo 8 mm. The pennissible sIlt-armg
stress 10" plJospoo..6ronu js ITI- IJ kgf/mm" al G-4400 kgf/mm" and
, up to 8 mm.
ThIl!Sll! values of permissiblt- slress are val id onl)' under sialic loading;
undef al!ffilalinli! loads Iht-y reduce by about l/J. and FOl springs lI.'Ork
ing nonstop (valve springs) by abool 2/3. In Ihese Cll5e$ In imporlant
raclor 15 lhe devt'lopment 01 faligue crack! (.see 16). In addition. lhe
val~ springs ollen work al high lemperalurll!$; thls also rt'quires a reduction in Ihe perrnissible slresses.
In pr:lctice. when d~igning spring5 actonling ID Formula f9.25),
we inlrodlltl' a correction factor k whlch, ,part rrom shearing, lakes
lnto uccount olhl'r faclors (bl'nding 01 Ihe spring wirf:', longitudinal
df:'rorrnalion, l'tc.) Ihat werf:' nol consi(]l.'rl.'d aboye. The grcall.'r th" rlltio
Le. the Wl'atl'l' lhe lorslonal rigidity o lhe .spring, lhe gr"aler Ihe

f,

"alue of racior k.
to

Formula (9.251, \\hic.h in addilion lo lonion acoounts lor sIlear due

rote\' P, is replacl by
M,

PR

(9.29)

maxT=kr-k "i;T

The ,'alue or corroction rxlor k may be taken from Table 8.

TibIe a
COI-ncllgn torflicitnh 19r oUrlplinll Spl'ins

4
11

f.42

, , , ,
r.3r

1.25

r.2r

l.rl!

l.lG

10

11

l.l~

1.12

12

l'

1.111.09

In design of springs, lhe- koou'n quanlit}' somelimes is nollhe rorce P

whiC'h stretdM.':5 or COlllpresst'5 lhe spring bu! I'rIft"gy T which iI mus!
abs>rb. As in Il'I1Sion or compres5ion or a rod, Ihe polenlial enetgyof
ddonnalion U allhe spring is measured in lerms ollhe work done by
Ih,' l'JI1ernal lorC't1>.
As P and i. an: Ineuly dependl'fll upon exh olher Hormula \9 28)1,
lhe potenlial energy of derOlmation al lhe sprmg mar be ...rilten as

U _..!...P).=o~
2

Gr'

(9.30)

'"
From formula (9.26) \Ve hay!'

SMor and Tor$lO"

[Pllrt I f I

PR= T~~
Puiling Ihis valu' in equalion (9.30), we ollla!n

U =""""iQ
2"R" ITr 'T'

As 2nRII is lhe length of spring wire and

U=WV
"

JI,' Its area of crass secUon,

(9.31)

Here V is Ihe votume 01 Ihe spring. l(e<>ping in mind that U=T, we

can wri!e formula (9.31) as
V

4GT
=w

(9.32)

TIIUS, by assuming Ihe 1mil ing vahl{' of stress --ITI we can calculate

lhe volume of Ihe spring required to absorb t'nt'J'gy T=U such thal

lhe permissibJe stress -ti is not exceeded. The compres.sion olllu" spring

rJ

umler 1.1 should he checked; il should b.. such

that IhC' gap between lhe spring turos is nol
compJl.'lrly e!iminatet1.
As ao !llus{ralion we shall calcula le fhe maximum stress tllld eJongalicn of Ihe cylindrical
spring shown ill Fig. 113, ir spring radus
R=IOO mm, ~pring wire diameter d=20 mln,
numbt'r 01 turns 11=10 and tensile force
P=220 kgL Shear rnodulus G... 8.5x lOO kM,f!cm'.
The stresses will be ca1culaled w1th the help
of formula (9.29). As the ratio.!!.
, -10, the
correclion factor k= 1.14 (rabIe 8) aJld
TOl.,=k

2PR

.v' =

2x22flx10
,
1.14 3.I~xl' =1592kgi/cm

The elongiltion (or compression) of Ihe spring

according lo formula (9.28) 15
Fig, 117

i_4PR'_4X220xIO'Xlfl 104
- (f;r 1l,5x IU'X 1_ ...
. mm

In addition to cylinurical coH sprin,:s conical springs (Fig. ll?)

are also used in engint'<!ring praclict'. The Hlt!il 01 lhe top and botlom
lurns in Fig. 117 are denoled by R, and R, respectivel}'; thc average

CIt. 91

radius R may be calculated by Ihe furmula

'"

R-R .
+R1-R'a
~
where n is Ihe number 01 turTlS and a i5 lhe angle formed by the radius
under consideralion wilh the lop radius R and measured along lhe
spring tUrll!.
The slrenglh al conical sprlng is checked with Ihe help 01 formulas
(9.25) or (9.26) by replacing R wilh ils maximum value R. To deter
mine l., as in Ihe previous case, we must add Ihe elemenlary delormations
dA Af,RIh

-7fT;"

M=PR is

now a variable quanlily. Therdore

,-

A- S'\~~,Ih_W; [R,,+tR'll""r th""~rR:+RmR, +R.l

(9.33)
Sometimes springs are manufacture<! nol from a round wire bul a
reclangular-secUon wire; ror such springs Ihe formulas given in 54
(Table 9) have lo be used to ClIlculale Ihe slreues and deiormations.

5~.

lonion in Rods 01 Non-circular Sedion

In engioet'!'ing practiee we oflen come across rods 01 non-drcular

section subject~ lo lorsion; Ihest include rolled and thin-walled rods.
Under torsion the crtlSS sedions of such rods do not ~lIIain planes, they
warp. As depicted 00 lhe uampleof a rectangul.r section, poinls of lhe
section do nol remaio on !he plane (some get displaced inwards, olhefs
ouiwards) .nd lhe section unoo-goes pliJne silitl (warping) (Fig. 118).
A. When a roo of uniform se<:lion is twisled by force. couples apphed
at ib; free ends, al! croo seclions of Ihe rod undergo equal plane shift.
Therefore Ihe di~lance belween equally di~placed poinls on .dJacent
sedioltS dots nol chaogl!, Le. lhe lenglhs 01 longitudinal fibres remain
unchangeJl. Thi~ menns Ihat lhe cross sectlons oF lIJo:! rod are Iree of
normal slresses when plano:! shift of ils secUo"s ls uniformo
Tor5ion s known
PUIt or free when eross sections or the twisled
rod are free 01 normal stresses. lt should be noted tha! Iree lorsion
is possible ooly under rondilions 01 unconstralned (free) plane shUI
uf al! secUoos. In PUTe lorskm. the magnilude and dislribulion uf
shearin slresses are Ihe ~me in all CTOSS sedions.
11 plane $hilt uf a sinete CTOSS slion of the h .. isled rod 01 non
cirt.ular secHon is conslrained (for e-xample, by lhe condilions 01' /ixation or loadin), lorsio., can no more be considered free: H will be ac-

'5

''''

SIW!lt ~nd Ton/on

compallied by change in tenglh of lungitudinal libres amI nurmal

stresses will begin lo aet in cross secl ions. In this (;115(' th~' sh(>llring ~lres
ses have dilferenl rnagnilw.!C! in c!ifferl'nt sedion~: lhe)' are Illlltle up
of shearing stresses of pure lorsion and additional shearing strt'SScs
I
connecled with lhe non-uniorm
plane shift of Ihe rod along it~
lcngth. Torsion wilh cOllslrained
plaue shift is Imown as etlllstra/-

ne.d torsion.
Figures 119 aod 120 depic! lhr

st;tes of pure ami

l'onslrain~

shear in an [seclioll. Figure 119

shows Ihe delormalion of [-secUon with Ir~ I'nds lo whic:h force

couples w;lh momen!s M. al"('

applied, Le. all j'se<::llon subject

ed lo pure torsion. Figure 120
depi!:ls Ihe deformlltion o[ Ihe
I
same seclion when sam.. mnmcnls M o are appl ied lo ils euds.
f'1~ 118
In this case, however, one endo[
Ihe rod is rigidly fixed; Ihercforc
the Iixed end remains plane, ils warping is complete!y conslnlined llnd
IJinders fr~ plane shlft of adjneenl sections. Torsion m:.y bc> considlCred
lree only al the free righl end 01 Ihe rod. !-Ienee, this is a caSI: oi cOllslr:Jincd tor~ion or, liS il s also known, bending torsion (lhe secUon
nanges, like elcments oi Ihinwalled sections in general benil whm the
se<:lion is subjeded to torsion).
Th~ problcm 01 constraincil lorsion was lirsl formulated and solved
by Pral. S. P. Timoshenko in 1905". However, these problerns drew
ihe attentiun of engineers and research workers only towards the' cnd
01 twcnlics in connection with the d('velopmenls in aireraft industry
nel inlrot.ludion 01 thin-walletl strudures in civil engineering. Sovid
scicnlists contributed much lo lhe theorr of design af thin-\\"lIlcd
strudurcs flnd shells. in pal'Ucular ProL V. Z. Vlasov II'ho pul lorIYlIrd the g(>nerlll theory of desi,gn of thinwallcd openpr,;/ilc r.:lds
(1939 "). This theory further developed in subsequellj years and
along wilh {he thcor o[ shell dl.,,;;ign grclV into an independenl braoch
ul Inechanks af structurcs, which is widely covered in lileralur<'.
The {hecrv of con~lrainetl forsOfl is to a certain cxtent bilsed on
thc lhecry 01 pure lorson of rods 01 non-circular st'Ctions; same of
the results 01 the theory are given belo\\'.

,.,

"1

P",,-wdmJtl 01 Si. Pdcrsbqg Poblffhnicol illSlil/de, Vol. ~, 191'15.

V. Z. Vlaso\'. 'fjn"",I/I'd Eltalle RIXis, $Iroiizdal, 194.0 (in Rus.sian). Airo
$teN. ,\\. Relyae\', SlltIlglh of M4IcrialJ, Nauka, 1965 {in IN!I5lan}.

lo,

B. Since lorsioo 01 rods ol nOfH:ircul:lT sections i:s acrompanitd bv

warping of Ihe sed iom, one of the basic h)'polheses al slrenglh f
malerials-lhc hypothesis al' plane sec:lioos-becomes inapplicable.
The problem ollorsion of such rods Tc!qlllTlIS more complicateu mathe.
malleal analrsis llnd can be sol ved on[~' by lhe mcthoos of Ihe theory
of elaslicity.

Ee!

,9J.

,wb'"''I"Ii,

H,

".

(I)

G&"~--~~
=...=:::
.IM ..
,! _

"\.
, "'D

"1
l'iC. 1J9

TI'It' firsl theorelkal invesligalion al pure locsiOll in rom of non

circular sections was <:arria! out by Saint-Venanl in 1864: he also
presenled a numb1' of solutions of particular problt'llls fiorsll)ll of

rods of rectangular and ell plical seetiom.). Solulions lo IR<my problems

011 free tonion 01 rods, includil1g rods 01 very complex prolilc~, huve

1"

"1
f'lIl

120

been found by 1101" 011 Ihe basis of Ihe general mt'lhOO of design of
suth rods devtloped by SaintVtnant. Howevet, in splle of lhe complexity nvolved in solving ihese problems by Ihe Ihecr)' oll.'lasllcily,
Ihelr resulls can be presented in a simple <lnd convenien! fOTln lor
pradical use. The lormulas lor maximum shearingslresses lInd strains
are presented in lhe forro 01 upressions ....hich are conlpletely idenli
al to the formulas lO!" maximum shearing slre:s.se.s and Ingle oll....ist

'"o

Slwr rwl T(/{'siofl

Part 111

of round bars in torsion:

(9.")
(9.35)

In lhese formulas J, ami W, are geonJelrical characlerislics of lhe

sectian (similar lo J and W'JO ror round 5eClions and having sanie
unils) whith 3rt' conJilionaJl)' ralled lhe lorsional momen! of intrtla
(J,) aAd Ihe section modulus in {mio" (W,). For circular and fing
secUans J,=J" and U:',_IVp .
For reme sections these geomelrical characlerislics have bren de-

!ermlned in c1osC!d form: for inslllncr, fOf an ellipse

:lo'b'
W
"'-

r=::-

J'-a5 .... bt'

(9.36)

Hert a nnd b are lhe major and minO!" axes of thlO dlipse. ~pctti.
vely. Th<' shraring slrC'SS diagram rN lhe elliplical seclion s shown
10 Pig. 121. Along tbe profill" el the st<:lion lhe slresses form a cont
-,~

1
.... -1---, -,.1[1-._- ,
fl;:

J21

noous lhu t:mgenl lo Ihe prolilt, and atta;n maximuln value al lhe
end d Ihe minar axis
='~' ); al Ihe end oC Ihe majot axis
.. (jt_,.

(l.....

'

t._

Idenlka! .sh('arinl:! s1res.s nUles are direded along do:sed cutVI'$

shown by dolted lines Isbl!itrmg stress trajl'Ctoriesl. The magnitude
oi $hl'aJ"ing slr~ t increases. as Il'e move (rom the cenl", 01 the eJlipse
lowlrds its periphcry. in dirt proporlion lo lhe distalll:e Fig. 121).

'"11"should

l!ll

be ootl'd Ihal whm iI roo 01 an llrbilrary proiile is sub

jecled lo lorsioo. Ihe shearl"tl slroses al the ronlour should be lan
~t lo the sed ion in ac:cordl!loce with the law of oomplementary s!learing stres.ses. lf the po$sibilily of stress roRlponMI l", perpendicular
lo the periphery is l'OOCeded, this will illlpl)' Ihat comptu)efllary
shearing str~ oct on Ihe s~ surface fr~ 01 0111 slres.se-; fflg_ 122)

For lhe saIne reason shearing stress T=O al he

cor~.

We can

thi.5 in Ihe example at 11 ['langular

uclion (Fig. 122; tOl) leftcornerl

FOI' a rectangular sectiOll .....ilh
sities b and 11. he goomelricaJ characlerisli~ J~pend ':f0n lhe ralio
bt'twt'cn thc ,ldes al1 are- expressed
by lhe following formulas:
J, ""abo ant! Wl-~' (9.37)

'" J/_"',hua,
wherr

W,=f\,libl

a. - Ta

and

(9.37')

IJ, -1Iti

flr,:. 112

TIle distribulion of shearing stresses OVt'f a rectangular !Iion is

shovro in Fig. 122. Atong each side Ihe shearln stress T varia ltCcord
inl;! lo a parabolic lew and attains maximum valuc al Ihe middl('
01 the longer side (t.,,-~): 311he middleol the shorter side

t_

-Y".".

and al the cornen T-O.

Table 9 conlajns the valul's o/ wellicients

Gt. ~

ilnu y.
Table 9

Cod6c1enll lor

l.'

1.2
I.S
"'S

.,
'.S

0.1
0.199

O.,,"

0.3i5
0.4ft1

O.'"

Deljrnln~

..O.'"""
O.'"
0.a18
O.a93
0.645

R:eclangular Rln Undtr 10t'$lon

1.00>

3.'

O.'"

O.'"
O.""
O.'"

S.,

O.\l3:S

0.76l

,..

10.0

1.123
155
I.'R'}
2.4St>
3.123

0.1Il1
lo 12l!
1.455

.....
1.7~

3.123

,
0.753
0.7.5
0.744
0.7&:1
0.7a2
0.142

SMor and Tars/on

192

[Parl 111
Ta'l~

10

Oda lln Tursilln 01 Nlln-cjrcular Scctlons

.'10",..1 ol 1.,.<11. JI
10<"')

SII.p< 01 ,h" >:\ ..",

fI~I.41')
iG
liilT-lT j ( -a

h~"lh,~,

,"
.'
1

hh, ,~,\,

Wl

A< 111~ middlc

"f 1001~cr "d~
W,,~

,~l,

VI,".'"

W,."-2/',J.l),

T, ""'-w;;-

'"

Ihc mj,ldlc
01 s/'OIt.... ,de

M,

t.-li"';;"

(2C~-')

-I

rr; 2.6;[-1
"( " ) ", (O':?"O.7)

d> 0.5
:If,

t,....

-w;-

~ase

:\1 Ihe

lile

O'

J,-Cll'ir

(l

'"

Wr-~""T

~roo\'c

M,
t",,, ""lt'"""

and 11 from tlle lable dcp.ndlnll tlpon lht

fOI]"

dlD.

0.05

0.10

0.20

0.40

O.GO

0.80

LO

1.51

lUlO

11.81

IUl2

lJ.i6

O.m

0.52

O.:3S

1.57

1.5',

1.5(,

0.':1'1

0.63

0.:18

dlD

0.0

,"

0." , 22

"f

'"

'".9)

Attording lo Table 9. lor narrow recf3ngular SfClions (};;t10)

P~.l23. alld a, and ~, are approximalely equal
t01-ffrom 0.312100.333). In accordance wilh formula (9.37'\ lar suth
rectangular seclions we oblain

roeffidenls IX and

J'='jIllJ'.

W'-:rhb'

(9.38)

Table 10 <:onlains formulas for lhe geomelrical <:harllclt'l'lstics of

complkat~ profiles and maximum shearing slrC$SeS In tenlon.
If U't art stud)'ing lorsion in a red of complu profile whkh ma)' be
dlyidtd inlo .JI numb el tlemenls. Ihen lor suc:h a srcli()(J

more

J,_J,,+J,,+ ... -~J,.

where n=l, 2, 3, .. , are Ihe numbers of he elemenlry parls Inlo
whkh thl' s:tlon ls divlded.
As lhe angle 01 wis! 1s Ihe same for Ihe cOlllplele secUon am! all
lis parls, IVe have

lhe jorque i.s dislribulf'<! over dilil'rt'nl porhons of lhe secUon in dired
proporliDn lo ther rigidity:
Al
'f !.h.
M n- M r ~
J,' ",,=,..,
J, , ... , < ,.-=<"TI,J;"

J,.

Correspondingly the mllximUlll shearing stress in c<:h of lhe 11

partions o/ lhe :;e<;lion is
T,
n

"",&
... w;
Aj, (',,) ... .&(.!b.)
IV,.
J,
JI. 1V,

The maximum value of

maximum. Hl'IKe

occurs in !he rltmenl lor which ~ is

0-

M, ( ' )

"[.... =J, \ ...,.

.... - .,

" ,",

w~

.- (iI;;-L

In addltion lo Table ID, we give htre the formulas for JI nd "[

for scctions composed Df narrow and 1000g rectangles. lor e;o;amplc,
l, T_. 1- and U-shaped seclions.
For suth sections 1l.1! may take

J,=ill:Eh6'

(9.38<)

Parj 111

1"

where ~ Is lhe shOller and JI Ihe: Iol1gff si~ or lhe reclangl~ iolo which
Ihe 5Ktion may be divide<!.
Coefficiml T) d~ds upon the shapt: 01 lile sed ion and has Ihe
loUowlng value$:

lar an L-sedion
lar an I-st'dion

Angll."

lp

lor

11

T-sedion

lar

ti

Usedion

II = 1.00
'TI .... 1.20
'1-1.15
'1= 1.12

is expressed as belare by Ihe formula

M,l
lp-= GI,

The muimum shearing slres.!l js expeded lo occur in Ihe broadest

01 lhe rectangles olo whieh lhe givcn s.ec:tion has been divided. II
may be calculaled b~' lhe folJowing formula:
T

z:

M , 6_,

(9.::19)

J,

.....llcrt' /1... s Ihe maximum thickness amcng all th(> porticla.

We may use lhe fOl'mutas lor round seclions In Ihe analysis on torsion of pipes wilh i non-circultlr section and small thickness 01 Ihe
wall. Acoording 10 formula (9.16) lhe section modulLlS o: a thinwalled ring s
111 ," 2nrU = 2A.t
\\'hl'rl." A. s Ihe: aTea or lhe: circle boundftl h}' the midlinl" 01 the ringo
and I i1s thickness. Auumin,t!' lhal lhe she.aring slres.ses are distributed
unifermly eVff Ihe ring seclion, w(! gel
-.: -

or

2~1

(!)AOJ

This formula may b(! employed for thE.' analysls ef Ihln-wal1ed reds
non-circular c10std sections_
The angle 01 twist may be determine<! by the formula
Al,Ir.

Ip-

ti

aJ",. -lit;

\\ultipl)'lng and divlding by 2nr.... S,

,s

CP-EA; 1

W't

:et
(9.41)

..... h~e S I~ thl" hmelh or Ihe ({'flIrt' lint' ti Ihe pipe section, and A,
ls lhe area bounded by the mitllil'll.' olllle givf'n cIOSt'd seclion.

PART IV

Bendlng. Strength 01 Beams

CHAPTER 10

Interna! Forces in 8ending.

Shearlng Force and 8endingmoment Diagrams
55. Fundamental Conctpts 01 Delormatlon In Bendlng.
Construction of Btam Supporls
A prismatic bar wilh a slraight axis bends il ii is aclcd upon by
fces perpendicular lo iis axis and Iying in aplane passing Ihroogh
Ih!! axis.
A bar ....u king uoder bending is usuaU)' called I beam. II has bftn
shown experimenlalJy th81 under the oclon af sUC'h loren lhe bram's
axis takes tlte foral al a CU"'t', and Ihe beam bcnds. Figure 123 sho\\'5
PJ

P,
Fl. 123

8 s)'stem 01 feTC('! bending a ff<:tangular bram; lhe [orces 3d in Ihe

plane 01 synlnJetry al he !leam. 11 lhe plane 01 aclioo 01 lhe forces
ditfcrs Irom lhe plane 01 syrnmetry lhen in addlllon lo bending lhe
bEoanl is subjeded lo lsian.
.
Bearns are Ihe mosl cammonl)' ured elell'K'nl of shudures and lilachines: thl:r, wirnsland the prtSSUre of other ellOments of the slrocture
<Ioc pump e. rocc~ P,. p and p. in Fig. 123) and iranslt'l' il to lhe
parts slJpporling lhem (Ior example. forces P. and p. in Fig. 123).
Thus, Ihe beam expt'l'iences he forcf'S applled lo il and the reac.
Iions 01 the supporb. 80th kinds of tillO forct'S must be kilO.... n lo
~nab[e lIS lo salve Ihe problt'1lI on slrenelh of beams under bcnding.

100

The external appliw 'orces may be ca1culal~ if we know thr parls

01 the ~Irocturr supported _by lhe beam. These forces are dassirled
as conccnlrated P (ti, kll, N). force couptes ....ilh monJen! M (lfm,
kgf m. ~m). and Joads uniformly and non-uniforml~' dislrlbultd
Qver he lenglh 01 Ihe beam.
The unilormly distribuled JOIIds are ffil'asured by Iheir intMsily q.
Le. load >ef unit Imglh ollhe beam and are expr~ in tflm, kgt m
or Nltn.
lhe mllmsily of non-unilorrnly dislributed loads Varil'l; .. lon~ Ihe
lenglh 01 lhe beam and s denoi('t1 by q'x). In thls cose q(x) s lhe load
" ..w.,f,T
Atiflfr;)!fff1

4hn'rA

P-XJtf

.~

Id

pi'r unil lenglh or Iht bearn lit he givm point -. In olhrr words.
qlx) i50 cqual lo Ihe! limil af Ihe ralio or load acling O"Cf a Jenglh al
(/x n{'lIr lhe particular point lo lhe [englb dx.
A few l'xamples of beams are given in Fig. 124(a), (b) and (el. rile
nrsl Olle is a joisllOllded by a unilormly dislribuled forceq-200 kgffm
the SCCQnd bl'3111 is a dike supporl loaded by a triangular force {wnler
pr~url') or inll'nsily l/ (xl "arying from O lo qo-12OO kj:([/n; Ihe Ihird
(nI' is Ih\! lIlain b~a1Jl of a bridgr, whirh l~kt~ lhe forces exerted by
tillo cll::inc whl'\.I~.
Th" "gon a.~le s a bram supported by the wh~ls :llld subjecled
lo Ihe prCSSllre of the allle box; bearm in lhe aeroplane "",jngs are benl
dut' lo air pres.surr.
For lhe lime being Il:e shall study ooly lhe beams whkh satisfy
Ihe follO\\'lllg t""o Iimilalions;
11) the belllll Sol'Cticn must have al leasl one axis of syrnmrlry
trig. 125);
(2) alt external fOfCft mus! lie in Ihe plane of s}'mmetry 01 {he beam.
The reaclions of Ihe suppol'"ts, which batance lhe exll'f"nal rorct'S
applicd lo the beam, must also, obviously, Jie in he same pltmC'.
Noh.liun q(;r) 5hlll''S

Ih~t

tllt nlensill' 01 load in t.I:is case ;$. fundion of

Jf.

Ch. JOI

IlIlc'r",,1 Forcn.

'"

Q- und \jdi..,.rOll'U

To delermine Ihe rt'lletions 01 Ihe be3m supporl~ 'loe musl sludy

I~ir cooslruetioo. The supports generally belong to one of lhe lono..
nR lhrt'l' Irpes:
(al Iixtd hinged sllpporl:
lb) lnovllble hn~ supporl;
e) rigidl)' he<! slIpporl
Tht> lixt'd hinCe<! supporl is schemlllical1y shown by poinl A in
Pig. 126. lt allows Ih(' supported Sl'Clion of the beam lo revolve freel)'

o=J
,
round a hingt mounted at Ihe eenlre of gravity A 01 Ihe suppocled
se<:tion, but does nol IX'fmit linear tlisplacemenl el Ihis end or Ihe
beam. The resislance of such a sup(HIrl is exprtsSed by Ihe reaclion
which s lnmsrnilted from lhe supporl lo lhe beam end through the
hinge Ilnd which lies in Ihe plane 01 aeling 101"\:cs.

;2i ----Jt
Li

..(

,
,

FOil:. 121

We know only Ihe poin! of 3Ppliralion of Ihe rearlion-Ihe hillgl'_

as lt is Ihe only poinl al which lhe hum and 11M: supporl come lnlo
contacto bul we know ncither Ihe magmlude or rellCtion nor i1s dI'
rec.tion. Therefore. we must alwa) s replace Ihe supporl by lwo componenls: H. l , parallel to Ihe beall1 axis, nd A, perpendicular lo il.
From this reasoning a fixed hinged supporl gh'es two reaeUons
(A nd HA) of unknowJ1 mngnilude.
A movable hinged supporl permits, besides rolation, free displace
ment m Ihe rde\'anl uir{'l'"tion (Fig. 126, poinl 8). Henee. Ihis SlIpport
ooly hinders displacernenl per~dicular lO Ihe partk:ular direchon.
Thfiefore, lhe reaclion el such a supporl passes lhrough lhe cenlre
ellhe hinge and is dirccled al rlght angles lo the tille of re! displaQmenl el lhe support (u:sually lhe beam axis). Thll$ a hinged movable
supporl gives ooly one unJ.:rKN.1\ rtlletion B.

'"

UMding. SlrmgU< o( fJt:<ztll5

[P"rl IV

Flnally, a rigidly li ... ed suprOft hinders aH Iypes 01 displacements

01 lhe beam cm] in he plane o :lcHon of Ihe forces. 11 may be obtained
Irom a fixeel hingcd suppar! by removing lhe hinge (Fig. 127).
By removing lhe hlnge lVe prevenl rolalion l Ihe beam end, Le. we

introduce a new reaclloo Ihat prevenls suth a rotalion. This rcaclion

is crcatoo by a lorce touple. Therelare a rigidly fixed end of Ihe beam

gives three unknown reaclions: componen! H" parallel to lhe beam

axis, componen! A perpendicular lo it, aoe! lhe bearing moment M A "

J.'" ~ k
(~: '.

"'

m
I"C

k-'

1:'8

A b"am may rest on a number af suppart... el lhe- Iypes explained

aboye. Figure 127, for example. ~llows a bem with a rigidly flxed
end: in Fig. 126 the beam is supporled al one- e-n by a fixed hinge-d
supporl and al Ihe olher end, by 11 movable hinged support;
in Fig. 128 (a) Ihe same bcarn is supporled addilionally al Ihe centre
by a lIlovable hinged SllppOrl: lhe b('lIrn in Fig. 1:28(b) is rigidly
fixed al one end and supporkd by a rnovable hinged support al one
of lhe trllermediale sl-clions.
In a1l Ihese figures we have depicled lhe reactions 01 lhe supporls
oi II particular conslrudion, which mal' arise under the aclion of
exlernal rorces: Ihe forces hilve nol bft'n ShOWll in lhe figures.
To delermine lhe unknown reaclions we shall fir~l use lhe ~talic
equations expressing lh", condition Ihal ulld",r the- action 01 Ihe forces
app1i('d to il amI Ihe readions lhe beam as a \Vhole- re-nlllins in e-quiIibriulII, As aJl Ihe rorces lic in a single plane, we ma}' wrile duwn
lhree stalic equilllofls. Thus, lhe problem of dete-rmining lhe reac!ions
from condiHons 01 slntics is dclerminalc iI lhe lIuJllbcr of unknown
reaetions is nol more Ihan lhcl'l'.
Benee, the beams wilh lhe COnstrucllon 01 supports thal gives three
reaclions (Figs. 126 and 127) are slatically dete-rminate-. Mulliple.
supporl beams wilh inlerm~diale hingcs also be10ng lo Ihe group
of ~lalically determinale beams. Thcse beams m<l}" be dassified inlo
Ihe basic slalically determinale beams (A and 23) and the suspended

'"

0.. 101

slaticolly rk/:fm;naft (l.,:? and 3.D), \\ hich Me supporled by Ihe forlIK'f

throu:h hinges (Fig. 129).

AII olller bc-lIm5 beloog 10 Ihe group of sta/icafly illdtltfnunolr;
they will be anaJrzM laler in special chaplt'fs.
The ronstruelion al Ihe supporl.s ~. in lact. SOllltlinle5 very moch
difterent [rom lhe oonstruclion shown in Figs. l2GlUld :n. TlwrelOfl!'.
befare lI.oe start analyting a be"m we must first study the deslgn or

'1<

'" ,
"
'"

Fill

'"

its supports and cslablish ta which group 01 supporhshown in Fig5. 126

and 127 do the)' belong.
As Iht deformation of the beams is usually very 5mall and slresses
are wilhin Ibe elastlc limi!, \Ve musl fiml out whelher Ihe support
perlllits even a smaJl rolalion or displacement. l/Ihis is so, it is suf

PI,
.~

lb}
Fil. 130

lidenl lo COIl!ider Ihe $uppocl hinged or movable. 11 lhe end of a me

lallie or \\'OOden beam is l'Ixed in a brick \\'&11 to a s~all depth. lhen
a Iittle rolalOO 01 Ihis t'fId is quile pos.sible, and tht'feiore lhe end
should be oonsidered as hinged.
Thus before cklermining the support reacl ions, ";1' musl represenl
lhe supporu by schematic diagram replacing the a<:tual constru<:lion
by 3n equivalen! .IIpproximate dra\\'ing. Thus, ror Inslance, Ihe wagon

{k'IIJiM!. SIfmi11r.

DI

Bttlt1tJ

tI;'!le (Fig. l3f}jo) Ihal Upl'l"i<'1'ICe; prt'MUre- P ollhe wagon body and
lransmll.. 1I lo Ih!' rails nJ~Y be lcoke-d upon as a beam loaded by lor
tes P al poinl!; A .nd 8 .nd fesln on hingt'd $lJpporls e and D ol
which one ma~- ~ oonsidered roovable (Fig. 13O(b. lhis schelllalic:
dr.wing describes lhe a<:lual working vf Ihe ~'agon ade wilh some
.pproximatlOl1 liKaust the supporling seclions ma, rolale under
and D lDay also
bending load and lhe di$lance belween poinl!
slighlly change.
We shall emplo}' Ihe Ihree equalions ol equilibrium to dl.'lermine
Ihe slIpporl real.'lions in slalkalJy determinail.' bearn.,. lhl:' axis of
Ihe beam is assumed as Ihe xaxis aml Ihe tentrl.' 01 one of the hinges
os lhe ~enlre 01 coordinales; Ihe y.axis is dircclc) verlically Ullwarlls
(il is assumed Ihal Ih(' bNlnl is horizontal).
10 determine lhe horizonlal componenl 01 Ihe reaellon \\'t' equ<lle
lo zero Ihe sum of projeclions of alllhe 100'tl's 00 Ihe x-axis. TI1<l ver
IiC<ll compvlll'nls of Ihe readions and Ihe Sllpport momen! l/re deler
mmed b)' equoting lo zero Ihe sum 01 monK'nls uf all forc<"S /l00u1
any 1\\"0 poinls 01 Ihe beam. usuatly abolll Ihe celltres 01 gra\'il)' of
tlJe stlpporlf'd sr<:tiOllS 01 Ihe beam. The sum or projections 01 nll
Ihe foro'S ora Ihe g'IXIS shoold be fijllated lo tero lo check lhe correct
ness ol calculaliom; lhis condilion musl bereome aJl idenlil)' whl.'fl
lhe \'alu~ /llmdy obtaintd are wb.slllulf'd in it.
In be-alllS \I,'ilh inlel'"1r~diatl.' hinges. \I.'l' lin! sludy Ihe equilibrium
01 the .sUSp<'fldfd beams as beams on two .supports and lind their rtac'
lions. These reaellOllS mllSl balallCt lhe forces IraflSmillf'd fmm lhe
suspended tM-am.s lo Iht b~ bea.m through ttll' hlnges. Knov.'fng
{he forces. we can dettrrnine Ihe- readions of Ihe ba5t' beam (Sl.'t" 59).

Str~ in a Ikam.
Iknding MOlllen! and She~ring Force

56. Nalure 01

Sl.'Jedion 01 Ihe desin schemc afill delerminaticm 01 he support

relldions compldes Ihe first parl 01 Ihe problem of bearn analysl:s(1l.'lerminalion 01 lhe external lorces adins on lhe b('llrn.
We can 110W proceed with fimling the stres.'lC:S in beliO! sedlOll5;
Ihis will be lhl.' nut .sl~ in solvin~ lhe proble-TIIs en bendinj,(. For
thscussion. 11.'1 115 considcr a hinged beam Ifig. 131) which IS loadl'd
by rorces Pro P:. and P~ For lhe given s)'slem of forces lhe- horizonlal
rcaction H.. is uro. lhe reaclions A :lnd 8 3rt detllf"mined from lhe
('quahons of momenls; thus 1111 the exlernal orces can be lkltfmintd.
Berore delerminin,l!" Ihe stresses \\'t nlusl find H:c trilical .slion
o( Ihe be-am Ihrough whlch lhe muimum slressa ate lriUlSferred.
lhis can be ac:hlt'\'e-tI b)' deriving formulas whic:h ffiable us lo deter
mine Ihe stresses in anr seetion (lar e.nmple, indined .stion "..J).
Onl't \I.'t have derind lhese formulas, \1,'1.' shall be able lo determine
Ule critll:al sec:lIun as \\'ell as lhe muilnum stres.<es.

""

Ll"l us starl by deteflllining stresscs in a p\ane J}f'rpendkular lO

Ihe axiS 01 {he beam. Ihen in plalX" parallellO the axIS, alld finally
In 11")' plane. u! us take a SI.'cllon }I perpt>ndicular lo lhe.- axi$ of
lhe ~m wilh i1s Cl'ntre of gravily 0, at a di5lan~ x ham Ihe ltft

z:

tlJ~
Fi~, 131

support. To determil1l.' lIl.'

stres..~~

in his seclion

\\l.'

remov!' onl.' por

tion 01 lhe beam alld ro,:ploce ils action on lhe remainin~ portian by
lile' unknown stress. FOf convenieJJ' of eakulatlon, lhe equilibriurn
of Ihat pocliOll or lh!' beam should be comirlered lo whlch ie:ss nurnher
01 lorct!\ lit" appliffi: in lhe t"xample undo:r col15ideralion. the leH

6 ji}
6 .. ~.

porlioo This porlion mus! mainlain

1
equllibrium undt,l' lhe aclion Di
eJllrmllJ and interna! forc~ ocling
on lt.
lile only rxlemal fOf('(l-I~ la'
A lleting up"..ards-i~ applird lo
,
Q
ht' Id't of section /-/ (lhe wl.'~l of
:
1
lhe beam is neglected). Thl! flJl"te
can ~ balanceel only by lhe interf
na! force Q-A (or Q=P.+P.-B=
-A) \\'hich is lranslnitled from the
right cul-out portian 01 Ih(' beam
and ads verlical!)' do\\'nwards lO)
a!ong Ihe langen! lo th! section
A
:r
(Fig. 132(a)), Sirtee lortes A and Q
Iying in the vcrliul planc form
11 rouple with montent M=Ax in
Ihe clockw~ dlrrclion, tite scchon
musl experience internal fon:l'5 which also resull in a momeni of
the sanie magniludl' M-Ax acting in ihe anlidockwisc UlTection.
Onl}' normal stres.<,es acting in Ihe seclian lIfe capable of crcaling this
moll~nl \\111ch relains lhe leH portian of Ihe bum in equilibtium.
HMCC, the interna! forces in 5llon 1-1 lhal teplace Ihe <JCtion of
Ilw: remond nghl porlian of Ihe beam on the eH are: force Q-A
parallel lo {he externa! ron,es and madI' up of sheanng slresses acllng
in lhe beam cros.s secilon; a lorce couple of moment M-Ax lhu ach

----...Jr

[Par! IV

in lhe plane rJ. aclion of utema! rorces and is made up oi nornlal

slresse>.
This n~allS lhat lIJe sechoo uf the bnm Imder (onsid6alion u~riellC'es Waring as lI"ell as nermal stresses (Fig. 132(b hil add up
inlo inlemallOl"et laclors Q ~nd \I ""hich together balaoce Ihe syslem
01 e.tlernal forces acling 00 Ihe porlion of bnm being considtrn1. It
goes ""ilhou! saymg Ihal IMe fact~ Q and M o, Ihl'.same magnil~de
bul acfing in lhe opposile dindion are lransmitted across srcllOll
/-/ from lhe lelt porhon ol" lhe beam lo Ihe righl, and the)" balance
lhe exlemDI forces applied lo fhe righl porlion.

Pt

lli ID

_ ....._ _.1_ ' _ ,

-- ,.!fel , -_._r

_.r

2~--J-.r

8
-1

F11 133

To delermine l~ slre:sses aclirll!" in "Mioos st('liMs 01 Ihe bum.

we IDU5lleam lo determine lhe magnitudes and dirt\:Hoos el inlemal
forres aeting jo lIn arbilrary seclion oi Ihe beliO by ('xpressjng Ihem
Ihrough edernal lon::es. ul os censider. fOl' cumple, an arbilrary
secllOn }2 {Flg. 1311 and nd lhe inll'tnal force; transmiited from
Ih(,> lefl porliorl of Ihe ~am lo Ihe r1gbl. In order lo do this we
renlove lhe left porl ion lllld Irllllsler Ihe fcrees oel ing on il to lhe righl
porllon-to l!le crnlre 01 grllvily ;f se<:lion 22 poinl O,). In lhe prO::I'SS cf transrer. Ihe lorces lid ing in a pIune IIre rellucN lo a reS"ultant
[orce lIclin,g atlhe centreor torces aud a fOfce coup!!'. Hence, the forces
lr<lII.derred 11'0111 Ihe e11 porllOn to 1111' righl musl be applied al point
O, in Ihe f01m of fcrct' raclOfS tf'lg. 13.1): force
Q =A-P,
(IO.I)
Ion::e couple wilh rnornrot
M,...<!x-P, (x-o)

(10.2)

Ao;suming lhal A>P.. Wf' direcl force Q upwards and momeol Mdockwise. Idmlical inlerf':/I[ force ractor:s Q IInd M acling in the opposite direclion are lransfl1'rrt'l! lrom Ihe righl porliOfl or lhe beam lo
Ihe MI (Fig. 133).
It is clear from lhe aboye discussion Ihat in an}' cross 5{\(lion oi
Ihe beam 1M inlernallorcescan be n:duced lo force Q and force couple

Ch. 101

or mamenl M, .....hich t~lher replace lhe ac:lion of one cuto!f portian

or Ihe b!.am on lhe oth~.
Fon:e Q. lhe resultanl ol eleJnl!nbry shearing
acling in the
beam SKlion. is known as lhe (Qurol Of ~lt(Jfing fora:. This force has
!he tendency lo shear lhe section under coNideration with respecl
to 3n adjoiningsection (Figs. 133 and 134). 1I is evidmt from equation
(10.1) tha! lhe shearinll force in each cross section is calculare<! as
the Sllm of prnjediON on Ihe normal lo Ihe beam axis of al! edemal
rorCts acting lo lhe right or leH of the seclioll. When aH lile forces
acling on the beam are perpendicular lo its axis. lhc shearing force

rorce:s

,
~

0'0

O'"

O"

r.)

fE
00
'"
,

(b)

f'l. 134

,a)

('J
fil. 135

may be c.alclllaled as Ihe algebraic sum of forces adinR on the portian

or tlle bcam the equilibrium or whkh is belng consideretL
The mamen! or internal for'C(' coupll: made up or ell'mentar)' normal
slrcsscs acting in the beam's cross seclion is kl1O\\.n ~$ INnding momi!nt.
The bC'nding moment lends lo roble Ihe seclion under consideralion
wilh respecl to an adjecent sl'Clion. which leads lo derormation 01
the bcam axis. Le. bending (rig. 135).
JI Is tvldenl from Eq. (10.2) Ihat Ihe bcndlng moment in an arbitrar)' ~Iion of Ihe Ix-am is equal lo the algebtak: sum 01 moments of
all ull't'nal rorces acling to onl' sirle 01 lhe section about central axis
!I Ihat is normal to lhc !>tam axis.
Le! us eslablish the sign ronv~lion for Q and M. As is shown in
Fig. 133. Ihe inlemallor~ faclors Q and M acl in opposile direclions
dePtJlding en wbether tht sec.lion under collllideralion belongs lo the
ltft portion or Ihe righl. This circ:umslance should be takl'll into ac:.
eounl ""hen dealing "'11t Ihe sigo lU\\'l'l1tion in arder lo gl't dentital
vahlfS of Q and Al noi only in magnilude bul also with thoe same sigtl
irrespeclive of whelher ""-e eonsidec Ihe loccC$ acling on lhe leH cul
out porlian or lhe righl OIW.

Bttldj"i. SlrrJIIIIl o[ Btll1JU

[P",I IV

In accordance lIo'ilh the abov~ (lor a horizontal beam) ~ shall (00shearing force Q posiUve iI the Clllemal forces to lhe leH al Ihe
sedion under consideratian ael up\\'ards or {he lorc~ lo Ihe right 01
lhe sedion ad down\\-ards. In olhl'r \\1)frls, Q>O il Ihe resollant of
<'Xternal forces acling lo lhe I~ft oi lile section is direcled upwards;
lor lorces aeting lo Ihe right 01 Ihe section Q>O ir Iheir resultllnt is
direcll'd dO\\1lwards. Acc:ording lo this convention lhe direclion of
Q eoincicles wilh Ihe dirl'Clion 01 shl'aring slresst's t whieh eonstitule
Ihe shearing force (Fig. 134).
The bending mOlnenl will be considcred positive 11 fhe algebraic
sum 01 momenf.s of forres appli~(j lo lile lelt ollhe Sl.'Ction givtS resulting momenlllCting in lhe clod:\\'ise direclion; or ir lorces applied
lo Ihe right of Ihe secUon give an anlkJockwise Il'SUlling momenl
Fig. 135). HellCl'. for ihe Idl culoR porlion iM- bending moTI)!'nl due
lo ~ac:h individual force is considere<! posilive if lhe moment or Ihis
fomw,r ,t. lhe Cflltre of ravil)" 01 Ihe K'tlion is clockwise; on Ihe olht'l'
hand. M<O iI Ihe 10TCf' gives an anticlockwise HlomL'1I.1 w.r 1. lhe
eentreof gravil)' ollhe sedion, If lhe rigbt euloff porlion of Ihe bearn
is ronsidered. Ihe com'ention is jusi Ihe revf.'fSf'."
Tile accepled s;gn C'Qrwenlion lar M is relaled lo Ihe nalurl" 01 delarmalion 01 lhe beanl: ir Ihe !:lending momenl is posHive. the l)o,:am
bends wilh lis eonve.~ surlare down, ir lhe bending llIomenl is nega
Uve. with ils cOl1vex surrace up (Fig. 135). In Ibe SC'{"lioo wher~ M
passes lhrough zero lhe beam axis has 3n inllecUon poinl; lhe 1x-:1I11
axis remilios sluighl in lhe segmenls where M:3'O.
We have seen lhal the e.~presslons for sheari~ lorce and ht>nding
momenl are diffl.'l'enl in dilrerenl ~IiOflS of lhe beam l/./ and 2-2).
By Ihe very definHlon 01 inlernal force faclors it is obvious Ihal the
shearing slrt'SStS are ma:'(illlulll in lhe section \\llere Q-Q"",., ,,"heteas
lhe normal slresses are maximum in lhe section \\;her~ M=M..~.
Thererore, lar ch~king the slrength 01 beams we musl find Ihose
secHam; in which she~ring force and bendtn;morTIl'nl are maximuln.
TIIe .5earch lar lhese crilical seclions is greatly iacililnled by plolling
or beoding-momelll 3nd shearinglorce diagrams, l.e. diaJ!rams Ihlll
s!lO\\' ho\\' bending mamenl M and shcaring force Q "ary in tlilJercnl
seclions 01 lhe beam \\'hen lhey 11ft plolted as a r\lnelino 01 x.
Thus, Ihe sheariog laret Q(x) and bendn~ momenl M (x) are fune
tion~ of x. In rlllure lor brevily's sake we~halt denole lhe~e <uantilies
by Q and M, and use lhe nolalion (xl only when wc \\.ml lo emphasize Ihal Q and M are variable quantities which depend upon x.
While plotling lhe diagrarns, lhe ordinales which. lo a eerlllin sc:ale,
reprl.'5en1 Ihe value 01 lhe bending moment oc Iht shearing force, Me
s~

S<lnK' wr.tllf" feLale 11M!: ~~ kit Q ~nd M .... Ih lIlt d,tttlilln nf ItwI cooro\illOll~
"e<. _hld! Il' _
Uliltll 11... eumploe, uwnl'ollnd bfndl"C of b~ .,.Ih bcQbft
:nlloJ s""rlofil'S UIC "'en ronv~l\"on.

0.. 101

1"/UNlI F~" Q. an4 M-<lilJtrtJlll.J

!aid olJ undE'r Ihe given $tion from lhe x-axis par.llrl to lhe axis
ollhe beam. Posilive ordinales of lhe Q. and M.tliagrams wlJl be ald
011" up".ards and negati\"t' dO\l'flIl."lIrds. Some books recommt'fld plou
ini 01 lhe bendinmomenl diagram en he COf1"U Sl<re 01 Ihe bt'flt
beam. lhe po.silive ordinales dO\l.'nwards antl negative upII."ards.
Ho.....t'\'er.lhis ls mmly a matler ol liking, wbich is not sigm6cllnt.
11 may berome easier lo plol lhese diagrams iI "'1! are abll.. lo {'Slabli-<h sorne relalion bet","een lhe "aluesof bending moment and shearing
force in /In arbilrary secUon and aiso Ihe relaUon of Q 3nd M ..... ilh
lhe [orces :JCling on Ihe beam"
In lile lleJd secliOll IV\.' shall explaln how 10 correlale lhe t'xternul
forces, lIJe ~earing force nd lhe bending rtIomenl.

57. Difftrtntlal Relalion Belweeo lhe Inlenslly

uf a Coolinuuus Load. Sheari'W Force and
Btndi ng Momeol

It Votas shO\l'fl in 56 thal ror l'<luilibrium or lhe tul-out portion of

a beam il is essenlial lo apply in lhe secUan lorce raclors Q IImi M
lnai rtplace Ihe acliOll oC lhe removed porHOll ()fl lhe porlion under
considCf"alion. HeflC'f'. if "''e cut fro:n lhe beam lFig. 136) an I'1clIl<'ul
uf nfinjlei)' small imglh dx. ji

musl remain in equilibrium un- ~P'Pz

der Ihe conlinuous load 01 inlen
_
_
sit)' q Iwhich may be considerfll A
'.
6
CMSlanl OYE'r the Iertlh dxl. lhe
..
lorc(':$ Q alltl Q. amI moments M ~.
and M,. which represenl lhe at~ 1#
.,
tlOn 0/1 lhe eleml'rlL of lhe leh and
1+ 1:"'"1

d,h' oo'off po";''',

'''pKl,~ r-:;(I~-l
H
ff, 1

1)'" Lel liS not~ ha! Q,=Q.j (IQ

IIml M,=M+dM beeallse th(' in

cremenl 01 these quantities in
tr;llSitiOll [rom secUon mn lo an
illlinjle!y clase sed ion m,II, is
also an inlinitely smllll quantity.
The wnclitions of e<juilibrium
01 lhe isoiall.'d eltmenl Play be
~Tilten as
~Y=oO,

r:\1."",O,
from lhe

~rsl

'1

\
'ITft

'ITml

-r(Z)

Ull11,
'liLu r
JJ.1
nJ.
n,
f'l. 13tl

Q+qd.x-fQ..,..dQl_O

M+Qdx+qdx~-(M+dM)=O

rquallon \/o'e gel

qdx-dQ =0
No ......ll;1!utultd force or m.JlI1eS1\ acts

O'iCf

ltIC rlemenl d.t

IJcnding. S/rcnglh

(lf

8wnu

[Parl IV

whererrom
(10.3)

Le. Ihe derlvalive 01 Ihe shearing force W.r.1. Ihe abscisSll of Ihe seco
tion is equal lo Ihe iotensity 01 Ihe oonlinuous load io Ihe salOl' sectioo.
FrolO lhe second equation, neglectiog Ihe iotioilesimals 01 fhe
second arder, we gel
Qdx-dM=O

dM

-= Q

or

(10.4)

Le. Ihe derivative 01 Ihe beodiog momenl w.r.l. Ihe abscissa of Ihe
se<:lion is equal lo Ihe shearing force in Ihe salOl' secUon.
Diffcrenlialing both sides of Eq. (10.4), we get

.r:M

dQ

-;;r-=d;

or

d'M

'j'X1

=q

(1(1 ..;)

Le. Ihe second derivalivc of Ihe bcnding moment w.r.t. Ihe abscissa
is equal to lhe inlensily of Ihe continuous load. lf q is direcled downwards, equalions (10.5) become
d'M

dQ

d:i'i"""'-q and -;;- ... -q

By iotegraling formulas (10.3) aod (\OA), we gel

Q ,)- \ q(.)dx+ Q (O)

(10.3')

>M.)~\ Q(.)dx+M(O)

(10.4')

lhe arbitrary constants Q(O) and M (O) are concentrated force and
momenl (i! they exisl) in Ihe beginning 01 lhe segment. lhese formulas are convenient lo use while plolting dillgrams for non-uniform
loading q=q(x). 10 the geomelrical sense each inlegral represeols

~rea: ~ q(x) dx=w q is Ihe load area (Sel' 59) and ~ Q(x)dx=wQ
"
is Ihe art'8 01 Q-diagrllffi ayer length x. Formulas [10.3') and (10.4')
ma~' be wrillen in the form
Q(x)=W,,+Q(O)
(10.3")
M{x)=wQ+M(O)
(IDA")
lhe relations obtained above may be used in plotting lhe diagrams
for Q and M, especially il \\'e consider that the derjvative of a fundion

Ch. lO]

Inlernal FOTCtS. Q. anr! ifdiagrams

""

goometrkally represenls lhe slope 01 Ihe langenl to Ihe curve al Ihe

gi\'cn poin!. In other wonis, Ihe shearing force in a secUon may be
regarded as the stope 01 the langtnl lo Ihe bending-momenl diagram
al Ihe poinl correspollding lo Ihe- given section. Thcrcfr\', iI should
be boml\ in mino that ii the x-axis is direded rom righ! to Idt, then
~~j =--Q, bec;u~ Ihe slope 01 the tangent to the curve changes i15
si~n if the dredion oI 1111' axis is reversed.
11 loflo\'ls from Eq. (10.3) thal in lhe seclion where inlenslly 01
lhe load q=O, lhe shearing force Q=Q..,x or Q=QlIlln' because if
q= =0 Ihen the taogenl to lhe shearing force diagram musl be
parallel lo Ihe xaxis. By the same reasoning we come lo an01her
more important conc111sion rom Eq. (10.4): Ihe bending momenl is
maxirnum (or lllinimum) in Ihe section whHe Q=d:: =0, Le. \\'here
lhe sheating lorre passes Ihrough zero.
Althuugb Eq. (10.4) enables us lo gel Q as he firs1 derivalivl' 01 M,
iI should be delermined independently when plotling he shearing
lorce diagram, ami Eq. (10.4) should be employed only lor checking
ils value. Similarly, for checking whelher \Ve are plotling lhe bendingmomenl diagram correclll', we can use formula (lOA") according lo
whch lhe ordinate 01 Mdiagrarn in an arhitrarl' seclion is equal to
Ihe area o{ Qdiagram lo one side 01 lhe- section or (liffers froro il by
a "alue ('qua! to Ihe concentraled bC'nding momenl Alto). if lhe l~tter
entl'rs in Ihe exprcsson ror M (x). Like\\'ise EQ. (10.5) may al:<o be
Ilscd lo check the corredness 01 plolting the Mdiagram. because lhe
dlrecllon 01 convexitl' of the bendingmomenl dia::ram is uetermined
br thl' sign of Ihe second derivalive of M. Inslruclions on chccking
lhe correclness of plotting the shearinglorce and bemling-lOoJllent
diagrams will be given below ( 60).

58. Plotling Bendillg-moment and Shtaring-force

Diagrams
Example. Piol Ihe bendng-momelll and shearingforce diagrams
lor a simply supporled beam loaded wilh force P (Fig. 137).
To calculate M alld Q in any section of Ihe beam, jt js flrst 01 a1l
necessary lo find the reactions_ The assumed direc!ions of Ihe reaelions A, HA' amI B is ShOWT1 in Fig. 137.
By eqllaling lo "leTO Ihe sum or lhe projertions of all forces on Ihe
axis 01 Ihe beam we gel

A number 01 example< on pl<>Uing Q. and Mdiali'"ams or" lllvell 1" p",bl.m

books. ~ N.!-I. Bc11'8ev. p",bl~m$ In Slr{fJgtll (lf Maleri<1/s. PergMh(lil Pr~. 1966.

'"

B~Idillg,

Slrtngl',

01

DWIII$

(Par! fV

This TesUlt couh! have been pr~dicted hcforehand. because all lIJe
forces acting on Ihe beam are perpendicular lo its axis.
By taking lIJe SUI1I oF lhe momenls or al] lhe forces aboul poin! 8,
we gel

+AI-Pb=O

A=+~
Similarly

-BI+Pa=O
oc
To check lhe correctness 01 1he T('SUllS obtained, \I'e lakr he sUn!
01 Ihe proje<:tions 01 all forces on lhe vertical y.axis;

A-P-j-B=O

or

A+B_P

Substituting lhe values 01 lhe readions found above, we gel

f!'.+ ~=p (o-'-b) =

"

which is in accordance wilh lhe oondition of equilibrium. Suth D

chl!Ck is al\\'ays desirable, because an error in determilling lhe reattions will inevHably le3d lo errors
in plolting Ihe bcndingmOl1lenl
A

and shearingfotte diagrams.

The expressions giving Ihe values 01 shearing force and bending
moment in any section may be ob11Iined by 11Iking ao arbitrary Sfftion J.) between A ;md e at a dlS'
lance x, Irom A. Lel US 11Ike nole
Iha! the t'xpression ~!aking a S{'C.
lion" ndudes nol only marking 01
the secUan on Ihe drawing bul aloo
giving ils distante from lhe seled
ed arigJo 01 coordina les. The cenIre or gravity of Ihe secion is denoted by 0,.
11 is more convcnient lo oonsider
Ihe !eh culoff portion lo determine
Ihe shearing forcl' Q in Ihe secUon, because Ihe leH porlion is adeo.!
upon by a less number of lorces (001)1 force A). Considering Ihl' por.lion 01 fhe beam lo lhe leH al scction O, and projecling the forces
acling on l on aplane pl:'rpendicular lo its axis, \Ve get Ihe expression
A

Q. /01

for shearing force Q, in Ihe st'Ction at a

distan~

x,

from supporl A:

"

Q,_+A =T

(10.6)

The shearing lorce in a sed ion having abscissa X, doe\ nol deptnd
upon Ihis dislance. Thus, as long as x. varies lrom O lo ti, Ihe slK>aring
lorce ~mains constanl, and iis diagranl in Ihis portian is represenled
by a slraghl line F,D. paral1el lo Ihe axis oi abscissa A ,8. (Fig. 137).
Expression (10.6) ror Q, "olds good as long as Ihe secUon tlOts nol
go lH.>yond poinl e, i.t. liJl o~,';;Q. H x,>a, Ihe lefl porlion 01 the
beam will experience two forces A AO,) P; consequcnll)'. lhe ~um of
Ihe projeclions 01 forces acling 011 Ih~ lelt culoll portian \\,11 change.
To find Ihe .shearing force in Ihe secOl1d portion, we shall have lo
tab aoolOO SKlion betwren poinls B and e with cenlre of gravily
at 0,. lis distance x, \l.m be mea.sured irom lhe rihl support B.
JI v.:ill be conv~itnl lor us in this Cllst> lo consider tne eqUJlibrium
al lhe right portion of Ihe beaDI as il is acled upon by OIIly on(' lortt 8.
Con.~idefing lhe righl cutoff portian of lhe beam, v.'t' gel the expres
slon lar &bearing forc:e in section 22:
p,

Q. = - B - - T

(10.7)

lhe minus sign sho\\'s Ihal force 8 acling on Ihe righl culoff portian
ls dirccled upwards.
11 s obvious thal if we had considered Ihe lell cutoff portion, we
would have obtained Ihe same expression lor Q.:
Q.=A-P=-8 (since A+B_P)
Expression (10.7) is valid ror any "aloe of x,nol eueeding Ihe Jjm-

its al lhe portion Be. Le. lar O<.r,t;;b; tis u:pression also sIlov."S
lhat Q. does not depend upon X
The shf!aring-rorce diagram over lhe lenglh of UJe second portian
is a sifaight line EaG. parllllel lo the xaxis. lt has a dSCOlltinuilya jump al lhe poinl of appliclllion Di force PI_ Al this poin! the shear
ng lorce passes through zero and is not equal lo DoE.=P. In a

sectlon

immedialely lo the leH or poinl

Q-+~
in a secUon lo Ihe rlght of poin!

e
p,

Q--T
Lef us note tha! \he absolute value of lhe jump is ('qual lo lhe concenlraloo lorce P acling in this secHon.
1-4111

[Part IV

'lO

Such a shape of the shearinglorce diagram (Fg. 137) is possible

only if W(! consider lhe concentraled force P acling al a single poin! c.
Actually pressure P is Iransferred lo lhe beam through a very small
aTea (Fig. 138). Therefore, in {!lis afea lhe shearing lorce changes
gradual Iy Irom
~b lo _ p,a , paso

+
U,:W

, b,""

~~

sing through zero in Ihe process.

lhe maximum absolute value 01
Ihe shearing force in Ihls example
will be (il a>b)
p,

I Q.... I=T

ca

AH sedions 01 portion
or Ihe
beam are prone to fadure due lo
shearing slresses.
In plotting Ihe bending-moment
[,
diagram we shall use Ihe same
sec:lions /-1 (with Ihe orlgin of
FIl!. 138
coordina les at poinl A) for the ter!
porlion 01 lhe beam and 2-2 (",ilh
{he origin of coordinates al poinl Bl for the righ! portion of Ihe be-am.
Considering lhe leH portion, we determine lhe momenl in ~clion
as lhe sum 01 lhe momen!s 01 forces ading on iI aboul the cenlre
01 gravi!y of lhe section Q,:

J.,

(10.8)

M, is a linear functioo in X" Thcrefore, il we rnove fhe sedion, Le.

change Xl, lhcn M, varies lnearly. bpression (10.8) for M, holds
good as long as Ihe secUon does nof go beyond poin! C, Le. litl Ih;;;;
~X,~,

As soon as x, becomes grealer than a, the ler! portion 01 lhe bearn

starls cxperiencing 1\\'0 rorces: A ami P, aod formula (10.8) no [llOre
holds good. As lhe diagram is a slraghl lineo il is surticienl lo give
!wo values to X, to oblain the t\Vo poiols required for plolting Ihe lne.
At x,=O, we get M,=D-this is lhe ordinale under ~ction A. Simio
larly at x,=a we get M,-+ p~; this is Ihe ordinale under $eCHon C.
Laying off upwards from the HIXis (postive moment) the segment
C,O which expresses lo a certain scale Ihe ordinal(\.
aod joro.
"
ing poiots DI aod A, by a slraight line, we gel the firsl porlion 01 lhe
beodingmomenl dlagram. To plol the diagram lor !he second pr
tion, we write down the expression lar Ihe mamen! aboul point O.

P:b,

'"

CIl. JOI

al fora:s acting on lhe rlght cutolf portioo 01 lhe beam:

(10,9)
In lbis porlkln also ihe InOmenl is posilive, because we oonsider
and force 8 rolales it aboul poinl O. in Ihe anti
clotkwlse direcllon. Expres:siOll (10.9) represenls lhe equalion 01 a
straight line and holds good far ~xb. Al x.-b, M1>D+ p~ and
at x.'"'O, M.=O.
Thus, Ihe seoJnd portian of the bendlng.momenl diagram is represenled by lhe sltaighlline D,8,. lhe bending moment is positive over
lhe whole lenlh 01 Ihe beam and is maximum In s:tron e, lhe point
?I appllcation 01 force P, where it
IS equal lo
:::
1
_
{he righl poriion,

'

Al

M.Q:J:~

~mglllpDIIII!IIr!
I-z-f l
1

(IO.IO)

Tbe muimum normal slres.ses will

acl in tbis seclion.
f!..
1
/ (the force acls in 2 '
At a-b- 2"
the middle al {he ~am) we gel
P/

M=-o .... --

1,

Iq

1,

(10.10') ,.it 1
-/

In llny cross M:Clion of lhe bl'am

L.'w.w.u

laken ~tween lile end poinls t

-A-C and e8 lhe values 01 Q and
Fil:',I39
M ate graphlcally represented by
lhe ordinales of the corresponding diagrams shown in Fig. IJ7 by
vcrlkal hatching.
\Ve shall sludy a few more examples on plotting bendingmoment
and shearingforce diagrams lor beams subjeded to various types al
looding,
Ld liS plol the M and Q-diagrams fOl' the beam shown in Fig. 139,
loaded by a conlim:ollS uniform!y dislributed lorce of intensity q
(~pressed
in kgl/m. U/m. N/m, etc.).
1t is ~lial to determine Ihe support reaclions before v.'e slart
solving the proble.m.
The ruelion H" is zero, rtadiOll5 A and B areequallrom symmetry;
each 01 them is equal to half 01 lhe total )OId 0fI the beam:
,/

,.

A-B=y

'1'

Bendfllg. Slrtngth 01 8uuru

[Parl IV

Le! us lake a section O at a distance x from lhe leH end 01 lhe beam.
We shall consider lhe equitibrium 01 lhe lelthand portion to delermine Q and M. It is acled upon by reaclion A 3nd toad q UnifOflJ11y
djstribuled over lenglh x.
We mus! lake lhe sum 01 all lhe forees ading on (he [eH cutoff
portlon lo determine Ihe shearing force in sedion O. To lhe leH of
Ihe secUan is force
directed upwards, and lhe resultan! of
Ihe unlformly distribuled load ayer lhe length x, equal lo qx and
direcled downwards. Therelore,

A=t

Q-A-qx=s.-qx
lhe shearing force varles wilh x [inearly, and Ihe fine may be plolted
by taking IWO values 01 Ihe variable x: al' x=O, Q= ~ and al x=l,

Q=- ~ . lhe shearingforce diagram is shown in Fig. 139; QIft"'

="f.

To plol th~ bending-momenl diagram w~ take the 5um of lhe moments ollhl:' same forces acting on the portion of beam under considl!ration about poinl O. Keeping in mind Ihat resultanl qx ac!s in Ihe
middle ollhesegment 01 length x. with:m arro of lenglh-rllboUI point
0, \Ve gel
~

q/

qx'

qx

M = +Ax-qx "2-zx-T=T (I-x)

This equaUon 01 moments is val id lor del('rmining Ihe bending momenl in any seclion of the beam.
In Ihis case- he bending moment tlepends upon Ihe square of abscissa x; thererore, Ihe' diagralll is 01 Ihe shape of a squnre parabola.
10 plot the curve \Ve nced at leasl Ihree or lour poinls lying on il:
atx=O
M_O

'I(

1)

al x='4

3q/'
M=z; (-T -32"

/
a t x=:

ql(
M=+TI,L-2"

al x= 1

M =0

1) =+T
o"

The b('ndingmoment dingram is of Ihe ~hape shown in fig. 139.

To delerminl:' M=. we lind abscissa xu l'l lhe corresponding sed ion
by ('qua{ing Ihe firsl derivalive or M IV.r.L x lo zero:
11M
d.

=!!!._ 2q.o_0
:t

wherefrom

'1
M"'''-+"'T(I-x')=+"F
q~.
ql'
x.=2"
n<

00.11)

Ch. 10)

'lIk'NlI FINtU. l} twJ MlIllIItaIIU

'"

The maximum bMdin mamenl oct':urs al the middl~ of 1M span,

i.f'. in the- s~diQn where Q_O. This is a check el the re/aliOlI belWffn
M (xl and Q(x) etablished above (in 57).
Lel lIS amsider ont more examp!e-beam AB rigidly Iixed at one
end (Fig. 140). Such a beam is usually known as t:OlUiftrJtf. Since tlk'
righl md or Ihe bearn Is free, il is aser.tial to l:OI1Sidl'f Ihe lorces llCt
ing to lhe right o Ihe- ~tion while plolting
bendingmomenl
ami slM'aringlorc~ diagrams. In tllis
Z
f
ca~ il is 001 oecessary lo deter
mine lile- support ructions or Ihe
A
e
8
rigld cortslraint (at Ihe lel! end of
f :'1--1
Ihe beam). force P divides Ihe bea m
~ -o.l
into lwo parts: AC or length a 2;a
t
and
of lenglh b.
T
:
11 we considcr scc.tion 1-/ a! a distuoce XI (rom lile frte end, \Ve obSl'rve Ihal Ihere are no exlernal lor- ,,;2
ces to lbe righl o[ Ihe seclion and 1i.!:;;;;;;;;;;lffiifu:L~J
...
U1erefore il is free of internal foc-;
ces. foe atl values of x, bet\\~ O
and x,=b
I
Q,=O aod till-O ... (a)

1m

es

E!

FI,. HO

1be distancc to scction 22 in porlion AC wil! be laid ol!" from the

point or applicalioo of lorce P. To tht' righ! el Ihe secUon \\"e will
h"ve larte P acHng up\\'ards and a uniformly o.Iislribuled force of intensity q acling downwards oVt'r a length x. and having a resultanl
qx. lile inlernal lorces in secHon 22 wi1l be

Q.=-P+qx,

(b)

''
,- x,-,-

(1
e

MP

As Ihe abscissa is varied frOln x.=O lo x,=a. shearing force Q,

changes according lo linear 1111\.' and bending rnomenl M. according
lo a parl?bollc lawwilh a maxinmffi in the seclion whett Q,- ~~ =0,
i.t'. in lhe seclion wht'l'e x.=!:., as Is evldent from equation (b) .
Lel us now plol (he Q- and M-tliagrarns. In order to calculate the
ordinales in a gent"al form \\t shall usullIe a parh<:ular ratio bel\\-ftft
P .nd q (thit can al'\\'ays be done when Ihe quantilla are known
numtrically). Suppose. lor insl.nC<', Ihal P='!f.
11 is f'vident from equation (a) thal in Ihe !irst portion oi lenj!.th b
tbe ordinales o bolh Q- and M-diagrams are rqual to ZefO, and the

,1<

(Part IV

Btll4lrrg. Sfrtllglh o{ BtQJfl5

diagTams coincide with lhe xaxes. In he seoond portion o length

AC=a (~.~tl) rom equations (b) aud (e) we have

at x.=O,
a1

Q.=-P= -sq".

P.

x.=-q="3'

al x.""'a,

M,=O
M qa./1qa"qa
'="33-2X9=T8'

Q.=O,
2

Q,=-P+qa="3Qa,

qa"

qll'

1t1.=Pa-T=-T

The Q. and Mdiagrams 3fe depicled in Flg. 140. It is clear from

he diagrams lhat the absolute maximum vaJues of Q and M occur

al (he fixed end and are

I I

q.'i
M", "" t

Q"'U=3 Qa

59. Plottlng Bending-moment and Shearing-Iorce

Dlagrams for More Complicaled Loads

Having sludien the characleristics of bendingmoment and she.1ringforce diagrams and he general methoo ol ploUing Ihem, we can pass
over to solving mOfe complicaled problems.
Le! us see how lo determine Q and M when {he beam is acte<! upon
by a conllnuous non-unilorrnly distribuled load whose inlensity
changes along Ihe l>eam lenglh wilh x (Fig. 141). In other words, q
is a function 01 x or q=q (x). The bending momenl and shearing force
wilJ also be sorne lunclions 01 x;

M=M(x)

and

Q=Q(x)

The curve adceb representing Ihe variation 01 q(x) is called the load

curve, and Ihe area bounded by this curve is caBed the load amI.

Lel us calculate Q and M in an arbilrary section al a distance X,

!rom Ihe free end. Considering lhe shearing force as the sum 01 elementary forces q(x) dx acling on the lefl culo/f portion 01 he beam,
and replacing Ihe surnrnation by integrallon, we find
~,

x,

Q (x,) ~- \ q(x)dx~- \ d.~ - o(x,)

(10.12)

Here l (x,) represents Ihe parl 01 load area localed to fhe len of ,se(;lion e-C. Thus, the shearing lorce Q (x' equal to resultant R'I. 01 Ihe
continuous load over Ihe length AC=x, may be calculaled as the load
area (J) (Xl), Iying lo one sirle 01 lhe seclion.
The bending momenl in Ihe same section is equal lo Ihe sum 01
moments of elementary (orces q(x) dx, acling on Ihe cutoff portion
of Ihe beam, aboul poiol C, and rnay be calculaled as Ihe momenl

In/unal Fotas. Q- and M-d;lllranlJ

Ch. JO)

of resultant

215

R., i.t.
M(x.)--R rr """-tIl(x.)xr

(10.13)

In olher ",uds, tile bending mament of a continuoll$ non-unilormly

distribuled load is equal to lhe producl d. the load area Iying lo <me
lde el the .sec::tion and lhe dislance or lhe centre of gravity or this
area rom Ihe section under consideralion (arm ol the resultan!).
Let us sludy how to plot Ihe bending-momenl and shMring.lortt
di8~8ms 10' a beam whieh is ocled Upofl by a dislributed force that
varies along Hs length as shown in Fig. 142.

"".+---,,~~~.

$fl L01llltw..lll

rico

141

Loads of this kind are applied lo beams lhat support waler and
earlh pressure, lor example, dam supporls and columns for strengthening walls 01 water slorage reservoirs. Connecting rods 01 sltam ar.d
internal eombustion englnes are subjected to similar loading by lorcu
01 inerUa.
1M: load is charaderized by the ordinate q" the maximum inlensity
01 lhe load (in kgI/m). lhe reaclion HA-O; we have to determine
A and B.
For deiermining A we wrile down the'equalion 01 momenfs aboul
point B. The momenl or lhe load is equal lo the moment or its resul
tant, Le. momenl of fue load area
multiplitd by tile distante al
ib centre al gravity from poinl 8. lhe resultanl is shown in Fig. 142
by lhe dotted Une: !his emphasizes tilal the concentnted lorce equal
lo !he load area wdot$ not actually lel en the beam, bul we

'1f

!qJ

'"ulake

[PI/Tf IV
l.ISf'

01 il while laking lhe momcnl of (he lolal load ror delcrnlln-

ing the supporl re3ClioflS.

T~ equalions of moments rnay be \\TiUen IS
2

~MB=O.

AI-sllll=O.

~j\t~=O.

-Bl+~=O,

q.,J

q'

A-;rtt)=T
B=;rfil""'-r

'!f

ThI,lS, support A lIIkes hl..o\hirds al Ihe lot8l load 1iI""'

I \\"hereas
.supporl B takes aoly onelhird.
To plot 1he diagraRls lel us lake a secUan al ; di-stanct'.t Irom he
tighl end oi fhe beanl. The onHna/e Q (x) of lhe load in this section is
dclNmiMd rain similarily 01 Iriangles:
q(x)

11

q;--T'

"

q(x)""'qT

While dclermining Q amI M we shall coosider lhe righl-h:lnd por

tion be<:ause is acled upon by Ihe roncenlrated force IInd triangular
load, whereas Ihe 1{'f1hllnd portion is acted upon by Ihe COl'll;enlrated
fOlU 3nd trapezoidal load. 9:\ich complicales he compulalion.s.
Shearing force Q
be lb<- sum of he projtclions on the vertical
ot tta("lion B and tbe hatehl'd load 101 (x) = -rq(x)x= ";'q.~. Le.

wm

.1 ( J-fi""
q.J
q .le
"")
Q=-8+III(x)-=-\r+2T=-"t

111 this case the shcaring.force diagram is tt'presenlt'd b)' a quadralic

curve. and

ot x=O,

Q--q:=-B

alx-I,

Q"",q;"",+A

al

x-={.

Qo:o-qfi'('-.r)-- ~~

The shearing-Iorce diagram ls given in Fig. 142. It i.s clear Irom lhe
diagram (hat the maximum shearing force (in ab.solute value) occurs
in ~tion A (al Ihe sllpporl):

Q.uC'+A=+!f
The shearing forte passes through zero al X.
mined by Ihe lolloll,.-ng equ8tion:

Q=o=-1f(I-~);

lI.. hich

may be deler-

..(."'-- ~-O.5m

Jrlmwl Fqfa.S. Q- aIId Mdlogfarns

CIl. JO)

We slla1l use lhis value of x. for delermining lhe maximum value

of M. The shearing force achieves its analytical mnimum in point B,
where Ihe inlensilv of lhe eonlinuous load s zero. As is evidenl [rom
Eq. (10.3), lhe lagenl lo Ihe shearinglorce diagram in lhis seclion
is plJrallel lo lhe x-axis.
LI'I liS pass over lo plotting Ihe bendngmomenl diagram for which
we aguin consider lhe righl culolf portian 01 the beaol. The momeot
of Ihe resultanl of lhe haldted triangular load (Fig. 142) abou! poiot O
lS ('qual lo its load area multiplied by lhe arnl

f:

()

I
(x) '3x

.<
1
"o""'
-"2
q (x) :Ix","
---w-

This ('xpressien for tU holds good for Ihe whole eoglh al Ihe bean!.
The bending.moment uiagram is represenled b a cubic curve. To
plol Ihe cubical para bola we musl calculale 11 \'w ordinales:
at
al

x=O.
x=1-'

al x=l,

M=O

M...,qt~(I-+)=~~=qt~
M =0

The bending momenl is maximum in Ihe seclioo ",hen' Q=O, Le.

el x.= ~J ; il is eqllal to
,.1

Mm...... 6IV3

(.

l' )

1- 3

qoll

qoJ'

-gy"'j=15.S8

(IO.14)

The diagram is shewn in Fig. 142. II is evident rom formula (10.14)

Ihal Ihe maximum bending momenl dilTers slightly fram lhe momen!
al Ihe middle of Ihe span, which is equal lo ~~'. lo aclual desgn
calculaUons lar a beam loaued by a triangular force, Ihe maximum
benuing Inomen! Mm" may alwavs be replaced by Ihe moment in
lhe middle el lhe spao ..qual lo q~~'; lhe error will nol be more Ihan
2.6%.
Lel us analyze Ihe plolling oi sheariog-force and beoding.momenl
diagrams for a smply supported hinged ocalll (Fig. 143) loacled by
a continuous lorce \Vhose intensi!y varies according lo he following
parabo!ic la\\':

, ")
q (xl = 4q. T-1'

IP",t IV

Bttufi", SITfng/h. "1 8ftU1fJ

'"Due

tG s}'mmetry, the supporl reactions are

A=B=.!.

Hert

1Il

is the load uea whidl is determine<! reom condition (10.12):

111""

rq(x)d.I:_ "

r'5 5'J
xdx-t x"dJ;

l..'

"'[""l'

(10.15)

--,- T-T -3"q.l

Hence he support reaclions are

A=B",,";1
Le!

U5

now wrile down the expre5.5ion for Q(x) and M (x) in secUan
XI hom lhe left-hand support A. Denoting he load
area 01 length x, by It)(x), 'ft"e gd
(a) The shearing force Q(,r)-

1,1 al a dislance

=A~(x)

The load uea lo the leH of

the sect ion is

'.

CI>(X)-S9(X}d.:t:

-~. [!Xdx-+JX'dX]
"

..

T--:Y~]
"'rx~

(,)(x; __,_
Fig. 143

-f q:f (31-2.1:,)

Pultlog Ihe "alues 01 A t1nd

It)

(x) in the express Ion ror Q(x}, wt el

Q(x)-!f- q~~ (Ji_2x,)

(IO.t6)

(b) We Mlall calculate {he bcnding IOOlIltnt with the help of for-

mula (10.41:
Irf(X)_~ Q (x)dx+M (O)
The constan! of integralion M (0)=0 beeause IhHe is 00 conclmlra

le<! moment al Ihis end 01 lbe portian. Pulling the expression foe

Ch. DI

'"

Q(x) under Ihe inlegral sign, we oblain

"

r l"T-TT(31-2x)
",,'
]dx

M(x)=~

. . r~dx-I 2q;~' dx+ r4;,:'

q"J X

Zq.xT

"'3'-~

M (x)=qj X,-

dx

+"TI"'"
qo%t
;~~ (21-x)

(10.17)

1t is evident froro Eqs. (10.16) and (10.17) Ihal Ihe shearing force
varies according lo a cubical parabola, whereas Ihe bending momenl
varies according lo a fourlh.degree parabola.
\Ve shall take a few values oflbe variable x to Iind poinls for plott
ing these curves:
x=O,
I

Q(X)=q;.

M (x)=O

q"J221

x="2' Q (x) ="T-"J q.-;-= 0,

x=l,

Q(x)=q;_jqJ=_q;l,

The corresponding shearingforce and bending-moment diagrams

are shown in Fig. 143. The maximum values or Q and M 3re respec
Ilvely equal lo
(10.18)
We shall now discuss Ihe order of plotling Q- and M.diagrams for
a lwospan beam with an intermediale hinge; such beams are oflen
employed in bridge designo The dimensions of Ihe beam and lhe forces
acting on il are sho\\rrJ in Fig. 144(a).
\Ve must determine the reaclions of Ihe beam before plotting Ihe
diagrams. It is clear from Fig. 144(0) Ihal the arrangemenl may have
lour support reaclions: A, H"" 8, and D. However, wecanwriteonly
Ihree equalions 01 equilibrium lor the whole beam. The fourlh equation is determined from Ihe condillon that hinge C (on accounl 01
its conslruc!ion) taMot Iransmil bending moment, because il permits
relalive rotation of one part of Ihe beam (AC) abouI he olher (CD).
The lasl condilion requires Ihal the sum 01 momenls 01 311 lorces
acting eilher lo Ihe let or righl or Ihe hinge ahoul poinl C should
be zero. In olher words, lo rnaintain equilibrium Ihe bending mornenl

Bendlllg. SlrCIIslI

"1

lParl IV

fJtlJ.ml

in lhe hinge mllst be zera. This addilonal r~quirell1enl makes lhe

beam AD satically determnate.
First we shall determine ff "'. By equting lo zeta Ihe sllnl af pro
jedions 01 all 1he forces 00 Ihe beam's axis we find \hat HA-O.

~~I!IQlil!ho:(illlliili!j;
~

HA

P-IZtf

cr tjr;-------At;
I

----I,S" ~(2Z"~J"5'"- .

,
I

"
l..i
SU

'.
I

l.-t

5/f

A4I1Ullllllllilm~illlllllli~~~i
T

. HA

~f"3'"

I
r
.llz-Z.o;1...--1,-5"---'

lb)
fig. 144

Nexl lI'e may II'rite Ihrec. cquations [ar Ihe momenls as [01l0W5:
(1) by eq<Jating lo zera Ihe sum af momenls af al! lhe forces balll
poinl A;

(2) by equating lo zero Ihe sum of momcnts 01 all Ihe orces aball!
point B or D:

(3) by equaUng lo zera lhe sum er moments of all lhe fOf(:es either
to Ihe lel! or righl af hinge e, aball! pajo! C.
By solving these three equations we can determine all lhe lhree
unknown reaclions A, 8 and D. HOlI'ever, lhe reac!ions can be deter
mined more (>asily by breaking lhe beam :lrrangement AD filo simple
beams. The suspended beam CD is sllpporled by a hinge e a lhe end

Z'll

CJ. 101

of cantilever BC and by a movable hinge at poml D. Therelore. ""e

may cOf\.\ider Ihe \\'holl' beam trig. IHlb as a combinatiOl1 01 two
bcams. The suspended beam e.'l:pcriences reaclion C Ihrough the lunge
al lhe end al Ihe canllle\'l'r ntl in i1s lurn pr!"S5t':5 ihis cnd with lhl'
same force C.
Sr lirst analyzing lhl' l'quilibrium of Ihe su.spentled beam .....l' lind
ils rl':K:tions D and C. thl'Jl by taking inlo llCCOllnt lhl" alrcady Imown
force C acling al Ihc end of the cantlll'vl'l', "'~ determine rcacUons
A and B. In Ibis uample

C=D-: _61f,

A_q~'_C~_~_6_14.5H

B_(lI'+C[,":"I'_~+6~_')35 iI
2

1,

:<

8-

Check: IY ....A +B+D-qf ,-p- 14.5+23.5+ 6-4 xa-12=O.

Havll1 delerminl."d the reaclions we again aSSUllle Ihe Ix>am lo lloI!
a sinll.le unil wilh al! rorces and reacllons and dclermine Ih!! 0I00ll'nts
and shuring lorces as In Ihe general case We shaJl check Ihe valucs
by equaling lo zero Ihe sum al momenb about poinl C. /1 should be
borne in mind lhal hinge
dnes nol represenl Ihe separaUon point
01 secUons or lile diagrams il is nol Ilcled upon by an external force.
The bending'lIlomenl ami shearinglorce diagrams are sho\\'n in
Fig. 144(0).
Afler delermining Ihe reactions il is more con\'('nient lo plol Q.
and M.diagrams separatl'ly lor eaeh sllspenl[ed beanl and Ihe main
tMlam. layng Ihe va[ues 01 Q and M rrom 11 canlrnon xaxis.

60. lhe Oleck ni Proper Plolling 01 Q.

and M-diagrarns

The dlllerenlial relalions bet~ lhe bendine: momento ~hl.'aring

torce and inlensity of conlinuous load determine the relalion 1>etween
shearing-IOl\."'t" and bmdirJgmomenl d.agr... ms lor an}' load. This
relallon is el greal pracllcal illlporlance in checking (he corrt'Clnee;s
of lile plotled curv~. We giv(," bclow sor~ coocludrng relParks whkh
ma)- be !K'lpful LO ploltlng Q. and AI.diagrams.
l. 1t has already been slall'd t 57) Ihal Ihe orJLOale of Ihe shearing.
forct' Jiagrarn Q= ~ geometricall} flpres.enb Ihe sl~ or Ihe Iiln
genl lO lhe bendng-lIlomenl diagram al lhe correspol!ding poinl.
Ideoheal geometrical re1alions exisl bel""een q and Q (Fig. 145).
2. If in a ctrtain seclon
(a) Q>O. Le. tan a>O. the momenl increases;
(b) Q<O. Le. hin a<O. lhe momen! decreases;

'"

(e) Q PaMeS through tero, changing its siz" rrom plus lo minus,

Af=M.. ~:
(d) Q=O. .e. tan (lcoO, M =const.
3. If q-=O, l.e. ~ =0, Q=const. Heln in portlons Irte al cootin
UOI.JS load, Ihe shuring-force diagram is bounded by slraight lines
parallel 10 the x-<Jxis; lhe bending-moment diagram is made up of
inclint'd slraight Unes provided Q:#O (see item 2(d. Ir q<O, Le.
tan 13<0. Ihe shearing force decreases.

,:,.::-_JjilJIIIlJIIIIlIIIlIS1I[II[]]I~'lEf
"
"

hr---l-"

.,
:

W-=-H'--'''I'lno-:...J
e ...,

Fil!. 145

4. Over portions of lhe beam loaded by unifotmly distribuled rorct,

1he bending-moment dlagram is a paraboJa, whereas the shearing.
force diagram is an indined slraight lineo JI the load is distribuled

Q- and M-diagrams are rep~nted by curves

whose shape depend upon Ihe type of loading.
5. In sec:tions under contenlraled rorce lhe shearing[orce diagrall1
undergoes a Jump (eQ,ual lo Ihe force), and Ihe bending-momcnl dlagram experiences a sharr. change in Ihe angle belween Ihe adjacen!
regions (see, for examp e, seclion e in Fig. 137).
6. If the continuous load is direcled downwards, i.e. ~: =q<O.
or, in olher words. ir lhe second derivalive characlerizing the curva
lure 01 Ihe M-eurve is negativt', Ih('ll the diagram Is convex upwards.
On lhe conlrary. il q>O (the load is direded upwards). the bending'
morntnl diagram in the corresponding portion is convex downwatds
(Fig. 146).
7. In a hinged .support Ihe shearing force is equa! to the reaction
el Ihe supporl, and il Ihere is no external moment acting on I, the
bending moment in lhe hinge is zero.
8. The beoding nJOf'/If:nt on the free end of a cantilever is zero il
the end is not acted upon b)' concentrated force couple. In Ihe ab
nonunirormly, Ihen the

Q.lol

22J

unce of a concenlrated

also uro.

forc~

9. At Ihe Ih:ed end. Q and

of the supporl.

on lhe Free erad lhe Shl'2ring force Q is

\f
respectiv~ly.

are f'qual lo lhe reiKtion and momenl

10. In sec.tioos ,,1I('I"e a lorce couple is acting, Ihe bl'l'ldingmomenl

dlagram undef"gots a jump equal lo Ihe moment 01" Ihis force couple.
The shearing-force diagram however, remains unllfJecled.

Fe. 1%

The dilJ~renlial relalions explained in 57 and Ihe remarks given

above hclp nol only in checking the corredness of 1M diagrallls but
\Viii be used in fulure in plolting the diagrams loo (Oiaplers 15, 16,
elc.).

61. Appllclllion 01 Ihe PrincipIe 01 Supc:~posillon

01 forces in Plolfinlt $hc:aring.lon:e Ind
8ending-momenl Oillgrlms
Analp;ing lhe expressions lor Q and M oblained in he prevloos
eXllmples. we see Ihat Ihe exl~nal orces enler Ihese expres.sions lo
Ihe first power; M and Q are lineady dependent upon Ihe load.
Analyzing, for eumple. equalion lar M (x) in he &l!Ction ol a c:m
tilever (Fig. 140),

"

M (x)-Px-qT

we find Ihal Ihe ordinales of Ihe bending moml'l'lls in sections 01 Ihis

portion consist of twu componenl!, Px and he first componenl
reprmnting U~ bendin momenl in the particular seclion due lo
force P. ",hereas the second dUe to uniformly dislribuled load q.
We could have ploUed lhe bending-moment diagrams lar (orces
P and q se;paralely. and then adde<! Iheir ordinales algebraically.
This would be the appliclUoo of the mefhod of SUPUpositiM o{ loras.
We shall ilfusfrale wilh 3n enmple how fo plol the lotal bending
momenl diagram. For lhe beam shown in Fig. 147 we han already

t;,

[Part IV

'"plotled separatl'ly bending-moment diagrams under uniformly

Btrldt,g. Slrenglh of 8eaml

tlistri
butcd load q(M!1l and concentraled lorce P(Ml')' The :Ibsolute maxi
lIIum value oi Ine bending moments al th~ rigidly hed end are

."

Ma=-T

and

Mp=-PI

To add the ordinales o t\Va diagrams of similar signo we place one

aboye lhe other as shown in Fig. 148(0). The bending momen! in an

arbilrary secUan i5 lhe

SUIO

A1 q

al moments:

,,'
=--,-

,nd
Mp=-Px.
lIJe sigo o M" changes ir lorce P is ..Hrcctcd upwards. To add twa
diagrams having dilTerent signs. il is surficient lo ~uperil\lpobc une

~ , ~l!I!1 rl! ! !I 'f ,,,

t-7;v.):

:r;-

--l

ql

Pi'
,...

~ ' r 'i~:"rrd!l!!!llJIn"l
P!.+y

(4)

Flg. lH

Flg.H8

al lhero ayer lhe other (Fig. 148(b).

Suppose tha! in absolutl' v31ue mio M~>max M!_, Le.

1';'I>IP11
Upon superposilion 01 diagn ms their ordinales gel deduded aulomatkally, and in Ihi5 example we shall gel a negatiye ordinale al lhe
ftxed eml, Ihe ordinales belng positlve over Ihe splln al a cerlain dislance.
Obviously, in graphical summation balh the diagrams musl be
drWJl to (hC', same seale. In an identiclll mal1n~r wc can plol jh!' shcar

Ch. /11

Normal

Slrt~$

i/l BMdl/lg. Strellglh af Btam&

2"

ing.force diagram. The melhod of summalion 01 diagrams is parti

cularly useful in :lnalyzing statically indeterminate solid beams
(Chapter 19).
To oblain the diagram in lhe convenlional formo we rnay lay off
the sUlnmed ordinales Irom Ihe horizontal axis (Fig. 148(0) liad (b).

CH"PTl:R 1I

Determination of Normal Stresses In Bendlng

and Strength of Beams
62. Expuimental lnvestigatlon of lhe Working
01 Maleriais in Pure Bending

Tlle bendingmoment and shearingforce diagrams enable us 10

determine Ihe inlernal forces in all arbilrary sec!ion 01 lhe beam;
these forces are made up of normal and shearing slresses in lhe secUon
as a result 01 bending. \Ve shall discuss how lo determine Ihese stres
ses. It \\'as earlier sho\\'n lhat shearing force in a secUon is the resul
tanl of elementary shearing {orces, and lhe bending momenl, 01 the
normal strcsses which form force couples. II no shellring lorce Q ac!s
over a cerlain lt'nglh 01 the beam, Le. lhe shearing slresses in sedions
within this lenglh 3rt" absent. Ihen Iht'se sections are ac!ed upononly
by normal strt'SSes which are easier lo compule in Ihis case.

Fig.

l~9

The type of bending in which s.hearing force is zero in sections nor

111al to lhe bealll'S axis is known as. prITe be/l/ling. PUl'(' bending can
be achieved in practke if the system of exlernal orces ading on some
portion ef Ihe beam can be reduced lo force couples (see, for example,
Fig. 130). Actually, ho\\"ever, pure bending is possible enly in those
cases when Ihe dead weighl of the beam issuflicienlly small as compared to lhe externallorces acting 011 it amI may therefore be Qegleclell.
As an example .....e shall consider the l>ending uf a .....agon <lxle (S{>e
55). The externa! furces acting on the axle (ils weighl is neglccted)
are depided in fjg. 149. Keeping in mind tl1at due lo symlllelry bolh

'"

IP"rl IV

Ihe .wpport reaclioru .re rqual (A=B=P), lar 3n arbilrary section

points e and
we oblaio
Q (x) = A-P -o,
M (x) = A.r_P(x_a)_ Pa =caosl
Thus, th~e is no .Wtl!lring force in Ihe middlc portion CD or lhe
axl,", and M=COIls! (retal! that
Ihe beam ex~iences pu~
bl-nding O\'er lhe lenlh CD.
~I lIS now retutn lo linding normal slresses lor Ihis case. lel lIS
lake a secl ion al a distance x Irom Ihe leH support A and consider lhe
equllibriulO condUjons of lhe eH cutolf portion (Fig. 149). lhis por-

~Iween

Q-":):

~f1

,.,

(+---~fj---j6)
IFh

.(~)
,

(~

(~

Pie. ISO

tion is acted upon by a l~ couple .....ilh IllOmt'fl1 !tf=Pa and normal

stresSC!S in lhe section, which lorm fllrct' couptes wilh resulting molIltol M (x). Our lask is lo lind lhe magnitude of lhese strt'SSeS d every
poin! orlhe crOM section nd determine Ih('ir rnll:dmum valul.'. t-Iow
ever, lhe cOfIdilions al equilibriun) belween lhe external and inlernal
rOfees ellpresse<\ by Ihe I1.'lalionship M (x)=M IIr" not sullici"nl lar
deterr~ning normal streues O" because we know neither lhe magnltudll
of Ihese slresses llor lheir dlstribution over lh(' section. Tlle problem
Is slalically indetermioate, snd for Its solulion \\'e "JUst study lhe
elaslic deformalion 01 lhe btam on the basls al experimrmtal invesli
g:tlions. Lel us consider the reMJlts of experlmenb obtained from pure
blondin of a beam by malllel1l M acling in ils plane oS symmelry
(Fig. 150).
Unes 1-/ and 2-2 drawn on Ihe be.am surface perpendicular lo its
axis are Ir8C(!$ oll\l'O adjacent cross sedions Jocated al a distance 4x
from Ndi other, ",nenas lines ab and al joining Ihem and patalld
lo Ihe beam's alis represent longitudinal fibres oI length l!a prior
deformaOon (Fig. 15O(D.
Experimenls rt'Vt'!t thllll aHer deformation (Fig. 15O(b:
(1) Unes 1-/ 2nd 22 rema in slraight bul lum ""ilh resped lo one
anolher through an angle A':l. This It'!w; us lo the idea Ihat Ihe cor-

Ch, 111

responding cross seclions also remain planes bul lurn wilh respecl
lo one anolher through angle 60:.
(2) Unes ab and al change their length: \ine ab gets shorler. whereas
cd elongates leading lo Ihe eondusion Ihal lhe upper f1bres are sub
jecled to compression and lower to lemon.
(3) As shown in Fig. lSOle). lhe cross-sectional dimensions also
ehange: in the upper par! ihe width 01 lhe beam increases, whieh coro
responds lo axial compression. whereas in Ihe lower part (stretched
zune) it deereases.
As lhe deformalion 01 lhe longJtudinal f1bres varies conllnuously
over lhe heighl 01 the beam, Ihere must be a layer al a cerlain heighl
which does nol change ils length al all; lhis layer is calle<! the neutral
layer and serves as lhe interface belween lhe COlnpressed and strelched
rones. In Fig. 150(b) Ihe neulral layer is shown by dolted Jine; segmenl 0,0, r{'tains ils in tia) lenglh 6x.
rhe neulral layer is perpendicular lo Ihe plane oI symmetry 01
the beam in which Ihe external forces aet and inlersecls each eross
sed ion of the beam along a straight Jine which is also perpendicular
to lhe plane 01 adion of lhe exlernal lorees. The IIne of inlerseclion
or Ihe neulral la)'er wilh th{' plane 01 a cross sedion isknownas lhe
neutral axis or the secUon. rhe neulral layer is an aggregate of lhe
neulral Unes.
As Ihe section is symrnelrical wilh respecl (o lhe plane 01 applicatian of Ihe externnl forces, both hlllves of lhe beam width musl deform
symmelrically aboul this plane; this enablcs us lo consider lha! Ion
gitudinal deformation 01 lhe fibres or an arbilmry layer parallel to
IfJe neutral one is independenl of Ihe lacalion of the libres along
Ihe beam wldlh.
!t has been experimentaUy established lhat deformalion in lhe la
teral direction is related lo Ihe defurmlltion 01 longitudinal libres br
Polsson's ratio. This gives surneienl ground lo presume Ihal the longitudinal libres do nol press each olher, amI under pure bending expericnee only simple compression on Ihe concave side and simple
leosion on Ihe convex, Le. on Ihe other side or the neutral layer.
At Ihe sal11e time, lateral deformalion is instrumental in somewhat
dislorting lhe beam secUon and making (he neutral axis curved
(Fig. 15O(c)), which leads lo additional deformation of lhe neutral
layer mllking il doubly curved. However, as Ihe elaslic deformntionS
are small these dislortions are ignored; in each eross section of Ihe
benn! the neutral axis is considered a slraight ine and lhe neulral
layer, a cyJindrical surlace.
Sinee lhe SE'Ction is srrnmelrical w.r.t. Ihe plane of applieation 01
external forces, the beam axis also curves in lhesame plane in bending.
Such bending in which after derormation Ihe beam axis rernains in
Ihe plane or applicalion of exlernal lorees is known as uni.planar
belldiJlg.

IP~,1

Expf'l"imenlal sll.ldy of

lh~

bending al bcaln$

h~lps

numbf:r of assumptlorl$ which haye been used in

IV

lIS lo make a
neoa. con

d~riyirg

cll.lsions:
l. In pl.l~ bending lhe cross stians which \\we planes prior Jefor
ntalion rel"ain pJane5 during deformation loo (lhe- hrpothesis o plane
sections).

2. Longitudinal libres of lhe beam do ROl press 0'1 <'<ICh olller,

and Iherd'ore due lo normal slrf'SSn experi~ sllllple uniaxial lenslOn or compression.
3. The delormalion o libres does 001 depend l.lpon lheir posilion
along lhe widlh of Ihe secUon. Therelore, Ih!! normal stresses, lhoogb
changing along lhe heiRht 01 the section, rrmain constanl along its
widlh.
In aLldition lo lhe assumptions madI' aboye, we shall introduce
thret Iimiting comHtions:
1. The beam has al Ieast one plane 01 symmelry. and al1 the ~.l:ler
nal lorces lil' in Ihis planeo
2. The bf:am material obcrs Hooke's la\\'. the modulut'o of elaslidly
~ing Ihe SiI/IK' under ICl\$ion as ....'1'11 ILS comprtMlon.
3. The relalion belween lhe beam's d'lJef1sions ~nsures Ihal it
\r,orks under pure bending without warping or twisling.
lt is knoy..n from eXJK'l'i~~ lha! btoams wilh a smail widlh easily
10ClISe Iheir t'olabilil)' as lar as the sha~ 01 fhe stion is concerned
(Ihe)' warpl If in a ~am of reclangular .sec:lion Ihe ratio 01 heighl

t'

lo $plln h ~ >
iI works no! as a beam bul as a plale and il musl
be analrud in 8 dilfer~l mannl'!".

In genf'l"al. assumplions llIade aboYe lIre only lIl"proximatd)' lrue.

HOl\'evl'f. Ihe lilroreliclll trror is so slnall (exccpl in special cases)
that it can be ignored.

63. Delermination 01 Normal 5tresses in Bendlllll. '

Hooke's Law alld PolenUal Energy of Bendlng
A. Le! us consider a beaul subjected lo pur!.' brndlng by 11 momrnt M
(Fig. 151). Let us cullne bealU In l\\'o parts by secfion n, and using
Ihe Illefhod of sed ions cooslder Ihe equilibrium ti 0f'K' 01 the portlOrd,
Sily. lhe leH. sh<r.vn bclowin Fig. 151. For simplicily \\1' consider a
beam 01 rectangular erou secUon. As Ihe l'ur\'alu~ allhe bum is
practical'r negligiblt in comparison wilh ils dimensiol'\S. Ih~ culolf
portion flUIy be drawn in undelormed shape.
The Hne al 1I11ers.eclion al Ihe plane of symR)('lr)' of lhe beam wilh
the plane of fhe section is Ikm lit'> he zaxis (posit\'~ direclion do...,.r
\\'uds); lhe neutral axis of lh~ secfion has been laken as Ihe yaxis,
ils loca{OIl along Ihe height al" the beam being nol )'1'1 koo\\'n. Tht:

Ch. JI)

NQrln(l/ StreS$1s in IJCnlJillg. Strcngtll

"f

Oeams

x'asi~

""

has been taken along lhe neulral layer perpendicular lo Ihe

y~ -,md zaxis.
Every poi ni in Ihl' cross secl ion is acll'd upon by a normal stress (J.
Let us isolate 3n elemenlary area dA aboul an arbitrary poin! hadng
coordinales y and z, and denote (he force acling on iI by dN="dA,
The culoff portion of Ihe beam mainlains its equilibrium under lhe
action or exlernal rorces constiluting a couple of rnoment M and

Fig. ISI

Ihc normal rorce dN which r<'prescnts the inn!lence of Ihe removed

porlion of the beam. The Deam will remain in equilibrium only il
Ihis system o{ lorccs sallsfics the six slaUc cquatiollS. Lel liS first
write down Ihe equaHons or projeclions 011 Ihe three coordina le axCS
or x. y and z.
As lhe projedion or moment M 011 any axis is zero. {hese equalions
give liS lhe condition tha! Ihe SUJO or lhe projeclions or normal force
dN on Ihe bl'am's axis is zera. Repladng Ihe summalion over Ihe
whole area by inlegration, we get
( ll. 1)
EXpres.~ions ~Y=O amI '5'Z=O givc hlenlHies or Ihe Iype 0=0,
bt'Cause Ihe force dN=odAprojects on !hes\: axes into a point.
Leo! us no\\' write down the equalions 01 mOlnents abou! the axes
Ox. Oy and Oz. Let us note Ihal rnoment M lies in Ihe pIune xOz amI
lherefore does nol give any moment aboul axes Ox and 01.
Expression Y.M,,=Ogives an idenlity, bec:ause Ihe 10rcedN="dA
is parallel lo lhe xaxis:

~Mu-O.

1\1- ~dNz,""O

or

M- ~ ozdA =0

Bm4l,.,.

Sfrtllflh 11[ BfWnl

(P",f N

wherefrom
(11.2)

~Mz_O,

};dNy=O

or

SOl/dA-=O

(11.3'

Thus, out d the sil: stalk equaOons ..-e. can use oniy three:

~X_O or

};M~_O or

~M.""O or

~odA_O

(11.1')

SozdA-M

(11.2')

~oYdA_O

(11.3')

HOWfVer, Ihe Ihree slatk equalions obtaint'd aboye are nol sur
licieot lo determine Ihe normal stresses, because o yaries wilh the dis,
tance 1 01 area dA from the neutral axis according lo a ay ",'hich Il.'l!
yd do not know. TIle dislance z is also
unknown, because lite do not know Ihe localion 01. tlHo: neutral axis Oy_
B. Let us isoIate an e1emeni d length dx
) 01 lhe beam by lwo inlinilely cIO$e $t'C.
11 lions J.J lnd 22 lo sludy i1s deformalion.
The ~ape 01 the eiement bd'on aOO afler
deformalion is shown in Fig. 152.
For greater darily lhe delormalion of
the e1ement is shown in a highl y mago
nilied formo 80th cross seclions continue
lo remain planes bul lum about Iheir
neutral axes (points O, and O, in the
Fronl ylew) lo lorm all angledo:. The neut
ral layer has beco shown by a dotted lineo
line 0,0. al lhe neutrlll layer relains
i1s inilial lenglh d.r aFter defonnalion.
AH brl'5 above Ihe neutrallarer shorlen,
""heteas Ihose below iI elongate.
We $hall Iry lo nd lhe elongation 01
an arbHrary libre AB al a dislance 1 from
lhe neulrallayer and stretched by stress o. The initial length 01 Ihis
Jarer Is Ib= _O,O.=p da. Alter deformation ib lenglh along the art;
AB bQrnes _AB-f9+z) da. The absolule eIongation al the fibre
is 41-(p+z}da--1lda~:da. Relatiye e1onalion is equal fo

,," ,

r. ... p .... =p

C~.

111

NormlJ./ SlreSSilJ

{JI

&lldlllg. Slrellg/h o/ BMmS

23'

Le. Ihe elongalion 01 libres is diredly proporlionill lo Iheir distance

(rom Ihe neutral layer.
Here p is Ihe radius of eurvalure ollhe neutral layer, whkh may be
considl'rl'd constanl for lhe isolated (inlinitely sma1J) elt'lllcnt. Assumiog Ihal under bending Ihe libres do nol press on eaeh olher and
Iha! each flore experienc~s simple (uniaxial) lemion or compression,
we OIay make use 01 Hooke's law in delermining lhe {ensile slresses:
or a __
E,
a=Et
(11.4)

Equation (11.4) shows thal {he normal slresses in oentling vary in

dired proporlion lo distante z 01 Ihe poinl of Ihe seclion under oonsideration Irom Ihe neutrallayer. This means Ihat slresses v~ry along
Ihe heighl of Ihe beam linearly.
On Ihe neulral axis z=O and 0=0. 11 we mo\'e into Ihe zone of como
pression (above Ihe neutral axis), o- along wilh z changes its sign lo
mmus (compression) and continues to increase in absolule value as

Fig. 153

we move \Vay Irom Ihe neutral axis. Henee Ihe maximum stress
ceeurs al Ihe uppermosl and lowermosl layers 01 Ihe secljon when
z=zmu. The distribulion of slresses along Ihe height is sho....'" in
Fig. 153.
Equation (1 lA) only gives an idea aboullhe natur.e of distribution
of normal slresses ove' (he seclion; il cannol be, used lor calculating
Ihe magnilmJe 01 the slresses because bolh p as well as z are not known
sinee we do no! know lhe locatin of lile neulral layer in the height
of Ih~ seclion.
c. To del~rmne (J as a lunction of lhe bending momen!. we shall
simullanoously solv~ Eq. (11.4) obtainetl from delormation con
siderations and the slatlc eqllalions (11.1), (11.2), and (11..1).
SlIbsli\uling Ihe value of O" lrom express ion (11.4) in Eq. (11.1),
wc gel
~X=O

or

~zdA=O
,S .>

IP,," IY
Since

%.-;const+O,

,~ ldA =0

(11.5)

This inltgl',l represe:nts lhe slafi~ 11IQttIUlt or lhe area of section ,bout
th!! neutral axisOy, \\lIich becomes uro only abollt Ihe cenlral axis.
TlKorefore Ihe neutral uis musl pass Ihrough the cenlre al gravlty
or the mUon. As Ihe Cffilre of gravity also I ies on lhe llxis of S}'mmelry
Ol, Ihe poinl 01 inlerseclion of lhese lwo axes O rt'IJTrsents Ihe ct'Tltre
01 gravily al" Ihe section. lmd Ox reprt'St'nts Ihe axis d Ihe beam.
Thus, \\'e have completely determine<! Ihe IOClllion of lhe neutral
layer and neutral alris. The cenlres of gravily 01 Poli seclions o{ the
bealll lIre localed on lhe neulral layer.
No\\! lel us pul the ume expres.sion tilA) into Eq. (11.3):
~M._O,

wherefrom il

P
\_lydA=O,

;.. JI

or

Ej zydA=O

l'

('Ilsues lhat

,~zydA=O

111.6)

The above inlegral, which is Ihe SUr.J or lhe prodlKts or e1emenlary

areas by Iheir distances froOl lhe coordinate axes Oy 2nd Ol is called
lhe prodlKl rif iMr1ia of lhe seclion wilh respect lo Ih.., axes Oy and Dl.
The producl or inertia or lhe seclion may be posilive or ncgaliYe;
~uenllr il may also vanjsh, because the roordinales or elemen
lary arells may have dilterenl signs.
Aceording lo expression (11.6), {he product oF n!:'rlia or lhe section,
whlch js generally denoted by

J,q=jZiJ dA
should in thjs case ~ :tero.
.
As Ihe scclion js symrnefrical aboul axis 61. for etlCh elerntnlary
area dA wilh coocdinales (l, y) lo the leH al lhe zaxis Y."l! can find
a similar, symmelritatly localed elementar)" area to the righl or
the z-axis. Thel-roordinales ollhese areas wilt be Ihe same by the magnitude and sign, while Ihey-eoordinates will be equal in magnitudebut
will have opposHe signs. Therl'fore lhe integral

,j"dA
,,'i1I consisl or 1....'0 integrals tqual in magnilude buloS opposile signs.
Thu~.

fur s)'mlllelrkal

section~

IhlS inlegral is

al\l"a~s

'lel'O, ,nd Eq.

Ch. 111

(11.6) changes into ~n idenlily. In our case the comlilion J,u=O

is satisfied. Bending wiJI be uniplanar onJy under lhe condition lhat
the producl 01 illertia of ihe section is "Zero about axes oIJe of which
is in the plane 01 appllcaon 01 the exlernal forces: lhen a1l subst'quent conclusions \ViII be valid.
Finatl)', let us study Eq. (11.2): substiluling expression (11.4)
into il. \Ve get

i'~Z'dA=M

or

's,

-j'

z'dA=M

Lel us introduce the nolaUon

J,=j'"'dA

(l t.7)

This integral, which is lhe sum o[ the producls of elemenlary areas

by the square or Iheir distance Irom lhe axis, is calkd lhe axial or
rq/lalrJrial nt/Jnll:nl o{ nutia 01 the area about lhe yaxis ntl is denoled
by Jr As the y-axis is Ihe neutrlll axb. J. is Ihe moment or
inerha 01 Ihe area 01 the sertion bout Ihe neutral a;o;is. From
the lransrormed expression or equation (11.2), we get
EJ =M
p

or

.!._~
p'

(11.8)

Pulling this value 01 E in Eq. (1 J .4), \Ve get

p

(11.9)
Hence, the normal slresses in an)' point of Ihe se<:tion are direclly
proportionallo the bending mamen! and ils distance from the neutral
axis, and inversely profortional lo Ihe moment of inerlia 01 Ihe section aboul the neutra axis.
The neutral axis passes Ihrough Ihe centre 01 gravity 01 Ihe section
and is perpendicular lo the plane 01 actioll 01 lhe exlernal forces.
It is obvious from formula tl1.7) Ihat Ihe mamen! of inertia is
measured in unlls oF lenglh lo Ihe lourlh po\\'er and depends upon
1he shape and sjze of the secUon. Methods of determining Ihe 1Il0ment
of inertia for various sedions will be given below.
Let us modify Formula (11.8) to undersland Ihe physical meaning
01 this quantity:
(11.10)
- In ulUle....hen denoling lhe moment or Inerlla aboul Ihe neulral !f-UI5. "'e

,hall oflen drop he lndel 1/ and denote it in $horl by J "stud DI J11'

8tl14l", Slnnglit o{ lh>unI

11 is d~r Irom Ihis lormula lhat lhe grealer !he moment of inertia
101 the section ror a'Jlv~ btnding mOl!lf'nl, Ihl.' grealcr will be lhe
radhu ol curvature
Ihe neulral laYe!" and, consequently. el the
beam's axis, i.e. lhe less will be I~ bending of the I:x-am.
The value of lhe momen! 01 inedia cJlaracterizes Ihe ability 01
beam lo resist bending depending Ilpon the shape and dimen.sions ol
lis cross-sedional area. lhe modulus 01 elaslicity E also characterizes
Ihe abilily of Ihe beam lo resis! bending depending upon Ihe malerial
al the bealll. The producl El is called the rigiditll of /he beam ullIkr
bending. The greater lhe rigidity, lhe less \l/il! be he bending 01 lhe
beam wlth a given bending lnomen!.
D. The relative rolalion o lhe seclions ]s conneeted with lhe bending
or lhe beam's axis. As is denr irom the drawing (Fig. 152), lhe len~th
of segmenl O,O,=dx ls equal to pda.. Herelrom lhe angle of rotallon
between two adjacent sedions may be wrltlen as

do.=~
p

R.eplacing

t by ib va/ue .;;.,
da

1I.'C

get

Mdz

(11.11)

"'"'ET

Le. lhe deformatkln and displacemenls io bMding-lhe angle 01

lurning da. and Ihe curvalure al Ihe beam1. -are diredly proporlional
lo lhe hendiog mamenl aod inversely proporllonal lo lhe rigidily
of Ihe beam.
Repealing thc reasonJng employed in 52, Wl.'! can easily calculHle
lhe pOltnlia/ tnugy attumulaled by lhe beam during bending. If \\'c
conslder Ihe bending o :ln infinilely small .scgrnenl or Ihe beam 01
Jenglh rlz, IVe can clllculate the work done by (he bending momen!
over Ihe da as folJows:
I

dW-"2 M dt,
PuUio Ihe value o da. lrom Eq. (J 1.11), we get

.... I Af'u
dlJ ... d .... ""''TEr
Inleraling over the whole length

or

the beam, we gel

U_r~
" 'lC/

(J 1.12)

CA.

al

Nwme:l Stnun 14 ~. SlrmfJI

ef

&cms

'"

ln pure bending o a btam (Af=tonst) wllh a constant cross-section

al area over the whole lenelh (EJ-const). lhe polenlial energy may
be exprwed as

(11.1")

If bending momen! along (he be.am's length is expressed in lerms of

uilIerent fundions 01 x (for dilierwt porlions). lhen inlpgral (11.12)
breaks up iolo a sum of integrals (eath wj!hin lhe Iimils 01 the CO('
respondjng portian), and lhe expre:ssion
potef1t111 energy o hendin bec:'Oates

rar

(lUZ')

The potenllal energy 01 deformation or the beam on account of sheat

( 36) caused by shearing lorces Q 11 illiual1y neglecled as jt Ls relativelj' small (for delai15, see Chapler 18).
64. Appllcalloo af !he Resulls Derived Above
In Oaeckiog the Slrenglh of Beams

Formula (11.9) solves lhe question about the manitude and distrl
bution ot: normal str~ over the secHon. It has bn derived lar pure
bending, when the sectloos remain planes.
Experimenls show hat when Q js not tero. the stdions 001 only
lurn bul also slighlly warp under the adion al shearing slre:s.ses.
ThLs warping, hov:ever, does fI01 alter the dstribution o stre:ssl!S in
bres enclosed between ihe two adjHcen! sectloll3. Therefore, lor
mula (1\.9) may be used even when Q is nol zero.
11 should be noted here that as ye! we can use Ihls formula only il
(he .sections oF he beam have an axis o symmetry, and the external
(orces set in the syrnmetry plane.
The neutral axis of each secHon, from which 1 is rneasured, passa
through ts centre oi grlvily perpendicular to th~ axis al .symmelry.
Figure 154 ~'s examples o the distribution al sir~ fOl" Mams
01 various sectioflS---f"Kt&ngular, T-shaped. triangular. 1be normal
str6SeS are the same io all poiols lacale<! at equal dislances from the
neulral axis. We get compressive stresses to une sde or the neutral
uis, llnd lensile stresses to the olher. The maximurn stresses occur
in poin!s whlch llre larlller from he neutral axis. For Ihe accepled
convention of signs of M and z, formula (11.9) aulomalically gh'l!S
Ihe proper sien o 0, plus (oc tensile slresses and minos far compres
sive stresses.
11 tlle hending moment ispo:sliv~, !he bfam bends with lis convexo
ily downwards, the upper libres are wmpressed (1<0), whereas
tiJe kiwer libres are slretcbed. The reverse picture oceurs jI !he bend

'"

IP,ur IV

n: mamenl is negaltve. Thuefore. in .seIeding lhe sign af normal

slres.lt! while solving practica! problems, 'W m,y follo...... the rollow
In rules: i! Ihe poinl of the sechon undK consideratiOfl is localed
in he zone al slrelchin. a shotJld be taken wHh a plus sigo; ir lhe
poinl Is locatt'd in the zone al compression, f1 should ~ takM with
a minus signo Obviously, in this case Ihe absolute vaJues oi M and
t ~Id be used in formul. (11.9).

To check the slrength of material w.r.t. normal slresses. H la

eMtntial lo lind lhe In811imally slfftched or compcessed aceas. This
clIn be achie'\"ed by applying formula (11.9) lo Ihe (filieal sechon.
Le. using M .... instead of M and instead of 1 pul l .... the dislance
01 lhe farUiest poinl from lhe neulral axis. Then 1\;e gel the following

formula ror lhe maxlmum normal S!C5:

a_. = M",..J z.
Usuallr. Ihis formula is Iransrormed by dividing bolh lhe numera
lor and lhe denominator by l ... :
(J

....

'=

M ....
J
Z"'..

Quantily 111"'>$ iscalled the axial sectlon modulus and is denote<!

bylheleller W. tU J is measured in uniisor lengthlo therourlh
power, W is measured in unils of lenglh lo lile third po\l,'er,e.g.cm".
Hence

.,.

wh",

_M.,.
lf'

(11.13)

,_.

(11.14)

W_--!...

)f thl> secUan is symmelrkal aboot the n("ulral axis, rar e.umple,

a rectangular seclion. Ihe outer strelched and oompressed 6bres are

Ch. 1/1

Normal Sfrt&l!tJ j~ 8tfldJ~I_ SII't~glh

of

Btom&

IOCllled al equal distance from lhe neutral axis, and such a secUon
has a singll' liefinite value ol Ihe .serljon modulus aooul the y-axis.
Thus, ir we considC'r a r~'Ctangular se<:lion of heigllt h (Fig. 155{a, then

w_.2..
1"
"
11 lile serllon s nol sY\l1l\1elrieal aboul Ihe neutral axis, lor eXllmpll',
a T-shaped seclion, we gel 1\\"0 vatucs 01 Ihe scclion rnodulus: Olle
for laver A (Fig. 155(b, W.=~, and the olher for layer B,
-

W.=!:-.
no

'"

"1
Flg. 155

No\\' in formula (11.l3) we should inlroduce: W, when ca1culaling

stresses in point A and W. II'hen ealcul:liing slresses in poinl B.
Le! us \\'rite down the slrenglh oondilion for lensile or compressive
stresses. The condtion reflcels thl' de,a lhallhe ma::dmulIl slress
should nol exeee<! lhe permissibk
(11.15)
From this oondilion \Ve find Ihat
(11.16)
Le. Ihe secUon modulus determined Irom slrenglh oonsiderations
shouh.l be grealer Ihan or equa! lo (he maxilllum bending momenl
dividl'd by Ihe permissible stress.
Since Ir depend.~ upon Ihe shape and siz(' 01 lhe bcam s~c1ion. by
selecling a partlcular ,hape frectangular, Tshape, l-shape) we can
fin<l Ihe dimensiol1S of the bealll 5ueh that jls sedion l1Iodulu5 rqunls
lhe une o1>tajn<'d in!1fl iorrnula (1 [.IG). We !>hall silo\\' belo\\' hol'." this

8tndlng. Slrmglh of 8tanu

[Parl IV

can be done in praclice. The values of W and J lar roUed sedions are
given in specificalion tables (s~ Appendix).
We must dilferenliale belween Ihe folJowing two cases when using
formulas (11.15) and (11.16).
The lirst case i5 mOfe common in bending, when Ihe material shows
equal resistance lo tension and compression; in this case Ihe permissible stress is the same for both defOflnations:

fcr l ] = [arl = [a]

In the case 01 a symmelric1 sedion ji becomes irrelevanl whether
we che<:k lhe strenglh 01 the stretched or compressed libres, because
lor bolh of them Ihe section modu1us W and Ihe maximum actual
stress have the same value. In the case of an unsymmetrical secUon,
in formulas (11.15) and (11.16) W shol,lld be feplaced eilher by W,
or by W., whichever is les:;; it shol,lld correspond to the brlhesl libre.
The second case deals wilh beams whose material has different
resisLance lo lension ando eompression. In this case we must write two
strength condilions instead 01 one-one lor Ihe slretc1led fibres and
Ihe olher lar compres5ed:

a,=+A;;'~ral]'

a<=_M;:'~ra,]

(11.17)

Depending upon whether Ihe material has beller resistance under

{enslon or compression, Le. which of [a,1 or la,1 is greater, we have
to design Ihe section by 5eleeting its shape and sire such Ihal W,
and W. satis[y the strength conclition.
The physical natureol section modulus is clear from formula (11.13):
{he grealer the secUon modulus W, lhe grealer is the bending moment
lo which the. be.am can be subjecled wilhout clanger 01 failure_ Thus,
section modulus charaelerizt'S lhe effe1:1 of shape and size of the selected sedion on the slrength al the bealll when the stresses do not excl'1'd
the limil 01 proporlionlllity.
Formulas {1l.13) and (ll.ll) cease to be valicl lor stresses el;ceeding
Ihe limi! of proporlionality oS the maJeria!.
Formulas (11.15) and (11.17) enable us to check lhe. strength of
a given se1:lion (when Lhe value 01 section modulus W is known).
If Ihe beam's material has b('('n selecled and its permissible stress is
known, then wilh lhe help 01 formula (11.I6)we call compute Lhe nec
essary value of secHon modulus, provided Ihe maximulrl bending
momenl M",u Is preliminarily calculated. Then, depending upon
(he beam's profile, Le. lhe shape of the secUon, the required cross
sectional dimensions can be determined.
Jt was shown earller that for lhis we musl lind Ihe relation between
Ihe eross-sedional dimensions and Ihe value of Ihe secHon modulus.
In 73 we shall elaborate on this.

0..121

IIlallltlltl

lIf

Im,lia. al

Pla~

i,ufa

CHAPTEII 12

Oetennination of Moments of Inertia

of Plane Figures

65.

~ttrn1inalion of .\\omenls Df
~lodull loc Simple Sedions

InerUa and &clion

While deriving the E'xpression far normal slrelSes ( 63) we had

obl.ined expresslon (11.7) 01 Ihe type

J~-=Sl'dA

where z is Ihe distance 01 any elementary area from 1he central y.

a:ds. This inlegral, whkh cov('rs Ihe whole ar~3 of Ihe cross seclion,
was ca1Jed the moment of Inerlia 01 lhe area about Ihe neulral axis.
The ability of a beam sectlOI1 to resisl deformation in bending depeml$
upon lhe value of moment or inerjia (11.10).
Apart Irom \his, lhe strength condillon in bendlng ( 64) lncludes
\he v:pression fot sedlon moc.IuJus (11.14):
w __
J,

,_.

It ensues irom \he aboyE' that we must leam to calculate Ihe moroent of inertia and sed Ion modulus far crCM sel::lions of any $hape
to ensure strength and rigidity uf the beam. let uulart wilh the sim
plesl beam sectian, a rectangle of widlh ti .nd height h (Fig. 156).
Draw axes 01 symmelry O: and Oy Ihrough lis CVilre al gravity O.
JI lhe external lorces acting on lhe bl'am lie in plane xOz, lhen Oy
15 Ihe neutral axis (axis Ox is direcled along lhe beam). Lel lIS linl
find the moment al inerlia aboul Ihis uis, and lhe .stlon modulus
of lhe redangle.
Elemenlary areas dA into which lhe whole area of Ihe setlion should
be divided will be taken as narrow rectangles or width b aOlJ heighl
dz (Fig. 156). Then
dA =bdz
and integral J,

J'-1

bz'dz

Ir Yo'e take Ihe inlegral over Ihe lolal area DI Ihe recl3ngular sllon,
vafies from -.;. lo +~. Therefoce
J,=

'~

- ,bz"dz=b

[']"n
...
"3 _in-""ir'

(12.1)

""We gel he soction

,
J. byz..'-T=

IPwrf IV
modl.llu~

aboul ihe neutral 3:.;is Oy b)' cHviding

(12.2)

1f we havt' lo u1culale Ihe mamen' or inerli.J and scclion modulLlS

of the rectangular seclion aboul Ihe uis 02. Ihen all tha( is required
is lo jnteh3~e b and h in lb aboye fol'lnulu:
,~

J. - "'ir'

,,'

(12.3)

Lel 1.15 note Ih.1t lhe 5um of Ihe products zldA does nol change ir
we displace all he s,trips dA -b dz (Fil;!. 156) pOTaJie! lo lhemselvt$
in such a ",ay lhal lhe)' lie wilhin UJe paraJlelogram ABCD (Fig. 151).

;..

rr--r
,

-"'[

'''--i''_...t

,
Flr. 156

Hen~ lhe mornen! or nerUa al lhe parallelogr3m ABCD abou!

the N-axis 15 equallo Ihe momen! of nerlia al :n tqui\'alenl reclangle

ABGE:

(12.1)

As Ihe momen! of irrertia

or

an uta b In inlegral

ar

the ty~

J,_ Sl' dA, "..('ean immedialely determine lhe mollk'!ll of inertia of a

reclangular box seclion (Fig. 158) wilh Ihe help or formula (12.1):
J, -

8/,.

M'

""T:t-TI"".... TI! (BH'-bh ' )

(12.1')

C~. IZI

.Uomml~ ,,'

The scclion

modlllu~

Is

W _ - 1M = BH'
~

2<,

/Illrtia 01 Pla~ Fig1lreJ

z'ou

/>h" = Bll"-b/l'
----,.."..-

12HI2

(12.2')

011

Nole Ihal lhc section modullls cannot be caklllaled in !he form oi

dirference \V=W,-W~ or W=BH'6-bIl'/6, because lhis runs couoter to the ver)" concept 01 secHon modulus as Ihe ralio J~!z"""x'

r
O

ddz

bu}

,1
Frg. 158

Fig. "9

While determlning lhe momeni 01 inerlia 01 a circle of radius r

\Ve similarly dIvide lis lolal atea into elementary slrips 01
thickness dz along the axis Dl; lhe widlh al Ihe strips b=b(z) also
vuries long the hcight al thc section. The elementary area is

(Fig. 159)

dA=b(z)dz

Tbe moment 01 inertia is

J = ~ z'b(z) dz

As Ihe upper and lower halves of the scction are idenlical, it 18

suflicienl lo calcula!e the momenl 01 inertia for one hali and double
lhe resulto liJe lirnJts in whlch z varies are irom O lo r:

Wc introduce nO\\' n new variable af integralion, angle IX (Fig. 159):

z=rcos";',

dl=-~rsn-fda, b(z)=2rsin%

'"

IParl fV

The limils of integration are a=tt al z=O and a=O al z=r, lherefore

"
J"",-212r'cos'~ sin'~}da=TIsin'ado;":'

(12.4)

(12.5)
For a cirde soy axis passing through lhe centre of gravity is the
axis of syrnmelry. Therefore lormulas (12.4) aod (IZ.5) are valid for
aJl 5uch axes.

11.

Hg. 160

Substiluting
diallleter;

Fil[. 161

r={, we shaJl now expr~ J and W Ihrough Ihecirde's

"d'

I =1J4

(IVI')

"d'

(12.5')

W=32~O.ld

The llJomelt!

01 nerita 01 a triangle (Fig.

JAB=r'b.dz,
J"B=

160) abou! AB is:

b._b~=b(J_*)

Jbz' (l-i )dz _ b~'

- ~. - ~~

Laler ( 6668) we shall explain how lo ca!cutate Ihe momenl of

inerlia af a sct:!ion of sny complex shape abou! <In arbitrar)' axis.
The syrnmetrical secfions which we general1y come across in praclice aft': for wood-rectangular and circular, for m('fals-Jshaped
and T-shaped (Fig. 161). For rolled sections \Ve may use lhe GOST

Ch. 12)

MOttItIlI

Qf 1Tl4r1la Df PlaM

Flg~rtl

'"

lables (specilicalions). which contain Ihe dimensions and Ihe values

of J and W lor lhe .seciions manufaclllred allhe rolling planls. These
lables are given in Appendi;!;.
Generally, melal bcams have comlex eross section5, because a more
economic exp\oitation 01 Ihe meta i5 possible in these sections as
compared lo, say, rectangular or circular sectians.

Fig. 16'1

Flg. 1G3

We saw in 48 tha! the shalls are made hollow lo remove Ihe por
tion af malerial Ihat works under lower loading. In bending beams
the material near the neutral axis experiences very small normal
stresses (formula (11.9) and is consequently no! utilized fully. It is
therefore more expedien! to modily lhe rectangular section by re
moving lhe melal near Ihe neulral axis and utilizing a part of this
metal in lhe upper and 10w~r rones 01 lhe beam, which work undE'f
more severe condifions, and saving lhe resl of jI. Tllus, Irom a reclanguIar seclion we obtain an Ishaped secUon (Fig. 162). which has lhe
same slrenglh bul is lighter, The sections should preIerably be used
for materials which have equal resislance lo lension and compressian
(in Ihe majorily of lhe melals).
The T-shaped seclions are used in lhe cases when Ihis is diclated by
design considerations and when lhe materials, for example, cast iron
and concrele, greatly dilfer in resislance lo lemion and comprmion.
The lalter condition requires that Ihe sircsses should be dilferent in
lhe auler fibres.
It ensues Irom Ihe bove discussian Ihal Ihe most economic design
01 lhe secUon shauJd endeavour lo obtain (he maximunl mamenl 01
inertia and &ecHan lllodulus lor Ihe hed area A. In Ihis dcsign Ihe
greater parl of the material wlll be localed larlher Irom lhe neutral
axis.

However, in sorne sections the section modulus ma)' be increased

nol by addlng, bul, on the contrar)', by cll\ting off a parl 01 Ihe seto
GOST shnds rar AIlUnion Slale Standard (In lhe USSRI.

"

[Parl IV

Bend/ni. S/nngfh 01 Beams

tion whkh i5 larihesllrom Ihe neutral axis. ][ we cul off lhe halched
segmenls 01 Ihe circular se<:1ion (Fig. 163), ils sed ion rnodulus somewhat increases, bt'l:ause Ihe decrellse in he momenl 01 in~rti8 is less
Ihan tha! of IHstance zm" irom Ihe auter libres.
Tlle mosl effeclive seetion in bending will be tha! for which he

Talio IV/A 01 serlion modulus lo Ihe cross-sectional area is 1Il3:\:imum.

/1 is mOTe ('onvenienl lo assess lhe errectiven~ of secUon by lhe dimcnsionlE'SS coeflicient = W;IAh), wjt-Te /1 is Ihe hcight 01 11](' sec
tion. Tabll' 1I contains Ihe valu<'s 01 todlident a lor a fe\\' sectjons,

We sel! [rom lhe table (halo:. is mllximull\ ror an -secUon.

(..,.I~,I<Qt

J,edioll (it.p"lIdi,," up,n

Ihe prof,le N..
ClInllnd 5edion (J~l'tn'

'.Iln:- uro" lhe

Ilronl~

'o,

T.~cll,,,,

0.31-0.34

RcdRIlt 1e
Orde

0.29-0.31

T"~ng~

Hallo... cirrul;r \eclion

('I.'hen rjR=O.(l)

0.1\>7
(1.12~

11.M3

o.m

0.085

66. General Melltod oi Calculating Ihe Momenls

of Inertia 01 Colnlllex Seclion$
While checking Ihe strength of elemenls of struclures \\"1.' afien come
acro:<s seclion5 or complex shape for whkh Ihe simple methou used for
calculaling Ihe molllcnl of inerlia of sections like a rec!lmg1e orcirctl.',
disctlssed in 65, flOl.'S nol hold.

_~'
'-.. -Q
Z

,,

Such ~ se<:tion may be, for examp)e, a T-shaped Si!Ction iFig. 164(CI),

pe $\.'Ction ....orking under bending load (in Byj;linn tksign)

(Fig. 154(11)), 3 ritlg cross secUan ollhe neck 01 a shalt or more <.:0111-

ell.

,<5

Mamml. al lnerlto 01 PIQM FlguftS

12[

plex scction (Fig. 164(c)). Al! these seclions mav be divided into
simple shapt'S such as reclangles, lriangles, eirclei. It can be shown
lhal Ihe momenl of inertia 01 a complex section js lhe sum of lhe 1110'
menls of inertia 01 lhe parls into
which it is divid~.
Lel us take (Fig. 165) an arbil
rary figure representing thf' cross
seclion 01 8 beam: they.nxls is drawn
ill Ihe plane of the secHon. Tlle
momenl nf inerlia or Ihis figure
aboul Ihe I/-xis Is (11.7)

J~= ~ z'dA

_L--_9

where z is Ihe dislance 01 elementa

ry areas dA from the I/.axis.
Let us divide lhe arl.'a of lhe
figure iolo four parls: A" At , A"
Fig. IGS
ami A,. Nol\' when ca1culaling lhe
moment of inerlia acconling lo
formula (11.7), the terms under lhe Inlegral sign ~hould be g'roujlt!u in
a way such Ihat we can carry out inlegralion 01 lhe t'1t'mentar}" arcas
separalely lar each porlion and Ihen add lhe resulls_ Tht' value 01 lhe
inlegral will remain unehangE'd aflt!r Ihis operaton.
Tha integral wil1 break iolo four inlegrals each 01 which covers
onl' of 1he areas Al. A" A. or A,:

J;-

~ z'dA "" ~ z'dA+ ~ z'dA+ ~z'dA+ ~ z'dA

A,

A,

A.

E\ch of these inlegr<lls represenls Ihe momenl 01 inerlia oi Ihe coro

rt>Sponding porUoo about axis Oy; Iherefore
J=Jt+J~I+J~II+Ji\'

Ji

(12,6)

whcrc
is the momenl 01 nerlia of area A, about Ihe yaxis, Jtl
is Ihe momenl of nertia 01 art'a A. about Ihe same a~is, ~l1d so on.
The resull ob!ained above' may b<' formulfed in Ihe following manoe.r: Ihe momt'nt 01 inertia 01 a complex fi,!lure s equal lo tht' sum or
Ihe moments of illerlia of parls comprising il. Therefore, lo calculale,
lar f'xumple, Ihe momen! of inertia of lhe section shown in Fig. 164(c)
about a~is Oy, we must calculate lhe momen!~ of inertia of approprtate triangles nd rectangles ..bout Ihe ~ame a~is amI add lhe resulls. \Ve Illusl know huI\' lo calculale Ihe' mom~nt 01 incrlia 01 IIn
arllilrar}" figure aholl1 un arhilrary axis Ir1ng in il~ planco
TIJe solution of (his problem Jorllls lhe conlcnts of Ihis chapler.

,<6
67.

Benil/lIg. Strmglh

01

Parl IV

BttUM

~e1ation 8etwecn Momenls of nerHa About

Two Pan.llel Axes One of Which 15 the Cenlral Axis

The problem 01 oblaining !he simples! possible formulas for computing Ihe momenl of inerlia af any figure abou! an arbitrar)' axis
can be solved in a number 01 ways. H we take a numher 01 aIes parallel to one another. Ihen lhe 010ment of inerlia 01 the figure abau!
any Df thes{' ues can be calcuJated
il \Ve know Ihe moment of inertla
01 the figure ahaut the axis passing
gravity and
through ils centre
parallel lo the selected axes.
We shall call the axes passing
through (he centre ef gravily the
cenlral axes. Le! us lake (Fig. 166)
an arbitrar)' figure. Draw Ihe central axis Oy and denote by J ~ the 010ment 01 inertla el the figure abaut
this axis. In ihe plane 01 the figure
draw axis Oi!!l parallel lo 1he
Fig. 166
yaxis and localed al a distance o
from it. We shall try lo establish
the relallon belween I ~ and Iv. the momenl al nerHa abou1 Ihe
y,axis. For this we shall have 10 write the expressions [or /~ and J;.
Break the figure info elementary areas dA, and denote by t and t,
Ihe distances af poinls Iying on the elementary area from axes Dy and
O,y,. respectively. We find thal

or

1~=~z'dA and

Bul 1I is evident from the drawing that

z,=:+o
ThereFore

J;= ~ (z+o)'dA = ~ (z'+2az+a")dA

~ z'dA+2a ~ zdA+a' ~ dA

The firsl of Ihe three inlegrals represents Ihe moment of nerlia

about Ihe cenlral axis Oy. Toe second inlegral represenls the sta tic
mamen! about Ihe same axis. It ls equal lo tero. because Ihe y-axis
passes Ihrough the centre of gravity of the figure. Finally. the third

Ot. 121

Momtn/$

o/ In.rt/" 01 Plalll Flguftl

inleral represenls Ihe area al !he figure. Thererore

J;-J,+a'A

'"
(12.7)

I.e. lhe momenl al inertia aboul an arbitrar}" axi.s is C'qual!o (he mo

men! of ilWrlill aboul lhe CflIlral axis paralltol lo Ihe arbilrary axis
plus the producl allhe area of l~ figure by Ihe $Quare oC lhe dislance
belwcw Ihe Uts.
Hence. our probll'm rl'duces lo delermining lhe cenlral moments
01 ineetia. K.nowing lhem "':e can calcula(e lhe moment al inerlia
aboul any other axis .....ith the hclp al lormula (12.7). It is cvident
lrom l,rmula 02.7) thal IheU'ntrat mommtol {ntrfia is tJKo minimum
al Ihe mo~nls about parallel axes. &lId il may be expressed as

J,-J;-a'A

(12.7',

We can similllrly delermine Ihe product 01 ineriia J;" al Ihe scction about axes OJ/l and 0)2, paralleJ lo lhe central axes, ir J ro dA Is known (Fig. 166,. From Ihe definition

=IY2

J;'-l y,l,dA
where y,_y+b. 1,-2+0; lhcrefore

J;,- ~ (y+b)(z+a)dA

~ yzdA +00 dA +0 ~YdA +b ~ .IdA

The last (wo inlegrals are equal to zero bKaust they represent the
slatic moments 01 Ihe area aboullhe cenlral 8Xes. Oy and DI. Therefore
J~=J,.+abA

(12.8)

lbe produd o inertia al a scction aboul 1\\'0 mulually perpendi

cular a:le:s parallel lo Ihe central axes ls equal la lile producl of iner
tia of the section about the cefllral aJles plus lhe prodUCI o thearea
o the figure by lhe coordinates al its eentre of t"avity 'A'.r.t. the new
U~.

68. R.elallon BctVo"een the Moments 01 lnertia

Under Ratatioo 01 AJ:es

We can draw any number 01 cenlral axes. But the question is: Can
we express lhe momenl of inetli~ about 8n arbitrary cenlral axis
in lerms 01 Ihe momenl or inertia aboul one or 1\\'0 definite ues?

2<'

8~ruJil\fl.

If'orl /';1

Sl,engtl, vI &ams

\Ve Shllll see ho\\' lhe momenl al nerlia ahaul l\\.'o n1Uiually perpendiculllr ilXCS changes \\"hen lhe ilXl;S rotale Ihrough an llllf!le a.
Lej us tak<' 3n arbilrary figure and draw {wo rnulually perpendicular axes Oy amI Ol through Hs cenlre of gravity O (Fig. 167).
Supposc Ihat {he momenls of inertia abau! lhese axes, 1" and J"
and Ihe produd of llerlia 01 {he section, J )1' are known Le! us draw
Ihe second system of coordinatc axes Oy, llnd Oz, at an anglelJ. lo Ihe
first. This anglc will be lX>rIsidered
posilive ir lhe rotalion of lhe axes
about point o is anliclockwise.
rhe origin of coordinale$
is retained. L\!t us expr~ lhe Illomenls
about Ihe sccond s\'slem of coordinale axE'S, J; amI j;, through tlle
kno\\'ll llloments J and j ,_
The expresslons
lhe mornents
$
of iner!ia aballl lhese .'(es are S
y
follows:

ror

J u.... ~ z'dA,

Flg. 167

JI is clear rom the drawing lhal Ihe coordinales of afea dA in lhe

sysl('m el rotatet/ a.'(es Oy, ilnd Oz, are

y,=OE+EC=OE+8D=yco:>a+zsina
1,=AD~DC=AD-BE=zcos':t_ysina

(12.10)

PuUing lhese values af y, and 1, in formula (l2.9), \\'e get

J;-= ~ (zcosa-ysilJa)tdA

= ) (z'c05'a+ ytsin'(;l:-2yzsinacosa)dA
A

0'

J; ~ costa), ?'dA +sin'" ,S y'dA -5in2" ,SY1dA

(l2.l ()

Similurly

J:=S, (ycasa+zsina)"dA
0'

J;=sin'" ztdA +COS ' (% SY'dA +sin2a) yzdA

02.12)

'"

C1I. 121

The firsl 1\\'0 inlegrals in expressions (12.11) antl (12,12) represenl

Ihe axial 1Il0menls 01 inerlia, J r and J whereas Ihe lhird represents
Ihe producl of inerlia 01 se<:lion about the Iwo axl!S, J ~,. Therelore

J;, =

J ~co,','a+ J .sin',a_J v,si,n'2a.

,,_ }
J ,= J ~sm 0:+ J ,eos 0:+ J v.sm ......

fl2.1.1)

To delermine the producl 01 inertla 01 Ihe seclion we may require

formulas lar passing over from one syslem of coordinales lo Ihe olher.
Por Iht rlatOO axes (Pig. 1(7) Wt gel

J~,=~!I,l,dA

where y, and
quently

1,

art calculated according to formula (12.10). Conse

J~,=) (zsino:+ycosa)(zcosa-ysino:) dA

=sinacosa ~ z'dA-sinacosa ~ y'dA

"

+cos' a ~ yzdA _sin'a ~ Y1 dA

Alter simplilication we gd

J~,=+(Jv-J.) sin 2a+ J u,ca:. Za

(12.14)

Thus, in order lo determine lhe momenl 01 inerOa aboul no Mbit

rary central axi~ Oy,. \\'f.' musl know Ihe.oloments 01 inerlia J~ amI J,
abou! a system 01 Iwo mulually perpendIcular central axes Oy and 01,
the product 01 nerlia 01 Ihe seclion, J U" aboul1he same axes, untlthe.
'"'11e belween axes Oy, and Oy.
o calculale 111 , J" and J v' \Ve musl selecl Ihe axes Oy 3nd Ol
and break lhe area 01 lhe figure inlo parb in such a way thal the above
values ma~' be compulcd for each composite part by using the rule 01
p1trllllel axes only. W.. sh]l sho\\' in Ihe example below how lo Jo
Ihis in praclice. lt should be noled lhal complex figures &hould be
broken into elementar)' areas for which Ihe cenlral moments 01 ner
lia abolll 11 syslem of 1\\"0 perpenJicular axes are kno\\'n.
Lel us nole that Ihe above procedure and {he final results (12.13)
antl (12.14) u'Ould hay!' be<'n lhe same if we had taken lhe cenlre af
coordinales in an arbitrar}' point O other lhan the cenlre of gravily
(JI Ihe secUan. lience, lormulas (12.13) and (12.1.1) hold jme when
we Iransfcr (rom olle systelll of mulually perpentlicldar axes to arlother rolated Ihrough an angle a, rresprclive 01 \\'ht'lIu:r ht' axes
pass lhrough Ihe cenlre of gravity or noto

250

8ttldi~g.

Slrellglil 01 Btoms

[Porl fV

From formula (12.13) \Ve may oblain anolher relation be!~n Ihe
mOffil'nts uf nerlia when the axes are rolated. By adding lhe expressinos for y' and J,' (12.13), we gel

J;+ J ~ -

J ~ (oos' Ct

+sin'a) + J. (sln'a +cos'a) = J v + J.

(12.15)

Le. Ihe sum 01 he momenls 01 inerlia about any lwo mutually perpendicular axes Oy and Oz rJoes nol change when Ihe axes rolate. Putting lhe "'alues 01 Iv and J< [rom (12.9) in formula (12.15), we gel

Jv+J.=~ z'dA+~!I"dA_~(l'+!I')dA"'jp'dA_J,.

(12.16)

where p=V y'+z' i5 lhe distance Df el<'menlary afea dA from poin! O.

As we already know, the quantity
p'dA i5 called the polar mo-

Jp=S,

meo! al inertia about poin! O I 48).

The polar momenl 01 nerUa Di a sed ion about a point is equal lo
Ihe surn 01 lhe llllial momcnts of inertia about two mulually perpen
dicular axes passing lhrough this poinL This ellplains wh}' lhis sum
remains constanl when lhe axes rotate. Ellpression (12.16) ma)' be
utilized for simplifying the compulation of Ihe moment 01 inertia.
Thus, lur a cirele we already have ( 48)
~.

1,,='["
Due to syrnmelry in a circ1e Jv=J"
Jp

lherelore
11/'

J~-/~Z=-'-=T

which ls Ihe same as obtained by inlegration ( 65).

Similrly, on Ihe basis af formula (9.15) we gel the lollowing ex
pressioll lor a Ihinwalled ring secUun:
J p --,
"/
Jg=T--,!tr.

69. Principal Axes of Inertla llnd PrilKipal

Moments 01 Inertla
Formulas (12.7) and (12.13) solve Ihe probll'm sd before us in 66:
knowing Ihe central momenls uf nerlla J and J Z' and J~, lar a particular figure lVe can calculale its momenf 01 inerta about any other
axis.
As Ihe basic syslem ofaxes we seled a syslem which will help
simplHy formulas (12.13). To be precise, we may seJecl a syslem for
whleh lhe produc! 01 inertia 01 Ihe sedion is zera. indeed, momenls

Ch. 12)

MOmtl\l8

01

Inu/io.

01

Plo.nt Figures

251

of nerUa J ~ and J, are always posllive because they are he sum of

posilive I..rms; Ihe product 01 inerlia 01 he section

J~,=~zydA

may be positive or negative, bt'1:au5e he lerms zy dA may have difiero

enl slgns depemling upen the signs of !I and z lor particular elemen
tary areas. This means Ihal il may
aiso be tero ( 63, item C).
The axes about which theproduet
of inertia 01 section is zero are
called Ihe principal axcs 01 inertia. [1
lhe cenlre of lhis syslem ofaxes
Hes al the centre of gravlty 01 lhe
figure, then tl1ey are called lhe
principal ceniral aus 01 incrUa. We
y
shall denote Ihese axes by OYe and
for Ihese axes

o.r.;

J~,... =O

Let us delermine Ihe angle IX.

between the principal axes amI the
central axes Oy and 01 (Hg. 158).
Fig. 168
In formula (12.14) for lhe produd
01 inertia, where we pass over lrom axes yOl to !I,Ol" angle IX is replace<! by a,: then axes Oy, and Oz,coincide wilh the principal axes,
and the product 01 inerlia of Ihe section vanishes:
at a=Uo

J v.>. =- {sin2a. (/,- J g) +Jg,cos2l:tc =0

wherefrom
(12.17)
This equation is satisfled by Iwo values of 2a, diliering by 180",
or lwo values 01 a. dilfering by 90. Thus, equation (12.17) determines
the locaiion 01 two 8xes al righl angles to each other. These are Ihe
principal central axes 01 inerlia Oy. and Oz. lor which J" =0.
Using formula (12.17) and knowing J~, J" and J~I we ma'y'oblain
formulas lor Ihe principal moments 01 inertia J y and J,. For this
we &hall again use formulas (12.13); they give uso lhe values 01 J~.

'"and J ii we replf1ce " b)' n.:

[pa,! IV

J y, ""' J uc~~'a"+ J. !'>1~:rJ..~Jv'

J,.=J.SIn

S,ln 2a,

a.+J.co~ r:.TJ~zSln2a:.

(12.18)

These formulas alollg witl! formulas 02.17) fIIay be u>.cd in solving

problclIIs. We shall sho\\' in 70 Ih:ll one 01 lhe principal mOIll('nls
01 [nerUa is J,., and Ihe olher Is 1"'1.'
Formulas (12.IS) can be lIIodied into a form whiclt does nol contalo a., ExpressillJ!" cos'a. and sin'a. in Itrms 01 ros 2., pulllng lheir
valucs in Ihe first formula in (1218) and simultaneously suhslltul1ng
th~ value of J., from formula (12.17), \Ve gel

/,+/,

Jy-J,.

/9+/'

J~-Jz

,,_

Jv-J.'sin~

J!Io ~ ----r- +-,- cOS ""'. +-,- 00SZii;

~

-,- +-,- coa 2a.

From formula (12.17), repladng lhe froclion

.(t>'i

2"'. by

V'+I an '<)_'X._ 1/-1++~12J;';,;.,,;;

r J {Jo ,l"'

\Ve gel
(12.18')
We would have obtained the sallle resull by a similar Iransformation
01 he second formula in (12.18).
Inslead 01 Oy and O: we may lake Ihl' principal axes OY. and O:.
as the basi; sysleUl uf (he ~(>nfrat ases 01 inerUa frorn whi;h we ;an
pass over (o any othl'r s)slem. lhen Ihe prOdU;1 of inerfia or the
seclion will nof appear in (ormulas of fhe ti'pe (12.13) (J1,=0).
Lel us denote by ~ the ang:le lhal aAis 01/, makes with fhe principal
axis Oy. (Fig. \69). In ckulatiog J~, J;, and J;" anglc lJ, in formulas fl2.13) aod (12.14) should be feplal"ed by B a"tI J", J" aod
JO' shoultl be rcpl:ced by J y.' J." and Jy,<.=O. Wc lind th:t

J~=J"co"'~+J.,sio' ~ '(

J;=J/I,:,>il1"~+J"cos'/l
,
J,.-J.,.
Ju.=--,-SIIlZP

(12.19)

lhe above lormlllas are exacUy the same as Ihe formulas lor normal
s(re$SCS o.. and sheariO st1esses T .. (6.5) aod (6,6) acting in Iwa mutually perpendkul3f p aoes in an elemenl subjeded lo tensioo in
111'0 dira:tions ( 30). lherefore f,10hr's cirde can be used in ths case
also. The axial moment 01 inerlia should be laid off long the hori-

,,,
rontal axis. liAd Ihe product or [nerli.. el (he seclion along verlkal
axis. 11 is proKli.Wll lha! Ihe ruder should himself plol IIRd llnaly:ze
the Mohr's crele in Ihis case. We Yall only gi\'e Ihe formula which
enables lIS to se.led Ihat "alue among lhe 1\\"0 values of . (fmula
(12.17), \\hi~h corresponds lo dcdation oi Ihe first principal a:l"i!
(h' In mulmurIl J) from Ihe Ofjgina! positioo of lhe ga:-:is:
lan~_ J

'

(12.17')

This formula is exactl)' similar lo formula (6.11).

We can finally slate Ihe law by v..hich the moment oS inedia a
complu ligurt' aboul an arbilrary axis can be found in lhe sirllplesl
possible manner. Il is essenHal lo draw axes Oy and Ol Ihrough Ihe
cenlre of gravity or the ligur<' so Ihal lo divIde the figure in simple
pllrts for ...mich J J. and 1.. can be enily tak:ulated. Then we determine ox" irom rormula tI2.17) ami clIku]lte lhe principal central
momenls of nerlia J and J according lo formulas (12.18).
We can calculale lhe momt!llt 01
inerUa baul In arbilr/lry cenlral
oxis Q!h (Flg. 169), incline<! al an
angle ~ to Oy according to formula (12.19):
J~ ... J v. cos' ~+J .. sin' ~
Knowin: lhe c~ntral moment 01
inerlia
we can calculale lht:
rnoment oC inerlia about !In)' para]-

J",

lel axis!l localed al 3 distance a

(Fig. 169) 'rom thl' ttnlr('o[ gravily
by formula (12.7):
J;""J~+as;l

In a number of cases Ihe prlOClFil 169

pll aus of 8 figure can ~ dra....l l
straight.wa)'. If Ihl!' figure has an axis of syrnml!'lr)', then thi5 axis
""'it! be ene of the principal axes. Actually, wtlile. ckoriving thl!' formula 0_ ~' , Wl!' ca[1I(' across the integral ~!/l dA, whkh represents
lhe. produd al intrtia of the .seclion boot" lhe. axes ay and al. It
"''35 proved Ih..t if th. is Ihe axis ol s)'mtllelry. then Ihis negnl be-

comes :tero.

This implies lh.. f in the prl'SMl case ay 8nd 01 reprCSffit tht principal Cffilral axes of inertia or the seclion. H~. the axis of syrnmelry
15 IIlwa)'S a principal axis, and the second principal central axis passes
through the centre 01 Clvity al rigbt angles lo Ihe axis o syrnlllElry.

 70. The Maxlmum and .~inimum VaJues

of tM Cu1lral Moments of lnertia

We already know that lht, central moments or inertla are the mi

nimum oIall momenls about a number el parallel axes.
Let us now delermine the ~lreme (maximum and minimum)
yalues of Ihe cenlral momenLs 01 inerlla. If "\'1' s1art rolaling axis
011" Le. changing Ihe value or a, there is Ihe change in the yalue 01
J; ... J~ costa J. sin'o: - J sin 2a

The ma:dmum and minimum values 01 (his momenl of inerlia COT'

respond lo angle a.1 for which dJ;Jda yanishes. Thls deriyaliYe is

!Jj= - 2J. cosa sina + 2J. sina c~a-2J,. cos2a

Pulting a"al in Ihe aboYe equalion and equalin it lo zero, we ret
(J.-J,) sin 20;,- 2J,. cos2a,_O
whereirom

21,_

lan2cz, - J._J~ _tan ~

(see (12.17))

Thus. Ihe axes about which Ihe central mom(!Jl!s 01 inertia an! mut
mulO or minimum are Ihe principal central axes 01 inerUa. When
these axes are rota(ed, the sum 01 (he correspondini momenls 01 Iner
tia does no( change; lherefore

J;+J;_J,+J.=J,
When ene of Ihe cenll1ll moments of inerUa is mulmum. lhe olh
must be minlmum, Le. ir
J.. =J...... then J.. =-I.I.
Thus. lhe principal central axl'$ 01 nerUa are mutually perpendicular axes passing Ihrough the OOltre 01 gravity of (he se<:tion. about
whkh Ihe produc( al inedia 01 lhe .section is Zl'f'O and I~ axial mo-

menls of intrUa haye Ihe malCimum and minimum values.

In fulure we shall denote he principal 3:les of nerUa by Oy and Ol
and Ihe principal momenls or inerlia by J u and J z. \Ve shall conUnue
lo denole the axis of fhe beam by the x'3:lls as berore.

71. ApplicatlOf\ of lhe Formula fOT Oettrmif\inll

Normal 5iresses to Beams 01 Nons}mmelricaJ
SedlOflS
By equating to zero the produd 01 inertia el stion aboul !he principal axes. \\"e can show Ihat lhe lormulas given in 63 are valid under
certain condllions loc nonsymmettical sections as \\'1'11.

Ch.

'"

Mornmls 01 fllut/a o, Plne F1i,rts

Whil~ derivlng

Ihe formula foc normal stresses ( 63) we inlrodoced

Ihe Iimilation lhal the beam should bf' s~'mmelrkal about Ihe plane
o( action of lhe exlernal fono:es, xOz, wllh the primary aim of (1) etablishing Ihat Ihe neutral nis Oy is peilltndicular lo lhe plane zOx,
and (2) proving thal the SUlIl 01 lhe momenu o elementary rorces
dN aboul lhe axis Oz is uro;

r.M.-O,

~ SxydA-O. SzydA-O

HO\ItIever,lhe conditions Ihal

!h~

(11.6)

z- and y-nes be at right angles

and lhe integral ~ zydA be equal lo zero ma)' also be: fulfilled ror

a nonsymmelrical seclion_ For lhis it is sufOclenl Ihat Ihe z-axis

Iying in It~ plane of aelion d lhe exlernal lorces and Ihe neulral
y-nls be the principal cenlral axes of inertia of the beam's Cfa;.s seco
lion. The perpendicularity is then satisfied and Ihe integral ~ zydA

represenling Ihe product o inertia 01 Ihe seclion about lhe principal

axes is a150 equal lo ze!'o.
Hence. lhe C()ndition that Ihe plane 01 aelion 01 lhe external orces
should coineide wilh lhe plane o symmelry may be rep!aced by anolher condilion: lhe plane of aclioll 01 the exlerna! rarees should coincide wHh one of lhe Iwo planes eonlaining lhe principal axes 01 inerlia of the cross secUon. In a beam
lhese Iwo planes are called lhe
ptiru:ipal planes 01 inertia.
The; stcond principal alis. whieh
z
is perpendicular lo Ihe plane or
aetion of lhe exlemal rorees, represenls lhe neutral uis. and Ihe condilion
zydA-O is aulomalically

satis6ed.
Since '4"ll can alll'3}'S find u~
principal cenlral ue al inerlia lor
btam al any s/tape, 1000rPulas
(11.9) and (11.13)
~h

o=J and

Al .....

11 ""'-r-

Fic.I70

may lit used fer !)caros al III1Y crass seclion, provided the external
of Ihe priocipal planes al inerlia
lhe beam and J
and W are laken aboul lhe otOO principal axis, \\'hich is perpendi-

fortts lit in

one

or

cul.u lo the plane of ael ion 01 Ihe external forces and repre:sents lile
neulral axis.

A Zshaped beam (Fig. 170) wllh principal axes O: and Oy may be

taken 15 an tumple. The formulas iven aboye are applicable lo 1111$
bellm only ir Ihe external fOl"CeS lie in plane,t(k or xOy. In lhe lil"$t
case Ihe y.u:is wiJI be neutral, in lhe SKOnd lhe l-uis. As in this
case 100 Ihe neutral axes al he section are perpe:ndicular lo lhe plane
or aclion al lhe external i(ll"(es, the axis 01 lhe beam t('malos in Ihis
plane even .lter delormalion. Thus. il lhe uternal lorces He in one
of lhe principal planes al inertia, Ihis will be lhe gentlll case o unjo
planar bending.
B!ams of Zseclion are oHen I'm p lo'ed as purHns, which are laid
over rusten. Under veclical pr~ure o lhe roof y."eight and snow Ihe
purlios bmd in lhe plane el adion of lhe exlftTlal rorces (for corns
pondin roor sloPf'), Le. lhey experience uniplanar bffitling.
11 should be noted Ihat in sorne cases additiooal normal and shear
ng stresses connedtd ,,,,Ih extra Iwisling of beam are sel up in bearns
of nonsymmelrical laboul the axis Iyin in Ihe pl:me of aclion of
external forces) seclions.

7'l. ltadil of lnertla.

Concept ot the Momen!al ElIipse
We shall now introduce one more geometric1t[ char1tctcrjslic of se<;
lion whlch correlntes the momenl of inertia or lhe secUon. J, w[[h
its area A by Ihe following formulas:
J,=i~A

and

J._i;A

(12.20)

i, and t, are known as radli al infrUa and are respK'

tivety equal (O
Quantitje.~

.0
i,--V
7

and

1._ .VT:
7'

(12.21)

11 J~ .nd J. represenl lhe principal momenls oi inerlia, i, and i.

are known as lhe principal radii of inertia. For eJ:ample. lar a rectan
guiar secUon "'e 6nd wilh the help 01 formulas (12.1) and (12..3)

.
" -=
F

iI

./...,
V i1iiii = Vi2'

.
1, -

./W"

ilM - fi2

(12.12)

circular seclion formula (12.4) yields

r;;c-

',=1.- V

:r1-T

(12.23)

The values Di principal radii of inetlia ror rolled profiles are gi"en
(se<' Apptndix).

in standard normal profile {ables

Ch.

121

JIIomtnl$ o!

1~r1{a

,s

o/ Plau Eleurt!.

The dlipse plotied on the principal radii 01 inerlia as lis majar and
minar axes s known as "wmell/al eliipse. To plol lhe lIlomenla.J dIipse we lay off Irom the! cenlre 01 gravitr 01 lhe section Ibe radii or
inerlia: i~ s normal lo the cenlral
yaxis, Le. along lhe zaxis, and i,
is normal lo lhe z-axis (along Ihe
y-axis). If J~-Jm..' the majar nis
01 the eHipse 2i~ will lie along lhe
za:ds (Fig. 171).
The momenlal ellipse has lhe following remarkable properly: Ihe
radius 01 inerlia aboul 8n arbitrary
axis Ox drawn lhrough lhe cenlre
or gravily or Ihe sedion is !'qual to
the normal dropped from Ihe cenlre
or cllipse lo Ihe langent paraliel lo
lhe aboye at;is. Hence. with lhe
heip oi {he momental ellipse \lIe
Fig. l7l
can graphically find Ihe radius 01
inerlia i", lar an arbilrary aJ(is 0)(
making an angle ~ with lhe princi
pal axis Oy. For lhis il is sullicient lo draw a llIngent lo lhe cllipse
paraJlel to the x-axis and measure dislance {'" between the axis and
tangent (Fig. 111). Knowing the measured radius 01 inerUa 1"" we
calculate lhe moment or inertia aboul lhe x-axis by lormula
(12.21)
Sorne sedions Iike circle, square, etc. (Fil!. 172). which are cornmonl}' used in engineering practice, have equal moments 01 inerlia
about he two principal axes oi inertia. Conselluentiy, Ihe principal

"I

i"" ""fl,
_.+--C-

~;:fl

F'!: 112

rndii of inertia are alSOClIUltl (if=iJ, anl1 lhe momental ellipsechan

For sueh sections every centrl! axis repaxis or inerlia; lhis is also ellidenl rom
fnrmula (12.19) ror Ihe prol1uct 01 nertia 01 seclion, which vanishes
lar ever)' value or ~ jf J p=J % (see 69"

g~ to lhe lllomental cirele.

r~enls a principal cenlral

IWtdlfll. SIm,,11I

01 BtulllJ

IPlIrl fV

A bar 01 SlKh a seclion displays t<ual resistan lo bending in all

diroclions, whkh is parlicularly important in nlal colIlpresslon of
long bars (Chaptrr 27).

I 73. Strenglh Olcck, Ololct 01 SKtiOll and Delerminalion 01 Pcrmi5,sible Load In Btnding
Formulas (11.15), (11.16), and (11.17) derived In Chapter 11 I~
expresslng Ihe sfrenglh candil ion in bending. combined with Ihe abil
ily lo ca1culate lhe monlenls af inertia and seclion modull (Chap.
ler 12), enable us lo solve lhe lun
damen!al problems 01 strenglh 01
materials in bending ( 4), namety:
{al l;htck Ihe bt'am slrength when
lhe bealll dimensions and the lorces
acling on il ale known;
(b) determine lhe required CIOM'
sectional dill1ffisions ir !he axilll
dimensions al lhe beam and lhe
fon:es acling en it are known;
(e) determi~ Ihe permissible load
\\'hich Ihe beam can wilbstand if
i1s axial and crosssectional dimen
sions are known.
PII(. 113
It is a..~umffllhai lhe pl'fmissible
stresses 8rt known in a1l the aboye
cases.
We shall i1Iustrate wilh examples how to apply lhe slrcnglh con
ditions lar solving the lJbove problems.
A. Suppose lt is required fa cha:k Ihe strenglh of 11 reclan!ular 60x
x 100 n1111 st~l bar wellkened by t\\o symmetrlcal hales 01 dlameler
d-IO mm (Fig. 173), if Ihe bending moment in Ihe critical sectian
M -1.3 lfm and lhe ~missible slress 101-1600 kgf!cm".
Lelus ca1culate Ihe moment of inertia of t1le se<:lion aboul neutral
8.1is Oy:
",.
(
.... )
6xH?
(
6X")
J'-12-2
.bda"+1T
=-,,--2
6xlx3J+"""i2""
=39lcm'

1e seclion modulus is

ell. 12)

The ma:ll:imum stress in critical 5eclion is

0.... - M;,.= 1.378:510' = 1660 kgl/cm'> 1600 kgl/cm'
Over51ressing 01 I~OOO xiOO=3.75% i5 permissible.
B. Le! us now salve a problem on selecling a section. Let a hinged
jbeam 01 5pan l ... 4 m be loaded along its lenglh by a uniformly
disirihuted lorce q=2 If/m and a concenlraled lorce P=6 If at the
centre 01 Ihe span. Jt is required lo seled asedian ror Ihe beanJ ii
Ihe permissible sin-ss (0]=1600 kgl/cm'.
The maximum bending moment at fhe middle of lhe span can be
cakulafed by applying the principie of superposillon of forces ( 61).
Bending moment due lo the distributed load q according to formula (10.11) is

Bending moment due lo concentraled force P (10.10') is

PI
6x 4
MI'=--=-,-=6t1m
The maximum tolal bending mamenl in the crilical section i5

M.... = M q +M p =4 +6= 10 trm = la x JO! kgf cm

According lo slrenglh condition (11.16) lhe required seclion modulus
-... M.... 10>< I~ 625
W Plar=~=
cm
From slandard lables (see AppendLo:) we find Ihe profile No. which
salisfies lhis condilion: Isection No. 33 having secUon modulus
W=-597 cm' (overslres.sing 01 about 5% is permissible).
C. Lel us now consider an example in which we have to delermine
Ihe permissible uniformly dislribuled load which may be salely ap
plied to a hinged jib beam 01 span [=10 m. The beam has I-seclion
No. 60slrenglhened by lwo 2OOx20 mm plales welded to iI (Fig. 174).
Permissible slress [0]= 1400 kgrtcm 1 .
The momenl of inerlla uf fhe Sf(;lion wi1l be found as the sum 01
momenls 01 inerlia 01 fhe Iseclion and Ihe t\\'o plales about the neut
ral axis (as per slandards) and il will be calculaled wilh the help
of formula lor ffioffient of inerlia abolll paral1el axes (12.7);
J=J, +2

r~+bl (~+{)']

=76806+2 [20 ~ 2' +20 X 2 X (30+

1)'] ~ 153700 cm'

'"

BntdiIlIJ. Slunllilr.

gf

(Purl IV

lJt1IlIU

Seclion modulus
J

'_.

153700

W---L--n=- 4820cm'
According jo slren1h condition (11.I6) U~ nl..mum befldin mo
~ musl no! uceed lalW, whtrd"rom

menl M. os =

rq1.,...8101.

~r-

SXlotOOx4620
IO:X]OO"

"., f

~ ....

e/cm

5400 kgf/m.
Ir Ihe dead \l,'eighl of lhe beam is t8ken inlo attount. Ihen we shoold
sublrac! the distributed load due to fhe weighl 01 two plsles, 2x

Ol"

~I'

f!l.7

,
J

1111
(]J

"r,
"-Ji
\

I J:J.

-1",1-- '" ---.,

Fil. 175

X20X2X l00xO.OO7 85""63 kgl:m, ami IhE' weighl of lhe I-beam

(set Appendix) 108 kgrlrn (q.-6J+I08""171 kgf/m in atl).
Hen~, lhe beam mi)' be loaded by a service loau

q_ fqj-q,C"'S400-171 l'::'S230kgl/m
D. Finally. we shall no\\' disttJss

th~ anal~'s5

of a co[JIposite

~am

of

l\Oll-symmelrkal seclion. Suppose lt is required lo determine lhe pero

missible bending morntnl lar a beam he<! rigtdly al one eIld in a
""811, if a force coople is applied ill Ihe othl!r end in lhe principal
plane el i~tia. The dinltnsions of lhe seclion art' givtfl in Fig. 175.
The span el Ihe btalll is 1=0.6 m. The ptfmissible stress is [01".1600 kgf.cm".
Fin! of all iI is ntel'SS8ry lo Iocale tht l."tfltre el gravily of Ihe ste
tion. For Ihis ....' e !Cltel an lIrbitrary s}"stenl el coocdinllte aJles 11,011

<

",
Ls tOnvenienl

illh~

whole figure Hes in liJe hrs[ quadranL lhe dislances of lhe (rolre of gravlly from lhese axes may be determi~ by

lt

lhe lormulu
"._ -s"
A

~.

\\ill'rl'

l_~
Z
A

and

S., amI Sz, art slatic rnommls al he aTea about txes Oy,

ltnd Ol..

respec.tivel~'.

lo determine lhe slatic moml'nb we divide Ihe area into two ree
talli1es, vtl"lical 1 and hor-izontal /J. The afea el lhe figure is A _

_ lx12+1xl_19.0 cm 2 lhe static moments- are

S,. =A,y", +.4..g, . -12 x 0.5+ 7 (1 +3.S)-37.5crn'

Sr, = A,t, . +A"x., - 12 X 6.0+ 7 X 11.5= 152.Scm"

lhe coordlnales of lhe centre of gravity are

37.5 19"
Y'=I9""
. (cm:::::: 20
. cm
J52 ..~

zz=JT~

800

cm

or

Lel liS no\\' chaose Ihe coordinale system 01 the central aXell
jner
lia Oy. amI Ol~. lhe simplest v.'ay is lo I.!ireel lllese axes parllllcl lo
lhe l1rms of lhe figure; this will be helplul in ca1cuJating Ihe rnomenls
or inertia 01 Ihe seclion abou! these axes.
Tlle lIlomenls of in<'rlia uf intllvidu111 rcclangles about axes Ol/,
and Di, can be <:a1culaled Iroll! Iht' rorPlulas of pralll"l axes 112.'7,
and (12.8), and lhe moments or inceUa 01 lhe reclangles aboul their
own aJles from lormula (12.1).
Table 12 (SC'l.' Fig. 115) conlains lht plan of (ompulatiOll5 wilh (he
help of whlch u'e <:<ln dclermine lhe lIngles bd\\'('('ll lhe prnclpal
axes and axis Oy,:

u',

2x117

tan 2r.t. =~ - RiD-='ffi z= -1.09

J.-J,

2a;--4P40'
The minus ,ign

~'$

!at angle

~--23"SO'

Ind
~

should be Ilid 011" [n the clock

wise dlrection:
sn~_-o.404,

cosa.;=O.915,

,in~

, Ir> u~ il>dkd 01 1"" ('('lf.-dinal~ he ('$I

Ol" and tlle _Olld subSCflpl delloles Ihe arn.

__ O.74, cos2a.;=O.G73

$Ilbl,(f1pl

MIII'>l~

lhe Ud

~,

or

Tabl,I2
Ddtf'lIlh.allan el 1_

~nl

al IMrlla

_ . al ,-,1.0

llIf lbol ...... tc."l

<

12

-L~

2.5

19

"

-2.0

I<H

"

48

192

1.0

27

28

M.6

86

28.6

43.8

72

144.6 133.6 278

29.6

70.8

100

3.5 0.6

"

+
+

61

97

The principal Jtl()lIlents el ntrtia are

+ r.sio'a" _J:' sin 2a.

_278 X 0.915'+ 100 X 0.404'+97 X 0.74"",32() cm'
J ~ _ J;sin"g,. + J~cos' a. J;' sin 2a
... 278 X 0.404'+ 100 X 0.915"-97 X O.74=58cm

J.... J:005' ex"

Ltl us check whether Ihe resulls obtained are COlTed:

l. J ,+J~=320+58-378cm' = J;+.I:_278+ 100=378cm'

2. Jra=-I-(J;-J:)Sin2a+J:..cos2a

--2'(278-100)0.74+97

0.673_0

lt is elear lrom the ca!culalions that J,=J ....' and J.-J"'I.'

Hence, it is advanlageous lo apply the bending touple in the plane
xOz so lhat axis Oy becomes the neutral axis (Fili' 176).
let us nOllo' lind lhe SKtion modulus. For this it is necess<lry lo
determine lhe distan.::e z... of the larlhest libre from the neutral
axis Oy. This 010 euily be done by drawing lhe stion to a cerlain
sClle and marking the principal axes on it. For the .section under
consideration the mcasured disiancc \\'as found lo be z....... 8.1 cm.
Thereforc the section modulus ..bout the .,&xiI is

W'-I~_~
Forlllulas (12.10)

11'. . ,

.... 39.5cm'

bot used for analytkal d!:lfnffllutlan 01 z-.

DI' ,,...,,'

Ch. /JI

$tlritl6 lUId Princlxrl S''IJ%'

We determine U\t maximum permiuible bending manlent fmm the

strength condilion .:

_mnIMI~1
0_
lF
_ a

wherefrom

max(M}l!i;ro]IV.
M._ max [M]'" 1600 X 39.5_63200k'l:lcm::=: O.63t1m
H lhe bcnding momcnt is applicd in plane %011. lben lile dislance
01 the ouler fibre from lhe lUis (h being 1I"I","4.12 cm, the scction

Fig. 176

modulus will be W.= .!..L -. ,"" -14.1 cm', IInd Ihe magnilude 01 {he
11... <
.
moment which can be applied safely wlll be
M~_

max M,l ~ 1600 x 14.1 _ 22 560 kgf cm::=: O.226tfm

which is three times les.s than the momenl which can be applied in
plane xOz.
Lelus nole Ihat if Ihe rnoment is located in aplane olher than Ite
principal planeo for example, parallel lo Ihe Range of lhe angle sec
tion. then Ihe bending ni" the beam wHI not be uni'planar, and the
slrenglh condilion will be different ( 120).

OIA1'TEJI.

Shearing and Principal Stresses in Beams

74. Shearin8 Strc.sses in a Beam of R.ectangular
SecUon
Let U$ try to determine, lirsl 01 .11. the shearlng slres.se.s in .serHons
perpendicular lo lhe beam axis whtJI the seclions are reclangles
(Fig.

1m.

'n Ihl$ tnmp\e ~ do not attOUnl rOl" lhe addit10l1l1ll(lllllal sJ:RSSfS whk:h
lIflpear due lo l"51... lned \o:'siool.

[Part

rv

Suppose a positive shearing rOl"' Q ads in a seclion "dten Ihe bt-am

is subjecltd to bel1ding. Let us make the follO'A'ing U5UllIplions recarding 5hearing slrtSSeS 1" in Ihis section:
(1) all shearing stresst5 in lhe seclion act parall('1 lo lhe weJ.ring
fotee Q, "1tieh is UK' resultanl of Ihe former.

(2) sheariog stresses ae:ting in planes \I,'hich are localed a! ttlE' same
dislante 1 fram lhe neutral uis are ('.Qual in magnilude.
80lh lhese assumptions W('fe pul fotWard b)' O. 1. Zhuravskii.
lhe Iheory of elastidly reveals that Ihe llS$Umplions are valid fu"
m:langular beams il Ihe height 01 lbe beam i$ reate( lhan lis ""idUI.

,
foc:o 179

We shall /1OW Iry lo akulale Ihe shearing slrt:ssl".\ and 351:t'rlain

lhe law 01 dislribution of shearing stresses along Ihl' height uf section.
Le! us consider a ~m Ioaded by a numb of forces (Fig. 178).
Lel us isolale a parl al 1~g1h dx cut oul b)' seclions /./ and 2-2. lt
wllI bt' assumed Ihal srclon 2-2 00 (he rgbt sidl' ollll<" o:utoul porHon
I'xperift1lS 5Jleari"R slrC$StS 1'. whio:h gi\'e r~ullant shearmJ! force Q
Klin; downll,ards. film on lhe other side 5('l'lioll ,./ \lo-ilI expE'rience
shearmg slreses acting up\\'ards, \\'hich 150 give a resullanl shl'llring

0.. 131
forc~ Q.

1t is quite nalu,al lha! in Ihe absem:e oi distribuled load 00

Ihe lsolated pllr( ur Ihe beam, Ihe AAe..ril1i rorces $hould be equal in
lnanllude. Seclions 1-' and 22 will also txperiem:e nor-mal slrtMt$
which, hO'l\"evt'f, are not shown ho!f~.
Accordulg lo lile law ur tomplemenlary shearing slrcsstS (CtIar
ler 6, (ocmula (6.8)" similar shuring stres.ws sliould be uptCl~ lo
acl in planu pan.lle1 (O lhe neutrallayC1. Th!.'relore, if \l"l: take lwo
hori:wnlal SC'ttioos ollhc beam al d i s - :
lallC:es z aoo l+dz frOl1l t1~ neulral axis tI1 A .
and i.solale an clrmenl of sid b. de.
and di (Fi~. 179), IlIen lhe verltlll faces:
"
ol Ihis cklllent will upt'f"iem-r sll<.-arin slre5).E'S f, ",-hereas lhe hocizon
1111 fas will be lICled upon by e1lual
~p
bul oppos.le shearing stresses r'.
A,
4.
:\s Ihe rlbres paralld lo 11M:" .u:ls of ("
,
lh<.' beall1 do 001 I'ress on each other
in !hcJroccs~ 01 delorm/llion. lile Ste
1
1
ti'
Iions ttll' i.lcam paralll-'l lo Ihr l'It.'ut
tal layrr do nol l!xpeienccany !lOfl1llll
slrl5SCS. Thrreior<.', inslead or deh.'l"IlJin ~'
ing (he shearing slre5Sf's T oyer lhe
Ar
bo:lam tross set:lion, Wo:l shall do:l!crlllinc (e)
equal 5tre.'~ T' aclillg in aplane p_a_
rallel lo lile !leulral layer (Fig. 180).
:..
l _ _--;j
Al /irsl il seerm slrange that shearI
ing ~lresses UppCllf in planes pllflll~
lel to lhe.-' neulral rayero However, \\1"
A
can eJlplain Ihis r,henomenon wilh lile f/
-:r
_ .-1
following uamp e.
A~ - . -- ~_,
lel us suppose Ihal Ihe beam con- ~-.._ ......
s.su 01 1"""0 idenlical rec:langular reds
, :
placH over one another (Fill'. rSI(a));
h
1
"
the lrkllon btt~n lhe rods may be
FI, 181
ignored. 11 s a.s5umed Iha! t~ beam
btmls under Ih~ adien of at least 00(' 1Oft't P acting in the mitldle el
Ih<' span. The bent bram is sfxNm in Fig. 181(b) in a lIighly magni.
fied scalt. TIIe lo\\"er libres of lhe upper be.am A,B. Irelch, IIlhere'" the uppe- libres of lhe lower beam A,B. shorten as compared
t'l lhe-ir inilal lenglh AB.
lf Ihf. beam were a ingle red, il v,"Ould ha\"t bl'fll as sltoIln in Fill'.
181(t). Fibres AB \\"oultl be in UIt' neufralla)'er and "'..o uld not have
t"hanged lheir lengihs. n.erelore in bending of a salid beam, ihearing
slresstS T' prcvenling he upper and JO\\tf halves oI (he beam rrom
sle,r along lhe neutral ayer are IraR$lQilted Irom Ihe upper hll\{ lo
Ihe lower through Ihe neutral Ill)'U, llnd Yice \'ua (Fig. 181(d)).

l......

..

[pat IV

Figure 182 shcn\."S a part of lile I~ade 01 a rectangular be-am sublo uni.planar bending. Let us draw h ..o vry clase seclions
Jl and 2-2 al a distanced;c Irom each other. Le! us alsodraw 11 horl
tOOlal stiOl1 al iI disl.:!./lCt l from Ihe neutral layer.
Thus, we shaJl be able lo isolate rrom he beam sn elernenl ABCD
havlng sides dx, h12-1, and b. An v:onometrk projedion o lhe ele
lllCnt is shotwn in Fig. 182. Let M be Ihe bending momenl in se::tion
fllf.Uf
1!

jecl~

-Tl~

: I ::

"--

1---:
i 1:
Z.~~l

,'I~
'lA!
!J
r;
~
1,

:::..::-,:::::::Jq;;z=--'---U;
FI,_ 182

.J

"

[1, end M+dM in t~e djaeenl secUan 22. The slde races 01 Ihe
ciernen! \\'111 be aeted upon by normal slresses O" whieh IIre lower lo
fhe lelt and grealer to Ihe right. The horiumtal sed ion wiJI t'xperience
shearing slresses t' -l.
We have t\()! shown in lhe diagram the shearing str~es T acting
in secliOflS ,./ and 2-2 because Ihey do nol enter the oondilion of
<'quilibrium d !he isoJaled element, which is obtained by t(juating
lo uro he sum of the projection.s oi al! lhe !orces on lhe axis of the

bramo
To oblain the condition oi equiHbrium 01 Ihe isolaled element, \\'e
musl calcuJale aH those f~ ading on iI whkh are paralJel lo lhe
a~iJ of lhe beam. TIle elementary shearing Ion:e dT en Ihe e1ementary
area b dx is
dT""Tbd:c

1e normal strt'SSeS actingon an jnlinjleJy small area dA el !he side

I heighl l. from the neutral axis are

faet al

.~

The forc-e dN, ading on this area Is

dN

,--,-

MI, dA

0.. 181

'"

The whole of the side faee AD is aeted upon by a lorce N, (Fig. 183):

"i

N ,-,-,-f M~'dA -7

Z,

dA

Jnlegral ~ z,dA is the slatic moment about {he neutral yaxis of

'.

Ihe parl 01 secUon GFAD enc10sed between Ihe secUon al a helght h

and Ihe edge 01 the beam (Fig. [84). Le! us denote it by S:, Thus,
N

,..o MS;
J

(13.11

II

ldentical1y lace Be 01 the element is acted upon by a foKe

(13.2)

N _ (M+d:M)S;

"

The dill'erence 01 Ihe normal orces

N -N
I

d.'o1S;

'1/

1 -

when projecled on axis O:.: (Fig. 183) is balanced by the shearing force
dT. Therelore
dM

s'

al:

'b

,.=...,...,.~

But ' : =Q, therefore

(13.3)

lmplying thereby Ihat Ihis formula represcnls he shearing stress at

heigbt z in a section perpendicular to the axis 01 the beam.

_m
-,tiQ]

"~8 _
H,~~
D

Fe:. 184

Fill. 183

S:

Le! us derive Ihe formula lar

for a rectangular beam (Fig. 184)
oI height h and widlh b. The sta1ic momenl of area OFAD abaul axis
0,0, is equal lo the area multiplied by distance Z_ of i1s cenfre of grao

ihrrdng. Slrtngllt

O/

Parl IV

BtQmJ

vity Irom axis 0.0,-. lhe t1rea of GFAD is equtllto

(%-,)

antl distance Zh is

S;=b(~_Z)+(~+Z)=b~'(l_~~:)

(13.-1)

While camputing Ihe sta\ic mamen! of Ihe area 01 ti sed ion il is

lIllllateria! whelher \'JI' lake Ihe portion of seelion \\'hieh is beraw the
level Z or Ihe bigger porUon. because bolh lhe staUc mall1enLs are

Fi.

18~

equal in nwgnitude. Generall}". \'JI.' lakl' lhe stalic mament af lhe

portian whieh is easier ta compute. Sinee for a reclangle J y= ~,
forlllufa (13.3) lakes fhe form

T=Qbh'12( l_~) =1....2.. I_~)

r'"F\

h'

~I>h.\

'"

(l3.fl)

liente. shearing stress T changes along Ihe heighl uflhe rectangular

st'C\ion aecording fo a p<lrabolic lall'. lhe shearing stress vanishes al
lhe IU\\'ef and uppl'rendsof IhE'. se<:tion wherc z=';'; ihis is in siriet
conloflllily \\'ilh lhe lall' or complementar)' shearing strt-s>;es. It at,
tains flwJOiJllultI vlue 01'1 lhe neufral aJOis (where lhe nOTl'la] stress is
zero) where z=O, and in Ihe section where Q(x)=Q..,.:
(l3.G)

o.

'"

131

ThU!. Ihe maximum shearing slress in a fectangular sedion is 1.5

limes grealer lhan its average valllc. Figure 185 shows lhe dislriblllion
01 shearlng st~ when lhe shearing force is posUiv~.
5hW"ing slresses soml.'Whal distort Ine accepled pidure or delor
matk>n ola beam. \1Je had assumed that lindes- lhe aclion of bendn
moments the cross sedions or a beam tum w.r.l. uch olber. although
lhey conlinoe lo rema!n planes (Fig. l86(a. Due lo ~aring slr~
fhe e.lemenls of the malerial enelosed bclwetn Iwo seetions warp.
A

A;

'Al

A' A

'-'

Uf

6i

bl

~'

"

In 3C'COfdance wiln fhe varialion in lhe value of Ihe shearing streM.

the \\'arping inc:rust'$ fmm Ihe edges.
lhe beam towards lhe neutral
axis. Therefore lhe sedions are delormed (Fig. l86(b). However,
warping has almosl no efFed 00 lhe deformalion of Ihe ftbres along
Ihe bum, therefore formula 0= ~~ can be used even jf ;11 shearlng
fortt is acling on (he beam.
Thus, in addilion lo Ihe slrenglh cht'Ck for maximum normal slres
ses (11.15)

or

we must clJtck Ihe strength 01 Ihe material lar maximum meara

slresses

We shall soh'e a numerical exarnple lo el an Idea or lhe order of

lhe nl3gnilude al 'f in rectangular beams.
Lel lIS delermine the maxlmum OOTnlal and shurlng streMeS IOC'"
a rectangular beam l!:lIh lh~ following dllla: the beam Iles on 1...0
supporl5 Dnd over ils lolal length 1=4 m takes a uniform load or in
lensil)' q=t.2 U/m: M ...-2.4 ti nI; Q-2.4 ti: h"""27 cm; b_

'"_18

8etldbtt.

Stflllg/h

O, &ano

[Parl IV

cm; 101-110 kgflem"; ITI_22 kgflcm'.

o...

".;r- ~~J. 6 _109.5 kgfJan' < IIOkgf/cm'

"[.u -

~"-2 ~~i~8 _7.5 kgf/cm" < 22 k:fJclJI'

We. see that redangular beam drsigned to lake lhe maximum nOfmal stress equal lo Ihe permissible remains highly underslresscd as
lar as he shearing s!resses are (oncerne<!.
}-lov.'ever, in pracUce we may come across jusi lhe ft'verse case; it
may occur when the shearing force is arge whereas the bending 010menl jo5 small. Jn such cases af Joading, even in a rt3ngular se<:lion
Ihe dedsive par! in determining lhe dimensions of Ihe beam i5 played
by the sheuing stresse.s.

le formula rOl' shearing stresses in a rectanular scclion Wll$ lin!

det-ivf'd by the Russlan engine O. I. Zhuravskii whm he was designing \I,'OOdcn bridges for lhe. Sto Peler-sbur:-Moscow rail\\'3Y line
in 1885. Zhuravskii employed a slightly diiftrent and more compli
caled method in obl'ioing this formula without using the relation
'M Q

.".

-.

75. Shearlng Slresses In I-bealns

fu he SKtions of 1- and Tbeams may be oonsidered as oonsisting
or reclangles, then with a cerlain degree of approximation Ihe formulas detived lar rectangular sedions in 74 may ~ applil'd lo lbese
SKtion.s too. The shearing ,tresses in a point al a dislance 2 from lhe
neutral axis may, 1 an I-sedion (Fig. 187), be upreMCd by lhe
saine fmula

""",5..
J,,(z)

(13.3)

Hl'te S! is he statk: momenl of the arca endosed bet",'t'ffi level z

and lhe ;rge ollhe beam about the neutral y-axis. As (or the quanlity
b(z). the width 01 the SKtion. it has becn wrHlen as a fundion 01 1
lo emphasize Ihal in {he denominator oS formula (13.3) the widlh
al rever z should be u5e'd. Ir we examine lhe derivation 01 formula
(13.3), we see thal b is the multiplier In the lerm Tb dx, Le. il is (he
laleral dimension of Ihe area which is being ac!ed upon by Ihe stress l'.
Thus b is the width of he besm at level 2. Therefore, when appJying
formula (13.3) to an Iseclion for calculaling lhe s1"learing stresses in
web sections, imlead of b(z) web Ihickness b.. should be used. Static
IJIOmffil S; ma}' be computed as the sum 01 slallc moments of (he t",,,
rtangles halmed in Fig. 187(0). Upon computation we get

".- ~~, [bl'"( 1-*)+b.'1; (1- ~:.)]

(I3.S)

Ch.

"1

J31

It is evidenl Irom lhe forr.lUla Ihat along the ~b height Ihe .shear
ing streMeS vary by a parabolic law (Fill:. 187(b and become maxi
mum 011 lhe neutral axis al Ihe section.
Formula (13.3) cannot be used
calculaling shearing stresses in
Ihe poftions I)'ing in Ihe nanees oi lhe -seclian, beause these slresscs
are lar from being equal along the lIange widlh. In l~ area around
Ihe l-axis Ihey may be BSSunJed to vary Ipproximately as shown by
dolltd lines in Fig. 187(/)). HO\l.'t:ver, in lhe rem.aining area of the

ror

r.
Fil:.

1"

9r

--r.

F 188

lla~, l.e. aloo almost !he wholeoll\ange wldlh, they vary asshown
in Fig. 188 and do not achieve large magnitudes due lo lhe coodilions
on the ftange surface and lile law of complemenlary shearing stre:sses.
Knowing oow Ihe laws of dislribulion ol normal and shearing
slresses along Ihe heighl of I-seclion. \\'t: can draw !he following conclusion about the working ol an I~tion.
The ftanges 01 an lseclion. being localed al ti considerable dislance
rrom Ihe neutral axis. experleoce over thelr whole area normal slres.ses
Ihat are ma:dmum or c:Iose lo m3ximum. Shearing slresses in thE:'
ftanges or an Isection are negligible.
A5 we move towards lhe neulral axis, the normal slresses in the
web 01 Ihe l-seclion lend tozero. Wilhin web limits Ihe slate momenl
Sr.' doe:s not change much lor various values 01 l. Therelore shearlng
s rt$SeS along Ihe web helghl are sufcienUy large (see Ihe curve in
Fi:. 187(b). In short, lt may be summarized Ihal the ftanges 01 an
Isecllon bear normal slresses. and Ihe ~b bears shearing stress<s.
lelos check Ihe shear strength al a beam acle<! upon by a shearing
lorce Q=2.4 If, assuming Ihe permissible .shearin stress Itl=IOOO
kgf/cm". The section 5 .shown in Fil. 189. From Table l 01 AppendiI
we find 1-1290 cm'. The slaUc momen! 01 hall 01 the seclion is
S.,.-81.4 cm"-S. For ca1culating lhe stresses al poinl 2 Ihe slalic
mom81t can be found by sublraclin: lhe static mamenl ol hall or
the 'Il.'dl from S_.:

S,=81.4-0.5xO.51 x8.19'=81.4-17.1_64.3cm

lP"'1 IV

'"The shearing stres!tS are

2.fOO

x &U

T,"'" O,".""1290XD.5.24QOX8J.4

'36 k 11

g ~m

<>07k..f

T.1CI 1811xO.51=-'<';I

5"ClI1

The dlaram DI distrlbulion al sh~aring slresses along the sedlon

ht'iRflt is shown in Fig. 189. 11 can be seen Irom he diagram lhat lhe
fJIJ
I

rt=;i=::J
.,,, _ff-L

~
f

maximum shearil1g stress is considerably 1m lhan Ihe permiso

sible which may be lltiribuled lo
the lllrge lhickness of Ihe web in
lhe rolled profile. Much beHef

utilizaliQn

01

melal

can

be

achieved in composile bC:llllS

(see
rivi!te(J and weltk'd.
Let lIS determine that rllClton
d lhe .shearing force which is
laken up by lhe web. For Ihis \Ve
IJ
ulUltipl)' IMordin:.lesof lheshear
ingstrrss dlagTam by lhe aTea el
lhe wdJ or h5e'C:tion: 236xO.SJ X
X 16.38 (291- 236J X 0.51 X
X 16.38x -} =2312 kg[, Y.'hich comprses 96!' 01 Ihe tolal shearing

ao,.

"

fon:e.
rhe melhod of delermining shearing slressu in an l-belm whkh
has been e:o:plained htre may also be used for olher sedions malle of
tedanitl~: hollow reclanular seclilm, Tseclion, etc.
78. Shcaring Slresses In Reams of Clrclllar
aCld Jtlng Srdions
Lel us consider a beam of circular sedion. In IlJis beam lhe soeating sltesses can no more be parallel to Ihe shearing force. If there
ate 00 forces ading on lhe side surface of lhe beam, lhe shearinJ{
stresses on elemenlary ateas J and 2 in the vicinily of secUon contout
musl aet along Ihe l.nent lo fhe seclion conlour (Fig. 190(12). These
tangents will inlers:1 fhe line al aclion of Ihe shearing force al
poinl C. 5ince shurina: farce Q is the Taullant ol shearing stres.ses
(Fi. 190), tbe sne.uin stresses on arbitrary demenlary ateas 3 and 4
at lhe !ame dislance z from fhe horizonlal diall"ltt~ act along Ihe Une
passin through the same poinl C. Each 01 lhese shearing stresses l'
ma}' be broken info 1'M) components: vertical T, and horizontal T.
The horizontal componenls in lhe eH and righl halves af the s:lion
balance each olher, whereu fhe vertical componenls add up into

ell. 131

Sl~ri"ll

and Principal

Sl"'~.

shearing force Q. l-lenlC'. in round beams vertical slress componenls

play the same role as the lolal slresses T in rectangular bcams.
We can thus appl;' formula (13.3) to round scctions too, but il will

T,

w'-,--I

"

"{JIlI !

!Jll)

'"

('1
f'i: J!lO

give us only lhr verlical compont'nl al she:lring stress al:m arbilrary

poinl. In subsequ~nt discl1ssion we shall write T inslead al 't,:

- J~"(ll
Qs!

T_

133
.)

Here, as in the previous case. S; is Ihe stalic moment 01 Ihe area

belween Ihe edge of the seclion and level z and is expressed by Ihe
formula
S;= ~ 1, dA = ~ l,b(l,) d1,

11 is more convenient to introduce a new variable, angle q>,,, in

compuling Ihe slatic momen!; iI r is Ihe radius 01 lhe section. lhen
l=rsinq:>~,

l,=rsinlp", b(z,)_Zroosq:>..
dz,-rcos'l'u dlp... b()=2roos'll~

We shall limit

oursel~'es

to de!erminillg

T
'OH

Smn

00:

HI_3310

Q.. ,.5....
=---r;;--

""~ 2r cos 'JI,,' sin If'"rcoslp" d'l'.1

,e I-cos'p" 1""o
="'3

(13.1)

=2,"
3

(13.9)

P"rl lV

",

Since J=-; and bz _.=d=2r. we gel

T

_Qx2rx4 ... 4Q
", - 3x2rnr'
W

Thus. ror a cir<:ulM section

(13.10)
i.~. T....

is 1.33 limes grealer than Ih(' "lean value of T.

Even in rectangular seclions, where 'tm>x is 1.5 limes greall'I' than
lhe mean value, check ror shear strenglh is oHen nol rl'quired and lhis
is all Ihe more so ror circular seclions. II should, however. be noled
thal shearing stresses may be or a considerably higher magnitude in
pip<-sedion beams.
EUnlple. Find lhe maximum shearing stress in an iron pipe 01
exlernal diameler d-IO cm aud wal] Ihickness 1=1 cm; Q", =2 Ir.
Maximum shearing sln.'ss occurs in points 01 Ihe neulral layer and
is expressed by lh~ lar mula
T

m.. = Qm..rJ>S",..

(13.7)

here J~ is lhe momenl or inerlia or the pipe seclion: Sm.. is Ihe stalic
momenl of Ihe semicircular ring, b='2t is tlJe double thickness or the
pipe wal!.
J ~=

.- [(ro +7)'-( ro--f

=!tr:t

(1 +::: ) ~ llrot

(13.tl)

where r. is lhe mean pipe radius.

rhe slalie momen! 01 a semicircular ring is equal lo lhe dilTerence
01 lhe static momenls abaut lile diameter or lhe ioner and outer semi
eireles; lhe stalic moment of a selnkircJe i5 expressed by the formula

,,'

5(r) =3'"

(13.9)

Tlle required statie momenl of the semicircular ring is

S....

=f ((ro+ T)"-('.- ~ )'J

=2r:(

[1 + l~:d~ 2,:t (13.12)

Therelore
'r
=
ro

... 22.....=2x2000
:l! =..!L
nrol
:<tlol
1lX9XI

QX2r:t
2lXll r

14IAkgl/CTn"

The maximum shearing stress in a semicircular ring is fwice lhe

mean stress. Let us recapitulale that Ihis ratio is 1.5 ror a rectangular
seclion and 1.33 lo, a sol id circular section.

S~aring

Ch. 13\

all Prlndpal Slrtw.

275

77. Strtnglh Check for PrIncipal Stresses

(n Ihe previous discussion U'e worked out 111'0 crHeria lor checking
the strenglh 01 bl'1lll\S undcr bending under normal slresscs (11 15)
ami shearing slrcsses (13.7):
(11.15)

(13.7)
\Ve shalJ con~dcr Ihe elcmenls 01 beams whose strength may be
che<:ked by these formulas.
Figure [91 shows a part 01 the fronl \liew 01 lhe Ix'am heing analyzed
in the S('C(ions 01 maximum bending flIomenl and maximum shearing
force. rhe diagram shows the elements whose slrength is checked by

.,,
L

~r--

._._.~

~-.,ffi-b

.~.

-'--1

5rll~r

condilions (11.15) and (13.7). The first formula is used for elements
localed near the lop and bottom edges oi the seclion wilh Mm. These
elemenls ar(' subjected lo simple tension or compression. Tlle second
condition. (13.7), app[ies to an element lcx:aled near Ihe neutral axis
wilh Qm.,: Ihis e[emen! experiem;es pure shear.
Thus, Ivhen ehecking the strenglh of lhe beam undcr normal and
sbearlng str<'5SCS according lo the universlllly accepted melhod of
stress analysis, we aclua1Jy check Ihe strenglh 01 material in three
eleme.llls shown in rig. 191.
Generally speaking. it cannot be said wilb certainty Ihal Ibes!'
three elernenls :lre tbe maximally loaded. Tberel"ore, we must lean
how lo check Ihe strength of every element 01 lhe beam taken in an
arbilrary seclion 3t a dislance z rram tbe neulr~1 axis. Only Ihen can
we be sure of ddining the maxinnlly loaded elelllen! and ebl'ck its
slrength.

''0

(1"1r1 IV

Le! us !akl! an elemtnl 01 he malerial lFig. 192) in an arbitrary

seclion al a distance 1 Irom Ihe nt'Uuallayer. The fecesof lhis elemenl
perpendicular to {he axis oi Ihe be.am \dU be aded upon by norlllal
slr~ a, wh('feas shearing slresses 'f wi1l ocl on a1l lhe Four side
faces. The Fronl Faces 01 {he elemenl \\'111 be free of slres.qos.
Slresses a llnu t mil} be expressed by the lollo\\'tn formulas:
QS (r)

Ah

a-y,

T-Ib"

whereM IS Ihe bendmg momento and Qthe shearing iorce in (he isolat
ed e1emenl.
Lel us coruider Ihl! case when bolh a and T are positive. We shall
have to lake retourse lo lhe lheories of strength to check Ihe slrenglh
01 Ihe elemenl because it Is in a oompound slressed slale; the comput
IIons must be slarled by cakulaling Ihl! principal slrcsses.

,
~,
,,

"',,

-.~
['Ig.

lllJ

As Ihe front lace ABCD 01 tht' element iFig. 192) and faces parallel
lo il do nol ex>('rience shearing strl!S$eS, lhey mus! lit' in one of Ihe
principal plana. The principal slress acting In Ihis plane is uro,
bec.ause lhe plane is frel'o or normal stressts. Thus. we are to study a
problem of plane slressed slale.
Our aim now L!; to delermine Ihe remaining 1\\'0 principal stresses
knowing lhe normal and shearing slresses in 1\\'0 mu!ually perpt'fldi.
cular planes. 0I1f" 01 whkh is parallel and lhe other perpendicular lo
IhE" axis 01 lhe beam (Fig. 191). We solved an idenlical problem in
~ 32 by plotun: Ihe slress cirdE". There the- melllod was appli('d lo
Ihe 1110re t'ne-ral case 01 n slressed slale. where Iwo tnutualll' pl'tpendklllr planes wllh normal5 a and p art' aclfNI upon by slrwcs Oo.
O~. To ami 'T~=-To. In Ihis problem \\.'1' shaH a!tribule index a;
lo Ihe face 01 lhe ell'llIenl perpendiculllr lo lhe axis of lhe bealll. and
index ~ lo IhE" lare parallel to the axi~ (Fig. 193).
lel U~ ay off (rom poinl O lhe stglMnt OK rtflresenlin.l! o.=a.
in Ihe posiilve 11ln.'tlion an,J anothl."f' segmenl K.D... equ31 lo T on

Sh81rillg

Ch. 131

QlI~

Pn'lld{IQ/ Strtsstl

,,,

Ihe perpendicular lo the oaxis al point K",. Poinl D", on the slress
cirele corresponrls to the plane perpendcul~r lo Ihe nxis uf Ihe bcam.
In aplane paralJel lo Ihe axis of tIJe beam o~_O; Ihis rneans Iha!
poinl K~ coincides witl! poinl O. Sl"gmcnl K~D~ <lid off tlowm\;tf<.l~
represents lhe shearing stress T~=-T an<.l gives Ihe ~econd poin! on
the cirele, D~. J oining Ihe Iwa palnts we gel Ihe cenlre af the cirele,
point C. ano the radO CD" amI CD~. Alter plotling Ihe drell' we get
segmenls OA and OB rcpresenting Ihe principal stre.<,ses, \I.'hich re
main lo be determined. 11 is evident from Ihe drawing 1I1n! tlll'Se
slres.~es have diliercnt signs. Thereforo:,. th!' nUllIbering 01 principal
slresses may be done as lollo\\'~:

o,=OA >0. 0.=0, 0.=08<0

Making use 01 formula (6.13) giwm in 32, \Ve gel

1",
o'=1"+"2r
o +'h'=T\ 10+ ,1--1
-lJ'+4T'
(J

0.=f-}Vo"+4T'=}lo -Vo'+ 4T'1

0,-0
The formulas lar

And

(J,

0".

may be writlen in an inlegrated lorm as

~: }_+loVO'+4T"1

(l3.13)

We have plolted lhe stress crele ami compuled the stre.sses on lhe
a.ssumplion thal both rJ and Tare posHive. If any 01 the slns..o:.es is
negalivc, tIJen he corresponoing ~ign in formula (13.13) shou!d be
changed.. A similar change ",,-ould also havc bc('n cssC'ntilll in graphic
dl'1ermination 01 o, and o~ by plolting the slress drc!l'.
Knowing 1111 lhe lhree principal slresSl'5, 11'1' can \\Tile do",,-n Ih~
oondilions o[ anal}'sis or all lhe' theories uf slrenglh.
,\ccording to Ihe lirsl thl'(Jry. tlJe Ihoor)' 01 maXiln\ln\ normal
slrcsscs.
(13.14)

According lo Ihe second. thoory. lbe Ihrof)' 01 maximum slran,

[0,-1-' (lJ. + o.)] ~ [o]

Pulting Ih(' values of o,.

!J,.

and o, we gel

[y(lJ + V o' + 4T')-~fI(0- Ve.",.+...''''T')] < [o]

A.ssuming

~=O.3, w('

lilld

[0.350 + 0.65 k o'

+ 4T'I,:;.;: [01

(13..15)

&ndf'W. SlrOlllrh

'"

01

&o.ms

IPQrt IV

According lo lhe third theor}'. lhe tht'Ol'y ol DJall.irnum shearing

strC5Ses,

[0,-0,] ~ [a]

'"

{lo+Vot+4T' o+Vl,J'+ 4T'J"'lo)

which yields

V~.;;:ro]

(13.16)

FinaJly. IIccording lo Ihe fOllr!h lheory, lhe Iheor}' 01 rnaxill1um po.

lentiaJ energr 01 dJs(ortion, \\"e have
[lOl-0t)~
(o.-OII'+(O.-O",)IJ:!:i:; 2 [oJ'

wherelrom
+[(0 + V 0'+ 4"')' +(0 -V o' +4~r 4-(2V o' +4T')']"; 2 [0]"
Afler simpli6calion we gel

Vo'+3i' .. rol

[o'+3r)'i;[or.

(13 17)

Now wt' shall try lo f1nd the poinls al lhe bea m in .....hich ils strmglh
for principal slresses should be che:k~.
As the reduced slrt:S5 d~ds bolh upon O' and "'1:, lhe slreI1gth check
should be carried out ror Ihose ele'iK'nh of lhe beam \\llich si multa

---E----.

--__

_ '-.

------

_._ . . _.
------

----

ne<lU!lyexpcrhmce maximum (1 and T. This is possible llhe rollowing

1....'0 l-'OI\ditions an' luUilled rOl' lhe elt'mfill:
(1) Bending PlOmenl and shtaring force art muimum in Ihe same

seclion.

t?) &am ..!illth changl'$ sharpl)' near the ~~ of lhe seclion He.('umple in an l or a boJ: .slion). The btndingmomml and ~ellrng.
force riiaranlS for \Uch a seclion IFig. 194) reveal that Ihe shl'aring
ami normal slresses ncar Ihe region wher(' the nanC(' bttomes Ule" v."eb
art dOS(' lo murmum (points a and b).

el,. 131

51lt<lri~g

ond Prlnclpol Sll'IIWl

Thus, lhe Iwo above conditions deterlllinl! whelher an addilional

slrenglh check is necessar]' and also delerminr Ihe rlement whrre
Ihis check should be carried out. In Ihe cases where th~ condilions
are nol salisfied, we limil ourselves lo selecling a few poinls where
tlw ma~imum reduced stresses can occur. A~ for seleding Ihe proper
formula lor analysis, Ihe best, uF course, is Ihe une basel! on Ihe Iheor]'
of maximum dislorlion energy (13.17).

A~P
8
A a
d 8
,1

l.

j~i

"il
, ,

~
,"

Fit 195

,
P
FIg. 196

In pradiee, however, Ihe IheorY' of maxmum ilormal slresses

(13.14) is still used in Ihe analysis 01 beams, hecause it orten gives
smallcr dimrnsions 01 Ihe secUon.
Example. A simply supported beam AB (Fig. 195) 15 loade<J b]'
symmelrically acting Forces P=6.4 tl localed al dlslances a"..50 cln
lrom Ihe supports; Ihe permissible slress is 101=1400 kgf/clII. Select
an Iseciion and check ils slrength in lhe region 01 ransition rom
f1ange lo web.
rhe maximum vlues of M and Q occur in {he same seclion under
Ihe load:
M", .. =Pa=O.5x6.4=3.2 U'm
Q..... ~P=6.4tf
rhe rrquirrd seclion modulus is
W = liif
Mm.. 320000 229
-"'j'ijO =
cm
We ~hould lakr an I~am No. 22 having W=232 cm'; J=2550em'.
The dimensioll5 01 Ihe cross seclion have bren schematically shown
in Fig. 196. For lhe selected serlion

o.." = ~ooo = 1380 kgl/cm'

,ro

IP",[ IV

An aUl!ilional slrenglh check should be c,1rril'l..1 out lar %=10.13 cm;

ut (his height

(J"",3WO~~IOI~=J2711(grcm'
lIJe stalic 1l10mcnt of lhe tlnngl.' is

5L---, JI xO.87 x 10.565= 101 cm"

lhe shearing stress

i~

qOOx JOl
l'
T=O(J.54'~5<>o","4G9 kg cm

lIJe strenglh condition m:cording t0 Ihe rst Ihrory 01 strcngth (13.14)

,

+r

TtH.~

1271 + V 1271" + ~ x 46!;1'I = 1.J2G kgf,cm'

strenglh condilion according lo lhe folltflJ

> 1400 kgficm'

Iht~ory

of slrt'ngth

(13.17) is

VC'Z"'"I',+""CX",Cr,illg'.~ 1510 kgl,cm' ,.1400 k,l:!f,cm'

~,~

lhe reduccd strcs:> according 10 lhe iourth thcory is 80 gre!cr

lhan Ihe pCrluissible SITCSI;, 1111.' dllllcnsions 1)1 lhe r-St~tiol1 shouhi
be increased by takmg no [-bE'alll No, 22a. Mlcr comwtalions v.'e
!lel lor lhis seoclion 0"'.... -1260 kRI'cm;. t111d for 1=10.11 l'm. o... 1158 kgf CIII' ilod T=442 kgl l'm'. Tlle rt>dlll'ed slress accordin: lo
lhe hst thNry i~ 1329 kgl cm', and llccording lo (he fourlh Iheor)' of
slrength, 1423 kgflcm~.

78. Directions 01 Ihe Prindpill Slresses

Jo lhe precedmg secllon \Ie dl'termlOl'd onl} thf:' magniludf:' o/ the
prlOc!pill stresses lor ao arbltranl}" sclecled eJemeo! II'Hhouf con
QCming oursdn'< wi(h lheir dirL'Clion. The n'su! Is oblaine werc good

1>,1-0

0,

--,,

~ r._r

-.,

.:c!
q

r;.-,y

-;;:-

0,
Fil. 197

Ch. 131

SMaring and Prlndpni Slrtw.

'"

enough lor maleriaJs which have eju1 rC'Sistance- lo lension and

compression. Fur lTIalerials like rein orc('] concreh.', howen'r, it is
exlremely importan! lo kno\\' Ihe direction 01 leMUe slressc~ in ever)'
point so {hat \'\'C can place {he rein[orccl1Il'nl rous in Ihis UlfKtion.

Flg. 1911

The dir~tlon 01 the principal stresses rnay b\' delermined \vith

lhe help 01 lhe stress circle (Fig. 197). 5IJppose 0" ancl To, llc:ling in
a plane perpendicular lo the .uis 01 Ihe beoam, are posilive:

,w,
a.. = + a=7

JiUldlng. SlrUlgII af lJtams

lPar/ lV

and
QS'
't'=+t=-{

Arter ploll(ng ihe stress circle we see Iha! Ihe relative posllion of
lhe Unes 01 adion of slrm a" and Ihe ma:dmum (algl'bralcalt~) prin.
clpal stress a, is Ihe same as thl' relalive posiliof! of Jlne BD" lInd
lhe x-axJs; lhe lal'ter lwo make an angle (J; in lhestress cirde (fig. 197).
To mark Ihe direclion of a, on Ihe drawing we mus! lay off angle a
from the lliredion or G" dockwlse.
The principal siresses change Ihelr direclioo ",hin lhe limils 01
lhe secton. Near the edges o lhe beam Orle 01 the principal siresses
4"IIIiIIIllI!!lIlI!!!11l11fh!!!III!!1II1II!!!!lIlt

~:t
I~SS 774fl
FIg. 199

is uoro, "",hereas the other is dlrect.ed parallello {he axis 01 Ihe beam;
al the neutral layer Ih~ principal slresses lIIake al! angle 01 45" with
{he axis 01 Ihe b('am.
Figure 198 shows lhe slress circles and dir~ctions 01 tiJe principal
slrcsses in varlous poinls of theseclion. 11 is assumed thal Ihe bending
Inomenl and shearin,: for'::l' in the M'clion are posilive.
Having oblained lhe direclions of lhe princ,ipal stresses in an aro
bilrary poiot 01 Ihe given srelion, '.1'<' contlnne one 01 the lines till
il inlerseds 111(' adjac"nt seclion. We determine [he direction of the
I'rincip1 strl'SS in Ihis new point ami conlinue Ihe Jine jill il Inlerse<:ts lhe next seelion. \Ve thus oblan a broken Hne .....hch in Ihe Imi!
changes inlo a curve (he tangent lo which coincides wilh Ihe dircelion 01 he prindpnl slress in Ihe point under consideration. This
curve i~ known as {he Irajectory 01 the priru:ipal stre5S. lhe directions
01 Ihe trajl'Clories of principal stresses depend upon Ihe typc 01 loading and lhe working condi/ions or the bcam. \Ve can draw 1.... '0 Ira'cctorles or principal stresses lhrough eVl'ry point of lhe beam-one
or Ihe tensile slresses and the olher for compressi,,'e slresses. lhe tra'

Ch.14J

SJlNlf Cen/rt. CumpuJi/e BeQllu

'83
lin~

tho~e

for compressive slresses are showll by dotted

and
I'ectories
or the tensile stresscs by soJid lilles (Fig. 199, the middle dTawing),

The reilllorcement in relnlorced concrete beams should be placed

in such a way that it is located approxilllfllely in the diredion 01
the trajcetory or the principal tensile stresses (Fig. 199, the lowt'r
drawing),
Theorelical investigations on princip~1 stresse.~ in bending Ihal give
fhe present-day dcsign formulas weTe Irs! carried out by N. A. Bele
Iyubskii in connedion with Ihe design or bridge beams (his resuJts
were publlshed in 1870-76). In his works principal slressts ""..ere called
~oblique strt'sses".

CHAPTH 14

Shear Centre, Composite Bcams

79. Shearing Slresses Parallel lo lhe Neutral Axis.
Concept 01 Shear Centre
A, Beams 01 lhinwalled sedions experienee shearing stresses parallel
to the yaxis in ddit ion to shearing s!resscs parallel lo sh<>aring lorce
Q, Le. pl'Tpendicular lo the neutral axis lIJ) llwt werl' di5Cussed in
7476. The validity al Ihis stalemenl can be easily con6rmed by
considering lhe parallelt'piped having sides AH=y, AB=t ami
BC=ax (Fig. 200(0) ami (b)) which is isolated Irom, sal', lhe lIange
or an [seclion by sections /./ mJ 2-2 and plane ABCO parallel lo
plane Xl.
Let us aSSU!lle that bending momen! M,-M in section 11 is less
than Ihe bending mOIllt'nt M,=M+dM in secUon 22. The resullanl
N, of internal normal forces ading on the Ironl lace (ABGff) or Ihe
p:lrallelepiped will be less Ihan Ih(! resullant N,ol thenormallorces
on Ihe rear lace (Fig. 2OOlc)). The dierenet' belll'~n N, and N, tsee
formulas (13.1) and (13.2J) is calculated by Ihe lormula

dN=N_N_dM~
,
l
J~
~

(HIJ

where S is Ihe stafic moment aOOllt Ihe neulral a~s 01 arca ABGH
01 Ihe front lace or a similar rear raee where lhe internal normal
slresses are summed up. Thc ditTerence belween N, and N, can be bao
lanced only by internal shearing stresses acting on lace A BCD beclluse
Ihe top, bottom and side faces 01 lhe parallelepiped, belng external
surfaces. are free Irom forces and Ihere is no possibil ily 01 any addillon
al lorces appearing on Ihe lronl and rear laces which could counterbalance fhe difference (Fig. 2OO(b) and (c.

IPllrt 11I

fal:e ABCD of lhe paralldepi~ we have shearing slres

in attordance wilh the law al compl~menlary shearin
ilresses milar slresses
appear on fll A8GH, Le. in the cross
JC.'Ctlon of Ihe beam (Fi. 200(b) and (c). On 3CCOunl 01 th~ f3d that
ftane Ihicknes.s t, and length dx al lhe sol.led e1ement I~ smal1
qU>lnlilles, thC5e shearing sl~ can be ronsi~d lo be uniforml)'
H~~, 011
~ TI' and

T,

'1

"

" "
""

1,

"

'e,

,, I

,
,

"
(,)

('I

dislribuled ov~r lhe :lrea 01 fare ABeD. ConseqUffilly. lhe sum of

elemenlar)' nternal shearing lOITl'S artine htre ""ill be

dT--TfJdx
The ~uiljbrium condlUon of he isolaled
wrillen as follo\\'s:
~x"",O,

par~llelepped

CM be

N,+dT_N,=dT_dN_O

..,..hetd"rom

T=~
I
J~ I
Thu5, Zhuravskii's formula (13.3) can also

(14.2)

'*

employed loc shear

in stresses parallel lo ht' neutral ;u:is in Ihin-walll seclions f

quanllly b in {he deoomin.loc is takm u lhe wdlh of Iht' I.)'tr in
whlCh wuin: stt'l'U b calculaled, 'respectlvt' of w~lher the thinnlled 5eClion is assu~ lo be cut p3ralJd oc perpendicular lo Ihe
neutral axis.

Ch.

141

,,,

S/lmr O"lr~. Conlf1osil~ lklJm~

In our case (wHh the assumption Iha! N,>N,) shearing slresses TI

in the leH hall 01 the top lIange ael in Ihe eross sectiOIl rom lerl to
righ!. lt can be easily seen lhat in Ihe 1erl hall 01 lhe lower flange,
where lhe normal slresses are eompressive and as belore 10.1>10>1.
shearing slresses 'tI ad in Ihe opposile direclion (Fig. 2O(d)); in Ihe
righl hall of Ihe top ftange Ihey aet rom right to leH (Fig. 200{f),
whcreas in lhe righl hall of lhe lower flange rom lel! lo righ!.
'I-diaj...",
,

lIIO.I::..

,-, ," 1

Y-;...

-dll'l""'"

The shearing slresses in the flnnges and \\'eh 01 Iht Ihin-\\'a1Jed section form lhe so-callcd shearing str5S "s!re;Jm1.IIU;', Ihe slrcnmlines
lor nn l-section are depictcd in Fig. 201.
Lel us \\'rile he expression for sh"llTlnf/ ~ln:sses T,_ One 01 lhe qullnlilies in formula (14.2) is Ihe ~latit tl,ornl'I\t o( lhe llange area
hatched in Fig_ 201:

Therelore
(14.3)

Le. shenring str<'SS

'ti v;Jries linearly along Ihe lIange lenglh (in formula (H.3) Ihe y-coordina te is lo Ihe firsl power). This stress becomes
maximum when y=b:

't,.... "'"

Q(h-Iflb,

(14.4)

Whenb,<y</I,+f".. the whole web orlhe I-sectioll lies in lhe vertical

secUon, The shearing slress is nol dis{ribul('d unilormly along Ihe web
height, lherdore Zhuravskii's formula cannol be employed for ils
caleulaBon. lhe shearing-slress I'T,.) diagram lor l-seclion is sholl!n
in Fig. 2Q1, The diagrams of shearing-slress dislribulion in lhe flan!les and web of a channeJ section are depicted in fig. 202(a); foc a

&Ildinz. Stfenglh o{ Becms

[Paft IV

C-seclion, in Fig. 202(/1). The shearing-slress sfreamlines are shown

in the cross se<:lion for each of these proll[{'S.
When the shearing slresses have lo be determined in (he flange
of a closed lhinwalled profilc symmelrical aboul lhe axis of [ooding
(l-axis), for instance, al poinl/( 01 Ihe flange al a box secUon (Fig. 203),
Ihen one imaginary secUan musl pass lhrough poinl K ami Ihe
olher through 3 syrnmelrically 10cated (with respecl lo Ihe axis of
loading) poiot /(,. In the numeralar 01 formula (14.2) we introduce
Ihe slatic moment of lhe ;Hea of
nange bounded by Ihese two seclions
(fhe area is halched in Fig. 2<)'")),
and in (he denominalor Ihe double
Ihickness of Ihe web (due to tl':O
secUons). We oblain a formula for
delermining 'J} '\~lich is similar to
formula (14.3). Figure 203 shows Ihe
shearlngslress diagrarns in Ihe flan
ge and the web and also the shear.
,ng-slress streamHnes in Ihe profile.
Fili". Xl3
Ir {he web or f1l1nge of Ihe Ihinwalled sec(ion is inclined lo Ihe
plane 01 loading al an angle a, then Ihis circumstance musl be laken
lnto aceount while compuling shcaring stress by formulas (13.3)
and'or (14.2) by introducing a faclor cos o. in Ihe denominator of Ihese
formulas. Let us assume that an equal leg angle ~tion beam is loaded in the plane 01 symmetry zOx (Fig. 2(4). The sum of proj'Clions
on Ihe z-3xis of internal shearing forces, replaced in F'ig. 204(a) by
rarees T, will be equal lo 2T COS Cl:. As Ihis sum al projeclions 01 Ihe
internal fortes is equaf to the shearing for~ Q.
T~_Q_

2 <u, '"

'1;"

Hence, shearing slress

whkh may be considered uniformfy distrihuted over Ihe flange thkkness, may be dclermined at sorne poinl
K. of the angJe flange by Ihe formula

where S; is Ihe static momenl or (he hatched atea of the /lange. 5hearing slress ti is maximum al poin! N on the yaxis ',l,'here u=u.... -

'"

ell. 14J

=b-2a-T:
"
Q (

,,),

"(J"'''='J.J~ b-2a--r

(14.5)

tt JI we consider Figs. 201203, \Ve nole thal when Ihe l and box bcams
are loaded in Ihe plllne coinciding with Ihe principal central plane
01 ineriia xOy (or xOz), which is also Ihe plllM 01 symmelry 01 lhe
beam, the inlernal shearing [orces give a resultanl equal to shearing
lorce Q and direcled alon:: the axis 01 symmelry or the sed ion (Ihe
shearing-slress streamlines are, so lo say, in equilibrium).

'1

p.

Fig.

Howe"Cf, il we consider channel, e- (Fig. 202(a) and (b, T (Fig.

207), equal leg and unl.'qual leg angle (Figs. 208 and 209) sections also
loaded in Ihe plane coinciding wilh the principal central plane of
inedia, xOz, bul which is nol the plane 01 symmelry of lhe beam,
Ihe lnlernal shearing rorces in Ihe sections ive Ihe aloremenlioned
resultant and a force couple about lhe xaxis of Ihe beam. This implic~
that Ihe resultant of internal shearing rorces of the se<:lion equal to
the shearlng force Q passes nol through Ihe centre o[ gravlty e along
the principal cenlral axis 01 inerlia 01, but parallel \0 this axis
Ihrough some olher point in Ihe seclion. The beam oonsequently
experiences lorsion in additlon lo uni-planar bending.
The poinl Ihrough which lhe resultanl 01 a1l inlernal shearing lorces 01 Ihe secUon passes (the momenl 01 al! inlernal shearing forces
of {he seclion llboul Ihis poin! is zero) is known .as shear crlllre or
flexuraJ crntre, and Ihe- line paral)el lo !he x-I)ris and joining lhe shear
centres of .all seclions 01 lhe beam is called lhe sJmuCtlltre lineo Ob
viously, for Ihe beam to experience onl)' uniplanar bending wilhoul
lorsion uf Ihe Ihin-wa1led sed ion, lhe plane 01 application 01 ext~
nal lorces mus! pass Ihrough the shear-.;entre line parallel lo one 01
{he principal central planes 01 inedia of {he beam. This ensures lul
filment 01 Ihe conditlon 01 equillbrium according lo which Ihe produc{

lPllr' fV

8nuJllIg. Strcllt1l al SNI'1I

01 inertla of lhe sa-tion about the line of loading and .a perpendicular

neutralli~ musl be lero, i.t. the beam exptrl{'nces uni.planar bending. Al lhe same Iinlt. the moment of external forces as ~dl as lhe
IDOn)eJlt of mtenlal shrariog force; aboul the shear emlre WIII be uta,
Le. he beam wi1I nol be subjected
lo lorsion.
Le! lIS !ake the channel 3I!Ction
(Fig. 20S ano 206) as 8n exampleand
ell:plain how to determine lhe shear
centre. poiol A. Neglecling Ihe
shearing slrtsses parallello Ihe 8l1:is
jo Ihe llanges. we assume Ihal in
I
temal shearing forces in Ihe walJs
"'t
of 11 channel secUon give 11 resul
lanl approximately equal to she:r.
jng force Q and direcied along Ihe
middle !lne of Ihe wall. rhe resul
tanl:; of inlemal shearing forces in
lhe lIangcs, aclin parallel lo the
F1C 20$
neutral line 01 Ihe secUon. will be
denoled by T and assumed lo be ap_
plie<! al Ihe mlddle o ftange Ihick
ness. Keeping in mind Ihal shearing stress '( in the nange varies li
nearl)', wilh a rnall:itDURl vallK' aro:rdmg to iorlnula (14.4) ('qual lo
Qj"-lrJb,
flan"'"

'JI

we ma~' wrile lhe iollo..... in expression for resultant T:

r.

=T

T/ .....J-O 11>
,--rf'"

Q/h-'rlbi1r
-

4J

The condition accordin.lllo whkh the momen! Dial[ inkrnal :;hear-

ing rorces in Ihe channel scelion about lhe shear centre is equal lo
lero Olay be wriHen

liS

lollo\\'s:

Q,,-T(/I-t,) =-0
wherefrom
(14.6)

In !he lI1Of"e romplex uses lhe shear ct'fIlr(' localOll un bl> del~
nlined b)' specilll melhotls which are discussed in lhe lheor)' of hendiu. and 100siOllll Ikl00malions 01 lhinwalled bat!.

Ch.

NI

SMar C:nlrt. CompoJile BtlUnl

Lel LIS note tha!

th~ sh~ar c~nlre

'89

coincides with the centT/: or gravo

ily or the sed ion if he lalter has Iwo axes or symmelry (Figs. 201,
2031, ][ lhe secljon has one axis 01 symmetry, Ihe sheaT centre lies
on this ;sxis (Figs. 202, 207, 208). If lhe se<:lion consists 01 rectangles

[1

r,., '~
, \ !'=
(

1 A .

zi
r,~_

:?06

Fj~.

207

F;~.

"

20S

"

1\

1 ,

FI~.

~l

[\

""

whnse middle Iinl5 interscc\ al one poinlo lhe shear cenlre lies al
Ihis point (Plgs. 207.208, 209). In Ihese ngures lhe shear centre is
denoled by A, while 1 ,md fI ~how Ihe directions (llong which the
101lcllng leads lo uni'rlanar benuing or lhe beam wilhout torsion.

80. Riveted and Welded Beams

In Ihe examples 01 !Wlrctior. nf crOSS'se<:tional dimensions 01 bearns

which wcre dis<:uSSl'd 10 ;.lTP('('c1ing seclions thi? required values 01
seclion moduli 01 !lK<HllS ....ue such thu! ((-e were able to sekcl
rolied profiles in a1l Ihe taO",. Tlle biggesl rolled proRle manlllllctured
in lhe Soviet Unon, lh~ 1 ,.ocl Ion
No. 60, has a Sl'Clion lIloLulus 01
about 2.')60 cm'.
In pradice, howt'ver, we ollen re
qUlre profiles 01 considerably bigger
siu. In such cases \\c use composite
benm sl'Clions by rivetingplnteanJ
afi!lcs or by welding pl'l\l'S.
A rivi?ted beam (Fig, 210) COllsisls
of a vertical plale " a nUIIIbo:.:r
01 pairs of horizontal plates 2 nno
m::les .1. The :mgl~ ami plales
z
Mi? joined by rvets. A welded
beam (Fig. 211) cOl1sists Di v('rlical
and horlzontal plotes joinl'd by
Fig. 211
FIl:. 21Q
welds.

The design of '.'t'lded and riveled be.ams is trealed in lhe rourses

on melal slructures. There lt is pointed out how lo determine beam
dimensions ir the muimum bmding momenl ls kn<r.\.1l . Given
below is an e.xample on checking lhe slrerlh 01 a \WIded beam.
A schematic diagnm of lhe beam, lhe lorces aclng on it, 2nd the
bendingmolllffil and shearing-force diagrams are shGull in Fig. 212.

r~"'''
h-fN ..--

L
Fif. 213

FI.c. 212

The cross-sedional dime:nsions 01 Ihe beam are iven in Fig. 213.

We have lo check the slrenglh oi lile beam as a wIlole and al the wclded
joinls.
Lel us calcula!e lhe momenl of inerlia of lhe ""0011' section, working
as a rigid one, boul lhe principal 'xaxis:
J 6...

Xg4' +2 x35x2x63' = 159000 +555 600 = 714600cm'

The seclion II1Qdulus

J

714600
u4

W6 =.:.L=--=--_III60cm"
'",,,

The maximum nocmal slress in the beam at Ihe middle of ib span

o...... j'
M

In6xJOi

_""""iliij)_

1592 kili/cm"

15 less Ihan Ihf' permissible stress which is 1600 kgf/cm~.

The &hearng slresses at lile upper or lo....-er ends of lhe ....'cll

'T,"'" J

.. -

~xlO"X~xb:63 580 k~1

7I46OOxl
5' cm

-~~no.--'''''~irn of rinUd &nlI nldtd bo':um bas befn truld In dolail In I~ ptt'.
vlOUll ecliUQns al this Ilook. Set N. M.
tlonI 7_14 (in Rual...

~tyloeY, s~

al

Mcurialt, Nauka, Edl-

Ch. 141

Shwr

C~nlr~. C""liK'lil~ 8fQ/flS

",

These shearing stresses will be taken up by a pair 01 weldcd sealOs

(ooe 00 eaeh sh.le 01 lhe web) along planes /./ of dimension ni eaeh
(fig. 214). Therelore" while ealculaling shearing slresses in lhe sea loS,
thiekness 2m or Ihe Iwo seams musl be subslituled in Ihe denominalor
of Ihe formula instead 01 b,". The minimum deslgo thlekness of Ihe
seams is laken equal lo 0.4 cm. For Ihis value or ni Ihe shearing
stresses in Ihe searns are
QS'
,'-J.,2m
---'

94X lO" x35x2x63 = 725 kgl/Cm"

714\>OOX2x0-4

or, what ls lhe. same

"", = 580 ~: = 580 O~8 "" 725 kgl!ern'

These stresses do nol exceed Ihe permissible shearing slrl'ss for
welded joiots.
The oiol may also be made by intermitlent seams (Fig. 215).
The shearing force acls OVl'l" lenglh a and is laken up by seams 01

._._._-FIII 214

Fig. 215

lenglh c. Therelore. everything else remaining Ihe same, fhe slresse

in inlermitlent seams (welded keys) will be ~
times grealer Ihan
o
slresses io eooliouous sea loS 01 lhe same si"le. Now aulomatie welding
01 parls wilh conlinuous sea loS is generalJy used. Therelore, joints
lHade wilh the help 01 inlermHlenl seams are gradually becoming
ubsolete. The inlermittent sea lOS have the addonal shorlcoming
that Ihl! beginning and end 01 each seam are pockels 01 local slress
eoneentralion, whieh is nol taken into accounl by lhe design formulas.
The slrength of the web should be checked against principal slrcsses
al lhe base or lhe weld seam. This area will experience normal slresses
of a considerable magniJude (from M-174.2 tl m) and shearillg
stresses which are jusi sJlghtly less Ihan 580 kgUem'. The combination 01 Ihese \1.\,'0 slresses may cvnsiderably raise Ihe principal and
reduced stresses at Ihis leve!.

PART V
Deformation of Beams
Due to Bending

OlA~TEk

IS

Analytical Method
of Determinlug Deiormations
81. Oefledion alld Rotation 01 Ikafll StlOI1S
Whcn e~ternal forces ocl in one of lhe principal planes of ntrtia
or a beam, ils axis is observetl to bend in he S3m(' plane and uniplanar bending occurs.
In Fig. 216 lhe dl.'formatlon 01 /JI ~am rigidly Iixed al Orle ffid llnd
loaded at {he olhl!r b~ a eoonlrated force $ ~'n in /JIn enlarged
se.le. The cenlrr of gTnily O of a sec\ion having ab~i55a x nlO\'t$
lo 0\_
Displacerm1l( 00, or the centre el gravHy oi /JI section in /JI direc"
lion pn-pt'ndicular lo he 3,;is el Ihe beam 15 c:alled Ihe di.'fIliotl of
I1Mm in 1M porlicu/ar gelfO:I or the dt!f't;fifHI of file parlicu/Dl sn:lioll

01 lIJe bum. We

~HtI

111.'001(' dl'9echon by !l.

Striell}' speaking. sinee he beam axis Iles in lhe neutral layer ji

does nol dlange lis length and he displaced poinl O, mus! ~ slighlly

ti,

,,
~'"
O' ,
,~

J_

,, '

--

Fi.211

lo a side from {he perpendicular lo lhe btoam axis. HO'A--ever, cJtoOer:tion

!I usually small 35 compare<! lo the length oC lhe beam and the displ~menl oi lhe perpendk::ular to a side represents a small quanlily
in comparison \\ith dellC'Ctions; iI is Ih~ore neglected.
During deformalion Sl"tlions of the beam rema in plane and turo
w.r.l. their origm;:1 pos_hon. In Fig. 217 seclions 0..0. ami BB,
are sllOllo'n beloft! and ,Iltr ddormalion.

""

ell. 1s1

Angle ti by which each ~ection turns w.r.I. its original posilion

i~ c<llled the Imglr 01 rofoliOJl 01 l!lesccliOIl. We mus( ellm lo calculale
the dellection <lnd angle of rolation in each ~eclioll lor practical applkatjon.
MaxilllUll1 clellection can serve as 11 measure of lhe degrceol olislortion of (he. slrudorl' when JI is aded upon by ('xlcrnal lorces. Gelnerally, lo prevenl the beam joinls lrom loosening <lnd lo reduce \'ibra1ions under a dvnamic 10<1<1 Ihe \'aloe 01 maxill1um deilt'Ctiun is
rcstricled lor a loaded beam. Thus, in sleel beams, depcnding upon
Iheir dli:Slgnatioll, Ihe mximum deRection should nol exceed 1!J0C()
1/250 of the span.
Besldes. we also requirc Ihe value 01 deformation whom soldng
staticalJy indelermlnale problems, in which Ihe numb('r 01 rL'actions
15 more Ihan the nUlIlber uf equalions of :'Italics. The addilional equalions can be writ!en only by slud)'ing lhe delormation 01 Ihe slrocture. We musl know ho"," lo calcula le deRl'Clion y and angle of rolalion li lar ever.,. seclion in order lo be able lo determine Ihe deformalion completety, Both y and 11 <lre fundions 01 x-Ihe distanCl' of
the seclion froll1 Ihe centre o{ coordina les; Ihere is a ,Iennite relallon
between fI and li in e<leh secUon.
Lel LIS decide upon a eoordinate syslem, whit'h we shall l..ISC jn flllure. The centre 01 coordina les will be a pojnt on lhe original posilion of Ihe beam axis. whit'h we shall always seled as lhe x-axis,
and Ihe y-axis shall he djrected upwards, perpendicular lo Ihe beam
axis befare delormalion. Under (hese conditions the equation

y=/(x

(15.1 )

represents Ihe equation of a curve along whieh the beam bends when
it is loaded; t is Ihe !!Qua/iot! 01 the de/lected axis of lite /;eam.
The langenl to Ihe defteded axis of Ihe beam (Fjg. 217) al poinl O,
makes an angle A with the x-axis. Le. an angle equal lo the angle 01
rolalion ollhe SecliOll about ils original posHion. On the olher hand
w(' know that (he Illngent of the angle between the tangenl to Ihe
curve y=1 (x) and Ihe x-axis is

tane=~

(15.2)

Slnce in actual practice the deRection of a beam is generan}' sm811

as comparl'd lo ils S1'an, angle U is also very small ami generally dces
not exceed l~. For such a small vlllue of Ihe angle we ",ay cOll5ider
Ihat Ihe langenl 01 the angle is equal lo lhe angle expressed in radians.
It ensues thal
e_~

"

(153)

Otfarmalion

O,,~

8t~dne

lo

[Parl V

Le. lhe angle! or rolalion of a seclion is equal lo lh(' flrsl derivalive

01 lhe defteclion in Ihis seclion w.r.l.

ot.

Thus, Ihe problem of sludying lIJe deformalion of a beam narrows

down lo oblaining Ihe equalion of Ihe dellecl<'r1 axis ij=l(x); knowing
the equalion, we can calcula!e Ihe angle 01 rolalioll in any seetion
by difierentialiolJ.

82. Differenlial Equalion 01 fhe Deneclcd Axis

In order lo ob!ain y as a function 01 x, \Ve mus! cslablish 11 relation
belween Ihe deformaton 01 a beam dUe lo externa! forc~ nd its
size and material. We had obtained such a relalion before in 63.
Le! liS make use of formula (11.10), which we had obt~lned while
studying pure bending. Extending Ihe formula over the general case
of bending, Le. neglecting lhe eITect 01 Ihe shearing force on deformalion, we gel lhe relalion
_'_"",M(..)
l' (x)
I:."J

whue p(x) is Ihe radius of curvature 01 Ihe dellected axis between two
adjacent sections al a dislance x from th" centre of coordnflles, M (x)
is Ihe bending momen! in Iht' same section, and EJ is Ihe rigidily of
Ihe beam. Generally, Ihe effect of Q(x) on Ihe deIorrnation of beam
is nol large; lhe melhod ol laking to at'l:ount ils effect is given
in 108.
Figure 218 depicls Ihe change in Ihe radii or curvature as lhe bending momenl is increased. In order lo obtain Ihe equation of lhe dellecled axis v,re shall employ Ihe malhemalical relation belwecn Ihe
radius of curvalure of the axis and ils coordinales x and y:

",

-n"":""~';""""

"",--JlT' r(~)T

(15.4)

Pllttlng this vaJue of curvalure P;, in formula (11.10), we gel

a di!fCf"entiaJ equatiolJ which relates y, x, M (x) aad fJ;
~,

},l(..)

V[I+(~)'("ET

(15.5)

This is known as lhe diRtrential equafion 01 lile deftecfrd axis or

quite orten diReren/io/ equolion 01 lile elasfic curve.

'"

C1I. ISI

In a vast majority of practk1 cases w~ lind lhat ~, represenl

ing Ihe angle Di rolation 01 a seetion or the be:am, is a very smalJ
quanlity. TherefOR. its square mar be negll.'Cled in comparison to
unt)'; CO~uet1l1).. ~quation (15.5) may be \\Tillen In a simpler
way:
(15.6)

lhls rellllioo is known as the approJ:imate dilterelllial equalion

of the defleded axis.
lhe conv~ntion lor Ihe sign 01 l>ending momenls IS dl.'Cirled irrespective of Ihe dircdion 01 Ihe coardinale Ilxes; it is known lhat lhe
seoond dilIerential is positive il lhe concave sille 01 Ihe curve faces

1mD:~p

f-it::::n:',

:F~
i!y

;r>O

'4

Vl!;-:~
O

JI

-;{-<O
;,

Fil. Zl9

the positive direction 01 lhe yaxis and negalive if Ihe convex side
faces il (Fig. 219). Hence, lhe sign al lhe bendlng momenl does nal
depend upon Ihe location 01 lhe coordinale 9Jl:es but lhe sign of lhe
second dill"erential 00es.
11 lhe y-3Jis is direded upwards. lheo lhe posilivc sign should be
ustd in equalion (15.6); Ihe negalive sign should be used if lhe y-uis
is direcled downwards.
In lhe lulure ...., . shall alwa)'S direci lhe y.axis upwards. and the
ditrerential equation (15.6) ma)' be ....TiUen as:

EJ~=M

(15.7)

(x)

Tht sign or the bending moment shall be selected

aboye conveolion.

atta"di~

to lhe

'"

Defofmo/ion D~ fo Br!tdlng

[Par/ V

TlIe deftection may be oblained fmlll lhe diiierential equa!ion af

the deneded 1Ix15 by n(('grating cqualion ([5.7), B{'nding mamen!
M (x) is a [ullclion ef x: lh('refore, upon ntegralion we gel

EJ;/;'=
d

J' ;\1(xdx+C

Integraling once gaio,

EJy-~{lx 1jlx)dx+Cx+D
Thu5 we gel [hE' fo(lowing equalion [or the angle of rolalion:

e=~=eIJ

rSM[x)dx+cl

05.8)

ami (he lollowing equation lor deflection:

(1.'5.9)

Th('S(' equalions have (v.o con~tants al inlegration

an] D. lhe
mehod or calculating Ihesc eonstanls w1l1 be shown in eX<lmple-s

below.
Belore we lake up pradical problems, \Ve decm i( nl'Cessary ollce
agao lo emphasiz{' tha! ('qualian (15.7) is ap~roxirnatl.'; lhe ('ffOr
(hal we allow by negleding thl' qllantily (~~]' in comparhon lu
unily is small anly in Ihose case.~ when ihe de!ormalon of !Ilf~ b"am is
sma1J in comparison wilh ils size. Ir this tondtion is 1101 salisfied,
Ihen the anle:; 01 rotaOon are fauod to be targe enough so Ibat Ihcir
sqllare cannoL be ignored anymore; in such cases it becortlcs esselttial
io iniegrale Ihe whole of eqllalion (15.5).
Examples of SLlCh cases are the defarmaion 01 tiln spring~ ntl
(hin veneer and, gene-rally, bentling af flexible beams.

83. Inlegration of Ihe DilTerentlal Equation

of Ihe Dellet!ed AxIs of a Beam Fixed al
One End
Consider a beam fixed al end A IInd lo.aded b}' a coocenlr31ed force
p al Ihe olher end and a uniformly distrihuled orce q lIlong lhe whole
1cnglh af Ihe beam (Fig. 220): lel I be Ihe span 01 the b(>3111. We sh.. ll
dl'Signale point 11 as lhe centre of Cordinates, dir('("t lhe yaxi~ upwanls aOlt Ihe x-axis !owards lhe right. lhe djlTerenlial eqnalion
01 Ihe dellec.led 3:< is is;
E/y = M (x)

Ch. 151

AM/gtlnll ,~rIJvd

"f

D~ltrmiflinll ~formllltOlls

'"

The bt'Tlding momenl in an arbitrar)' seclion al a distanct x Imm

Ihe centre Di coordinates is
ll-s}'

M (x)-- P(l-x)-q-r-

(15.10,

EJ!I __ P (f-x)-q (/St'

(15.11,

Wt intrgrale Ibis equalion Iwice:

'(
.... ) -"2
'(I"x'
/'<:" x'
Ix
EJy __ P ( "T-
Y-"i"+fi)+Cx+D
~.
~
EJy'=-P IX-1")-2
f1x-lx1 +:-)+C

(15.121
(15.13)

To dcll.'rmine C and D we mus! laca!e such sedioJlS 01 Ihe bram

where Ihe dellection as wel1 as Ihe angle of robUoo are known. One
01 lh~ sedions lies over suppor! A; in this secUon at x"",O, !'-O
2nd 11=0. Putling Ih('St. valul:li first
in equation (15.12) and Ihen in
(15.13). we gel C=O and D=O. It
is evidl!nl lrom Ihe expressiolls 01
deflf'dion and angle 01' rolalon lha!
p
conslants C and D. Il.'hen divide1l
f
by rigidity EJ 01 Ihe beam. glve
A
Ihe COfTC!iponding values of angle
of rolaliorl and deHl!C:tion in a ~
~
tion which lies al Ihe origin 01 coor
dinalt'S A. The conslanls C ami D
ha\'f' Ihe lollowing dimf'nsions:
[Cj _ force X (Ienltth' <lnd
lDJ= lorce X (kngth)'
The fael thal Ihe conslanls 01
inlegration ar" round lo be zero is
a dire<:l ouleome 01 .seJecting Ihe tixed end 01 Ihe beam as Ihe orlgin
uf coordina les. In plotling bl.'nding momen! alld shearing rorce diaeram.! we measured absdssa x from the loaded end of Ihe bum; here il
is more expedienl to measure x irom Ihe fixed end lo rtdllCe the
lImounl of calculalions required io determine C and D; this somewha!
complicates Ihe elpres:skm rar M (x) bul simplilies tt~ detecminalion
al deformations. Havina; delermined C and D. II,'~ can no", Iransl"orm
the expressions lar !I and & in sueh a manner 50 Ihat Ihe brackets con{ain only dimensionless numbers, wbich is helplul in c.alculatin the
ddection and angJe al rotalion:

,,

e='!!!--::A
(2-~)-~(3-~+~)
d.t
4r:J
1
r;t;J
I
',
PI."

J[

'1/.,-\

Y:OO-&'lT{3- T )-24l7

+,..

4.. XI)
6T

(15.14)

(15.15)

'"With Ihe help of lhese expressions \Ve can determine lhe maximum
Dr/ornw,'OII Dut lo Brnd"lZ

[POli V

values 01 y and e. From lhe design~r's point of view Ihe maximum

absotute value of dellection !J is af greater inleresl; there!of(" besides
lhe analytical maximum of uneUoo y al 8= :~ =0, we musl also
find lis value al Ihe ends oi he span. In lh(' example unde{ considera-

Hon Ihe maximum defteclion y occurs 111 poinl 8, where O i5 no!

lE'~ro.

The analylica[ rnaximum al fundan y is equal lo zera al poinl A.

We shall denote Ihe dellections in various se<:tions by [eUer f wilh
an index showlng Ihe seclon in which H occurs. Thus al x-I
PI>
ql'
fll""'-3U~m

{l5.15}

rhe minus sign shows lhat lhe dellection is in Ihe downward direclion. Obviousl', lhe maximum angle 01 TaLaUoll will occur In lhe
saml' section; il will be
PI'
ql'
ea =-W-I5;"]

(15.17,

lhe minus sign indicales lhal Ihe sed ion lurns in lhe clockwise dired ion,
Bolh expressions (15.16) and (15.17) show Ihe separa1" "[ecl 01 P
and q on Ihe defleclion and angle 01 rolalion, respecUvt>l)-. Whl'n one
01 Ihe lorces is absenl, lhe corresponding parl 01 expression becpmes
'lero.
To have an idea abollt Ihe magnilude ol de!ormnlion lel us lllke
P=2 lf, q=0.5 lFim, 1=2 m, E=2xlO' kgl/cm', permissible stress
[,,\-1400 kgf/cm', and selccl an Ibeam Irom Ihe specification lable.
Tlie slrength conditon for lhe beam may be written as;

MIl',u
W -"lF'""'"

(2X2+0.1i~) 10'
1400

357 cm"

From the s\mdard lable lor beams (see Appendix) we find l-beam
No. 27 having IV""371 cm" J=50IO cm'. The angle ol rotallen and
dellection may be calculalcd as
2)12'
2')
lO'
l.
60 =- ( -,-+0.56' 2xlO'X.>OIO=2i5radlan
2X2'
2')
10=- ( -3-+
O.Sij

".

2x10">:::;010 =-0.63 cm

The maximullI defledion constitules (O.63/200)=~ ol Ihe beam

span, whilc thc squllre 01 the maximum angle ol relalion (2:5)"=
-1 '46000, I.e. il is negligibly small as compare<! lo unil)' in lor'
mula (15.5).

Ch. SI

o/

Ana1!1/W1J Mnhild

Dtll.'ml~/",

DrformatitNU

84. Inlqrraling the Difl"erentlal fquaUon 01 the

Dt.nrcled AxIs of a Simply Supporled Beam
Lel us lind lhe deformatk>n o! a simply supporled beam, loaded uni
lurmly by a continuous force q (Fg. 221). The Oflgio 01 coordmates
hes al Ihe lell supporl and lhe x-axis is directed lowards the righl.
A disllnguishing ieature 01 Ihis problem as <:ompared to Ihe previous

,.

A~'Z
~6
A

,1

'f

,"

1 - - 1..........,J

f. 221

one is that the support rcaclions musl be delerlOined in arder to find

an expression Sor M (x).
From symmetry A=B=!lf amI H,,=O. \Ve ca1cul<1te In lhe fol
lowing order:

EJ~=."'1(X),

M (x) =
EJ

qx
q
+ q/2x-2"+ z(lx-x
t

'Z .. t /lx+x')

'. '(U' ")

EJY""T
r;-n
'('"
") +Cx+D
EJ t.-o 2"-3 +C

(15.18)
(15.19)

We know the following valul'$ 01 dellecHon: al support A, Le. al

1"=0, defteclion y-O. and al supporl B, Le. at x=l, delleclion y=O.
Applying formula (15.19) lo section A lirst, Il."e gel:

D=O
Then applying it to secllon B,

Il."e

gel lhe following eql13tion:

'('O ")

0= '2 -Pi +Cl

wtterelrom

300

D"lo'malloll Dut /0 B'i1di"ll

The formulas lor y &nd

LParl V

~~ may no\\' be writlen as foJlo\vs:

EJ '!.!!.""'!!.. (I.t. _~)_ Q/' _ _ q/'

,/:{2~324

24

(1- ~x '+~)
,-

(15.20)

q /Ir xl)
qf.'
q"",'
2.<' r)
EJY-zt.G"-j2 -24X--M~I-[i'"+1' (15.21)

In orc1t'T lo fiml lhe maximum dellcclion \\'C llItlsl <Jelfrmine Ihe

secUan irl whi,"h 0=0; ram symmelry this musl b(' lhe lIIil1dle Sl"C'
tion. BI' pulting4-= ~ in formula (15.20)
zeTO: under Ihese condilions:

f"'~, =

\\"1'

find lhal O=~ becomcs

5ql'

3a.iE7

The maximum "alues 01 a occur al x=O (lnd x=l:

,1'

El.." = ::: 24CJ

rn this example sIso we find lhat

Z is lhe

def\cdion 01 lhe bt'am

al Ihe orign 01 coordinales am] E~ is Ihe angle of rotalion of Ihe sec{ion al supporl A. whicll coincides wilh Ihe origin of ooordinales.
[11 all lhe above exampll'S, il \Ve dired th~ !/;Jxi. upwanls and the
x-axis lowards Ihe righl, Ih~n nl:galiv~ valuc 01 U corrcsponds lo

Fll!:_ 222

clockwise Ilnd a posilive value corrl'Sponds lo anliclock\\'is<, rotallon

01 the section.
Let us determine lhe tlelorm\ ion in one more ca~<, of j SlllllJl) ~Ull'
porl(>t] beall1. Assumc thal lhe beam is acled Upoll by ; III0III('nl M
al the righthand supporl (Flg. 222). R~actiofl.'> A antl B give amo
mcnt M and are eqllal lo

Ch. l5l

Anal!lllr.oJ MefhtJd of DU,,,,,,n'Tlll D'It'nwIlOTlJ

""

\Ve aSSllrne lh(' lellhand supporl lo bl! Ihe ongin of coordinales:

there!ore
M
E'1 11'11
d;,-;\-/(x)-+Ax=+T:t'

EJclY=~+C
;;:
21
'

EJ'=~+C,+D
"W

The constants 01 inlegralion are dl'leTlnlned {rom lhe condilion

Ihat the deftl'Clion al supporls A and B is zero; al x=O dt'neclion
y=O, wherefrom 0=0: III x=l delleclion y-O, wherdrom C""'- ~I .
Therefore

dll
MI ( 1-1'
"')
=;tx=-m

(15.22)

M', ( -j"i
")
y= -6E7

The maxlmum detleclion occurs in Ihe seclion where

1-3';;'=0

~~ =0, thererore

rhe abscissa of this M:Clion is

(15.23)

MaximU111 deflcclion is

f=-ij

Mlxl

VJEJ

/')

1- 3[,

MI'

MI'

=- 9 V3-EJ =-l,GEJ

and den<'Clion at lhe middle 01 lhe span is

MI' [
" ]
A1I'
fll'=-PfEj
_1-41'
--n:Ei

lhe devalion Ir0111 lhe maximurn deftection is of lhe arder 012.5%:

thll$ even lor such a highly unsymmetric loading as lhis we can with
sufnchml accuracy aSSllllle lhat lhe maxinlUm defteclion in a simplr
Sllpported bl'3rn OCCllrs at fhe rniddle af lhe span.

85. Method af Equatlng lhe :mstants 01 Inlegralion

01 Dilt'erenlial Equaliolls When Ihe Bearn Has a
Numbtr 01 Differenlly l.oaded Portlons
111 thl' examples di:;,:ussed above Ihe beall\s were Mntl("~lly lollded
along the ","hole lenglh and therc were lwo cOTlstanls of integraBon,
llno.! D. E\"ery portion of n~",-" loadingadds t",-"ocOl1slanl$ 0\ integra

'"

Deformalion Dut fo Bendi"l

(Par/ V

oH lhe partioos-at Ihe 1('(1 or righ! end of (he beam-and while wriling Ihe bending mom~nt expressioo consldC'r Ihal portion which indudes lh\' ori!in or coordinllles.
Let F be lhe orign 01 coordinates. We \IIrHe Ihe equation 01 (he
defieded beam axis in lhe finl portion 3nd integrale it twice:
EJy~=-PX,

EJY; __

P;+C,

(15,24)

EJy, --~+C,Xl +D,.

(15.25)

lhe bcnding momenl eJ(pression for Ih' second parUoo shoulil be

wrilten in suth a wa)' so lhal summands EJy, EJ' 3ml EJy coin-

cide with irlenlical qllanlHies of thC' cquations al !he first portion in

lhe boundary seclion (over SlIpport A). This will lake place il (x-a),

which represents Ihe arl11 01 lhe force Ihal is absenl in lhe firsl por! ion,
is integrated wilh respe<:t lo d(x-a) or, in other wonJs. witholll
opening Ihe brackcls. Le! us poin! oul lhat x is Ihe abscissa 01 JI aro
bitrarr soclion of Ihe portion under consideralion: a is the ab.scissa
of lhe starling poin! 01 litis portion.
Lel us no\\' \,\,Tile Ihree equalons for Ihe second portion:
EJy;=- Px,

+A (x.-Il,1

q (x,

, (I,J"

'
P.<i+,4(.<.-a,'
EJ 11'=-2
2

.. (x,

EJ

,,(x,-<1,I'+C' +D

= _ Px: + A (.r,-a,}'
!I,~"

<1,)'+C

24'"

('"26)
.).

,'15 27 ,

In the secUon at support A lhe angl('S 01 rolation compute(] from

equalions (15.24) and (15.26) must be ('qua1, Le. lhe be31Q axis must

Ch. /51

Delerm~In

AM/yliro/ M.I!oOO 01

D'formaliOfls

bend smoothly over supporl A. Thc dellectiollS at [he support, cal

culaled lrom equlltions (15.25) and (15,27), must also be equa!. In
othtr \\,onlo, y; """Y; and Ij,=y. when X, =x,=a,. From these condltions
we find C,=C.=C and D,=D,=D.
Le! us no\\' pass ov~ to the third portion, There is no distribuled
load on this portion. In arder lo relain Ihe bending momenl expressions due to distribuled load ln their previous formo il is necessary
lo extentl the distribuled load of Ihe second portion to Ihe end of
Ihe beam and for compensaling Ihis ulra [ood apply an idenlical
lood of opp05ile signo These Iranslormations will nol disturb Ihe equi
Jibrium 01 Ihe beam nor \Vil I Ihey change lhe supporl reaclions.
To ensure Ihal the new load in (he form of aconcenlrated momenl
M !loes nol change Ihe slruclure of lhe lhree equalions of the hird
porllon as compared lo the second, momenl M should be mulliplied
by /x-a) to Ihe power zero; Ihis alfeds neilher Ihe unlls of Ihe lorce,
nor Ihe condtioos of equilibrium.
[n Ihe lighl 01 Ihe above, 1l!1 us no\\' lI'fite Ihe equalion of Ihe de
l1ecled beam axis and in legra le it [\Vice:

EJy;= _ Px. + A (x.-a,)- q (....

El

'
P.... +A(.... -o,).
Y.=--,2

P...: +A(XI
El ! l l = - - ' - '

o,)'

;-0,). +

q (x,;-a,.

+ M (x._a.)O

q(.... -o,)

+Ii (x.;;a olO + M (x.-a,l+C.

q/;ro

(15.28)

a,)'

"

q(...,-a,J'+M/"',-O,+C

24

X +D

(15.29)

Al lhe boundary sed ion (\\'here M is applied) we have {he following

conditions lar equating lhe constanls ef lnlegration: lI;=Y; and y,=y,
when x.=x,=a,. Subsliluling the firsl of these condilions in equations
05.26) and (15.28), we find that C,=C.=C. Substituting Ihe second
condilien in equaliens (15.27) and (15.29) we find D,=D.=D.
The conslants 01 integralion are rcduced to 111'0: C and D. For
delermining Ihcse constanls we employ lhe [ollowing condilions:
dellcction of beam al supports A and B is equa[ lo zero, ,c. al ....,=a"
y,=O and al x.=I, y,=. Alter substitutlng thesecondilions in equalions (15.25) and (15.29) we gel ihe following lwo equatiens:

- P:: +Ca, +D..,O

"'+AU-a,l'

-6

(15.30)

q(/-a,)'

~---,,-

+q(/~a''+M(I~a''+CI+D""O (15.31)

DtforrrutliOll Dut lo

The \'lIues 01

tlons

&fldl~

[Parl V

e and D are oblained b)' simllltaneous sollllion o P.qlla

ntl (15.31).
We c=onsidered al! Ihe ihree porliolls and wrole lhree eqU<lloru lor
eac:h ollhem lo sAow how lo rtduct lhe number 01 conslanls of nleg
ration lo tv."O: C and D. While solving olher prol"Jems il is 001 al al!
neressary lo again \\Tile all eqllations lor each portion, il is sllffic~l
lo \!oTile Ihree equalioos only 101" lhe portion which is larlhe$1 Irom
Ihe origin 01 coordina les. AlI summands of Ihe righl-hand sitk ol
lhe equ,lions \!o'i]I petlaln lo Ihis porlien. Al lh's sta,: il ll!I desirable
lo mark lhe summands "'"ttich ptflain lo the prevlOO5 porllOllS. One
of lh(' ways of marking is sh~l1 in lhe neX! linl'S:
(15.~)

Elg
' --T
PEJ'
El

!I

+Jl(~-.,)"
2:

__ ~I +A(X
ti

-'

11,)'

tll.r-II''J

- ,
+ q(.r-;o.)' + ~f.r-tt,)I. +C
-,--

(15.:1'1)

q(~-')I
~
"

+q(,,";o.l' +.11("2~1 +Cx+ D

_---l.

(lli.33)

Her(' C and O perta in lo llH Ihe porliol\5. Sometimcs C, Cx and D

IITI1(en in lhe beginning or Ihe righlhond sitie or ~qlJalions (15.32)
and (15,33).

are

The lOelhod 01 eqllaling (he conslants 01 inlegralion was lirs! pro-

posed by R.F.A. Clebsch.

86. ,,"elhod 01 Initial Paramclcn 1 Delcrmining
Displae~nls in Seams

JI w(' lake a earelullook al Ihe eqllalklns lor angle.- 01 rotalian (15.32)

and dellection (t5.33), oblained b)' Clebscll's melhod and dlscussed
in Ihe preceding seclion. we can note thlt load in lhe fora: oJ concento
rated mamenl M was respa::tively re8ected in these eqllalions as
Alf'" .)~
tU (x-a) jlOd
2
The significante 01 the parenlhesrs was e,1rlier eJl:plained in 85.
Let liS recaU Ihal x is lhe abscissa of 8n arbitl lr)' section in the por.
tion of beam lInder consideration and a is Ihe .tJ><.cissa 01 lhe sltrlillg
poinl of this portion.
Concenlraied force P and sllpporl reaclion A \\"er(' rt'llt'ded in the
Ulme

equations as

----.-PI"'-a)~

.nO

O.1Sl

Arlal~tirol

'"

Mtfhod of Dtitll1llnilll DtfMIIl4/illni

Unifml)' distrtbuled rorce.q

q(x-a>,

-,--

ent~ed U~

and

equations as

P(x-G)'

24

wa.~ mml ionet! in 83 that ,th~ <:onslants 01 inlegration

and
angle oF rotalion (00) ant! delledion (y.) al Ihe orign 01 coort!i
nales. Tespeetively, mul1iplied by EJ. \Ve may, lherelore, wrile
e-EJe, and D=EJu.
t(eeping in mind thal in n beam having a number of dillerently
Ioaded partioos Ihere ma)' be a oumber oI.concenlrated momenls M,
a numbe!' 01 concenlrated JOf'Ces P and fhe.uniformly distribuled force;
q ma)" be ltCllne on a numbu 01 porlions, !he eqU3liOns ror anele of
rolation 05.32) ad defle<:tion (15.33) may bewriUen in Ihe rollov.'in
eneral lorm:

11

liTe

EJy' -EJIJ,

+L M (x-o) +L,p(x't G)' + E,q 'X(,II)'

~

115.34)

EJy= EJy.+ EJ ,x +","," ---:-+ ~ P -,-,-+ """ q----:(1535)

"

., (x_a)'

,...

(x-lIf'

(x-nI'

Tlli~ mclhod of ~'fting Ihe displ3cetnel1t -equalions is knou.'T\ as

lhe melhod ot initia1 pararntlers, while fhe equalOflS are called Ihe
RtrI~'aI D/uofi005 of tf, ~thod of initinl par~fers.
This melhod "'as lirsl menUoned in 1he works 01 Prol. N. P. Pllz)',
rcv~k and Academician A. N. K,ry.lov.
The appliealion ni lhis melhod will be iIluslraled in an aampfe in
the nex,t seclion.

87. Sirnply Supporled Beam 'Unsymmetrlcally

Loded by

Force

Let us wrile Ihe displacement equations (15.34) lnd (15.35) for lhe
be;m shown in Fig. 224 by the melhod al initial parameiers:
EJy'-EJ6.+A ~ -p~
rO

(15.36)
(X-<l)'

EJy=EJy,+EJ6.x+Ar;-P -,-.-

(15.37)

According to the liTsteondiiion (at x-O, ..... Ol cqllation (J5.37)

changes In lo an idenlity: O-O. The second cont!ilion (at x=l, Uf-O)
appliet! ro cquation (15.37) yields the lol1owing:

EJO.ll+AT_pll~o)' =0
tl_'UI

[Purl V

300

Alter subslituling A=
and (I--a)=b, we obtain Ihe lollowing
e)(pression fOf (he lnitial pllrameler, Ihe angtc 01 rotalian at supporl A:

0,,= -;~I(I'-b'J
Knowing no\\' {he angle af rolalion and delledion at lhe origin 01
coordinales and keeping in Ininet {he above 11.\'0 substiluHons, lile rewrite equalions (15.36) and (15.37) in Ihe final [ono:

EJu' "" -!..!!...ll-b")+~_P("'~Q)'

212

~6i

Pbx
EJ ! I
--T

(1' - b'l+ PI"';'

P(x_a)'
Gr----r-

(15.38)

(15.39)

As il has been assumed in Fig. 224 that a>lI, lhe maximum delleclion will ocenr in Ihe Iirst portian betw~n Ihe middJe 01 beam and
poio! 01 application 01 force P. WeshalJ lherelofe nol indude in ludher

,
,

.1

Fig. 224

cakulalions Ihe las! summands having Ihe factor (x-a) as Ihey pero

tan lo lhe second portian.

The angle of rotation is zero in Ihe seclion of nl8ximulu dellection
(al xz=xc); Ihererore

E/y' =-

Z' (I'-b')+ P:;~ =0

whcrefrom
(15.40)

Let us now calculale Ihe maxirnum defleclion in Ihis seclion:

EJI

"=_

"'..

f..... z=-

Pb(I'-b') 'J'7i'='bt
61 V3

PbY{I:-b~)'y:J
27EJI

+ P1>(lt_1>') yi'=P
613

=-

Y3

PWY3V(J-~)'
27EJ

(15.41)

Ch. 15J

M~/hcd

/t1W/II/ia/

o{ DtlermlnJIl(l DeformlJ/ionJ

,,>7

If roree P S ~hirled to Ihe centre of Ihe beam, Le. il we lake o"",b=

-O.St. Ihe deflection in the sed ion or application oi lorce P becomes
{'it

P/'yfX3Y3
ME' XI!

PI'

=-4SIT

(15.42)

H. on Ihe olher hand, force P is shifted towards Ihe right support

so that in Ihe IimH b tends lo Zeto, Ihen lor b-O
x~_

I
=0.577/
r 3

,/7;"

Thus. when force P is shifted from lhe middle 01 Ihe beam lo supporl 8, Ihe poinl o{ maximum defleclion changes ils abscissa merel)'
Irom 0.51 lo 0.5771 (Fig. 225) (see also formula (15.23)).
!f rorce P acts as shown in Fig. 224, the dellection al Ihe middle
01 span i.s
(15.43)
{III =
(3/ ' _4b")

4ftJ

Bv subslituling the numerical values 01 aH the quantilies in foro

(15.43) we can confirm hal Ihe difference between
Ihe magniludes of Ihe two def1ections is very small, which makes it
mut~s (15.41) and

---~'I

l"

~1.~

pi

~k:.-''--''"-'"r~--~
_a577/

-....l

Fig. 225

possible lo ca1culale Ihe deflection lor practical purposE'S al Ihe middlc

01 span wilhout delerlnining h!! location ami magntUlle d mailnUlll
def1edloll. This is valid in all Ihose cases in which Ihe hendng mo
meol diagram is unique.
8S. Inlegrating the Differential Equation
f'or a Hlnged 8eam

In Lhe preceding examples Ihe porlions inlo which Ihe bcain was
divided for wriling Ihe tiluation oi Ihe deflecled axis corresponded
lo si lOilar porlionsof Ihe bending moment diagr<lm. The conlinuily 01
Ihe beam axis is broken by Ihe hinge. Thercforc, while intcgralin.:
[he equalion or the d~nected axis, he portion coniajning he hinp;e
should be dlvided into Iwo. 1l1lhOllgli Ihe bending mOlnlnt cqullHon
is Ihe sallle on bolh sidcs 01 the hinge. Only the dcflec!ions or Ihe el..',

".

'"

V~formailo~

OUt

(o B~rutinll

[Pllft

menls joinl'd by il hingl:l are equal al he oio!; lhl;" 3ngles of rotation

of Ihe sectiOJlS are differenl. Theterare he equation 01 the defled~d
axis i5 dilferent lor parts of he beam which are joined by a hingc.
Le! tls consider lhe beam shown in Fig. 226: Ihere 15 a hinge in seco

tion C. To k~p Ihe! calculations simple we shaJl JO<ld tht' bearn onl)'
by a mamen! M ading in sedion B. The readian B can be fauod
I

~.

'.

,t

I-l...-z

",
,

FIl:. 226

eas!l)' byequalinglo zeTO Ihesum afthe momenls of al! forces (Le 8

aoJ M) 10 fherighl of th{'hlnge with resped lo poinl C. We gct 8= ~.
Reaction A ;na)." be del!:'rmined by hking lhe pf{)j~tjon 00 tlll' verIkal axis al al1 Ihe rorees acling on bClIm AC/J (Le. lorces A and 8).
Wc gel A=

i.

menls of rorces

Thl' reactive momen! M" 15 ('qual lo he sum of 1Il0\f

2nd B aboul point A:

Let us seled point A as the origin of COQrdinates. The bendng moment in any section 01 the beam bdwcen A and B can be expressed
by (he forll1ulll:
M
M
.11 I
MI)
x =Tx-a=
x-a )

To oblain (he equation 01 the denected axis we mus! consider two

portions, AC and CH. -lhe diliercntial equations 2nd Iheir intcgruls
may be \\Titten as 10110w$;

rirst Portien
rl'

Second Por ion

EJ d', -~(x-a)

Al

EJ -;r;}-=T(;(-a)

lb'

Edy,
A1("
)
J 7X =7 T - ax +C:i
M (.1""
a_~')
EJ
. !}=7
ij-T

+C,;(+D,

AI("

dy, = T - ax )'e
EJ "'dX
T
I
M (-'"
<l-r-)
EJ Y.=
ij-T

+C,x+D.

Ch. 15)

Anal!llic"l Mrlhod 01 Dd",mi"'''R Dtformnli""l

We haYC he rollowing four eOllllilions froll1 whjch lo ddcrmine Ihe

of ink~H1jjon:

const~I1!S

in seetion A: ~u\, =(J

in ~ecjon C: y,=y.
iu ,,eetioli B: y.=O

~niJ Y.~O
al x.,.a

~I .~;p.O

111 x=(l+l

From lhe firsl t\\"o <:onditiOl15 V.-l~ gel:

C,_u, D J ""0
From Ihe lasl

{wo

eoniJiUons \\'e gel:

ti", -
.\1 l''''
a') +C{I+D,
T." (tia
7;-T)
T,"-T
~l

[CatO' -~J+C.(a+I)+D,=O

wherelrom

C, __

\J(a+~:(/

2al

Wc shall cxplain Ihe aullines 01 Ih\' 5OJulion lar detcrmlning fhe

defll'Clian af lhe beam sho\\'n in Fig. '227.
The beam has six porlions, lherelore we gel 12 conslan\s 01 inleJl:ra!ion when we writl' down C(IUalions lor dclermining Ihe delorm:llions.

AIbJ.
.

Q)
JJ
f'jl, 227

Jt is evidl.'nl lllal seclions separating lhe diffcrept loaded porlions,

lhe sllpporls and {he hinges will give us [he r;>quirC'u 12 cqualions.
lhe flxcd cnd A gives lwo equulions: lhe ddlection equal lo zera am]
angle of rotalion equal lo mo. lh!.' hinged end Ggives oneequallon:
defleclon equal lo zero. Hinges 8 and O give ene equation e8eh:
lhe porlions lo Ihe leH and right or lhe hinge have equal denectir,m
al Ihe hinge.
Sectians separating Ihe dfferently loaded porlions (st'Ction e,
where the t1istribul;>d load linishcs, :lnd secllon F, where Ihe concenl
wll loree P is appledl give 1""0 equalions e3ch: Ihc deflections of
porlions lo lIJe lefl IInd righl of lhe seclion IIre equal IInd lhe :mgles
or rolalion nf Ihese porlions are also equa\. lhe hinged inlerrnedialcSllpporl E gives three eC]uations; eC]uallty 01 lhe defteclolls, ('qu~HII'

3LO

{Parl V

DtformMiCfl D"t /(1 f3t"ding

af he angles af rotation and hat balh the def!ections are

section.

ZC'Ta

in thJ5

In Fig. 227 [he number of equalions iha! eaeh secUan givl!S has becn
eircumscribed.
89. Superposi lion Di Forces
Hooke's law js true nol only lar lhe beam material bul lor {he beam
as 11 wholl.'; Ihe del1fftions and angles o/ rotalion aredireclly preparlional 10 he :\:tern;] rorces. This i5 a direcl oulcome of he linear
relation between he bcntling mamen! and load, and {he curvature
antl he bemJing moment. For a beam fixed rigidly at ane end 3l1d
lo;ltled with a dislribuled lorce q antl a concenlraled lorce P acting
at Ihe free entl lhe bending mamenl in 11 seclion al a tlislance x from
the fixed entl can be written as a runcHon of force according lo Ihe
(ollowing formula:
(I_x)'

M(x)=-P(I-x I -Q-y-

(15.10)

Tlle relationship between curvalure and bending momenl is also li

near:
EJ ~=M (x) = _ [P(l-x)+

q(I;.r)']

(15.11)

Therefore upon inlegralion w.r,L x we gel an expression lor y as a linear fundion of extl'rnal lorces:
p,-" [

y=- GEl

']

3- T

,1',' [ 6-+-;;
4. .,' ]

-'24131

In cases of compound loading Ihis resull enabll'S US to obtain Ihe

equalion 01 thl' deflecled axis by adding the ordinales 01 curves cor.
responding lo individual lorces. This simplifies Ihe compulalion or
rnaxirnurn deflec1ion in sorne cases.
Le! us sludy lhe applicalion or lhe rnelhod 01 superposilion oi for.
ces in determining Ihe deformatioll of a canOJever's end A of a single.
span beam ABC (Fig. 228). By replacing Ih<' elfect or Ihe dislribuled
force Q 01 canlilever AB on portion BC by a momenl M.-\\le can calculare lhe angle of rolalion o( lhe beam iD seclion B by
using formula {15.22) given in 84:

q;.

Mol

qa'f

011 = ID ""'1lET

Ch. ISI

AM/ylicJ M,11wd

cf

Dtttr/llllll", Dt/M"'''/iMS

311

When seclion B rolales, Ihe slraighl axis 01 canlileve!" AB a Iso btnd.s

by :ln angle ea and lhe deilection 01 Ihe canlilevtr's ~nd A will be

. ~A
JI!=-.".,...,.--MJ"
q~
.11""'1'11'1,-M;.J
GEJ
Under Ihe aclion oJ distribu(~ orce q (he canlile"er dot:s nol remain slraighl; ji bends and acquires posilion Asa (InlhOllt. h(;'A-e\'~,
changing lhe angle of rotation ea in .secUon B), and Ihe delicBon al

A~1'8_-'I---!;:

ro

JbJ

@4~1. __ - - - - _

Cr

"'h

"

6.~

(,)

r:='-~--------_

~/'-

'
;
c-i=t
f'
~
.......

A4J

...... fZ

~ r.--!~

b..

I~

.~
"
fia:.

~-

IJh

")l _-,1,~J;:~e
"
fl,. 229

22!

tnd A o the cantilever can be expressed by the same formula which

js employed lor deRecHon of canlilf"/tr beams under bending {see
83, formula (15.16))
T""'T
11"f"','I,A,=-m

Ihe lotal deRecHon o cantilever end A "",ill be:

ql,,
qD'
qa' (~I+3a)
A=A
l . +1"A""'-m-gu=2.EJ

Th!! displacements Di hlnged beams can also be del!!rmined by

using lhe 1II'!100d 01 superposltion of lorces. For Ihis Ihe beam should
~ dividtd jnlo lhe number ol beams comprlsing it, each of lhese
beams should be sludied separately and thm Ihe individual displac.ements should be added up.
TIIUS, for example, the .sc.hematic diagram of he beam discussed
In 88 (Fig. 229(1l may be rrplaced by the diagram shO\>oll in Fig.
229(/1). In Ihis diagram the '"suspended" beam CB is Sllpported .1 ils
ell end e by the righl end C of Ihe man bealD AC. The efled or lhe
(Fig. 229((:) and (11).
hinge may be replteed by fOJ'Ces

'"Foree e can be delcrmined by stlldying lhe C'quilibrium of beam

D~formalion 'D,,~ fo 81'fld11lf!

[Par! ,y

CB; for this beam, force e is a passive force as H is Ihe re:lction of

bealll AC. An active force e of lhe Silnle rnagniludc \ViII /let un bt'am
AC-Ihis force is lhe pressure 01 beaJh C8 011 bcarn AC.
The deHcclion 01 bram C8, shown sepllrntdy in Fig. 229(c). can be
dctCf'rnincd al an)' poio!. The 'deftedion of bt'am AC may be rletermined as shown in Fig. 229(d). 80th lhese CllSe"$ were discussed in
83 nd 84.
The defofmatiall of beam ACa is shown in Fig. 229(e). Portion AC
af beam Aca experience; lhe sarne defledion O\,('T ils whole lenglh.
as bearl A'e separat!'ly. 'rhe deftedion Di portion eB af bearn ACB
oonsisls of Iwo deflections: dcfledion tI, which is a 'componl'nt 01
<!t'ftection fe (iret!ly proportional lo thE' distjntt> from poii11 B).
- and deITecfion f . eakulated lor beam
a~cording lo the schemalic dagrnm in
.
~(Zl
.
Flg. 229(0).

ca

~
,
e

: 90. DilferelitJal Relations in

C(ll

'

'tfIZ)_
1
,

I
I

I
I

1n 57 ond 82 we obtained difIerenlal relations for eontinllous load q(x),

shl'aring orel' Q(x). bcnding moment
M (x). <111glc or rolalion 6 and dcfil'C-

lion y:

dM(x\= Q ()

I
I

I
I

~
~

x.

dx

:ol

Bending

d~:X)=q(X)

" (x),
El d',
d;' = :.,

Afler cerlan lransrormations thcse

rclatons can be \\Tiltcn in Ihe followiog ,sequence:
:.. (EJy)=EJ6

Fig.23O

:;, (EJy) = :.. (EJ6)=M (x)

<1"'

d'

d'

d"

d"
dx' M (x)

iR' (EJy)= 7R' (EJB) .... iG M

-;;;- (EJY)-1ii" (EJO)-

(.~) =

Q (x)
d

=""iiX Q (x)=q (x)

From the equatons il is'cv.dl'nt 'thal knowing f6rce q(x) llnd the
l)'pl'S of ~llpports, \Ve can obtan Q(x),.M (xl, EJB and .EJy by suteesSi\'f intl'grJlion: oonversely, knowing 'the equation df (he deMec1ed

Orfl/lh-DfI(J/!/tic M,11Iod

CII. 161

axis, by stlU"ess\e difimnliatioo or EJII ~'.r.1. x wt' can oblain

Eje, M tx). Q{x) andq(x). In ~aphic repreM'nllltlon of lhese relations
.....e sh~1 lay off the positlve valu.es of IhC' aboye quantities upwards
and Ihe nC'gatwe ,'alues dO';l;mnrc1s; !he posllive directlon al lhe xaxis
....111 be 101lrarc1s the riabf. rotalioo of the uction in Ihe dock" ..ise dlTedion will be considl'l'ed ne(ali\'e 8l)d in Ihe anlidoc...'ol.. i$e dirtelion
posilive. Figu~ 2JO ronlains diagrams depieting Ihe law o variation
of all quanlities. which eharaetl'l'ize Ihe bending al a hinged beam
loadcd with a no~~iform di.\tribltted- rqrce q (xHthe loa(,J ~ negalive

as it is aeting duWnVJards).

CH",nER l '

Graph.analytic Method of Calculaling

Displacemenl in Bending
91. Grllph-analytle Method

TillO melhod 01 integrahng Ih~ din:erl'nli,1 equalion al Iht' dl'llcded

axis gives us equations 01 deHeclioos and ~ngles of rota Uro, wilh lile
help or which \\o.... elln ca!cull1te Iht' deHtetion and angle of rolaUon
in any seclioo 01 lhe bura..
In a numbl'f' o pToblems lslalirally indetl'fminale bealll5, detNmi
nalion of maxlnmm defttellon) il 15 sullirient lO delerrnll'le lile deRtetion and angle

or

rolalion

rOl a.

f_ delinite secllons. In such CMeS

il is more appropriale lo use lhe
graph'Ma/yfic mrlfwd. This mlthod
is baset.l 01'1 lb<! rcsemblance or oJillerl'ntial relalions belwe<'n d~'Aldion,
b~nding !nomenl ami inll'nsly 01
colltinuous load.
Imagine a beam with an arbitrardy loading (Fig. 231). The rlillereoUal equaUon 01 Ihe defleclell
ui~ el Ihi~ beam mar be wriltcfl
i 82) liS:
t!'

~:'I_:u (x)

~
1{

Pt

,,
'" ,,
~
(bl~

(16_1)
Fil. 231

Below lhe beam we drllw anoll'lo?r

be.m ol Ihe same lenglh loa<kd
by ano as YI'I unknO\ll'n. conlinuoU5 lorce qJ. he po5ili\"t' dlredioo
01 ....'hiclt is lakm upwards; 1l.'( shall rcirain {rom sperilYlng Ihe I)'pe
ol $UPports also lInd $hall ooly point out tbat the supporl reactions
mllsl balance Ihe exlernal forc&qt. Tite second beam will be herearter

'"menlione<!

D~fo'm4/;on

DII'

lo Btrldil1fl

lPo" V

35 the {icli/iQUS boom; a!l quanlities relating to Ihis bearn

will be denoled wilh a symbol f. Far {his ficlitious beam we shaU determine Ihe bending momen! MI in e3ch section by integralion, using
lhe differential equation Iha! cerrelales {he bending momen! witb tlle
inlensity or Ihe continuous force ( 57 and 90):
~M,

(16.2)

--jX2=q

Let us compare equations (16.1) and (16.2).

Ir

we assume that

q"",M{x)

Le. il \Ve load lile fictilious beam wilh a Iklitious force, which cbanges
actording lo lhe bending momen! ar fhe real beam, then
r/'{EJYl

--;w- =

iPM,

""dX'

11 in integration we- can achieve equality 01 lhe constanls 01 IntegraBon on Ihe lelt- 3nd righlhand sldes of Ihe equalion, Le. GI-e,
and D=D,. we shall obtain
d{EJy)

(1M,

~=""d?'

EJy=MJ

dM,

Consldenng Ihal "IlX =Q and solvlng these equalions fr y

ano 0, we gel lhe lollowng lormulas:
MI

Y=ET
,

Q,

""'er

(16.3)
(16.4)

Thus, delledion in the secUon 01 {he real beam (due to Ihe given
load) is equallo Ihe bending moment in lhesameseclionofthe lidilous beam (frorn thl.' ficlitious load), divided by the rigidity 01 the real
bearn. Slllllarly. {he- angle 01 rolation 01 the real beam (due io lhe
given load) s equal to (he shearing lorce in the same seclon 01 the
flclitious b~am (Irom lhe fielilious load), divideo by Ihe rigidit)' 01
Ihe real m-am.
In {he analytrcal melhod of delermining deformations, lhe conslanls
of inlegralion were louml from boundary oonditions, Le. by equating
lo Zl.'ro Ihe delledions allhe supports and equaling the deforrnations in
sedions comlllon lo two adjoining porlions of Ihe bearn.
In lhe melhod under discussion lhe equalily of conslanls 01 ,ntegra.
Iion, while integrating equations (16.1) and (16.2), cllO be achieved
by fixing the enos (or intermediate sedions) 01 lhe fiellious beam in

Ch. 161

'"

Graph-analvtic \-lelhod

such a way so as lo salisly Ihe lollo\ving condilions, which diredly

ensue from expressions (16.3) and (16.4):
(1) ir deflcction f 01 Ihe real beam is zero, then Ihe bending momenl
in (he oorresponding :>ecHon 01 Ihe ficlitious beam musl be zero;
(2) il tbe angleoi rolalion Bof lhe real beam is zero, Ihen Iheshearing
force in the corresponding serlion of the ficlilious beam musl be zero:
(3) iI the deftection and ngle 01 rolalion 01 the real beam are not
equa1 to uro, Ihen the correspomling bendlng momenl MI and shearing lorce Q, mus! also not be zero.
Table 1300ntains conditioos for all types 01 supports 01 Ihe real beam
and gives lhe constraints in oorresponding secHons of lhe fictilious
bealll. which salisfv Ihe condilions of conslrainl 01 lhe real ueam.
In Flg. 232 are depicted Ihe widely prevalent cOlnbinalioos 01 real
and ficlitious bealllS lor slalically determinate slruc!ures. In eaeh
palr sny beam may be laken as Ihe real, Ihen Ihesecond aulomalically
becomes ficlitious; Ihis can be easily checked with lhe help 01 Table 13.
Table 13
Ccndlllcns ler Obtalnlng th Preper FictlUow Dum

Type el Jllpporl

Condltions
lor !I and a

~equlred

cendHions
lor M,.nd

Q,

Con.lra;nls 01 Ihe ficHo

tiOll' Ileam ~~t1slylng
lhose eondillons

Hill/,:ed ,"pporl (no d~flte

lion; retaliol1 ef ~ection
l. po"'llle)

Hinged .upport (no mOo

menl; .uppOrt reaclion
ls po~lble)

Flxtd end nI lhe bum

(110 defledion and no
lntatiell)

['reo end 01 lhe bealll (no

nomen! and no eoncen
l.oled lorce)

Free end nf Ihe beam

(bulh denccHnn and ro.
lation are JI"",;ble)

Fl~ed

end 01 lhe beolm

(bolo .upport r<3cllol1
and rcaclh'" .nument
oc<:u.)

lntermedinle suppod (no

defl.,;!io<l; rolatlon of
JecHon is po>slble)
Inlermediate hin;c (hnlh
defle<:lioll and rololion
ul secllon ts possllle

Illlermedi~te

momenl;

'n~e (no
hlnge lron".

rnlu lrce)

y;tO

",0

nlorme<!ble suppotl (oolh

moment al1" ~upport
reodion ere possible)

[Parl

In lllllll ispan bea ms wjlh in!erlnediall' h inges the liclilious beaJ11 lllay
to Ihe ml,thod explnined 'ur the bl'arlJ in f'ig. 2,~.
11 musl hl:' not('d thal th(' fictilious bealn corr~pondmg lo a Sl.l\!<:allv determina\(.' real bl'am mus! also be
slacallv d<,lerminate,
______- ,
Thus. "in arder to deleBuine defteciion y
and angle of rolallon O in a sec\lon of lhe
given (real) ~am, wc must follow Ihl' proce~
durl;' explained below:
~a) draw Ihe gh'en 01'11111 alongwi\h Ihe
}
orces;
(b) dralV Ihe bending molllent diugr3m
l

b~ ~~~lcde,13tcof<ling

-A

>A.}

--------4"

M (xJ;

>4}
(t) assuml' thl.' tero axis uf Ihe bl.'nding
'moment diagram as lhe axis 01 lhe fictitious

Ji

~<-------I~

beam and Ihe bl;'nding 1Il0m(.'01 diagraJII M (x)

as tlle fictilious load q,; ir th(' bending momenl s posilivl;' Ihe ordinales of rOrel;' q
Al
} must be directed uplVards, ir it is negalln'
q, must bl' dire<:ted downwards;
[ ( d ) dra..... the sl1pports of he f1c!ilious
bea l1l in accordanl'e with the condit lons giH'n
in Table 13 and Figs. 2320r 233:
(e) calcujale lhe rcad ions of Ihe Cid it ious beam dul;' lo lhe fietil'ous
load (Le. lhe fietitious sllpport reactlons); lor canlilever beams Ihis
step may be bypassed;
(f) cillculalc bcnding moment MI in Ihat s('('tion of lhe nctitious
bcam whlch h35 Ihe samc abseissa as thc seclion or the real beam In
which defledion { Is rC1luired lo be c1elernljn~j:
~

r--_____-<.

:-

A.

AA
Fig

A.

;;

;"

'"

(g) c<.llru'ale shearing forcE' Q in Ihal $Cclion of lhe fidilious henm

wlllCh has IhE' same ahscssa as the section of 111(: I"tal h(';I111 In whid}
the angle 01 rolation H is requircd lo be ddl'rrnined;
(h) ca!eulate t 8nd (j aceording to formulas (16.3) ano:! (16.4).
The graph-analylic l11('thod or determining defarmfons r("lieves
us froro calculaling IhE' MnstanLs 01 integra!ion in eath parlicular
case anff with Ihe help 01 data given in Table 13 and Fjgs. 232 or233
olFers a dred solution, \vhidl is in agrecIlll'nt with Ihe given intial
condiUons.

Ch.. 16"1

3"

Fitlitious momenl$ ha\'e Ihe- dimensiorn 01 orce X (Ienglh)',

liditious shearing forces ha\'e the dimensions of force x Ilenglh)',
and inlensil,! of Ihe lic!iliolls load is measured in unitsof force X It'Ile1h.

92. Examples 01 Delermlning Deformatlons by Ihe

Grapli-amtlylic Melhod
Lel us lind IhlO deneelion al poinl Bol beam AB shown in Fig. 234.
Tlle bending momenl diagram rar Ihe ahove beam i5 11 Irangle \\'ilh
Ihe maximum ordinale in ~tion A equal lo PI_ We shalllakr 1I~ axis
of lhe bentling.moment dillgr3m lIS Ihe axis of Ihe ficlitious beam Imd

,~

t2~l
,,

,8

t,

I~

"

,,

n-.:
J
.

"

Fi,. ".

r. '"

considrr lhe bending-moment diagram as Ihe ficlitiou$ load llhis can

br oon(> by pulling downward arrO\\-s al lhe ends of lhf' ordinales as
lh.. otdin<lltes are negaUve).
Following Ihe instrllclions given in Table 13 we take poinl 8 as
th..: rigidly ii:>.:ed end 01 Ihe fielilious beam and point A as its Irt'f' end.
NOI\" ","e have lo ealeula!e the bending momen! in seclion 8 of Ihe
fictitious beam. The mOffif'nl 01 the triangular load bau! poinl 8
'\Io'ilt be ~ua1lo Ihe produd of lhe area al tlle load, 1lI. wilh Ihe dis
lance DI ils tffItre of gravily Irom section 8:
1
2J - -PI'
"7jPl:<tx
7
]

Af,. __

Dividing Ihis expression by Ei \\oe gel lhe delleclion al poinl B:

pp

ffJ=-""jU
The lormuln Is exactly similar lo Ihe result oblained in 83.
The shearinll force in secUall Bof the IiclHious bcam is llumerical1y
equal lo the area 01 lhe triangle:

"

Q--yPIX/--T

".

(Pan V

Therefort lhe Ingle 01 rotation In secUan 8 01 lhe fuI bca m is

(JI

PI'

O"-n--UT
Lel U~ find Ihe defleclion al he point of applkation 01 lhe fortt IOC" a
sirnply 5upported beam IDa~d In lhe mirldle oF lhe spao by lorce P

(Fig.235i.
lile- bending'lIIoment diagram of lhe real beam is a rtangle wilh lile

ordinale al 111(' poin! of applicalion of {he force equal lo P4 Con

sidcr lile bending'lOOment dlagram as lhe Iietitious load, with lhe
arrows poinling up'I.'ards, as lhe ordinales or the diagram are positive
in Ihis example.
ThEo supporu al lile fidilious beam can be determine<! acrordlng lo
Table 13 so as lo satisfy lhe conditions el c:ooslraint of {he real be.1m.
From $)'mmelry Ihe reatHons o Ihe ikliHous bearu must be tqllal,
.nd each mus! be equal to hal( of lhe total load:
1

A=B=7j

PI

PI'

l' x T x/-16

Bending momen! in section is equal lo lhe sum 01 Ihe rnom~t of

nadion (wilh a minus sign) and lhe momenl of 110111 of the triangular
lcad (with arm 116);
I

Mc--Ax 1"+1"
PI'

"'-16

PI

x '2 x T x Lx

PI"

6'

PI"

x 2 +"if x "6--4&

WOOHrom

The angle 01 rolalion ai the lefl supKlr! is

Q.l
A
PI'
6.l=7T--U--16E

brcause lhe shearing force al Ihe supporl js eql.l31 lo lhe supporl reac
Iion (in Ihis eJlample wilh a minus sign because 11} is direcleu down
wards). At support B
Pe

O,,-+lW
It is evident hom lhe ahove examples lhl lar the ronvenllon of
signs of fictitious load, bcnding rnoment and shuring (Ofte dtcidtd
tarlier. lhe minus sign in Ihe formula for deflt<:lion tresponds, as
before, to del\eclion downwards and in the formula for the angle of

Gtaph-alliJ/yfIG Mef!wd

Ch. /61

'"

rolation lo rolaUon in a clockwise direclion; posilive sign corresponds

lo Ihe reverse directions.
Le! us fine] by lhe graph-analylc melhod lhe deneclion in lhe mit!dIe of Ihe span 3nd al lhe ends or cantilevers for {he beam shown in
Fig. 236.
The bending-momenl diagram is a trapl'Zlum wilh maxi mum ordinales M=-Pa. Lef us change {he bending-momenl diagram to a licUfious loal! acting downwards. The lictilious beam conssls or two small

PI

;;;;;;~

(/)

j).,5

L.- : -L- J ----,-:-1

l '

,_~'
__ !
i

Pa

I
~

,j,

(Af

,8 D

,"

P:fTTllTTT1

,
:

t~:!.~1

1
,

,r-- l --+-- l ,

: "11
j~p,
~l
8

---.
'

A r'TTlm;~:.u..c.:,!.t

fig.237

fil:o 23G

canHlevers supporting Ihe suspended beam A 8. Dellec{ion in lhe middIe or lhe span (polnl F) is equallo {he fictj{ious moment ai Ihis point
due lo Ihe distribuled load divided by Ihe rigidity of lhe bcam;
qr'
p~p
fF-BET= 8EJ

The def!eclion al poinl e can be delermined by firsl calculaling Ihe

ficllious bending nloment in Ihe sedion; lhe del\edion is caused by
lhe triangular force aeling on beam CA and Ihe readion al the suspen(Fig.236):
ded beam equal lo

A,- P;I

P~"Xn

Pa'f

Po.'

M1r:- - A,a--,--r a = -"""'2-3

wherefrom the dellec.tion in sec.tion

fc=

Mlc

7.T = -

e is
Po.'

6ET(31

+ 2a)

[P"r/ V

Dtfimllll/iim Dllt lo Btnding

In the last example we shal1 tletermine deRecHon in seclion Bol

lhe beam shown in Fig. 237.
Let us rsl draw Ihe bending Olom(!nl diagram. !he mamen! is
+M n seclion e and ZeTa in seclion B. lhe momenl changes. Linellrly
over lhe whole length 01 Ihe beam. We change the bending moment
diagntrn lo the fictitous load and dra\\' lhe lictitious beam accordng
to lhe ronditlons given in rabIe 1'3. Considering lhe cantilcver AB,
IV(! determine lhe ctilious bending momenl al point 8:
1

MI'

M/n =-FMf x 7Jf=-J

lhe corresponding d('f1edion is

MI'

fll=-m
93. lile Graph-analyllc Melhod Applied
lo Curvilinear Bendinll-momenl Diagralns

The bendingmoment dagram of a uniorlllly dislrbuted load is a

parabola.

,} , {le

A,H fl
I

--i .r

I
I

I
I

f--'--'

I
I

A,

8,

.-!ti /0

J
E

rig. 2:r.l

Fil:. ZJ8

The convex para bola (Fig. 238) is char8cteristic of smply supporl~d

beallls. The ordinales of lhis parabo!a are giv('n by lhe C'xpr('ssion
M (x)= ~I .t"-%x'

The area 01 Ihis parabola can be lound frolll lhe exprcssion

w"'J'M{X)dx=J'(~

x-tX')dX= ;'

eh. 161

Graph.flll41ylic M,/Ilod

'"

Tb:is,area may also be foundl as two-thirds of Ihe area of lhe t]rcutllscribecl redangle:

Absc:issa "o of Ihe tenlre 01 gr&v~ty ofi hall 01 lhe parabo]a area
(Fig. 239) is ca1culaletl as foJ1ows:

,,,

S xM6.o;)dx

o
"o"'"

w
2

('

:J&i,o
5
""'-,-=yl

z;q....

The distance betll'~n Ibe cenlre. 01 gravily of hal! of Ihe parabola

area antl lhe I:entre of lhe whole parabola is

"I- ..,"'iti l
The conC3ve parabola represents lhe bending momenl diagralO of a
beam rgidl)' fixetl al one end lFig. 240). Tlle ordinale of IIn}' poinl
q ,
on Ihis parabola is found fmm
Ihe express ion M (x)-..._qxi2.
~
The area of the para bola is
A
found as
(6).
~
I
I
1 I
'

(,)=SAl(x)d.t=S~d.t_qt

(b}~4

This area is also equal lo oneIhirol of Ihe circuUl5Cribed re<:langle

I qf'

lh~

ctnlre 01 gravHy of (he parabola is

'.

, --->01
Fig 24(1

ql'

['\="32/=(;
OrdinalC' ..o 01

f!..:

..,tI

61

(%)d.~

..!.. /'

fI q
J
~--=-l

1 l'

li q

Tlle distante belween Ihe centre 01 gravit~ 01 tll(' para bota :md the
of mallimull1 bending mo!nenl (rigidly fl.~~J end) is I'ljual lo
one-{ourlh of the beam splln.
Let us salve the following exa mples usng lhe ttliltions ucrived htre.
~ction

Offorma1iQrl D~ lo 8Mdlng

[Por! V

Find lbe deftecliOIl al {be middle 01 lbe beam shol.:n in Fig. 238. lhe
area 01 the bendingmomeni diagram is laken as the ficlitious load.
The diagrarn is posilive, therelore lhe ficlilious load is direcled up
wards. The ficlilious support reactions are
'"
9/'
A,=8,="'2"""R"

These reactions are direcled downwards (Fig. 238).

The tictiUous bending momenl in Ihe middle of lhe span is equal
lo Ihe sum of statie momenls al lhe tictitious forees loeated on one side
of lhe middle seclion, sar. on the leflhand side. The forees localed
lo tbe leH of he seclion are A / and Ihe lefl balf 01 the parabola. The
arm of loree A I is equal lo half of Ihe span; arm al the hall parabola is
~. Therefore, Ihe f1ctHious bending momen{ in lhe middle of he
span is

and the delleclion in Ihe middle 01 lhe span is

5 q/'

11"--38477
Consider a beam rigidly tixe<! al one end and looded bya uniformly
dislribuled lorce q (Fig. 240('1)). Let us tind the deflection 01 the free
end. The bendlngmoment diagram 01 the real and the ticlitious bcarns
is shown in Fig. 240(b).
The- be-nding mOlnent al the xed end A of the ficlilious be:Jm is
equal lo (he produd 01 lhe area W 01 Ihecomplete diagram with the dis
tance belween A and its centre or gravitr. i.e.
qf' 3

q/'

M,-wx.=ij,l=-B
and Ihe dencclion in seclon A is

,1'
1""=-8fj"
Consider beam ABe wilh one canWever as sho\\'Tl in Fig. 24[(11).
Using he lHethud of breaking Ihe diagrams 3nd the method uf super
posilion of fofC{'S, tind [he defteclion anJ llngle 01 rotalicn in secl ion
lhe beam is loaded al! along its lenglh by a unilormly dis{ributed lorce.

e.

Cit. 161

Oroph'anal'Jli~

Melhnd

323

111e possible bending momenl diagram is in Fig. 241(b). Replace Ihis

diagram b,' ils componcnls: from force q oy~r length I (F'ig. 241(c))
and from force q on the cantilever of lenglh Il (Fig. 241(d)). The ordi
nates 01 lhe lasl 111'0 diagrams can be laken from lhe problems ~ol\ed
earlier. The imporlanl ordinales have been wrillen in Fig. 2~I(c)
and (d). The ficlitiolls bealll 15
shown in Fig. 241(e).
Lel us isolalc Ihe nctilious
" ~
beam BC: il is acted upen by
--I--~,
pressure B f from the suspended
beam A8 and Ihe parabolic
fOTee ef maximum ordinale q~'
~I
(Fig. 241(1)).
In lhe lIditieus bl"am AB,
taking Ihe sum of moments or
all lictitious forces about supr'
port A, we nnd (Fig.241(g)
that

21qll'

B="32-'- I-

IqJ>

zn

-~qa'{- ~~

,,:

Reluming lo Fig. 241(f) we

eaklllale

Tr, "

Q,c=-B,- aTa
=-

ql'

qa'

r;qa'{ +"'24-6
1

/l/l'

M,c=-B,a- 3-,-04"0
1

/l/ll"

,~,~

1 /l/l'

.'

/l/l'

- - -;-qu'I+"""'24""---

Flg. 241

The required values of dcflecHon and angle or rolaUon in secUon C

are:

ec '"

Q,r

EJ = - 2WJ (40 ' /_/"+40')

Al c
fc'" L0 = - 2SiJ (10'/-['+30')

'"

[Paf/ V

CH"PTER 17

N on~unlform Beams
94. Sele<:ting lhe Section in Beams
of Uniform Slrength

AII preceding discussions Wtre 011 beams Dr unilorm section. 1n praclice, however, we olt'1l have lo deal with beams in which lhe cross
secUnnal dimensiol15 change either gradually or sharply.
We give belaw a rew examplt!S on selecling Ihe dimensions 01 Ihe
cro."s sl'Ction ami determinlng lhe deformalion 01 non,ulliform beams.
We know thal bending mOtn<'nt usually varies along (he lenglh of
Ih!" beam: lhererore, by determining lhe crosssectional dimensions
[ram lhe condition 01 maximum bending momen! \Ve provitle an extra
marg;n in al! seclions 01 lhe bealll excell\ lhe Dne which corresponds
to M . Beamsof wliform slrt'llglh. are used 10 achit've grealeor economy
al 1t1t.'1a~ and in ~01l1l' cases also lo nerease Ilexibilily. Under lhis term
eOllR" bellm~ in which lhe maxilllum normal stress is lhe same in al!
sections and equal lo tlle permissible stress (or less lhan il).
The dllllensions or Suth a beam are elllculalcd for lhe lollowing con
dition:
M(.<)

o", = 1FT~"T = J (1]

(17.1)

W()=~
.t
11f t

(17.2)

und

Hl're M Ix) and 117 (x) are lhe b('nd ing momenl :md ~ect;on modulus
in alij' arbitrar)" s Iion of lhe belln: in eaeh st'(tion 117 (x) must vary
in direcl proporlion lo lhe bending momen.l.
Condijjons (17.1) und (17.2) are true also lor the sectiol1 wilh fhe
maximullJ bending momenl: iI \\'e denote lhe secUon modulus in lhe
secUon of maximurn bending mOUlent M ..ax by W., Ihen
M ...'!..= .'1(.<) =101
(17.3)
W,

W(.r)

We shall explain lhe arder 01 compl.llations wilh lhe help of the

ro[)()wing example. Considl'f a bl'am 01 span 1 rigidly fixed al cnd A
ami loaded al t!"J{' olher end bj' a force P (Figs. 242 and 243). Assullle
lhe bl'am lo be 01 rectangular sec!ion. The problem 01 obtaining a
varying sed ion modulu5 can be 5OIve<l by changing eilhcr Ihe height
or thi': lI"idlh 01 Ihe oeanl or both simullaneous1r.
Suppose Ihe heighl oF IhC' beatn is fiJll'd, !=lJ,. and Ihe widlh varil'S,
b=b (x). The sertion modulus at a distanee x rrom thl' free end will
l
be W(x)""b('h and lhe bendi/lg momenl will be -Px; the section

r;h.11I
modulus in lh~ support section is W.= ~
' . ;Inri lhe muimurn
bending momllll al Ihesupporl isM -jPfI. OnI)l1e 3bsolul~ \"3
lues of :U (.1') and Al are required lor computations. frolll formula
(17.3) we get
Plx6
------P~"6

boh'

wherefrom

b(x) h'

(17.4)

lJ(x) .... IJ T

Le. width varies ]inellrly as a runction 01 x. At x-Ilhe v..idth is b.

1M lronl view and plan 01 Ihe lK'am are shown in Flg. 2012. 1his
shape is obtail"K'd if ""e consider 1M slrrnglh oF Ihe ~em only w.r.L
the oormal Slfesst'S; 10 secllon 8 I~ lI..idlh el Iht. !>tem is zefQ.

~,

,L,! :=t
9

t,r~
--- ,,-;a
,"

'

,---

~'-'-

-),>0-

'

1"11. 243

flg. 242

Howcvet, we must ensUle sulficitnl strenglh of Ihe beam under

sheating stresses also. The mnimum lIo'idth of lhe beam accordin
lo Ihls COildilion 1$ delermined Irom tlk! lollowlni equatiQn
t .... -

3Q....
:.'h1>.1....

II
"1:

3P

b.,. - 2h Itl
lhe correded shape oF the! beam s shown in F'ig. 2013.

95, Praclica' Examplt.s af 8eanl$ 01 Unifotm

Slrenglh
lhe txal1lple distussed abov~ 6nds practical applkalion in design
or springs. 11 we Ign~ ils small curllature, a spting mar be looked upon
as a simpl)' supported beam (Fig. 2014(17) l03ded ~..lIh a larte P in
lhe middl~ of lts span and havin r~actions ~ .1 iis ends,
We design luch a bar b)' Ihe UlIDe principies as a beam al unilorm

'"

D~!ormalhm

Du~

lo BeNfing

[Pad V

slrenglh 01 constant height 1,. and variable widlh b(x); as lhe looding
is symmelric il is sulficil:n! lo studr jusi ane half af Ihe span.
The section rnoduli W(x) and W. can be expressed by he 33me foro
f.
p
P
mul1l5 as in he prlXeding example.
The maximum bending moment in
IJ)
I
Ihe middle 01 Ihe span i5:

it
Ji.,

lb}

Itl
ti,
,
,

A,r--7 -+--l---.,:
I
;;:>\
,
I

(,)

-1,

,,
I

mu

=!:..!..
4

Bending mamenl in any arbilrary

seclion Is:

1/

I-_h~----

1='-

"

M(x)=T
Solving, as in he prcceding exam

, ,1,
I

It}

pie. we gel:

b(x)-=b. 2:
, ,

: : :

: :

I ' I , ',' IJI,'

I ' I

"

The maximum widlh required lo

resist he shearing force

1 kCCDDSD:
~,

1'1

sUC(l~sslully

~ can be delermined from Ihe fol-

: : : :

I I I I

lowing formula:

I I I

'

(17.5)

;,

mln =

'T

,
h. (T)

lhe front and top views 01 the

spring are sho\\-'T1 in Fig, 244(b) and
(e). Iiowever, such a shape of the spring is highly inconvenient rom
the practical point of view; therefore Ihe shape is slightl)' modilied
without allecting the performance 01 the spring. 1magine that Ihe spring
is divided into Ihin slrips when seen from Ihe top, as sho\\'n in
fig. 244(d). JI we place these strips nol adjacenl lo earh olher but
one over lhe oLher and neglecl the friction belween lhem, then wllhout
allccling Its working the spring may be given a shape lhe lop and front
views of whkh are shown in Fig. 244(e) and (j), respectivel,..
Obviously, in actual praclice each spring plate, Ihe 1st, 2nd. ele.,
is manulac1ured in one piece and not in two halves.
Non-unilorm beams are olten used in mechanical engineering For
example, sharts are oflen designed as bealTl5 01 unHorm slrenglh.
Flg. 2H

96. Displacements in Non-uniform Beams

When delermining lhe defledion and angle of rotal ion 01 a nonuniform heam. il should be borne in mind thal {hE' rigidity 01 sud a
bealll is a lunction 01 x. Therelore. Ihe differenlial equalion 01 lhe de

Ch. 17)

NOIIulllfnrm

'"

Beams

lIecled axis may be writien as

d',

EJ (x) dx' ... M (.~)

where J (x) is the variable momen! 01 inertla in dilferent beam sec
lions.
Before inlegrating lhis equation we must express J (x) in lerms of
J, Le. the momen! of nerlia of the section in whleh the maximum bend
ing moment ac\s. Having done this, we can carry out !he computa
lions in the same manner as lar a beam 01 uniform seclion ( 82).
Lel us show Ihis through the example discussed earlier. We shall
delermine lhe dellection In a beam of uniform slrength (Fig. 242), which
is lixed al orre end, loadetl at the other by a force P and has a fixed
heighl. Lel the free end or lhe beam be the origin or coordina tes. Then
a
12 1

J(,)= b(x)h' = bGh ~ ... J!...

M(,)=-Px,

12

(17.6)

d',

EJ T"Tx7=-Px
!he di!ieren!ial cquation may be writlen as
EJ!!:J!..=- Pxl=_PI

'"

(17.7)

Integrating twice,
El ~~ = - Plx+C,

.'

EJy=-Pl T+Cx+D

We have the lollowing cOllditions ror determining Ihe constanls 01

inlegration: JI polnt A (x""l) dellection y=O and angle of rotation
=0. Therefore
pp
O__ PI'+C and O=-T+
Cl + D

.jf

wherefrom

PI'

D=--,'"'
The expressions for y and a may be writlen as foJlows:
C=Pl'

d'l

PI

PI'

Pl' (

O-d~""-7!Tx+ET=ET

y=-

PI

2f1J

PI" x
x'+ET
-

')

I-T

PI'

PI'

2EJ = - 2EJ

"')

1-2+""'i'

Ma:dmum dellcction al Ihe free end is oblained by putling x=O:

pp

1m.. =-'ii!7

'"JI 11:(' had a bum el umrorln so:lioo wilh

:l

lllomenl' of inl>rtia J,

Ihera lhe muimum tkRC\:lion . . .,ouhl be.("1'

'.~-"--m
or two-thirds gn:a\cr.
Henc:e, non-umiQl'IlliK.>:llLlS are more flexible Ihan ~IJIS ofllRiform
sectioo of the $.!Ime stre:ngth. It ~ betau~ of lhis properly ltnd not
due lo saving 01 melal Ihat n:>o-unilorm slrength bcams are used In Ihe
manufacture or e1ements sucll as sptings.
Equation (17.7) indicales Ibat in Inis ('unlp;le lhe curvaturt 0\ t/K!
beam is constant, Le. lhe bea.Ul axis dl:'llech along Ji cirele. Bul lIpon
intcgralion lbe equation obtained was Iba!
a para bola. U 15 sug

or

gested Ihat Ihe reader should Clplain lhe reason lar Ihis..
Whcn lhe graphanalrtic RII..'ltlOd is used lor determining lh", de
lornl$lion af non-uniform heams. it does nol present any difcultil:$.
Insltad of dividing lhe bentling momml and shearing force in the
rKlilious bearo by El lo compule! alld 8. ~'e oblain Ihe Iktilou~ load
by dividing lhe ordlnAtes of Ihe bending momenl dagram of the real
beam by rigidily El. 1hen

,\t ..l

qf""'""'""'FJ'

!"",:U r.

artd

e-Q

Whc:n applying Ihis IlIethod to oon-umform bean\,S. \l'e assume Ihal

.\1

'''1

qf= EJC")
Then ""e load tlle fietilious beam by Ihis fOlce and oblain Ihe required
defleelloo and angle of rolallon a~ Ihe bending moment and shearlng
force in secllons 01 the ftclilious beam.
In Ihe exa1l1ple

discuSM~d

above

q; -- ffi.. . -fT,

Le.

Ihe

ficllliollS beam should be 1000ded nol by 11 triangular force bul by 11

unifoflnly dislribuled force (Fig. 245). lhe d",ntt:lion 01 seclion 8,
whkh is equal (o IhE' bcnding momenl in the Iixed end of the ftclitlous
be'.1I11, can be expu'Mt'd by lhe formulll

1_.\11,_

qjl'
2

PC'
--2FT

We could have oblalnt'd lhe salDe re'>ull by a.qoming thal lhe heam
has constanl ngidilr El antl lis bertdmg momenl diagram is oblaint'd
by llIulliplying elll:h ordinale by Ihe ralio J~'J
!lendmg momenl dlagr.m lhus oblained are

Ihe onlirules 01 lite

-Px-'-=P.x!..!=Pi
J .)
J..

Ch. l7j

329

NOII-WI;'orm BMI/IJ

(Fig 246) lhen llcQording lo the gencral principl~ ol lt1e graph-ana.

lY!11: method
I

PI"

MI =-Plxl"2=-T

and

9= -

PI"

nI

lhus, ddormatiOI1 of non-unilorm beams can be cal;ulated by the

sallJe melhod as Iha! lor beams 01 unilorm rigidily. lhe only difieren.:... is tha( he bending momenl diagram Ilscd in (his case is obtained
by mulliplying wllh (he ratio J:X)'

AF,6
.
,
,~P

1',

'.

1-

q;~
:.-..-,

~OHH~8
'Fig.

rlg.

2~5

2~7

~,

"

Pl~!
PI

b:rnm:rrrrJl
rig. 246

F,g. 248

tion is J in lhe eH hlllf ami 0.51 in Ih<' right half. Lel liS obtain the
nc''''' bending momenl diagram by muJliplying {he ordinales of lhe
rigll! half 01 lhe real bending !nomenl di~gram (Fig. 247(b)) with the
ralio JI0.5/=2; !he lictitious beam wilh Ihe new loading is shown

JJO

(Pa,! V

in Fig. 247(c). The reaction 01 Ihe left-hand fictitious suppor! is;

A -

.!:!..i.!+.!....!i
I .!.=~
2 Z23
12

1-2423

rhe fiditious bending momen! in seclion

e are:

e and lhe deftection al poinl

"d
PI'

fc=-JUT
Le! liS determine lhe dent<:'lion 01 a beam rigidl}' fixed al one end
sod loaded al lhe other by a concentraled force (Fig. 248(a)}. The crosssecHonal area 01 one half 01 lhe beam is greater. and J.>J.. In arder
lo transrorm lhe bending moment diagram (Fig. 248(b)) iolo lhe ficHo
liaus load, we mus! mullip!)' Ihe ordinales oI !he Iell-hand portion
01 Ihe diagram by ~. (Fg. 248 (e.
DeOection under r~rce P may be cakulaled as f01l0\\'5 (fer J,=2/,):
I

1 I 2 I

21 I

~=-TPTTTT-~TT=-~n'

fp= -

3PI"

8EI.

PART VI

Potenta) Energy.
Statically Indeterminate Beams

CHA~ra

11

Application of the Concept 01 Potential

Energy in Determlning Displacemenfs
97. Stattmenf DI the Problem
B<!5itles the methods o determining dellel.':tion and angle of ratalion
discussed aboye, hefe- is a more general rnethod, which can be used
rOl" delermining deformalion o any elastic slruelure. lt is based 00
Ihe law af eonservalion of ellergy.
When a slalic. lensile or cOI11]ltl'SSivc rorce is applied lo an eJastic
bar, Irllnsfor11lation Di !,atenUal cnergy from Dne form lo anoliJer
lakes place: a parl of lhe potenlial energ al lheforce acling on lhe bllr
changes iolo potential energy al sira in. r \Ve load lhe bar by succt'$Sive
addil ion 01 srnall lOlds dP al its end (Fig. 249), lhen eaeh addition will
be accompanied by a decrease in the leve! ol Ihe load and Ihe po!ential
energy o strain will correspondngly inertase.
Thls pheoomenon is !rue lor a1l trpes 01 deformalion 01 an elaslk
structure provdtd the loading is slalic. Such a construclion may be
looked upon as a Illachine which converls one type o( potenlial energy
inlo anotller.
We have 1lJ"e('d ( 2) that a kJad .....iIl be calle<!. slalic ii it incre:ases
gradually.so ihat acreleralicn in lhe e1etllenls may be ignored; lransmissioo 01 pressure (IOfce) rom O~ parl el lhe str~lure lo anolher
docs not affecl Ihe mol ion of these parls. Le. l!leir ,-elocily remains
COIUlant and acceleratien is uro.
Undef' these conditions deformalioo of lhe slruclure is nol accompaniet! by an)' ch~ in kinetic energy 01 lhe syslem; enly conversion
Di ont forro 01 polential energy inlo anotht'r lakes plau. In making
this slatement we. neglecl the magnelic. eledric and !herma! effecls.
which do nol alter lhe delormation ronsiderably.
As lhe moticn 01 the elemeni.s el Ihe strlKlure does nol change wiih
lime. al eaeh inslan! e\'cr)' par! of lhe structure will be in equilibrium
undl!l" Ihe adion 01 extemal lorers IInd lettes of reactiOfl. 1Iml {'3th
('lerotnl 01 a parl will be in equilibrium under Ihe external forces

[Parl VI

'"aod slresses cling on tI. Delormation al he slructure, stresses in he

POUnl/al EfUrf!. SIal/rol/y Indltumlllale Btams

varlous parts, and rcactions transferred from one parl lo anolhcr, a1l
rolJow he iocrease in load. r
Thus, Vr'e may say hal 101111 ronversion aF Qne form 01 potclltial
energy inlo anolher lakes place jj derormation occurs wilhout vio[llI~
Ihe equilibrllln 01 {he srstcm. Work done by lhe forces acting on lhe
slruclure serves as a measure 01 lhe energy lransformed ioto anolher

lorm.
Le! us denote Ihe aCCllnlulal<'d paleonal C'nergy 01 strain by U ,lnd
thedecrease in polentia! energy 01 lhe cxl\'rnal forces by Up The l"Juan
tHr U p is determined as Ihe positivc work U\' p done by Ihese forces;
on {he other hand, {he nccumulated potentiaJ energy of s[rain U is
equallo the negali.e \\'ork W don!'. hy Ihe internal inlermolecular forct"s (negative because the diredion
01 displac('nl<.'nl 01 poinls of the
body due lo deformalion spp~ile
to the internal rorces).
The la11' 01 conslSvalion of ('nl'rgy
lor elastic syslems may he expressed
as follo'.'.'s:
Up-U
(IS,I)

In lhis lormula, rt'placing Up and

U b)' the corresponding valucs of
\\'ork W p and W, we gel 11 JUodilied
form of Ih(' same law:
Wp=-W or Wp+W=O (IS.2)
Fig 219

This rormulation 01 the lal\' of con

sen'ation 01 en!'r!:!)' coincides with
Ihe principie of virlual !.(!(Jrk as applied to elaslic 's)"slems: equalion
(18.2) sta les Ihat the sum ul \\"ork 01 all 10rct'S ac!ing on a body is
zelO ir d('lormation 01 {he hody occurs without violaling Ihe t:quilibriUlII 01 lhe system.
Thus, the principIe of virtual \\"ork l,S applied lo elaslic systcms is
a corollar~' al lhe lall' 01 cOl1servalion 01 energy.
JI ensu('s froln formula (18. r) Iha! lh(' pol~llti! energy 01 slrain U
is numericlllly equall0 1V0rk W p done by lhe external lon;;es in causing
Ihis strain:
(18.3)

lhe foHowing inl('J"pretalion 01 lhis eqllalion solllelinles given in

books on struclural mechan,c! is erroneous: "Work {Ione by he extl'T
nal rorces In derorminga uody ehallges itllo polenl~l ent.rgy 01 strain."
Aclu~IJy, only a dilferent [orm of rn(rgy can l'h~llge inlo pokntia)

0.. 1&1
enrrgy of slrain. ,\s a rull', lhis is the potrntial en('fg}' oI the eJl:t~nal
lorces. Work done by lhe l'xtlo'rlUll force; durinll thls conver.sloo i$
enly a numedcal mras.lIre 01 the converled energ}.

98. Potentlal
of

Energy
Loading

in

lhe Simplesl

Cases

\Ve have already drrivl!d lhe eJrprasions for cornpuling pO"ltrllial

enery in tension and compression ( 10J. shear ( 36), 10000tCO < 51).
aoel also in pUf\> bendinll ( 63(0).
Lel us write all Ihe abovemcnhoned formulas in Table 14.
T.IIle 14
Polf"llll

E"er~y

01 S,rai" 1"

Slm~lul

CISf.

Ton'OlI

Pun bmdln;:

Let liS have a look at Ihe contenls 01 lhe right haH uf {he IlIble.
Tite polenlial energ}' or strain s equal to hall 01 Ihe product oi force
oc moment of fQ(cl' couple wilh lhe displacement of thlo' secUon in
whlch Ihe force or rorce cOllple is applied, Lelus IIse lhe tcrmgellefu/.
ill'll fOfa for l'very load lhal cau~ displacement, Le. il mllybe a con
ccnlrated force or Ihe momenl of a force coupll'. The displacerneul
cQ(res}Ondi'lg lo Ihe gentraliz.td force will ~ known as genlfolllC(l
displONmenf. lhe wf)fd "correspondin!t implies Ihal we are taJking
or displacement of the sedlon In which lhe f(l"ce uncler considerali<m
is actlng. Elaboraling furlher, \lo'' ate lalking of displ~ment which
wIM.-n multiplled by the forcl'::ives us lhe ....ork done. Far a OOIlcentral
ed rorce this displocemenl will he linear in (he direclion 01 lhe fOl\:e
(defleclion, or E'longalion). For the mamenl af a force rouple il will be
Ihe angle of rotation of the section in Ihe dlredioo 01 Ihe moltltnl.
Thf' formulas in IhE' firsl column may be slaled in a general mannef lI5
101l0'.l0'$; Ihe- polmlial eoe'"gy 01 slra!n is numerically tqual lo haU
or Ihl' prodUCI of he ReneraliU'd force v.'ith Ihe gelll'flllized displaL~
~l.

Pole~lIal

EMfiJ!. Slaflcal/lI Inklcrm/llatt Beams

IPan VI

The w:::ond column in lbese formulas shows {hM the poltntial encrgy
of slrain is a second order function ollhc jndependenl exlerna! 'orces.
Polential eflergy is always posilive.
The third column shows lhal lhe po1<'nlial energy 01 sira in is a second arder lunclion of the finile values 01 generalized displacemenlselongations. angles af ratation. defteclions-and is complelely determ(ne<! br Ihe latler.
Consequenlly, allhough lhese formulas have been derive-d on lhe
assumplion lhal lhe load ncreases slalically withoul vio!ating the equi.
libriurn 01 (he slruclure during the process oi loading. they are vatid
lor aJl lypes 01 rorces provided lhe force and displacement <lre 'ine<lrly
related and are considered al all instanl when the struclure has altai!leld equiJibrium.

99. PlIlential Enr.rgy Illr Ihe Case

Ili Several Forces
Imagine a bearn acled IIpon by severa! lorces: P" P" p.
Le! {j" {jj, (j.,.
denole Ihe displacelllents of th<- beam in lhe secIiOlls of applical ion or the lorces and in lhe direclion or lheir aelion.
111 Fig. 250 the salid line sho\\"s Ihe slraighl axis of lhe beam while
lhl' dolle<! line shows it alter defledion. We will assume lhat lhe fol
lowingcondilions are salisfied: (a) all rorces are appl ied statical1y Itlieir
1IIHgnitude increases gradually from zero lo a finile vaJue PI); (b)
all dl'iorrnalions IIre within lhe elastic imit and are linearly relaled
lo Ihe external lorces; and le) a decrease in lhe polent ial energy of lhe
applied loree is accompanied by an increase in tlle polenlial energy
of strain of Ihe heam.
Any of lhe orces PI shown in Fig. 250 can bt' considered a general.
iZl'(] force. Here, lhe. generalized force PI wil1 nol be jusi lhe active
rorce but a balanced 10l"<:e syslem (including support reactions) ""hieh
produces displacemcnt 6,. at the poinl 01 application 01 lhe (orce in
lhe diredion 01 ils action.
AH lhe forces and displaeements are relale<! lo eaeh other by lhe! fol
lowing expressions:

6, =1l"P, +a"P.+a"P,+ . . }
6, =a..P, +a..p, +a"P, + ...
1l.""'a,.,P,+a..P~+Il"p.+...

......

(IBA)

He', a d(!noles eonstants and lhe subscripls musl be interpreled as

{ollows: lhe lirst is Ihe serial numbcr 01 the displacemenl. or lhe ~pninl
of displaeement" (Ior instance, nurnbl'r 1 as 1he first subscript denotes
the disp!aee111enl in Ihe sedion 01 applicatlon ni lorce P,): lhe second
is Ihe serial number of Ihc force causing Ihe displace111cnl, ur Ihe "cause

335

CA. 181

of displacement" (num!xor 2 as lile .second subscript denclu lhat Ihe

displacemcnl has been ea~u by force P,).

The s)'steUl of l.'qualions {18Aj ls known /lS {he gt.'fltrolird Hooke's
law for a deformable body. ThlO besic idea behind euh linc is Ihel eny
displacl.'nJt'Ilt represenls Ihe sum 01 displaccmenls (,1 Ihe glven point
due lo l.'ch 01 forces PI.
The generalized Hooke's law (18.4) ma)' airo be ealled lhe la... of
eutDula!lve aclion oI [orces. or lhe la\\' ij;rinciple) of suJ.ul=O$ilicn ol"

tP, tA

J~!F'J

t6

"!'~

lPIf

~I.

f:C.

2$1

forces. We have used lhese formulas on more Ihan ene oceasion ror
deriying design equations (lor ex.mple, equations (6.18) in 33).
When a number 01 lorees are acting, lhe potentlal energ)' should
be calculated by ClapeyrOlj's theorem:

U=W-TP,6'+2PI"'+,!P'~ ...

(IS.S)

Ihe nol.liorui here are lhe ume as in formul. (18.4).

C1a~ymn's theorem ma)' be staled as 101l0'~:s: Ihe slrain merg)' of
an elaslic system due lo a number of generaliud roren is equal lo
enehaH 01 Ihe sum of IhlO preduels oI lhe generalized lorces and genero
al ZlOd dlsplacC'mlOnls Cllused by lhe simultaneous cllou 01 lhe former.
In cenciosian, it should be poinled out Ihat in principie any groU?
of 8cHng force laclors thal can be define<! by OIle paramelcr can be
laken as Ihe generaliud force. However, rrOD! Ibe praclical poinl of
v~, il i.s COl'Ivenitnt to partition Ihe complkaled load acling on
the slruclure nto simple geI!nllized forcts.
le! os oonsider an example. A beam lhal is rigidly Iind al one tnd
is foaded It tbe Iree end by a COl'Icf1'ltraled force P and a lorce couple
of mamenl M (Fig. 251). We shall cakufale the polenlial energy el
slrain 01 Ihe beam.
Clapeyron's lhcorem in lhls case can be wrHlen {htls:

U=W-2'(Pf.+ M6 J1)

(IS.6)

PO/Mllol E1urgf. $/<l/"ool//I l~dtftfm"lUlle flrnm$

IParf .vI

The ~lispJacements may be 1aken from examples solv(\] r.arJier or

Irom a handbook:
.

PI'

lfl-3ET-

.~1I'

(18.7)

'lEJ '

rhe minus sign shows that Ihe direction of di~placement does nol
coincide- with that 01 the eorresponding force. le! liS slIbstilule th~
i1isplacements intoClapeyron's 'lhoort'm

'(PI'
MI')'
PI')
U-W=2'P
.3'EJ-'ii!T
+"2:\1 (MI
7T-!!.u
P'r>

M'I

P.I!!'-

= bEJ +'ii!T- 2eJ

(IB.8)

The reader's attention is drawn lo the [ael that \\'hile ea1cula1ing

potenlial enl'rgy due lo a numb('r 01 lorees H is \\rong: lo ca!culate the
polential energy due to ~eh force separately 3ml then SUtil Ihem up.

100. Calculafing Bending Energy Using

Internal Forces
In ge.neral, Ihe bending momenl M (!I') isa variable- quan1ify. It
has a corresponding shearing [arel' Q{x) in every seelion. The.rerorc,
it is (');pedienl to eonsider Ihe equilibrium 01 a small elclIleni 01 ~eTlgth

fua

.dj,11~, , Jii
t
Iftl!

I'f(z)

i \j,

-t4-L

II

_1

1- tiz-1'

'Fil:. 'lS'l

flg. '1;.3

dx inslnad 01 Ihe whole.beam (Fig. 252). Due'to Ihe bending ac.tlon 01

lorces, the sedions or the e.lement tum and make an angll' dA with
one llnolher (Fig. 253). J.he shearing -rOfCes lend to ,shear (Fig. 254)
Ihe element; Ihus Ihe displacenlent due lo !he normal slresses is pero
pcnlhcular lo the dlreclion 01 Ihe shearing stresses, and vlce versa. This
enables liS lo eakulate- indcpendently Ihe work done by the normal and
shearing orces.
U~lIally Ihe work done by Ihe shearing forces is small in compllrison
lo Ihe work done b)' Ihe normal lorces; therefore, we shall nol lake it
inlo conslderation lar Ihe lime being. Elementary work done by lhe

PoUlItltl1 fllug lA Dtrmimlll! D/spltltffltAU

Ch. 181

normal forces (as in simple bending) is:

dW,-dU--fM (x)d8=-f M (x)

M~~,dA'

dU_ M "(r1 tU

or

(18.9)
(18.10)

>El

Total potential entrgy of bending can be obt&ined by inlegraling

this exprmion over the whole lenglh of the beam:

U-S, M'2t~d

.. = 2:J

S, M'(x)dx

(18.11)

Thc limit of integrtltion indicates that integral ion should cover the
whole lenglh 01 the beam: tf Hiere are a number 01 zones for M (x),
lhen integral (18.11) mus! be divided into a SU 111 01 integrals.
\Ve end Ihis secUon b)' ca1culating Ihe patenttal energy ar a slmply
supported beam loaded by force P
(Fig. 255) . The bending momenl di
agram has t",'O :rones; therefore

r M,tU +f
-i 2EJ i

lo,

M,dA'

2EJ

(18.12)

Al ....

+Ax,_ +-,-x"
"

M._

+B.fl~

-m-U(P,')'

P.
+ -,-x,

.1

lo

xl'"

P'.'h'
+ ~i(~')' .,"'] -"Gl7T
I

fI. 255

.l.

101. Castigliano's Theorem

Let \J$ now explain the method 01 determining displacements vla the
polential energyof slraio. We shall determine lhe displact.menl 01 lhe
points of 10 etaslic syslem in the directkm of lhe forces acling on il.
Weshall salve Ihis problem in I number af sllges. slarting wilh the
simple case (Fig. 256) when concentraled force p.. p . PI' ... act
In seclions 1, 2, 3, ... af the beam. Oue lO lhese forres lhe beam bends
inlo curve 1 an1:l there relains ils equilibrium.
Let us denote by 11..
1,*,
the delleclioo sedions J, 2,3, ...
in which fartes PI. p,. PI,
are acling. W~ shal! cllkulllte on~ 01
these deOtclioll5, laY, y. (the deRtl.':tion oflhe seclion In \\i1ich force
p. is acling).

y,.

12-511'

or

Poltnliol E~rgy. Slaticol/1I Indrterm/nale 8mms

IPorl VI

Let us shift Ihe bum from position 1 into an adjacenl portion 11,
shown in Fig. 256 by a doltetlline, wilhout disturbing ils equilibrium.
This ma}' be achieve<! by various melhod~; by adding a ne\\' force, by
increasing the existing forces, elc.
Let us assume Ihat an infinilesimal increment dP, (Fig. 256) is
applied, in addition to lorce P" lo shilt Ihe beam rom position I
to deformed state 11. In order to relain Ihe equilibrium 01 the beam

''<

Fig. 251
during jhis slift we assume tha! fhe increment is applied slaticalJy,
i.e. ncreases from zero to the final value slo\\'ly and gradually.
As lhe beam shifls from posilion I to position 11 aJl forces falt In
leveJ. meaning Ihereby that lhe potential energy decreases. Since Ihe
equilibrium 01 Ihe beam remains undislurbed, lhe dt'Crease in potential
energy dUp of Ihe forces may beconsidered to be completely transformed
into the polential enery' of slrain dU 01 lhe beam; dU pis measured
by the work of the external forces in shifting Ihe beam from position
I to posilion 11:
dU =dW p
(18.13)

lhe ehange in the poteolial energy of sIra in, 1he energy being a
funeUon 01 rorces P" p., P" ... , occufttd due to an infinitesimal
incremenl in one 01 the indept'ndenlly applied forces, P,. Therelore,
Ihe differential 01 this composite [(melion ""ill be

au

dU=dJldP,
,

(18.14)

QuanHty dW p, in ils lurn, r~presenls Ihe dilferenee in the I'.'ork done

by al! tht' [crees ln position JI and in pesillon 1:
dWp=W.-W,
Il a1l Ihe forces increase simultaneously and gradually, thcn work
W. can be eakulated as follows:

W, =-rP'y, + '2 P,y,+ 2"P'y,+ ...

While eakulating W, IVe mus! consider Ihat it depends entirely upon
{he final shape of lhe delormed beam ( 100) and not upon the arder
in v,tIich the torces are applied.

CA,/II

POIClI4l1 Erwrtv In Dtlumlni"l DllplllCt1nnl/$

Suppose \loe finl load lhe be.m by forcedP.: lhe beam bends slighUy
(Fi, 257, posilion 111) .nd ils de8tctions in sedions 1, 2,3 are dy"
dy., dl/., respeclivrly. The \l..o rk accomplished by lhe sl.lit rorce
dP, is ..;. dP,dg. Wr now slart loading the beam graduaUy and :r.imul
tanoously by increasing rorces P" Po. P",.
De8eclions 1/" Y., y. witl be added lo Ihe original delledions dy,.
dy" and d!# (Fig. 257). In Ihls shlge 01 loading, lorces Po. PI' p. will le'
complish "...o rk
Pg,+ P.y:+ {P"Y.-W,. In additlon, lorce
dP" whieh Is a1ready acling on Ihe beam, wi1l .Iso accomplish work
(it Irallerses a dislanee g,: slnce il rem.'os constanl during lhe SEcono
slage 01 loading, Ihe work done is dP,y,). rile beam occupies posilion
11 shown in Fig. 257 by a dolted IIne.
Hence, Ihe tolal work done b)' Ihe external forces in shifUllg lhe
beam Irom the undeformed slale inlo position /l is (Fig. 257):

.r

-t

W.="2dP,dl/,+ W1 +dP,xy

Now

we can calcula le

dU =dW,._ W, - W, =2" dP,dy, +dP, XYI

Neglecting

the

secondorder lerro. \I,e

get

dW,.-dP,xy,

(18.15)

PuUing the values 01 dU (18.14) and dW,. (18.15) in equalion (18,13),

we get

"

,JU

9,- i)P,

(18.16)

Hence, in Ihis exalnple the drllection at the point of application 01

Iht'conemtr.led force P, is equa110 lhe parlial derivalive 01 lhe polentia1 energy of strain wilh respect lo lhis force.
The rcsull oblaincd abo\'e can be gerJft'"aliud. Suppose moments M
3d in various sections 01 lhe beam besides lhe concentraled lorces
(fig, 258). We may reptat lhe preding discussion rOl' lhe case v:hen
Ihe be.alll is shilted frOID posmon /10 posilion 11 dI,)!' lo Ihe addilion
of an inlinllesimally small moment aM, lo the original momenl MI.
The reasoning remaim unchanged. However, when cakulating fhe
,.'ork done b)' the moments, lhe lalter should be RlulUplied not by Ihe
doncclions but by Ihe angles al rotation O., D., ... etc. or lhe secUons,

,,.

'"

Pa~nlial

Enuil/. Slalil;al/ Indtltrminatt 8.amJ

(Parl VI

i*:

where lheahovc moments are applied. ThendU will be equaJ lo

x
. take
'
xdM(, dW p will be equal lo O, dM, antl formula (8.16) \vJl]
the form

O'=""if.if;"

(18.17)

As y, is Ihe displacement corresponding lo force PI and 0 1 lhe displacement corcrsponding lo moment M" theconc!usions arrived al can

~~~ (l (!!. ('.-

~
........
l. __ ....
~~

f"je:. 258

be formulaled more broadly as [ollows: lhe derivative of sira in energy

with fespeet lo a generalized force is equal lo he generaliZl'd displacemenl.
This cesult Is known as Casligliarw's /}corem. Jt \\"3S published in

1875.

We nole Ihal ir lhe beam wefe acled upon by a dislributed force, he

preceding derivations would stiJ[ remain valid because every djstrib
ute<! lorce can be considered as consisting of a large number 01 con
cenlraled forees.
The aboye discussion perlains lo ti belllll, bui il should be absolulely
clear thal il can be repeated fur any slructure in which derormation
follows Hooke's la\\'.
For bending wc obtained a formula which eorrelates !he poten!ial
energy with !he bending moment:

U~S

\Jl(.rld.r

2EJ

(18.11)

lel us ealculalefhe parlial derivative of U w.r.l. ene of lhe external

forces, for example, P,:

!!!...
....
ilP,

-'-[S,
OP,

M'(XldX]
?El

We have to deal in Ihis case with differentiaUon of a delinile integral

w.r.l. parameter, as M (x) is a function of both P, and.r; we intcgrale
w.r.t. x and dill"erentiate \\'.r.l. Pi. \Ve know also tha! il lhe limits of
integntion areconstant. [hen it is sufficient lo differenliale the [une'
tion under lhe sign of integration.

Ch. 181

Thus, defleclion at the point of applicalion 01

P, wil1 be:

con~entrat~

""

force

(18.18)

and lhe angle 01 roblion in {he secUon under lnomenl M .....ill be:
(l =~=
J
ilM 1

C .ti (x)dx

,H.f (x)

1----r--

(18.19)

(1M,

The limil of inlegralion, 1, sho\\"S tha! integral ion is OYer Ihe whole
length of Ihe beam.
\02. Examples of Applicdlon uf
Casllgllano's Theorcm

Lel us cakulate (Fig. 259) Ihe deflecHon 01 the free eod Bol a beam
which is rigidly lixed at lis olher end A. The beam is loaded by a con
centraled force acling lIl. poiol B. In Ihis cast' we can direclly apply

,~;e 5"'" ,\"""'"

I

16

Fi. 259

Casti;:::1iano's lheorem, because we are required lo lind Ihe defledlon

of Ihe sedjon where conccnlraled lorce P is applied:

'" 5

YII""'"JP=

M (x) dx ilM (X)

---g-~

(18.18)

The origin for abscissa x may be selecled arbitraril)", Ihe 0111y consid
eralioo to be kepl in mind being Ihat Ihe formula for M (x) should
be as simple as p~ible. J\\easuring x from poiol 8. IVe gel the lollow
ing expression [or (he bending moment in an arbitrary section:

M (x)= -Px and

aA~..) ""'-x

Subslituting these values in the formula for YB ,md integrating

over Ihe .....hole lenglh 01 Ihe beam roln O lo l, we oblain:

r (_P..)d..
f' 5.
f'l"
JlIl"".l
El
(-x)="'l'T X dX=+3ET

POltnlial E'UlTRIi. Slal/MJ/y 1nd4ltrml.u. Bea=

Par/ VI

We have oblained lhe same formula as be/ore, wilh the. only dilferenee lhal YD is posilive. WC have delermined {he displaeemenl corre
sponding lolhe loreewilh respecl lo which Ihe equalion was dIfIeren
lIaled. By Ihe {erm corresponding" we mean lhal lhe produet or lhe
roree ~nd corresponding displacemenl gh-es us lhe work done by lhe
above rorce. If Ihe displaeemenl is posilive, Ihe '.vork will also be po
silive, which implies lhal the displacement is in lhe direction 01 lhe
force. Ir. howevc"f. lhe denection or angle d rolation is negative, {hen
displaeemenl occurs in a direclion opposile to Ihal 01 lhe force. Thus,
in !his problem poinl B dellecls dewnwards.
Le! liS oonsder an example in whieh il is essential lo ealculale Ihe
reael ians prior lo calculating lhe bending moment M (,1").
Let liS calcula!e lhe angle 01 rolalion al supporl Bol a simply supported beam 01 span I (fig. 260) loaded with a momenl M acting allhe.
aboye supporl and a uniformly dslributed forceq over ils whole lenglh.
The required angle of rotalion is:

eR =.!!:!....
<1M =

S M (%)d%
EJ

<1M (%)
ilM

(18.19)

Bending momenl (Fig. 260) is expressed by Ihe equalion

,,'

M(x)_+Ax __,_

When we calculale the derivative of M (x) w.r.t. M lhe expressien

for M (x) mus{ conlain enly lhe ndependen! exlerna! rorces, whch
are considered in Castigliano's Iheorem. Therefore. reaciion A musl
be expressed Ihrough M and q: il Ih is is nol done lhere is a manee
of making a mistake tlllring diIT<lrenlialion by overlooking he fact
lhal A is a function 01 M llnd q. Reaclion A is:

, ,

A-.i:.+~
Thereiore

q/
q%"
M ()
x =Tx-T

and the derivalive is:

,MI (x)

_+

-m--

+ -Al.,

lhe limils of inlegraliol1 are delermined lram the oondition that

lhe Formula lor lhe bending momen! musl be vlllid or lhe lotal lcngth
01 Ihe beam. lhe required angle 01 rotlllion can be ealculated as follows:

i)U

DS="TIf -

J (ql
<1%' 111%)"
qJ3
MI
i CT
,T x --,-+-,- dx= "'24IT+3IT

Ch. J81

POltflfilll EMrlJII 111 CH'er",I,,;n, D/$plaarrlfnlt

'"

lf lhe bending moment is e:<pre$S~ by difIerrnt lunclions o x

in dilferent portk>ns, lhen the inltgral should be divided iolo separate
integrals 101' each portion. The totltl displacemenl will Ihen be equ.11
lo Ihe sum al all Ihe ioh.-grals, \\'bich will be equal in numbef lo Ihe
numbfr 01 dilferenl portions in Ihe bfam. When solving MlCh 3 problem
it is ulremely imporlanl lo selecl Ihe: proper limils of inltgralion.

1
p

,-'

::

z-l

<--c.......,j

,
:

AC. 261

Let us consider 3 beam al span 1 rigidly lix~ al one end (fjg. 261),
loaded by momenl M aclingal poinl al a disla~tI fmm lhe supporl,
and a force P acUng al Ihe free end. We have lo delermine Ihe: angle
or rolafion in seclion C.
The poiot 01 applicalion of momenl M divides Ihe beam ioto 1....' 0
portiOl1s; Be and AC. Therelore the angle al rotation al section C is:

iJU

-S

c"'"""'()iij"-

M,dx 1M,

+S l!T-rnM.dr !JAl.

ET~

\\Ihere M, and MI are bending moments In Ihe sedions 01 {he finl

IIml u<:ond porlions, respeo:;:live:ly. The limils or integration can be
wrltten only after \Ve deCide Ihe poinl of reference rrom whieh lo measure abscissa x for eaeh secUon in the: 1\\10 porlioos.
Le:t us consider an arbitrary $eCllon in Ihe: finl porliOll al a dislante
x from the free end B. The bending monuml in this seclion is:

M,=-Px

~'ii-O

and

the Ilmils o lnlegralion in Ihis porlkm belng O and l--<l.

When ea1culating the bending momenl in secHons 01 he second por.
tion, we: shall contlnue to measure x flOm he free e:nd B; filen

M.=-Px+M

Ind

~M-+I

Ihe Iimils al integralion being 1- a and l. HQ';l,'eV~, il is belter to

measure x for Ihe second portion in soch a way thal lhe: lov..e:r Ilmit
becomes ttl'o (lhis simplilies calculaUons/. Obvklusly, poinl C-I~
initial point of lhe urond podion-soou d be laken as the origino
lo Ihis case \\'e gel:

M.=-P (x+l-o)+M
the Iimts al inlegralion being O and

and
ti.

'M + I
d'i\f-

POlen/io/

Slal/ca//y lf!kltrmiMle B=_

E~fgy.

LPor} \'/

Considering the second verslon, we gel:

a

I_~

,~

M!dX aM,+( M,dx aMo

.J

aM

JfJ"dM

The firsl inlegral is zero; therefore

Oc"'"

;J Sr-p(x+l-a)+M]d.f=-

P(2~;a)a +{:T

The required angle of rotation is Ihe sum of l\Vo t<'rms: one dlle lo
lorce P in the cloclrn'ise diredion (againsl the direction 01 M) and Ihe
other due to moment M in Ihe anliclock\\'ise diredion.

103. Metllod 01 IntroducJng an External Force

Let liS eonsider a beam 01 span 1 fixed rigidly at end A and cade<!
at Ihe free cn B by a force P. Qur aim i5 to determine {he angle 01
rotaUon of secUon B.
Dircct appticalion 01 Casligllano's theorem is 1101 possible. bccause
in Ihis case Ihe fOf1:e does not correspond lo Ihe nature al deformation.

,~

I=,--=t

- ( _ _ ti.
Fi~.

262

We have a concenlrated force ac!ing in seclion B inslead of a mamen!.

To salve the problem we apply an additional momen! at point B
(Fig.262) in an arbiltary direciion, say, for exampJe, in the anticJock
wise direction. For a beam loaded in this manner Ihe angle 01 rolation
of sed ion B can noll' be found by appl yingCasligl iano's Iheorem.
The angle 01 rolal ion can be expressed by a iormula consistng of 1\\"0
lerms: one dependlng on P a'nd lhe other on M . This formula is Irue
for all numerical values of P and M .. ineluding M.=O. Therefore, by
3SSuming that M~=O in Ihe final express ion, we obtain the expression
for angle 01 rotation llue onl}" to loree P. The calculations are as folJows:
eR=~=-S
aM~

M=+M.. -Px

Mdx ,).11

EJ

and

if.fr;

<lM =+1
"JM;

'"

The Iimil$ af intcgration are O a!ld l; IherefOl"e

0.=

~ (M.-Pxl (+ I)tit

(18.20)

Wr may pul M.-O altN inlegraling Ihe aboye expression. Bul lhe
result .....ill be lhe same il \W! pul M.-O in equalion (18.20) and Iheo
inlegrate. We require he addllonal force onl)' lo Clkulall' the partial
derivall\'e or Ihe bending rnomoo! w.r.t. Ihis .ddiBorllll force. Having
found Ihe partal derivalh'r. v,-e can salely !'quate t~ addiUonal force

lo zero.

Hence, Ihe angll.' of rolalion of seclon B due to force P js:

1 r
PI'
e.. ""U.J
(-Px) dx.., -Tff

The minus sign indkalts Ihat rotatlan occun gajns! lhe direclioo of
momcnt M . i.e. in Ihe dockwise direclion.
If il is requirfil lo calClJlale lhe delledion in a stclion 01 the beam
where no com:enlralw locee 15 aeting. "''e mus! similarl)' apply In addi
Iional force p. in 1M above M:Ction .nd after obiaining I~ expUSSIOll
fOf delleclloo e:qual~ Ihe: force lo 'lero.
Ld us de:1e:rmiM the: de:lle:ctlon oi Iree e:nd B of the canlileve:r shown
In Fig 263. The: beam is tOlde<! by a unirormly dislribule:d Ior. We:
apply an additional rOlU p. in secUon B in de.. lo calcula le il! def1e:clion. The: beam has lwo di5tintl porlions: Be and CA. The: de:fte:ction 01 B will be a sum of ,....-0 inlegrllls:

dU
M,dl iJM,
Ya-7P;'- ... ~ iJP.

+S ---U-U;;
M.dl d.'f.

The readions al Ihe supports will be

A=-P

2.+ q(I'I-,,)(I-,,)

ZI
,,+1 + q(I-: al'
I

B=P
-

""

_p n

-T

+ q(l'_a l )
ZI

----,,-

The addilional rorce: should in no case: be gnor~ ""hile: calculaling

the rtat:lions. We solve the problem by considering (he: addilional
lorte: as onl! of Ihe adi"e ror~-es.
The: .....ay x coordinale:s are: me:asurrd is sho\\'n in Fig. 26J ror bolh
the porliof15.
In Iht.o lirsl portion:
.~

M,--P,.x-T'
the: limits of

int~ration

- __ x
'M,
'P.

be:ing .t=0 and x-a.

{Parl VI

.'

In Ihe second portion:

M _
,

+Ax-~

__ p

x+

<(J'

21

a')

X--,_
QX'

aM,
a
"'7iF,; = -7 x
lhe limits of inlegration being x=O and x-l. Hence

' r[_p ~ +Q(l2 0)1) X-~]( -.yx)dx

+ l!T1I
g/X
2J

Assuming Pg ...O, ..... e gel

UIl=

;J f.s... lit- L ~ [

</Il"
QaJ
-+8ET-NEJ

(/'

Q(ll :u,al)a

x'- q~a] dx

- ".....' )

lhe first faclor represenls lhe delleclion due to the load on lhe a1nti
lev<'r and Ihe ~ond Lhe defleclon due lo Ihe load belween ihe supporls.

104. Theorem of

~eciprocijy

01 Works

With Ihe help oflhe concepl of potential energy we may derive the
following relalion between deformaliolls in various seclions of a beam.
[[ we apply a slalic lorce p. in section 2 of a beam already loaded
by lorce P,. then lo dellection U" 01 Ihe poinl of application of force
P, due lo Ihis force wil1 be added a deflection Un due to force
PI (Fig. 264). lhe first number In lhe subscript 01 y indica tes Ihe poin!
Ihe defleclion of which is required lo be delermined; lhesecondnumber indicales lhe Force causing Ihis delledion.
lhe lotal work done by lhe exlernalforces will conss! of Ihree lerms;
work done by force P, in causing deflectlon YII' Le. ~ P1YIl; work
done by force p. in dencding Lhe poio! 01 ils appJication by Y." i.e.
~ P,y,,: ando linall~', work done by force P, over defleclion YIl caused
by lhe force P" Le. P,y".
Therefore, Ihe lolal accumulated energy dile lo Ihe two forCl'S is;
,

U ... "2P<lJll + "2 p,Yu + p,Y"

(18.21)

Ch. 18\

PoUtllial Erreli1J itl Ddrlmlfliflg D/$jllaum./IU

3<,

(the polential energy of strain depends only upon Ihe final values 01
forces and delledions and not upon lhe order 01 applying lhe external
forces).
Now, if we apply force P, lo a beam already loaded by force p.,
Ihen reasoning in Ihe same way we obta]n

U=2PtY~t+2P'YlI+PtYtJ

(IB.22)

Comparing the Iwo expressions for U. ""'e gel

P,y"=P,y,,

(18.23)

Le. Ihe work done by force P, (or Ihe first group of rorces) over dis
placements caused by force P, ({he se<:ond group or forces) is equal to
lhe work done by force P, over displacements caused by force PI'

..

1;

1;'
f"r;

....... _'=".:t~ I ir

. . .':.: . . . . +l

>zf--:t.:."::.t.... ~

..........

1"

-YIt

~-

Fl:. 264

This is known as (he i1li!Orem of reciprocity of wxks. I t can be slated

in anolher way: work done by lhe firsl force (PI) under the action of
lhe second force (p.) is equal lo Ihe work done by the second force under the a.clon of Ihe first.
By taking a particular case when PI""'p., we oblain Ihe /Moremof
reciprocily of displacemenJs: Y"""'f'" i.e. deflection of poinl 1 due to
lhe forceacling al poinl 2, ls equa lo Ihe deilection of polnl2 due lo Ihe
force actlng al poinl 1.
\05. lhe Theorem 01 Maxwell and !'I1ohr

Den.edion oi a beam allhe poiol 01 applicalion of concenlraled lorce

Pis:

!/"""

JM~]dxa~;:<)

(IB.IB)

a similar expression can be ohlained for (he angle of rolatioo by replacing )~~X) with iJ';;Jx l . Let us elucidale {he physical meaning of
hese derivatives.
lf a beam ls acted upon by an arbllrary number of coocenlrated
forces P1 , P" . . , momenlsM" M" ..., and dislribuled torces qh

Polrnlia/

E~rgg,

S/aIiMI/II IlIdtltrmlnule Btams

(Par/ VI

q., ... , then momen! M Ixl in any sedion 01 lhe beam is a linear
fundion 01 all lhese laclors:
M(x)=u,P+a.p.+ ... +I.>,M,+I.>,M.+
+c,q, +t.q.
(18.24)
Coefficients 0" a., .. " b" b., ... , e" e,o
. are funclions af Ihe
beam span, Ihe dislances 01 (he points of appBcajioll of tiJe various
forces and moments lrom Ihe supporls, and Ihe abscissa x uf {he sed ion
in whieh the bending nloment is required lo be calculated. Suppose
(a)

I
t:

AIIIII!III~"11111118

(~}A~
~

~.r_

Pig, 265

we hav' (O find Ihe deneclioll ollhe point of application ollorce P,.

Then (lJ~(x)
, =a" because in Ihis difIcreniiation p., p.o. ., M" M"

.. , 1/" q.,
'0 a" a. ' .. , /.tI, b" ... , eh e. o are all constant
quantities. However, a, may he- laken as Ihe numerical value of moment
M in 3n arbitrary St'Clion due lo a unit force, Le. P,= 1: it is evidenl
Ihat by putting P,= I 3nd equaling aH other forces lo zero in equation
(J8.24) we gel M=a,.
Fa... example, lor Ihe beam shown in Fig. 255(a) lhe bendin mamen!
js:

,<'
M t) ... -Px-T

The derivalive ~ --x, whidi lS also (hee~pression of the bend

ing momenl for Ihe beal\1, il we load it by a un! force acting al poin
S-Ihe point of appl ication of force P (Fig. 255 (b)-in Ihe same dir('(;:
tion,
Similarly, the derivaUve of M Ix) w.r.1. force eouple M, is numeri
call}" equal lo Ihe bcnding moment due lo a unil force couplc acting
in lhe same sed ion as M,.
Hence lhe calculalion 01 derivatives of a bending moment may be
replaced by the ealculalion o/ lhe b('nding moment due lo a unit force.
\Ve shall denote such Illoments by M'.
TlIUS, lo determine displacemenl {) (deftection or angle 01 rolalion)
01 nn arhitrary section, irrt'spedi\Oe 01 wl1ether Ihe eorresponding force
acts in lhis socHon or nol, we I"USt wrile down lhe expressions lor Ihe
bending momenl M (x) due to tiJe given load (lI'e shall denote it simply

eh /81

Polmlio/ EMrW 111 Dtlnmilli"l DlrplQD/_"11

'"

by M) Dnd ror M' due lo a corresponding unit ror~ 8cling in the sec
tion in 'A1Jich displaN!menl 6 is rtquired lo ~ found, Then Ihis displa<:tmtnl ....m be ginm by lh", formul~

6~S~dx

"

(18.25)

This formula WlIS firsllkrivet! by J. C. "1Ix""el1 in 1864 and appHed

in deslgn practice by O. Mohr In 1874.
Ir in formula (18.25) we wanllo define de!ledion lIS 6, Ihen mornrot
ror a unit concenlraled force applied in Ihe
section where lhe deneclion is rcquired. If. hOll'e\'ef, lI'e lI'anl to calculale he angle or ralallon. Ihen a unl moment should be applied.
For Ihe example considered in Fig. 265 we have:

M' should be calculHle<l

qx'

M--Px-T
\f'", -1 xx __ x

(Fig. 265(a))
(Fig. 265(b

The plus sign indicales lhal lhe dlreclioJl oi displacement coincides

""ilh the dirt'Clion or lhe unil force; a minus sien ",.ould indiclit lhe
oppClSite dlrection.
IIlhe bnm has lo ~ divided into number 01 porlions lo calculale
Ule bending momenl in a seclian, Ihen Ihe integral in formula (18.25)
will also break inlo a sum of Ihe respective intt'2tals.
106. Vereshchagin's Method

Pirlet and A. N. Vereshchagin and befort' them H.F.B. MiillerBres

lau proposed a simpllfication In calculaUons according lo formula
(18.25). As Ihe unit load is Llsually ether concenlrated fOfce or a
lorCfc couple (moment). the Mouiagram is ooundell by slraight Iines.
In such cases, (oc any shape 01 the bending mor~t diagram. inlegral
~ MMI can be calculated as foll~. Suppose the bending mo.aenl
diagram CFig. 266) is rf'p~nted by a curve. whereas the diagram for
MO is a straigt1t lineo The prodoct M dx may be considered as tht area
elrmeni d(j), ",-hich is waded on the bending moment diagram.
As the ordinate M"-=1" tan lI., the produd M dx MO-d(o) x jan lI..
HtrICI! integral ~ MAt' 1=lan lI. 1" d(o) rcpresents Ihe statle moment
01 Ihe tU. el the beoding IflOloent diagram abaut polnt A multiplled
by tan lI.. HO\\'evtr. Ihe slatic mament is equa\ lo Ihe lolal are w

Pc/(n/ial Enui'J. Slalical/!/ frn1elumina/e fJoa!7ls

[Parl VT

01 lhe bending momenl diagram mu1tiplied by (he distllncc

Ci;nlre 01 gravity Irom poinl A. Therefore

Xc

01 its

) MMdt={Oxc1.an~
But Xc tan o; is lhe ordinate M~ of the A-1diagram uuder Ihe centre
01 gravily of lhe benLling momenl diagram. Therelore

) MM~dx=(l)Mb
and Ihe required displacemenl is
, ~"'M~
- eJ

(1826)

Hence, in arder to delermine displacement ti, we musl calcula le area

01 Ihe bending Illomt>nt diagram, multiply il by ordinale M~: 01
(he una bentling momt>nt diagram under lhe cenire of gravily 01 area
(O, and divide il by lhe rigidit)' of lhe beam, EJ.

"'l

A~"""lff
(tJ)r-C
"i

Ae

"l,
r

l '

rr;:H1

I .. r

~, ""I "
I
'1

I
A'

........ f ............... ~--:l-/~

'"+-----t
~
,

,::.~
tz1.,
,
1
,

I -J-"-z
t

1//
,

,
I

L'::''''~~

~.
-"~

I~I

rTfTlTiji]f1
I

..
Id

:f
I

1'~::
\1'
~.

fig. 2tI6

fig, 267

Le! us determine by this method Ihe ngle 01 rotalion 01 secUon D

01 lhe beam shown in Fg. 267(a). The beam is loaded by a momenl M
acling at lhe end Bol lhe cani!ever AB. Tlle bending momenl dagram is shown in Fig. 267{b). Let us apply a uni! momenl in seclion D
in an arbtrary direction (Fig. 267(c)). Tlle bending momen! diagram
due lo lhe unit load is shown in Fig. 267(d). As M is zero in porlions
DC and CB, we are left with only one inlegral for portion AB.
Arca (,1 s equal to +Mf, and the ordinate of lhe M'-diagram under
Ihe centre of gravity of area (O is equal to +
Therelore the required

N,'

".

CI,. /61

angle of rotation OD is:

( . ) =+1IT]'
M"
D=EJ(+MI)

lile plus sign indicates lhal rot3tion Is in Ihe dlre<:lion of Ihe unil
moment, i.e. in !he clockwise direction.
107. Displaeemenls in Fralllu
let liS cakulate the angle of rolation O 01 secUon e aIld horizontal
displacement h. of poinl D of lhe lram(l shown in Fig. 268(a) with Ihe
help 01 Mohr's theorem.
........-- ZQ

'.
___l.

.r,

.,
r-i

r - - 23

-2t-

f-----l="'..i.

'

(,
lel us calculate Ihe reaetions and bending momenls (or aH !he three
states in Fig. 268(a). (b), ami (e), rcspectively;
(a) due to lhe given load:
M

H=O,

D=2<j=A,

Al
M,=+z.;x"

M,=+M,

M,=O

(b) due lo unit force:

H = 1, D= 1 _A. M= +x,'
(e) due lo unit momenl:

H~O,

D=.!.=A
2a

A-r.=a+x"

Mt=
+~
'~a'

H"_O
m
:i-,

Jl.n= +x.

Jl.l',~O

lhe delormations are;

(a) and (b)
A=

;J[f MJM~d.~+J MIM~dx+! M.M~d.~]

.[r

M
17 M,,dx + ~ M(a+x,)dx =rE
='f:l ~ 2<jxi

SlolilXllI~

PoaMliol fnergr.

InJ(lmnifl(1l~

8(01115

IPort VI

(a) and (<;)

O

~ i) [r M,MfdH SM,Mldx+ fM,Ml"']

) ,\.1 ~d 2Mo
=7!l~ ti,rIza X=3EI

lo solving he same problem by Vereshchagio's method we must plot

beoding momenl diagrams for all Ihe Ihree loading arrangements in

"

",-....;'.:r......l
, , f1.l-J:-
fl
! ________ J,
:--------1"',
,,
'

,,

--l,~

le)

"1

'"

,,

,,--<

Fig. 269

Fig, 268, The diagrams. which are showo lo Fig. 269(a), (6), and (e),
enable us lo determine Ihe fo!1owiog quanlitics:

(o},,,,,,Ma,

~).=Ma,

'!.
4
,,1<;1="3a,

1Il,=O

".
3
m~"=za

,l1 1,=;r ,

(.)

(b)
(e)

If there are Ihree 20nes or loadiog, formula (18,26) can be wriLten as

6= ~/(w,MCt+w.Mh+w.M::,)
The required displacements are:
'(
4
17 Ma'
a ='6
Ma 7' )
6.=7!J
Ma3"a+
r:J
I

2 Ml1.

e=17 Ma '3=;r El

 108. Ddlcttion 01 Beams Ot1e lo Sht'uing FOfCt'

'"

In eakulaling d~fOfmatiOfls we hay," considered only the bendlng

momen!. HO\\-'tver, shearing forces .!so cause defledion. The Russian

scienlist PraL I.G. Bllbnov was Ihe lirsl to determine lhe ddorm.lion

01 a beam by considering Ihe shearing ror~s.

Le! us consider a beam rigidly hed al olle end and loaded al lhe

other by a force P. Due lo shearing slrtsses lwo adjleco! seclions

a,bo and /l-b. (Fig. 270(a) S{'parate-d by a di~lance dx will wlrp.
Muimum dislortion wlll occur lIear lhe neulral 8lll$; elements local

,.

"

~
ir

,.

"J

,. ,

-,

", ="- .,, 'O;

, ",

,.

~i

Fil. 270

eG al lhe lop .nd bollom surfacts of lhe beam will not warp.
Thf. planes wil! occupy cerlain inlerme(hate positions (dolt~ li~
c,O,d, ano clJ.1J makmg en .ngle \'. wilh Ihe original (fig. 27O(b).
As in Ihls ClIS! Ihl" shearmg slressn are lhe same In all sections, lhey
will alllurn by lh(' same ane:le Yo ami due lo exclusive e!fed 01 shearing
slres.ses OCClIPY lhe posilion shown in Fig, 270(b); end B will 10wer
w.r.t. supporl A. The delor11lation due lo bending moment, which b
in the form 01 robtion 01 IIdjacenl secllons, is nol shown in Ihe ligurt.
Absolllte d<>neclion 01 Ihe second section W.f.lo Ihe first \\'iIl be equal
lo seg....enl 0,0;, i.e.
(18.27)
In Ihe general case. when he shearing force Q(x) is nol constanl bul
varies long lhe lenll.th 01 lhe beam. angle)lo wi1l aiso vary. However,
Ihe overall piclure oF delormalion wllI relnain unalfeded: only dVq
will be diITerenl for dilferent c1emenls ollenglh dx.
Absolutc del!ection 01 the second seclion w.r.\. Ihe lirst, lduol,
TIlay be ealculaled rom Ihe condilion lhat polential energy of strain
accumul.:ated in thl' elemenl o lenglh dx during shearing is equal lo
Ihe work of eKlernal rorces ading en he e!emen!: JUQ-dW,..
For lhe beam under con.\id<'ratlon Ihe ellernal lorces will be lhe
sheartng slra.ses (lho: shearing fo~ Q(x. If Ihe increasc in load and
delormalion ;$ gra.dual, lhtn (he \\'Ofk done by lhes.e lotces O\"ff a reta-

IPQtI Vi

ti\"e displacemenl IdYol is

dW

1'--fQ (.t>!dYol

(18_28)

As Ihe sbeating slresses are no! uniformly dislribuled o\er the sec:.
llon. we ha\'e lo take r:ourse lo Ihe melhod of difttrl"ntialion in ord
lo determine the potenlial energy accumulated by the beam due to
these sl~.
Lel us cut a smllll elemenl 01 dimensions d.t, dI, b(z) at a distante
x [rom lhe origin of roordinales and al a dislante z from Ihe neutral
axis (Fig. 27OCo) oul 01 a r~langular beam (or a !ream made 01 rec"
tangular beams). In addHion lo the normal slrE'S$(!s. the sides olthls
e1emcnt will also be subjteled lo shearing stress!:s
Q/x)s(.)

"l:=~

Far Ihis l'lement lhe polenlial energ, 01 sbl'ar will be elpr~ by

the formula
Ib(JJtdJI_-.!...."t'b( )d.[dz

:Ili{Z)CJi

2(;

Energy in the l'1l'menl c:l Itngl:h dx and height h will be

dU

Q-

S'2c:"l:'b( )t1zd..z:- fe --rZ

1 Q'ZlllxSS'(')d'

b"jZ)

Inlegraton is cartil!d out w.r.t. z. and the Iimi\.s of integral ion are
selecled so as lo caver Ihe \\.'hole section.
TIle above exprcssion may be roodified by multiplying anl! dlvidjng
il with lhe crossscclional area A:
dU

Q'/~dk

O- ~

A rS/z)d.

~Q'(x)dx

Ji J ~ C<2(')";I

(18.29)

where k is a dlmensionless nurnber which depends only upon Ihe shape

and size c4 lhe beam and 1$:

k-'S~
7'
blzJ
EquaUng lhe values el dUo and dWI"

.tQ2J~ dx ... {
Il>herelrom

\\l'

lI8.JO)
gel

Q (xl/ligo I

01. 181

The sign of defledion. may ~ c.Iettrmioed as follows. If the shearin

force Q{x) is posilive and Ihe yaxis is po5itive upwards. Ihen the relalive deflecliOJl dyo wi1l be negalive H we move Irom lhe lefthand
section lowarc.!s the right (Fig. 270 (b). ConsequenUy,

ItQ(z)
dyo = -u;rdx

{I 83
. [)

Tolal deileclion 01 aJlY secUon having abscissa x is oblained by inlegraling exprasion (18.31):

YQ=--5~d.t+Cq

(18.32)

Theconslanl oi inlegration Co depends upon lhe

Sioce Q(.r)-dM (x)/dx. v.-e have
-.t-M(.r) +C
Yo - -----rro

Iy~

al constraints.

(18.33)

l.e. the detlecllon of Ihe beam due lo Ihe shearing rorce rsdiredly proporlional to Ihe ordinRle 01 the benc.llng momenl diagram wilh Ihe
opposite sign; Ihe ordinales are measured from a definite axis of abscisSlS.

Constant k may be caJculaled for aH Iypes 01 sedions. For a reclan

guIar Sl.'Cllon

S(l)_~"(I_*).
Therefore
k_A

J1 -

A"j
[3

...

J-12'
~,I

S'(Z)d1=9 C(I_41
D(ll

fIi.Jo

A ... bh

b(z)=-b.
1

""

)d_'!
l

p>

Lel us use Ihe aboye resull in delermining Ihe deftedion of a beam

01 span l. fixed al iis leH end A and loaded at the free end B by a con
cenlraled force P. Assuming point A as Ihe origin oi coordinales. v."e
get:

M (x}--P{l-x)

and

yo_+ItP~4+co"'6P::';.r)+co

Al x=O lhe defleclion YA-O; therefore

may be wrHten as

Co=-~ Deftedlon Yo

""taximum del1ection occurs al poi ni B. l.e. al the end of the beam

(lI.here x-f):

Po/mI/al Enurl!J. Slaf/l1.l/!I Indllm1lJ1Il1.U 8twr15

Tolal defteclion 01 poin! 8 is:

PI)
6 PI
PI'(
""')
1- -m-(;l'A-m
I +5t10..t

As

,.

A - i2 for

Assuming

a rtd.ngular sttlion, lOe gel

pp (
",. ' )
f- -m
I +iliiJe

G equal to

loc melals llnd 20 roc wood.

\\'t-

oblain:

PI' ( 1 +"47'
"')
-m

(lor met:lls)

pp (
",)
f--w
J+6'jT

(for \\'ood)

f-

Thll$ we set Ihat aditionaJ denecllon due lo Ihe shearin leJ't;e depends
upon (';')'. Thererore in comparaliveJy sherl bealllS, l'SpeCially in

\\'OOd~

beams, il may .cquire a higt v.lue. For exampJt, i!

7-~'

then ror a ....'OOden beam 1+6~=I.3i5, j.t. dellection dIlE' lo IIw!

shearin loru is 37.5~. 01 Iht' delledion due lO the bending momen!.
JI should ~ note<! Ihal in a number el coursesk is taken lIS 1.5 and
nol as 1.2 (Ior a rectangular stttion). This result is obtained by as
.sumi" lhat thlO deOl'ttion or thl! beam due lo. shearing force depends
upon lhe shearing slrain al lhe neutrdJ surface, but this assumplion
15 erroneous.
11 shoold be further noled hat the dispJacements described above
will nol occur Ol/U sorne length near thlO fixetl end (Flg. 2iO), bul lhis
reduces Ihe cakulated dcneclion of (he bellm by a ver)" small amoun!.

CHAI'TER "

Statically Indeterminate Beallls

109. fundamental

Concepb

Unlil no..... \1o"e have b(!('n considNing only slatically determinate

beams, in \1o-hich the Ihret' supporl reacllons can be de(efmined [rom
equalionsof equilibriu m. Veer olten the conditions in which lhe struc
ture ...."Orks require Ihat the number r:J supporl5 be jnc~ased; Ihe bums
in Ihe:se cases tKocome staliroJly lIfk(erm"uJ~.
For eUlnple. lo decrease the spao 01 a simpl), supporled bl'am
(Fie. 27Ila)J, \\'t- mar pul Dn additiona.1 support lit t~ middle

a..

1'1

SluliCll!l/(/I ftWl(fmlNJk &amI

JO'

(Fig. 271(b)); lo reduce (he dtnectioll DI tht beam rigidly fixtd al ene
end (Fig. Z72(a)). we ma)' prop ils rree end (Fil. 272lb.
The crC/S5-section.1 dimensions 01 Ihese beall1$. as 01 the beallls dis
CllUl'd earUer. are oblained by plolting lhe shearin rorce amI bmdin
moment t1iagnms (obvioull)' arter delermining the support reaclions)

,,

,
,

;;

(~

;;

,,;;

")
F,:.

:m

A
A

,~

8
(')

'1

(1)

:;t.

Fill 272

In all such cases Ihe numbet of possible sllpporl reactions ~ceeds

Iht: nllmber uf sta(c equ.tions.
[flhe number oIsupport reactions ('xceeds Ihe numbef o( slatic t'QIlI
lions by one, Ule beam is known as singkdegrH s1nllcally indl'll'rminau.
If lhe dilference is greater. Ihe beam becOllle5 slatically indtll'rmirwfC,' by
two delTS, tllr degrm .nd 50 on. In this book \\'e have wnsideced
mostly singledegree sl.ticall)' lndelermmate beams and also mullipled~rt'f' slaticall)' intleierminate continllOllS beams.
The basic melhod emplor~ for removing Iht sl.tic indelerminacy
oF bean1S was proposed b)' C.-L.-". Navier in 1826 antl is based
upon Inlegralioo 01 lhe dill"erenlial equationof Ihe dellecled beam axis.
This melhod will be discussed in tht nexl section.
, 110. R,emO\'ing Statlc

the

Indeterminacy Vla
Dlnerenllill Equlllon 01 the Oeflecled

Beam Altis

lf one hin~ed support Is added lo a slatically delerminale bearn, il

mllkes the b~am single.degree statically indelerrnJnale and simulla.
neollslv creates Olle new condilion foc dtlermining Ihe unknowns:
Ihe dehection uf Ihe beam at Ihe Sllpport is equal lo zero. Therf'fore,
when Ihe dilferential equation of the defletft'd beam axis is mlegraled
Iwice. lhe oVNall number of equations and unknowns is found lo be
equal.
Le:! us consider the beam shoYo'n in Fig. 273. Tlle slatic equations lar
ltw! beam are: HA=O (1). A+8=qf (2): and BI-q"7+MA-O (3).
Onc reatfion is immedialel)' knoo'll. We .are leH wilh 1v.'1) equalions,
(21 and (3). and Ihree unknO\m supporl reaclions: A, 8, Ind M A
!he beam is thus singledegree statically lndelerminate.

"

353

PDk,,/" EtWfD' S/Q./'adIV Indtf~fIJMI~

&tvnr

[Part VI

~t \JI now IloTile Ihe dilftrenlial equllion of Ihe deflected bEoam Ixis
aJ1d ntevale iI Iwlce;

"
EJy ~8x-qT
,

(19.1)

x'

E/U =B2-q~+C

(19.2)

8x"
E JY""T-7r+
Cx

(19.3)

.x

+D

On account of C and D he number of unknowns has increlSed lo

five, bul now Ihe IVlQ sl.lic equaliOfls lre supplemtnltd by thm <:onstraint conditlons; (1) v-=O 11.1'-0, (2) y'=O al x-l, and (3) y-O 1I

x-l.

11 fflSues rrom (1) thlt D-o. Condillons (2) and (3) when !ubslituled
into equalioos (19.2) and (19.3), respecli\ely. givt

" '"

T-T+C = O

(19.4)

~-~+CI-O

(19.5)

Dividing (19.5) by 1 and subtracling (19.5) from (19.4)

B"

qt'

81'

+'"

T-"5-T 'N-

From Ihis equalion \lo'e find

3

B ""'8QI

(19.6)

From Ihe equation d silllks (2) \\'t find A=-}q/. Next we determine
froro equalion (3) the momen! in the rigidly lixed eod, MA-q~'.
The fael that' Ihe support reactions are posij[ve indicates Ihat their
direcllons shown in FJg. 273 are eorrect.
Substiluting B in expre:s.sion (19.4). \Ve tibIa in
3

(t

(1

qlI

C-- 8 QI2'+Qi"""'-48

'"

CII. 19}

Now, substituling 8 and

In equalions (19.2) .nd (19.3)
.6.nal equalions lar angles of rolatjon and defteclions;

'iI.'e

gel the

"-q6"-q
"p
EJ !J"
""j'&qx

(19.7)

3
r qJl..
EJII-aqx'l-q :24-4ij"

(19.8)

Having determine<! support readions 8, A, .nd M", we can now

plot the bending moment and shearing force diagr.1l1S by Ihe usual
method.
Wlth Ihe help 01 equalions (19.7) and (19.8) \Ve can determine the
angle or rotation and vertical displacement 01 an arbitrar}' secUon of
lhe beam in Ihe same manner as iar slalicatly ~eterminate bcams.
If {he beam has a number 01 dilferently loaded zones. the stalic Jnde
terminacy may be removed either by using Ihe melhod or cquaHn~
lhe nlegration conslanls (Clebsch's mdhod, 85) or by the general
equalions of lhe melhod or inUial para~lers ( 86).

111. Concepts of Redundanl Unknown .nd

Beam

Alter comidef"ing Ihe beam sholl,'n in Fig. 273 11,'( eslablished Ihat
(he number of equations of statics was one les! than the number ollhe
unkJ\Ol\'(I support readioll5. One. or the M'actions is a supedlool1S or,
as it ls sometimes called, a ~redundanl~ unknown. lhis term has takm
deep rools in lechnicallileralure allhougillt can be applied only wlth
cert.in rescrvations. Obviously, lhe extra reaction and Ihe corresponding supporl conslralnl are redundanl only from Ihe poinl 01 view
of lheir necessit)' in Ihe equllibrium or lhc beam as one rigid body.
From lhe enginetr's poinl or view in 3 numbl!r of Clses Ihl'extr3 supo
porl s nol redundant bul is actually a helplul tool in designing
slruclures.
In a number oi methods employed ror removing slat ie indeterminacy
01 beams, we write down conditions expressing Ihe compatibility of
displacements in lhal seclion, whcre Ihe ~redundanl~ readion]s acting.
These conditions along wilh lhe usual equalions 01 slatks enable lIS
lo determine al! lhe unknown supporl reaclions.
In 110 lor lhe beam shO'\llTl in Fig. 273 wt had 1....'0 equalions of
statks 101' detesmining Ihree unknown support reaclions A, B. and M".
Any 01 lhe three can be lakm as the redundant readion. Lel lIS choose
!he reaclion Di supporl 8 as redundan!. In ihis case .....e can arglM!' Ihat
lhe iven beam is oblained 110m the slatically ddumjnale beam AS
wilh end A rigidly lixed (FiC. 274); end 8 is I,er propped up by an
additiorlal support.
lhe statically determinate beam oblained Irom lhe stalk.ally indeterminale beam by removing the ~redund&ntM constr.int is known 3j lhe

[P~"

VI

~ bewn. By ulecling one of Ihe reac(iollS as rtdundanl '....e al lhe

same lime seled the base btam.
Ltt l.I:!i nO'N Ir)' to transform lhe base ~alU (Fig. 2(4) nlo a bum
whkh is completely indentkal lo Ihe given statkally ndelerIDlna!e
~am (Fig. 213). For Ihis wc load lhe base ~am wlth lhe distribuled
lorce q and apply a kredundanl rucHon 8 al ils end iJ (Fig. 275).
M

,If.------,
Fi,. 274

However, Ihis is not sullic:itJIt. In the btam shown in Fig. 275, poinl
8 may mo\'t verlic:ally under lhe adion 01 rorces q and 8. 9<lIereas
in the actual slalkall)' lmktermin.ate beam (Fig. 273) point B dotsnol
hay! Ihis Irtedom: il mus! remain altachtd lo lhe supporlil'.g hllie.
Therclore, to nl.ke figs. 273 and m Idenlkal, \\'t musi add lhe condition th.t the delleclion al poinl 8 due to forccsq ;'Jnd 8 musi bt- lelO:

f,.-O

(19.9)

This is Ihe additional cquation which enables us lo determine reacllon B. Il represents lhe conllitlon of jolnl lIeformation as appJied
to lhis case: end 8 does nol ddach from (he supporl. This 1:IddillonaJ
t<juation can be salved by a number of me!hods.

112. Method oJ Comparlson of Displacemenls

Equalion (19.9) 1,,=0, whkh. was obtaintd in 111 and \\'hieh
expres.ses lhe condition 01 ;oint deformalion. na)' be salvtd as lollo"'.s.
The tolal lIeftec:lion of point 8 of lhe base bttlm due lo rorces q and
8 is malle up of
deilec:tions: f,.. due lo force q and f.. due lo
force 8. Therefore

' ' 'O

1,.-1,.,+11111=0

(l9.10)

We have lo caleulale Ihege defleclions. Flrslload Ihe base beam only

by force q (Fig. 276(11)). lhe delledion 01 poinl B will be

,1'

f~--m
let us load Ihe base be.1lm b~' ~redund.1lnl" reacUon B (Fig. 276(6.
The de8cclion al poinl B in this case wi1l ~

la.- +m
'"

'"

Sta/iroJIN ItIdilk,mwle 8NMJ

Substituling these values in equalion 09.10) ....'e gei

~+BP
-W
m= O

whefefrom B= ~/ . I.t'. Ihe sanM! as ob!all\ed urlier in 110 (19.6).

In lhis IDl!lhod I...e 6rst allow lhe base beam lO delorm under lotte
q. antl Ihen 5elecl a lof'C'e B whkh relUrns poinl B lo its original poIii.
lion. ThIU \lIe Sl'lect Ihe unk~'n reaclion B $\leh Ihal the defteclions

~ 1III!IlIl!lI!lll!!l!l!II!!II!~

{I)

1o
o

1:

;nn.....

.4~lDJlllllr! 11111II 116. r

~_~_

'1

~!I

i"'lllll:;\jJ..

,,,

"~, -""";'.t
: '"
{----...I

.. -1"-'
........
1,.

"
"

l.

.-.l.....
, ,

wL:=--=*_1

rf

4f,~1
-,J' I

1
1
,

I
I

."/

l-lr--:.
FOl. Z17

due lo q and B neutrallzt each olheT. lbis method is known as Ihe

n~thod

ot comparlson

of disp/aamellfs.

11le remaining reBdions are (see 110)

'1/

A-S T

qll

MA,""s

The bending momenl expression is obtained by considering lhe righl.

hBnd side ol he beam (Fig. 275) and subsliluting Ihe value 01 B cal
culated above (19.6);
3qI
'1."
q., ("
M=Tx-T"'"T
---x )

5hearing fo:ce Q is expressed by the formula

Q- -B+qx=-q (~-x)
lbe bending moment and shearing force diagrams are 500110'11 In

Fa. '171. The seclion 01 maximum bending momenl corresponds lo

\P4V1 VI

absdssa

whith may be oblained from Ihe follO'Wine relalion:

dM

7,f=O.

x.-

whertrrom
ment diagram

Le.

Jql

T-qx.... O

~. lhe corresponding ordlnale 01 lhe bendin mo

i~

3q131

ett

M_1-=M~'-TT-T6i=

+mql'

113. Appllcatlon 01 lhe Thcorems of Culi21illllO

and Mohr and VereslKhagin's Melhod
rhe indeterminacy of Ihe beam discussed in 110-112 enn also

be T('mond by Casllgliano's thoorem ( 101).

rhe ~tedundanl~ reaclion 8 (Fig. 278(0) is replaced by a redundant
unkl10wn force 8, which aels on the statically delerminale beam A8
(Fig. m(b)) along with lhe gi\'ef!
force q.
By dilferenliating !he expression

(~I;'''''''''''"~

!lA ~

(4}

(~J.

~.

t'I
Flg. 278

en~gy

for polential

w.r.l. 8 and

equaling the deftedion lB thus ob

lained lo :tero we may write cqua
Iion (19.9) as follows:

M Au)A!

~ET1ii-

(19.11)

We now have lo calculate M and

:and integrale wHhin the approprlate limHs
9
M-+Bx- qx' , <lAl
"Jlj=x (1.12)

We assume Ihallhe beam has a uniform ~tion alt along ils Itnglh;
afler dividing b~' El equation (19.11) may be writtm as

,
/(8X-';')x""-0

(19.13)

whererrom

8 .. 31ft

(19.6)

Afltr Ihis Ihe solution is the same as in lhe method of displacellltnt com-

parisOn.

Ch. 191

Sralirnily JnMlttminufe Beams

Alter Ihe indelerminacy of lhe beam has been removed. displacemenls

in statica1Jy indetermnate beams are delermined ln a manner eJla<:lly
similar to lhal used for slalically determinate beams. If ao addilional
force has lo be applied for determining displacemenls ( 103). Ihe lorce
should be assumed to act on lhe base beam. Under Ihese drcumstances
lhe additional force only aliecls Ihe main rcaclions and lhe redundanl
reacUan mus! be regarded as an active force, as befare.

Fig. 280

TI the same problem (Fig. 273) is solved by Mohr's mclhod, Ihen in

additioT! lo Ihe first stale when it is loaded by lhe given lorces and lhe
redundan! unknown force (Fig. 279(0 we musl show lhe beam in lhe
second state lo be loaded by force po (Fig. 279(b)). Using lhe nolalions
of Fig. Z19, we oblain

"

M=Bx-qz.

MO=x

(19.14)

Le. the same as obtained by applying Casliglano's theorem.

When solving Ihe same problem by Vereshchagin's melhod, In addltion lo Ihe two loading diagrams Ilsed above (Fig. 280(a) and (b)
we must also plot bending momenl diagrllms clue lo lorceq (~ig. 280(c),
force 8 (Fig. 280(d and lorce J'9-1 (Fig. 280(t).

'54
The arNS 01 the bending mornenl diagrams are:

for

r~

q:

lar force 8:

I q/'
qt*
4lq~-JTf--T

B/'

r,)'='fB1Xf=T

The COl'l'e$ponding ordinales of the !M:'nlling momen! diagram oC unlt

force are:

mulliplicalion fador for w,:

.M~_~

mulliplication lador lar

M~",,~

(IR:

Defteclion af painl 8 is:

I (B/'Zl ql"3/) O
f s-u
TT-6'T-

whereirom

B=t;ql
Alter Ihis Ihe solution is the same M l'lplaint'd in 110 nd 112.

114. Solution 01 a SImple Statically

Indetermlnate Fume
Plol lhe bending IIIOment diagrarn lor the gh'ffl frame (Fig. 281).
The eleme1lLs 01 Ihe Ir'll)t have uniform rigidil~. whicb i$ constant

1~~-=1

,i
I

';Pc+-+---'

3long Iheir lenglb. Denoting lhe rtactioroS b)" A. H. M A and

"''file the lollowing equalions Df slalics:
H=P. A+C",O. Po.-Ca-MA"",O

e,

Il.~

There is onl' rW:undant unknown; lel Ibis be metjan C. The bm

beilm loaded wilh the force P and the redundant unknov.n is shown
in Fig. 282.

Ch. /9J

$talitall" /ndttum{Mlc Bmms

'"

Le( liS soh'e the problern by applying Casligliano's lheorem. In

Ihe equation of joint delormation

au

f,""y=O
polenlial energy U is lhe 5um oflhe en<'rgies of Ihe first portion, C8.
and lhe second portlon, BA. Conse(juenll)". equalion f,=O can be
a_ _
wriUen as
:

...!...\'M
~d
E'~ liJC x

+--h5 M,~dx=O

The moment.., 3nd their derivatives

are:
AI1"",,+Cx,.

aM,
ae;=x,

M.= +Ca-Px"

Q,'./,
.,,-_

I==='J
.Pa

+a

f'g_ 283

Substiluting (hese \'91ues in (he equation 01 joinl deformalion, we gel

~ Cx~dx+ ~ (Ca-Px,) adx=O

"

Alter integtating we gel

C,c'+
3

eti'_ T
Pa' -o c- 3 P
-'
-"8

The bending momenls are: in (he ~rst portion

M,= {Px,

and in

the s'Cond portion M. = Pa-Px,. The bending moment diagram

is shown in Fig. 283.
In solving the above problem by Vereshchagin's method \\fe depict
Iwo slales 01 ]oading 01 the beam: wHh Ihe given orces and reaclion
e (Fig. 284 (a aclng on 'he beam. and wilh a unil rorce acting in
the direction or rcac(ion C IFig. 284 (d)). Next VOl" plot (he bending
momenl diagrams M 3nd M". Areas of the bending moment diagrams
(fig. 284 (u) and ic)) lar the given lood are:
1

C<1'

lIl'=T Caxa =+T

{,);=+Caxa=Ca'

and

I
Po'
ro:=-2"Paxa=-T

(P<lr/ YI

tr

r'~,~"
,
- -~'
-i---~'r'-)'
"
.

-~----a

--

{#}

(bJ

_ __

p,
(cJ
Fl( 284

(e)

The ordinales 01 Ihe unil bending momen! diagrams corresponding

lo Ihe centres 01 gravil)' 01 lhe bending momenl diagrams for lhe given
loads are (Fig. 284 (b) and (e)):

M~,~+rD,

Ml:i.=+a.

M~._+a

The condilion 01 joinl deformalion (after Ia<:toring oul Ei) is:

C<l' Z
Pa'

TTc+C/l"a-T D - O

""iltrelrom C='-P, 1I.1Iich is lhe result oblained earlier by applymg

Castigliano's theorem.

115. Analysis of Continuout Bums

or

From a praclkal point 01 view a ver)' importanl category indelerinmina!e bealTlS are the cortlruwus ~s, v..hich lie on a number
lermediate supporb to which they are hinged. The ends of such b(>ams
may be l'ither hinged or rigidly fixed. Lel us lirst diSoCuss a case when

or

lhe beam has hinged suppor\s. In conlim:ous beams one 01 Ihe end supo
moving. The
poris is usually lixed whereas aH olhers are capable
numbering 01 supporls and spans will be lrom leH to riht, the eJllremt
leh supporl wil1 be denoted by O and lhe extreme lel! span by J.
Lengths o the spans .....i!I be denoled by leller 1 wHh lhe numbel' 01 lhe
corresponding span as a subscript. We shall assuU\t Ihal Ihe beanr is
or uniform section 3nd COIUHIuently ils rigidily Ei is comlaot. Fig'
ure 285 shows 3 oonlinuous beam wilh appropriate oolalions. and
,Iso lhe support r{'aclions. 11 can be easily seen lhal the number or

or

c/. 19J

Sla/icallll "delermiflak

B~am&

'"

redundant supporl reactions ls equa] to the nllmber of intermediate

supporls.
lf we were lo follow lhe melhod discussed aboye. \Ve \Vould l..ke lhe
reaelions 01 Ihe inlermediate supporls as redundant unknowns and a
beam simply supporled al points O and 11+2 as lhe base bellm. Addi
Iional equalions would be obtained by equaling lo zero ihe dellections
of lhe polnts of inlermetiiale supporls 01 lile base beam. However, there
is a simpler and mOfe popular melhod whieh makes use of a differenl
type 01 base beam and redundant unknowns; in Ihis melhod Ihere are
nol more lhan (hree unknowns in eaeh equalion.
Selection of Ihe redundan! unkno\\'ns and base beam is eloscly intcrllnked. The slalieally delerminate base beam js obtained rroro the
~f!lll~'nmIlIll9
slalcally indetermnate beam by
removing conslraints lhat are Ihe M A
~jlllllllllllll!tIflc
4
redundani unknowns.
""'".J;jf.i
"'IJl.
The problem can also bl! approaj i
ched in a differenl manner. Conver!
'::-_L,~:IJilIm'lnnnm~'
by sorne melhod lhe slaliealJy in- (b) AS
9
~IIItIII!!lIl1lmlC
determnate beam into a statieally.fifW
;,Q:
determinate beam and study which:
i
j
of lhe reaclions and conslraints
1':-...,H,':;t,~'
must be removed lo aehieve this. (e) A'
~"E JUOIIIIIIIIIII1110J1t
These reactions will conslitute Ihe
:4 7"
~
redundanl unkno\\!TIs in the stati
callv indeterminate beam.
F'g. 2116
Thus, in Ihe lwo-span conlinuous
beam (Fig. 286(a)), the reaction
or intermediate supporl B may be takl"n as the redundanl unknown.
Then lhe base bearn \Viii be a beam simply supporled at points A
ami C; the beam can, hO\\'ever, be made slalically determiQate by in
trodudion or a hinge al poinl D (Fig. 286(b). The base beam system
\ViII eornisl or cantilever CBD and suspended beam AD. By inlrodue
ing a hinge IVe mpose lhe eondilion Ihal Ihe bending momenl and
hrnce the normal slresses in seclion D should be zero. Thus, when \Ve
eonsider the base beam system we aclually equate lo zero the normal
slresses in sed ion D ading from Ihe le!t porlion on Ihe right and vke
versa. These slresses glve resultan! moments equal in magnilude to
the bending moment in secton D. These momenls rellpplied to Ihe
base beam are shown in Fig. 286 (c).
While translorming our slatkaJly indetermnate beam into stali
eally delerminate by introducing hinge D, we selecl Ihe bending moment in section D as Ihe redundanl unknown nslead or one oi the supo
port reeUons.
Poinl D may be selccted arbilrarily. However, lIJe compulalions
are simplified eonsiderably if we seled point D in lhe sectiQn 01 the

c-__

-----l

IjImIlJ'nmmi,'

'"

beam jusi above the inlermediale support. poio! B, i.e. jf

IP",t VI
\\1.'

consJder

lhe momen!;tl support 8 as he redundant unkoov,n. Now {he base beam

syslem will consist of two simpl)' supporle<l beams hinged u polnts
A, B. and"C .ml h3ving;l conllOOr'l support at poin! B.
This precise!y is 110\1.' the base ~am s)"s!em is selec:led in c:onlinuous
beams. The bMding momen!! M .. M ..... , M._" Al", M"", .1
lhe intermedlale sllpporls are laken as lhe redundanl unknowns.

5uth a sel~lion ollhe redundan! unknowns simplilits he equalions

from which lhe rormer are cRlclIlated. The equalions rnay be written
in general form wilh Ihe help 01 the theorem of lhree momen!!.

116. The Theorem ol Thru Momenll

To derive lhe Iheorem of Ihree moments Jet lIS consider a ronlinuous

beam having a number- o Sp;l115 of dilJerent lengUll!. 1,.

f .

elc., and

loaded by vertical orces acting arbitr;:lrily fFig. 287(11). Lel us lirsl

.silo\\.' 811 Ihe reaclions ~:hk:h m:JY OttUr in Ihis case. From the equilib,ium of Ihe be:Jm it 15 l'\'idenl Ihal fhe horizonlal reaction H.-O.

The base bum (Fig. 287(b 15 oblained by inlroduc:ing hinges at .11

lhe inlermediale supporls. Then Ihe ~undant unknowns are lhe bend
ing momenls M" M" elt.. acting at the intermediate supporls. Momenls al lile end supporls musl be zero. Let lIS load lhe base beam by
Iheexternal forces and lhe moments acting al the supporls (fig. 287 (el).
As Ihe drecllon of supporl momenls IS not known, \\le consider loem
posiUve. Artcr Ihe solution is compleled Iht sign of Ihe result will
show whelher Ihe as.sumed dir~IJon i5 corred or nol.
fhe nexl slep is lo write down toe condilion which imposes Ihe same
reslriclions on Ihe derormation of lhe base beam as are presenl In lhe
conlinuous beam. In Ihe base beam the spans on bolh sides or tile IIlh
hinge wbich separates Ihem may rolale (Fil;:. 288) due to lhe exlemal
load independent of eath olher. let lIS denote by &~ the angle 01 rolalion of the span to lhe left al Ihe nth hinge, and by O; the angle al
rolalion of lhe span to lhe righl oIlhe nth hinge. These possible anilles
al rolation of 1....' 0 adjacenl SP8ns are shown in Fig. 288. In a COl'll!nuous

CII. 191

S/Q/iMlJII

IrukJum;""t~

1ham&

beam bolh aedlGM coineide and limply repreenl lila liiidts of the seme
sedion. Thereiore, the condition 01 joint deiormation rnsy be wrillen

"

e~-8~

... o

(19.15)

This is the condiUon whicn musl be salisfied by adjacenl spans al

support 1I of the base beam 1oade<! by Ihe externa! forces and support
moments. Such a condilion may be writlen lor all intermf!diate supports anct, ccoseq\lenfly, the number of additional equations Iha! we
obtain s equal lo the number al re
dundanl unknowns.
Let u:; take an example jo eluc.
dale how condHion (19.15) can b(!
l'xpressed malhelllatically. Consid<:r
a Iwo-span con!inuolls beam (Fig.
289 (a) loaded by different distri
buled [orce q. aluf q" ading on
Ihe !\\'o spans.
The base beam loadcd only by
the exlernal [orces is shown in Fig.
289 (b). ForclarHy Ihe lwoadjacenl
spans have been mown slightly se
paraled al supj)(Irt 1; aetually, hin
ges l' and J' ooincide.
60th sides 01 secUon 1 of he supFig. 288
port willlum as shown in Ihe diagramo The deforrnaUons mU51 be the S3me in a conlinuous beam; Ibis
can be achievt'd by loading the base beam by a negative supporl momenl MI (Fig. 289 (c) of such magnitude that the deformations become
equal. It follows boro the aboye discussion Ihat Ihe deformations
will be equal only when lhe !ollowing condilion is salislied:
(19.15')
Relurning lo Ihe analysis 01 statieally ndeterminate beams by
sIra in comparison and considering Fig. 287, we must expan<1 equalion
(19.15) by ealculaling lhe deforrnalions involved in il.
In the base beam the angles 01 rohlion at supporl rl depend only upon
the delormajion 01 two adjacenl spans 1" and 1" .. ,_ Let us solale these
n\'o spans together 'Vilh the lor<:es -acting on them -(Fig. 290). Span
1" ;s acled upon by Ihe external rorces applied lo it as well as support
-mornents M,,_{ and M". and span lHl is acted upon by support momenls M" and M H , in addHion lo Ihe external lorces applied to il.
For darity Ihe Iwo adjacent spans nave been sho\Vn slightly separated
at supporl n; aclually, binges n' and n' coincide.
13_3310

""We shall dtlermine

IP.v' VI

e~ and e; by lhe graph.na1rlic rnelhod. The

Iiclilious beam:s. shown below their repective spans, 2re alw hinged.
The fidilious load of lhe Idt span is made up 01:
(a) lhe bend!ng lIlomtnl diagram of lhe nltrn.1 torces, oblained
by mulliplying load arta w~ with the distantt o. of i1s emtre 01 gra

ti!

"

~:llI!lljllllllllltJIlni!fl'!i!ij" lIilli\li!illlf(mlll i![( !Ullttiltll.E

-1,
/,
.;
,l'

'"~IIIi""""IIi~
I,

,, - - - - - ;"

t ,'.

11

",:~llllll!lflll!~l)O@!jli!!ijjill~
~'l{

FI,.

2Bl:I

vity from the leH support (151~ bendfll mommt diagrl!m is posilivt.
Ihe load ordinales are dra\\lI wilh lUTOIl'S pointing \'trtically up,,'.rds:

II Ihe ordinales d Ihe bending momenl dilgrlm are negalive, area

is used in calculalions wilh a minus sign):

~I.

"~'F'] ""IIIIIIIIIIII$
~f"!1

-.-1..,

1""--;"'111.1'
t1./

.<;

-:--i .

~l
11",:-1""1

'6f

11

>:

"< ,.,
(b) he triangular bending mommt diaram from posiUve support

momeol Al._,;
(c) lhe triangular bending moment diagram from positi\'t supporl

mamen!

M~.

The righlhalld 6diUous beaw cWTespor1din lo span 1.... i.s aete<!

upon b)' lhe following force$:

CI,.

I~I

(a) tlle !lending moment diagram 01 Ihe e:{ternal 10rce6, oblainoo

by mv1tiplyin,: loal! area "1".1 wilh Ihe distance b H / 01 its centre 01
gravilY Irom (he nghl supporl;
(b) Ihe triangular bending moment dagram Irom posilive support
momenl M,,:
(e) the Ifiangular bending momenl diagram Irom posilive supporl
momenl M"."
The angle 01 rolaUon 01 seclion TI' is equal lo Ihe shearing raree 01
the !idilious beam in {hs seclon divided by {he rigidity or the beam:

Q;

9',,= EJ

lhe shearing force at Ihe support is equal lo Ihe supporl rtacUon R~

01 the fictitious bearn.
Lel liS ea!culll\e this reaeUon. Load area M" is distributed bel""l'rm
the supports 01 the ettious beam as in a lever arrangement, exerling
al support n'. The Iriangular load wilh Ihe maximurn
a force 01 cu"
ordinate M" gives a readion al the suppor{ whieh is Iwothirds of ils
total value, \\'hereas the Iriangular load wilh tI]e ordinate M".,
glves a reaction which is onelhird of lis lolat valul". Hence
R'
a,,+21 M {
11 M I

7;

n-m"T,;' 32 ""+32 "-,,.

"'" m"

7; +yM"r,,+ ~ M"_,l,,

lhe fidilious shearing forCl

posilive sign:

q. is equal

to lhis feaellon laken with a

Q~=R~

1111" angle 01 rolalion

e~ = ~~

e;,
=

is:

ij;J (6ctI"~+2M,,I .. + M._,I,.)

R; lar Ihe righl span:
+ '31 M"J.. + 6'
1 '11
I
"H,,+I

In a similar manner \Ve oblain reaelion

R",,-(0)"+;1,,+1
b".,

f(

11le- shearing lorce in Ihis case is equal lo lhe sUJlport reacUon taken
wilrJ a negaUve sign:
Q~=-R~

lile angle or rotal ion

a~ ... _
D'

a~

is:

W(6W"., ~::: + 2Mi,.+I+ M,,+,f,.+l)

Polt"l/al eflUiY. Slatically

5ubstlluting Ihe values 01 e~ and

eelting out 6EJ, we obtain:

(6w,'7;+2M"/,,+M H

/,,

IfllklUllllllllf~

e~

8eDm5

(P~rl

VI

in equalion (19.15) and can

)+( 6cu,,~1 i:~: -j-2M"IM1+AJ".. ,I,,~,)- O

"M"_,t,,+2M,, {I,,+ 1"~f)+M"-l-ll" .., =-6 (w:" + w~i"l::~') (19.16)

whkh is Ihe equalion o/ Uree momenfs.
We can write as many equalions of Ihis Iype as Ihl!' number 01 Inlermedlale supporls, i.e. as lhe number of unknown support moments.
Once Ihe supporl momenls are known Ihe problem becomes one of anaIyzing a number 01 simply supported beams loaded b)' lhe external
fOTCP.5 and Imown suppor! momenls.
The brackets on lhe righlhand side of equation (19.16) conlain Ihe
surn of ficlitious reaclions allhe middle supporl due fo Ihe given load
ading on Ihe adjoining spans. Consequt'ntly, Ihe theorem of lhree mo
menis (19.16) ma)' be formulaled in short as folloll"s:

M"_,1,,+2M,, (/"+1,,. ,) +M"H/"tl =-6R~

(19.17)

Here R~ represents the ficiilious readion or supporl (1'1) due lo bending momenl diagrams M (x) of Ihe glven load on Ihe two atljoining
spans.
117. An bample on Application al Ihe Theorem
of Three Momenls
Lel us eonsider a lhreespan continuous beam of uni[orm sed ion
which is loaded as shown in Fig. 291(a). 513rt numbering lhl' supports
Irom Iclt to rigil!. "fhe equalion of lhrce momcnts &hould be wrilten
lwice: lar supporls / and 2.

''+!LjP

ji

"!

_~ZRIIlolJJIta

m~
Ai'
ro--- /, -1-- lz--:;;:::-P,

lb) l i T

I
II

We shall eed lhe areas 01 Ihe bending mom!"nl diagrarns of exlernal

torces acting on Ihe base beam. Thesediagrarnsare stlown in Fig. 291(lJ).
Lel us wrlje the equation 01 lhrce rnomenls (19.17) for supporl/, ,\ssum

CIt. J91

in, 4=1, ....~ obta[n

.\I ,=JI.""O,
Ill".,-WJ -

Co>.-=Ill,_O

+ "2T'= +,r,
8'

, ,- ,.-'2
"

IPI"

The t"quation can b~ \\Titlen

3

2M, (t, + 1,) +M,l'=-l" Pe:

(19.18)

let us pass over to support 2 now. Assuming ,,_2, we gel

01,,=01,_+

M =M._O,

P;

21, ,1:
,t:
01,_61._ + TT""'+jj

l.,....,= ,'o

a._a._,!,

.-y

The 5e:Ond equation o threr moments is:

M,l,+2M,(I.+/,.... -jPI:-!f

(19.19)

The redundan! unknowns M, and M. can be calculaledbyoolving

equalions (19.18) alld (19.19).
lf we eonsider a particular case and a$Sume 1,,,,,1,=1.=1 and ql_P
(Fig. 292(4)), we obtaill
I
M'--T2fiPI

and

"
MJ""-noPt

Knowing the supporl momenls, ....: " can easily plol lhe bending mo-

Jr.ent diagram oI lhe oonlinuous beam ....' thout any addilional calcula
lions. To do this ~ fin{ draw Ihe bending mament diagrams of lhe
b~ beam syslem due to lhe given load (Fig. 292(b. TIle btndin:
montent diagrams due to support momellls M, and M. are shoY.'fl in
Fig. 292(c). lhe resultanl diagram wilh lhe characlerislic ordinat15
isshown in Fig. 292 (d). The bEonding momenl diagram may ,150 be plot.
11'11 without moving the sectlons aparl al {he support; in the gh'lm
problem this WI5 done ror thl:' sake of cJarily.
lhe support reactions may be calculaled for e8eh span separalelr.
lhe Iwo reactions delermine<! separalely for eKh inlermcdiate supo
port milY ttlfll be aJgebraically sUmm~d up.
The supporl reactions ca11 be compuled in another way. lhl:' sum
of Ihe RlOments of all (otees lo lhe I~ft 01 support I about lbe poin! 01
support is equated lo lhe support nl(l~t M.:
I

AlzoM'--I~'OPl

Ponlial

''4

EMr~.

Slil/ialllr InMlmn/1\llr &a/lu

Ip",1 VI

whkh impHes lhat

(the mima sign 1nt8lU that reaction A ads vertkall)' downwards).

We now oonsider lite t,,-o lefl spans. The sum or lhe lllOments of all

(6)

,~
I

Fil. 292

orees about poiot 2 is equated to he supporl mamen! M,:

A21

+ 8l-PxO.51 = M, = -

"

i2QPI

Alter subsliluling he value 01 A and culain c:ompulalions we obtain

8""'-~ P (direcled upwards). Ned ""e consider the extreme leH

span:

"

DI-O.5P/= M'=-I2OPI,

And, linally, ""e determine

3

e afler considering
7

D2l-"2Pl+CI-TPI-M,=-mP,

lhe 1\\"0 righl spans:

147

C"'T2fiP

0.. 191

Let

U$

finally check whelher tlle ca1culations \\"ffe correct:

~y_O,

A+B+C+D=2P
1I7

IH
P +mP == 2P
-,'10 P +rw + 12ll
~

We ~e Ihat lhey are. With alllhe readions ca!cu1ated Ihe shearing

force diagrams for aH Ihe spans can be plotled without an)' t1ifficulty
(Fig. m (d).
118. Colltinuous Beams wltn Cantlleven.
Beams wllh Rie1dly Fixed Ends
Tbe theorem of Ihree moments can be easily appli~ lo silualions
wben Ihe beam has cantlevers or when lhe entls (ooe ot both) of Ihe
beam ate rlgld1)' lixed.
Let us considcr a twospan beam with a canlilever (Fig. 293(4)).
whJch works under the loJlowing oontlitions:
I,-Gm.
1,_Sm,
a-2m,
q_4i1/m
The mommt Me ma)' be considrred as known and equallo lhe bend
lng mament in section e due lo the load acting on Ihe cantilever.
(~

f--.I/
I

(b)

(4

ill'I:Ariiili~
&

1I II

IJ

':

'~~t

..

r-

..J

4lJ.l.llllliID!~
. i1lilll[iSf.UI
8
!~. .

10

,.m.....~
,~
Q.8

."

Fil"_ 29J

Thus, we have Ihe following data to \\'Tite the equation of three

menls:

M._-M.=O,

11=1,
lhe tquation

trIO-

M._M,_?,

1,=0,

js:

(19.20)

Po/trIliu/ /::rlUI!l/. S/aficall /ndderminllle

'"

"(1+1)

I "

t'"

BtilJrlJ

Pafi VI

qa'I,_qf,
2

'

whererrom

M, = -3.86 ti m
When de!ermlning Ihe support re:lctions, it is rec:ommended lo
stud}' beam AB and llie beam with cantilever BCD separalely. rhe
bending momen! amI shearing force
diagrams are shown in Fig.293(b)
Qnd (e).
'
In arder lo explarn ho\\' lo solve
lhe probleOl when one end 01 lhe
beam IS rigidly Iixed, \\le mus! lirst

study lhe deslgo oi Ihe constraint

(Fig. 294).
rhe fLxed end lIlay be considerea
as propped {rom be19w al point A
and above al polnl B or vice \'ffsa.
Suth a conslruction cannol be cnn
sidere<! absolutcly rigid. beca use lhe
porlion or lenglh /, between poinis
A and B is capable af undergoing
delormaUon, and Ihe beam section

FiJ. 294

which coinci]es \Vilh Ihe Ironl lace

of lhe wall can lurn as a const'quence. The smaller the leglh l, and lhe grealer fhe momen! 01 in~r
tia 01 fhe portion and the lower the pllabilty 01 the wall, Ihe more rigid is the constraint. We shall gel ao absolulely rigid fixalion by as
suming that in the Iirnill,-O (or J.=oo). While analY1.ing continuou;
Ibeams wilh fixed ends, we musl replaee ltle fixalion by ao addilional
'Span, ""rile Ihe equalion of {hree moments and Ihen oblain Ihe condi
tions lar lhe aclual beam by subsUluling

Ij=O

or

J,=oo

Let ti! consider a beam rigidly fixed al bolh ends and loaded b}' a
force P acting at dislances a and b from Ihe lel! and right supports
respectively (Fig. 295(a)). We assume !hat supporls A and 8 do nol
impede longilut1inal de!ormation of Ihe beam. We remove Ihe consl
rain!s and add a span on eaeh side Ihus reducing OUT problem to the
analysis oi a three.span continuous beam (Fig. 295(b)).
We have Ihe following (Jata for wriling the equation 01 three momenls al supporl J:
M"_!-M~_O,

lIl"""'lIl,=O,

Cit.

The equalion is:

2M\(l t +1,)+1\1,1,

;c-6~ (1 +~)

. ';Tri
i

Tht dala lor wriling lhe equatlon of lhree

moments al support 2 (11=2) i5 as lollows:

MH,=M,=O,

j i '

IIJnt,=P~(I+f)

e:

W~+I=Iil,=O

Thenlore
Ml, +2M, (t, + t,) = -6

(19.21)

P:!' (1 +t)

~:

I
!,

1
I

_1 -:-,,-l~",,,,

:~'
!l':1
'.
__
!

(ti'

."',

(19.22)

M-.l

'....

~r.~.
'~"
i 1~'1

No\\" I\"e subslilute 1,=1,=0 and 1.=1 in

Ihe above equalions of lhrre momenls (19.21)
and (19.22). We oblain lhe loJlowing sel 01
equalions:

'

. -7i: ttV

(! +T )
M I+2M,l ~ ~pap( J +7)
2:11,/ + .11,1_ -Pub

fig.

.....fl\("

'&~

:m

Solving Ihe equaUons, we ~cl

Pab'

M,=-""""i"

T!le 1loment in Ih\! sedion under force Pis:

M-1'''' P

o,+",,'+M,1I
T

2Pa'b"

T----r-

Tht: bending moment diagram plotle4 lor thi! data i! shown in

Pig. 295 (e).

PART VII

Resistance
Under Compound Loading

CHAPTER 20

Unsymmetrlc Bendlng
119. Fundamental Concepts
Until M0\1I we have studled problems in whlch he clements 01 a
slrudure are subjected lo oMly one 01 lhe fundamental deformalions:
simple eosion or compression, lorslon, oc planar bending. In actual
practice a rnajority of {he eJements al structures and machines are
acled upon by lorces which give rise to t\\'o or more types 01 deforma
tions simuJtaneously.

Shafts in machines are slIbjected lo lorsion as well as bending. Besides teosion oc oompression baTs af trusses (rafttrs. bridges and
tranes) also experirnce bending, beca use 01 welded and riveted joio/s
al corners ostead of hinges lor which lhe trusses are ael uall y designed.
All such cases in which we have a cornbination 01 fundamental defor
mations are cases of rompoulld loading.
Analysis of cornpound loading is usually based on the principIe of
superposition of forees. Le. it is assurnod lhat Ihe e1Ted of delormatiori
caused by Dne of the forces on Ihe deformation caused by lhe resl of
lhe forces is negligible. Experiments confrm thal Ihis principIe can be
applied when deformations are small (excepllonal situations when it is
nol applicable al aH will be discussed later). Hence the prIncipIe
of superposilion 01 lorces may be applied to determine lolal slres.'!es
and deforrnalions in an elastic syslem subjecled lo compound loading
of an arbitrary n:llure. Le. slresses and slrains corresponding lo Ihe
various Iypes oi fundamental deformations may be added gecmelrically.
Let us lirsl study the particular cases 01 compound loading and Ihen
Ihe case when Ihe elaslic syslem is subjecled lo the mosl general como
pound loading.

ell. 101

lJ,uymmlfrk lUnd/ll'

120. Unsymmdrlt Btndlng.

Determh18tion 01 Strt5St$

TiIl now v..e have bffn ustng the rmula a... ~' 101' ulculalilll
the normal stresses in ~ding. However, normal st~esse; in a settion
or Ihe beam can be completely determined by ibis formula only in
~ or uniplanar bendil1&, when lAr beam bends in the plane or

aclion or fhe (orces and the neutral axis is perpendicular to lhe planc
or loading and represents the prinCipal axis 01 inertia.

'
\~
~ ft-j
p

;; f

,;

..

\ ;- !7"-

g' \

-'"Y

-K \

1'4

~t

"

Fit 296

In actual praclice we olteo come across cases when Ihe plane or .p.
plication of the (orces does nol coincide ""ilh any ollhe t ....o principal
axes of inerlla or the seclion. Experimenls show Ihat under such load
log Ihe axis el the bent beam does not lie in lhe pla~ of application
of lhe forces; Ibis is knov<1l as ~tric btndjllg.

P ../
Flg.

Roof beams are usually aeled upon by forces Ihe plane of

apr'ica.

tlon el ""hich makes a considerably large angle wilh the princlpa axa
S~Kint: lDOl1! .cc:aralely, this viII 0t'l:W . . . . a\llbe kne lIe in _ DI tb.e
principal planesellnertla of lhe _tion passi~ throuh lile bendlng ~1R'; in a
nltll'.befof cases lhc b.endi", I;'etllre colnddes ,...111. lile fIffl~ of gravitr el lbe l:fOIr.
Ildlon (179).

[purl VII

(Fig. 296). We also orten come across cases when Ihe plane of appllca
lion 01 forces is on!}' slightly inclincd to lhe principal axes 01 inerlia.
We shall explaln Ihe melhod af checking the stl'ength aod calculllling lhe deformalioo io case 01 unsyrnmelric bending wilh Ihe help 01
lhe lollowiog example.
Consider a beam rigidl}' lixed al one end aod loaded al lhe olber by
n force P which aels 00 lhe lace of Ihe bearn and makes ao anlZle lJ'
wilh lhe principal axis 8z (Fig. 297). The sel:ond principal axis By
is pt'rpendicular lo lht' firsl; lelus seled lhe diredioo 01 the coordinate
axes such Ihat rorce p lies lo lhe firsl
quadrant.
For chccking the strenglh of the
beam we must firsl (im] lhe point
which experiences Ihe maximum nOfmal stress. Lel us derive an expreso
sion for lhe normal stress al 3ny poi nt
01 ao arbitr:uy secUon al a dislance
x Irom the free eml of lhe bellm.
Le! us divide force Pinto componenls, P, and P y , which are direcled
along lhe principal axes 8l and By,
The values of these components may
be calculaled by Ihe followlog formulas:

"

Fig. 298

Pz=PCOS!fi

amI

Pu""Psin(jl

Thus, we have reduced unsyrnmelric bendiog lo a combinalion of

Iwo planar bendiogs caused by lorces P, aod P~ which lIcl io Ihe principal planes 01 inertia 01 Ihe beam. Adding fhe stresses and deformalions for each 01 thes@bendings,we llnd the!r total vnlues in unsymmetric b@oding.
The bending momenls due to rorces P: and P y in thesection hving
abscissa ;i are:
J M~ 1= P,x= Pxcos Ir '"" ,\-1 COSlp \
IM,I=P0=Pxsio,p= Msin 'l' )

(20.1)

The subsuipls y and l 01 M denote lhe principal axes about which

Iht' moments have been calculated; M denotes Ihe bending moment in
Ihe plane or applicalion of lorce P, and ils value in Ihegiven section is
Px. rr we depict the moments in veclor form, we notice that we can
obtain M y and M, by directly resolving the tolal bending momenl M
along Ihe! prIncipal alles (Fig. 298).
lo determine {he si;ns 01 Ihe bending mornents in a threedimensional problem like Ihis, it is necessary lo Iind additlonal condi ligos (we

'"

ah.tI uplain this polol ~DW). Le! us reslrkl O\Ir:st:h'~ lo finding the
magnHude of the bendin mOlOOlb 001)'; the elJecl oF the direclion oi
bending momenls 01'1 Ihe sign of slrases will be laken inlo aetmJnt

"'heo lhe lJtler are

cilkulll~.

We determine Ihe stresses al po;ol e Ihavinll COOldinales !I and ~)

lying in lhe lirsl qUMdranl (Fig. 297). \Ve can separaltly calculale lhe
normal stresses al Ihis poio! caused by momenfs M~ and M, \\'hlch

bend the beaOl in principal planes

Xl

an<l xy respecIiVl'ly. lhe formu-

las dcrlved lor plllnar bending are valid in Ihis case too.
The normal slres.~ at poln! dile lo bending momen! M r is compressve (negaUve) sod ma)' be upres.sed by lhe formula

Al"r
M:
_ .........
=--COS'l'
J,

J,

\\llere J, is lhe momtnt 01 inertil 01 Ihe seclioo aboul the Y-al is which
is aiso Ihe neutral 8IlslO( bendll1l due lo momenl M,o Mamenl M,
, ..111 libo give tise 10 oompressive slresses al poinl
~ual lo

M,.
_--'J..<.=--Slnlp
Al...
Jk

......here J. s Ihe Rlon1enl o( inertia 01 Ihe seclion aboul Ihe l-axis. Tolal
strl'SS al poinl is obhined as Ihe alebraic sum or lhe stresses calculaled above:

Al,;' ~ M (rroS'l'+'lln,,)
0--7;-7;=T
-;-

(20.2)

1he al)(we formula may be used lar calculatine lhe slrts5eS at any
polnl in an)' stion r:! lhe beam. As Ihe formula has beet1 Qerived ror
a pomt with posilive coordmalu!l and 1, we shallllways gel lhe slrl!:Ses ...... ith Mir proper signs il we wbstitule!l and 1 with proper sieos in
formula (20.2).
Thu~, al poinl D \Fig.29n
is posilive bul 1 b negative. Conseqtwnlly. the lirsl lerm in (ormu a (20.2) will become positivc u-hereas
lhe secand wi1l remaln negatlve as before.
Atthough formula 120.2) has bun oblamed by consid~ing a particular cose of a beam rigid!y fixed al one end and loalled al lhe olher, it
Is nol difrlcult lo notice Ihal il is a general formula lor calculating
str~ in unsymmetric bending. Only lhe rules lar linding Ihe proler ~ign 01 lhe slresses will be dilTerenl fOl" beans whlch are Joadetl Of
oonslrained in a different manoer. 11 he posilive direclion 01 lhe
rlno::ipal axes of nerti. passing through the centrold s .1ways se
ecle<! in such a way thal Ihe planeof applicatlon of !orces always pas
ses tbrough lhe Iirsl quadranl, Ihen lhe sign bdatt the rllht-hand slde
of formula 120.2) should be in accordlnce wi!h the nature o deforma
I ion lI.'hich takes place tlue lo tM: bending reament (or its wml>Ol1f'nls)
at Iny point in tht liut quadrant (1 positive siln in Clse of teosion Ind

r.

r.

382

ReslstanOll Un"" ComPUllrJ Loadtllf

a negalive sigo In case af compression). Now il would su[fice lo use

lhe proper signs of y and l to obtajo Ihe proper signs of {he slresses
""ithin lhe elastil: Jimi!s al any point from formula (20.2).
In arder lo determine lhe maxlmum normal stresses we musl first
lacate (he crilica! seclion of fhe beam and lhen lhe maximum stres~d
poinlol this crilical section. It is evldeo! from formula (20.2) thal lhe
critica! section is {he section in which lhe bending momen! M is maxi
mal.
While linding Ihe maximum stresscd poio! we musl bear in mind
Ihat in un.planar bcnding (he deformation due lo normal slrcsse5 is ro
tation of (he sectlons about Iheir respective neutral axes, Jn unsy mme/
de bending, which is a combination of

two un.planar

bendjngs, here

is simultaneous rolatioll 01 lhe sedions aboullwo axes whkh inlersecl

al lhe centre 01 gravily 01 the se<:tion.
We know rom kinematks thal rotalion 01 a body abool lwo axes
may be replaced by rolalion ilboul an axis passing lhrough lhe poinl
01 inlersection of Ihe lwo axes. Hence, in unsymmelric bending also
in every secUon we have atine which passes lhrough ils centre of gravily and about which lhe section rolates during deformation of lhe
beam. Thls axis wHl be the neutral axis: Ihe f1bres 01 lhe beam male
riallying in its plane witl neilher elongate nor shorten and Ihe normal
stresses al points on lhe neutral axis will be zero. (11 relative rolation
of lwo sections lhe maximum deformalion (Icnsioo or compression)
occurs in Ihe libres whkh are larlhesl from Ihe neutral axis.
Hence, lhe problem of delermining Ihe maximum slressed points in
unsymmefric bending is reduced lo lo.:ating Ihe neutral axis and Ihe
polnts farlhesl from it.
Equation of Ihe neulral axis can be IVritten from fhe condnion thal
normal slresses are :z.ero al ]}Oints Iying on lhe neutral axis. Lel us dengte Ihe coordinales 01 a poin! on the neutral axis by IIv and z.; substituling Ihese values for y and z in formula (20.2), we gel the v.lllue af
11 equal to tero:
Al sIn 'f'Xro

J,
Oividing by -M, we get
cosq>X.
Ju

+ s;n'i'XYo =0
J.

(20.3)

This is Ihe equation ollhe neulral axis. lt represents a siraight Hne

passing through the cenlre 01 gravify 01 Ihe seclion tal Yo=O snd zo=O).
Figure 299 shows Iwo beam sections; Ihe y. and Ihe z-axis are lhe
principal axes of inerlia. Assurning lha! Ihe beams are loaded as in
Fig. 297, Ihe ptojedion of force P has been SROWn in bolh Ihe sections
and Ihe proper signs 01 Ihe nornlal stresses have been given lor each
quadranl; the signs above and below the seclion are for stresses dUi

CA. ID)

to IlJOI:K'J1t M" whereM the signs lo the right and leH d the secliOl1
are ror moment M,. Fot a beaRl which 15 loaded and conslrained in.
dilfercnl way (Fig. 3(0), Ihe signs 01 lhe slresses will also change ac
cordingly.

fl(.

Approximatt lacalion 01 lhe n('ulral axis ls .sho..." , in Fig. 299. Po!

lhe neutral axis passes lhrough Ihe cenlre 01 gravity. U 15 sullicient
lo know angle which il makes wHh
the y.axis in orde!" lo lacate il fully.
) I is evident fronl Fig. 299 tha! the lanIml 01 Ihis angle is equal lo the absolule value of lhe ratio 01 l. lo Y.:

o:

tanct=I;:1
From equalion (20.3) v'"e oblain

tano:_I"I=bn, '"
Y.

J.

(20.4)

Heoce, lhe loc:alion 01 lhe netJlral

axis does not depend upon Ihe magni
tude 01 lorce P, bul onl)' llpon I~
angle which Ihe plane al applicaliOfl
of external rorces makes with Ihe z-axis
and llpon Ihe shape of lhe secliol1.
Mler calculaling angle from foro
mula (20.4), we plol the neulral lllfis
F,~. 300
on Ihe diagram, and by drawing lan
gents lo lhe sectiOfl parallel to lhe neulral axis .....efind lhe muimum
slre5sed points. which ar. Ihe polnts larthesl rrom lhe neutral axis
(points 1 and 2 in Fig. 299).

o:

(Po,! VII

Subslituling the coordinales o lhese poinlJ {vi. 1" or Yr, lJ wilh

their proper signs in formula (20.2). "lOe calculate lhe m.u:imum lensile
or compres&i\'e sbes,sts, lhe strmgth eondition loe lhe beam l1lay be.
wrillen as
(ro S)

where y, and 1, (orJ' and l j art' Ihe coordinalf'S 01 Ihe poinl (in Ihe
coordinale system
rrinclpal axes passing Ihl'Ough lIJe centroid) lar
IIlesl frOfil lhe neutra u is.

For slion with corners in which bolh lhe principal es of inedia

are lhe aXe:! 01 syrnmetry tredangle. I-beam). i.e.

fy.I-ly.I-Iy... 1

aud

11,1-lz,I""'ll...,1

formula (2O.S) ma}' be simplilied and the expression for cr,,, l' ma)'
be wriHen as (ollo\\'1:

'1n,)

"(

,11",.)

.,(....lSt,
cr",.,=I>
-Y;-'""Il";"" .... W; coslpTiV;smlp

lhe slrE'nath condilion lar such

~hons

10 /=- "{:-;' (roSIjI

1'06)
,

is as Jol\owl:

+;;

in ..),.;;;: [aj

i.

(20.7)

While St'leding Ihe secllon \\1! sel Ihe yalue: o!

'lOd kno""ing 10J,
/ti... , nd angle"we 6nd by trilll and error (he v.lues of IV, and IV,
whifh satlsry lhe strtnglh candilion /2lI.7). In unJymmetric leclloru
.....llhoul comers. Le. when we US(' slrE'ngth condilion (20.5), the loca

CII. MI

UI1smlMlrlt BtI1dil1f

'"

lion of neuiral llxis and Ihe coordinales 01 the rarlhest poinl (PI' ll)
musL be delermil1ed cVl'ry m~ bdorehand. For a rectangular seclion,

~~ =~. Therefore

-F

assuming Ihe ralio

known \Ve can easily [nd
W' nd the dimensions of Ihe secUon from condilion (20.7).
the diagrams showing lhe dislribulion 01 slresses in a rectangular
sedion are given in Flg. 301.
[1 is e1ear (rom equalion (20.4) Iha! angles a and lJ' are nol equal,
Le. {he neutral axis is nol perpendicular to Ihe plane 01 application or
exlernalloras as was lhe case in uni-planar bending. lhe perpendicularit)' can be achieved onl)' jf
Jv=J.
(20.8)
bul ,hen aH alies become the principal axes, and unsymmelric bending
becomes impossible; rr~pedive o[ Ihe plane of Joading we shall have
uniplanar bending. lhis will be Irue for square, circular and aH
otber sedions whlch satisry cquation (20.8).
lhe shearing stress~ may also be calculated by a melhod similar lo
the 0111' Bdopted ror determining lhe normal slresses: Ihe total shearing
stress wi11 be equal lo lhe geometric sum of the stressti due lo benrling
in eaeh 01 tht' principal plan~. Usually the value 01 the shearing
slresses has no praclical importance.

121. Delermining Displaeemenls in Unsymmetrlc Bendlnll

We shall agajn appl)' the principle or sup{'rposilion 01 [orces loclr
lh<' dencction in various sedions 01 a beam subjecled lo unsPJI
metric bending. Considering the same exal11ple djscussed in lhe pra:edng seclion, we shalJ l'irsl l'ind Ihe dellcclion of poinl B ([ree cnrl 01 Ihe
beam) onl)' due lo rorce P,; the deftection is in Ihe dlrccUon 01 lile
z-axis and is
l~rmine

where 1 is Ihe span of lhe bcam. Similarly, he delleellon of pint B

due to a single force P~ is in lhe dlred ion ollhe y-axis and lIlay be elipressed

Pi"

f'P~in<p

y=3CJ.... ~

Tolal deRedion f of {he Iree end or Ihe beam is equal lo the geomel
ric sum 01 Ihe l\\'o deAedions:
I=~'~n+f~
(20.9)
AI~

(20.10)

Par/ VII

'"'
f

It lollows Itom ihis relation Ihat Ihe angle belween tolal defledion
and lhe zaxis is equal lo (l, l.e. dellection f is perpend.icular lo Ihe

neutral axis. Tha bealll

~nds

nol in Ihe plane of application 01 mes,

but in a plane perpendicular lo Iha nculral axis (Fig. 3(2).

We shalJ consider Ihe y-axis Ihe principal axis wilh lhe maximum

momenl 01 inerlia, lhen plane XOz wlll be {he plant 01 meuimum rigidi/y, because Ihe deflection or lhe beam is mnima! in Ihis plane. !f,

as in lhe examples diseussed above,

H,

,,

>J < and hence >q', Ihe

plane

O/Ixm.ding defteds rom {he plane

or

maximulfI rigidity more Ihan fhe

plane of app/ication

01 ex/ernal

for-

,lO
I

ces. The grealer lhe ralio /' the

grealer Ihe dillerence. Hmc~, in
narrow 311d hgh seclions in which

lhe ratio

or lhe

princlpal momenls

of inef!ia lIlay be quite great, even

a small deviatlon 01 lhe plane of pplcation 01 lorces rom the plane of
max!murn rigidity wili give rise to
considerable devialion al the plane
01 bending of the bearn.
As long as the external forces acling on (he beam 01 such a secUon
ie in lhe plane of maximum rigidity xOz, (he beam denl!Cts in Ihe
some plano:: and the magnitude 01 defle<:tions is smalt bec.ause of lhe
mamen! of inertia J II being large. Bul as soon as the plane af applica
tion of forces deviales Irom axis 02 by a smaH angle Cf', Ihere is a lurge
lncrease in Ihe delleclions in lhe direction of yaxis (the designer very
often overlooks Ihis factor). The dellections in the dkoclion al Ihe
zaxis are, hO\\'ever. almos( unaffecled. Lel us lake a numerical e1;om
pIe to study lhis phenomenon. Consider a timber beam (Fig. 297)
11=20 cm high and b=6 cm wide. Then

,"

2/Pxr,

J.~-,-,-=4

OOcm,

6' xXi
J '=-rr---36Dcm'

Ratio o the mamenls af inertia is:

J 11

4000

J;-"360:::::; 11

CI. 2tl1

When Ihe! plane of applicalion 01 lorces deflecls by

\Ve obtain

tana= tan q> 'f=O.OB75x 11 "" 0.963,

5~

'"

from Ihe zaxis,

a;:::::; 44~

Dencctions in the diredron of the y-axis wi[] al mast be equal lo the

in Ihe direclion 01 the z-axis:
fu = f# tanu.=0.963' <

defl~Uons

,'.\oreover, the deviation or the plane of applicalion of Sorces from

the plane oi maximum rigidlty is accompanied by a considerable in
crease in Ihe normal siresses. In Ihe example discussed above Ihe maximum normal strcsses (as compared lo uniplanar bending whenlfl=O)
incrrase in (he ratio (see formula (20.6))
M ( co,q:+WSIn'l'
"".)
W
h
2(1
~
Al'
-(I+ll(antp)costp;::;;:(I+ao.0875 )1=,.29

"

fig. 303 shows Ihe relative lacalion of lhe neutral surlace, he plane
or bending and lhe plane 01 lo<lding.
Beams in which (he principal momenls 01 inertia 01 seclions dilfer
considerabJ>' from on~ anolher, work satisfaC!orily if bending occurs

304

in the plane 01 maximum rigidity (high rectangular seclions, lbeams,

channel bars). They, however, fail under unsyrnmetric bending. Tllerelore in sHualions where (he designer is no! very sure 01 a sullicJently
accurate! coincidence 01 the plane of loading wilh Ihe principal plane,
he shoutd avoid using sucll seclions or make! additional provisions
(by pulting constrainls) lo prevenl laleoral deforma \ion, which might
occur during lmsymmeLric bending.
However, carelm reinforcern(!I\t of {he existing slruclures may be
llxtremely harmlul. We know a case when a beam 01 channel secUon

Re;islaJII;: Utuk, CQm.pO/md l.ooding

[1'(lfl VII

consisting 01 S pIste. and two angles (Fig. 304(a, ......o rking under s lolld
acting in plane xOz was reinlorced by welding lo il an e.:drll angle
(Fig.304(b)). This resutted in d~ialion of {he principal axes from Ihe
plane 01 londlng and gave rise lo de-Iermallan in Ihe lale-ral cliredion,
which was comp!elely unforeseen.
bample. Selecl Ihe secUon lor a wooden 18th 01 heighl h andll'ldlh
b and dele-rmine the denection of its midd!epeint. AS5ume Ihal -} =2;
Ihe lenglh 01 Ihe beaO! (dislance between fhe Iwo supporUng lrusses)
is 1=4 m and the rool is inclined at 23" te lhe horironlal; Ihe load due
lo lhe letll's weight and Ihe weight of snowon Ihe roo Ola)" beconsid
ered as unilorrnly dislribuled and ha.... ing the inlensity q=400 kgr1m.
rhe lath is simply supporled. Permissble stress is 100 kglcm", and
Ih(' modlllus of elasticily ls [=10- kgficm~.
j\\aximum bending momenl will OCCllr al lhe middle 01 Ihe span;
ii will be
'11'
41l1.1xJ6
M u ,n=g=-g-=800kgl.m
As angle lJ' is ('qual lo Ihe angl" o slant d lhe roof, Le. 25", H 101
lo\\'s rom formula (20.7) and condilion
-2 t11at

h)

blr1h'M(
WV"'6=Z~ ~"' Coscp+-sinq>
00000

-~(0.906+2xO.423)

= 1402 cm'

wherefrom h~V 12x 1402....25.6::::::26 cm and b= 13 cm.

Maximurn del1eclion 01 Ihe bearn occurs al the rniddle of Ihe span.
Moments of inerlia of the 5ecllon are:
bIP'
13x'!h'
Ir"
lJ~xW
Iv =T2 ""---r= 19050cm',
J. =12- ---z- ... 4760cm'
The angle ol inclinalion, a, of the neutral axis can be determined as
follows;

lana =tan lJl~ = tan 25" 1;/:... 1.865

wherelrom a=--6IoSO', and lhe angle made by lhe plane of bendlng
wilh Ihe plane of loodlng is:

a-tt = 61"50' _25" .... 3650'

The dellection in Ihe ptane 01 maximum rigidity is:
, _6qI'coso>=5X4X4'XO.905XIO' -064
-~
3::s4xJ!}59xl)( - . cm

'"
Tolal deilection ls:

_.1L._
oO'.'~,=
1.35 cm
<os 11
,
DeReclion in lhe dirlion 01 !ley-ui! (parall!!1 to lhe arm 01 width b)

15:

1,=/. tana -O.G4x 1.865_1.19 cm

thi~

Hcnce, in

tun,p1e Ihe deflection in lhe direclion ol axis Ol!

is much iTeater Ihan in Ihe direction 01

lotal dellection.

O~

and

15

almosl t'qua] lo lhe

CHAPTn 21

Combined Bending and Tensloo or Compression

1?2. Deftedion 01 Bum Subjecied to Axial
aOO Lateral Forces
In enginet'fing pracli~ we oflen come acros.s cases 'Nhen

subJtct~

beam is

combin~ bt1\ding Ind lensxm or compres.sioo. Dcforll\lty~ mI}' OCCUT eilbtr by lhe simultaneous adion oJ axial

lo

lion or Ihis
and lateral orces or by lhe adion of axial 1Clf"a$ onl)'.

A~l!lIII!UYJ1(J

~,

Fi,. 305

lile first 01 hese cases is shown in Fig. 305. Beam AB is aeted upon
b\' a unilorml}' distributed force q and an axial compressive force P.
I( u'e assume Ihat Ihc deftcclion 01 the beam is negligiblc as compared
lO ils c:ross-sedional dimenslons, \\'e can also assume with sufficienl
a<:cllraey lhlt alter defOlmalion fau P will gve rise lo uial compres
sion only,.
Appl)'ing t~ melhod or superposition al forces. \\'t can find lhe nor
mal slresses al any poin! of an arbitrar)' seclion as Ihc algebraic sum
of slresses caused by fort1!::5 P and q.
Coopressive slrm al' due lO
P i~ unnonol)' distributed over
Ihe crosssl!'l.'tional arta, S, aod is equal in aH scctions:

rorct

a.. -=~s

[Ptorl VII

Jn a .seclion wHh absclssa x lhe norm.al stres:ses due lo bendirW in

vertic31 plane are iven by lhe formula

too

=Af{.r)l

(J

J.

",hm x is measured. sal'. Imm lhe Idt end oI the beam.

Hence. al a poinl of Ihis stl::tion having coordlnUt 1 (measurtd Imm

the neutral .axis) lhe lotal stress is:

""'"+ M(J:)f
__
1,

0""'0".. +0 _ _ P
9

Figure 306 shows Ihe diagrams of slre-ss dis!ribulion in the given seco
tlon due to forees P and '/ and also lhe resullal'lt diagram. Maximum
slress oe<:urs in lhe uppermost libres, where bolh deformalions are

:,_t:~
~A;::::=:-;J-===:'~l
6:

compressive; the libres btlow the nrulra! axis experie!k:e eilher tension or compression depending upon !he numerical varues o op and

In order lo write Ihe slrenglh condition let us del<'Tmine lhe maxi

murn normal stress.
> Ihe slresses due to forces Pare equal in al1 sections Ilnd uniformIy dlstribuled, Ihe critical libres are lhose which experient:e Ihe max!
murn bending slrcsses. Th~ libres are lhe ou!er nbres of (he secUon
in which lhe maximum bending momen! occurs; ror them

a~,

, .. -_ M...~
IV
~

Thu5. slresses in the outero libres J and 2 (Fig. 306) of tlle middle
setlion of Ihe bearn ma}' be upressed
(21.1 )
llnd he de:sign stress

10.,I-IOII-lt + Mi,"1

(21.2)

Ch. 111

'"

If rOl'CfS Pweretensile. the sign of the rsl factor would be re\'ersed

1I11d lhe 1000'ermost fibres would be the crilkally Joaded ones.
By dtnoting lhe compressive or lensile torca by N \\~ can \\'lite
lbe general exprcssion for checking the strenglh of such btams;
(J..

n_(':+AI;"J)~raJ

(21.3)

In wrlting equation (21.3) \\'t" have assumed Ihat the section Is symmel
rie aboul lhe neutral uS alld Ihe beam material has equal resislance
to teruion and comprmion.
lhe above melhod can 3150 be appliecl to beams subjected to in
clinel1loading (Fig. :YJ7). lhe incllned loree can be decomposed into
P-Utf

, , 1,

AD------~k(t
fil- 301

)--r,:

r--t--ol
1
'

~l~

!:
,

l-S~-ool

Fil. 308

a normal component, whkh bends he beam. and an axial ctImpootnl,

""'hich stretches or compresses it.
Eumple. An inclintd beam (Fig. 308) is loaded al he middle of ib
span by a force P..,2.5 ti. Find lhe muimum eompressive stress in
lhe beam.
lhe upper half or lhe beam only bends; Ihe lowtc hall is benl as
",,'tH as oompres.sed. Btnding is caused br lhe force P cos 3(/, \Vhereas
compression by lhe force P sin 30. Maximurn btnding moment

., -=
"m..

PCOS3O"(
~

~ =!J.
~ 18751'. m
~-~-.

lhe section moduiU$ and lhe erossseclional area are, respf<:lively,

M'

IGx3O'

IV "6=---;- _2400em', s= 16x30_ ~80cm"

lhe maximurn oompresslve stress (in the uppermost Iib~ ollhe beam
in a .section to the lert of lhe applied force) is:
P Sin 30"
Mlan
2500
181500
a--~-1V--~-~

"'" -2.6-78.1 .. -80.7 kgf/em '

PCTI VJ!

39'

123. Eccenlrit leos/on or Compresslon

A second siluation in which {he bending and lxial deiormalions are
added up 15 tJ:UJtlric fC/wDtl or fUllpresskm, \\llich resull, from exial
forcelo onl~. This t)'pe al ddormation o:urs \\iten Ihe bar is lK'ted upon
by two equ.1 aOO opposile fOll:es P wh idi .el along AA paralle! lo ls
axis (Fig. 3(9). The distante of poin! A from lhe cMlre o gravlly of
stion O is DA-e and 15 knC>wn as the lIXtntricUy.

, ,

P'
r;)4'
P

,
p
~,,"n
Fi: 309

F,C. 310

FJ. 311

,,

,A

,
I'~

,,

-"-------.,A'",

01

Fie

"

"

'"

Lel os lirsl consider tccenlric. compres.sion, because iI is of grNlcr

practica\ importante. OUr lask is lo calculate I~ ma:c:imum slrtsSCS
in lhe materjal o( the bar and thk its sl~lh. To solve the problem
lel UI .pply !1,l,'O equ.1 and oppmite lorce P .t points O (FII._ ,110).
This will no! vlol'le Ihe equilibrium oi Ihe bar as a ....'hole Ind will
no! .lfect he slresses acling in its seclions.

Forces P crossed by a single slroke will C3U~e axial compres.~oll.

wherellS Ihe paiu olforces P crossed by lwo slrokes wiJ! gi\'e rse ID
pure bcnding 01 momenls M.~PIl. The deslgn !Cheme 01 lhe bar b
gven in Fig. 31!. Since planc DA of Ih~ bending momenl m;!y nol coinciLle wilh any ollhe principal planes of inerlia ollhe bar. the deforrnation, jll general. will be 11 combination 01 axial comprwion and
pure unsyrnmelric !)ending.
As Ihe ~Iresses are equal in all sec:1i0l13 In lIXial compressiOfl and pUTe
bending. we Ola)' check lhe strenglh or lile bu in any seclion, sar $Ce
lion ee (Hg. 311).
lel us remove lhe upper portian and consider lhe equilibrium ollhe
lowtf portion (fig. 312). Assume Oy and 01 lo be lhe principalllll!!l 01
inertia of lile sec:tion. lelll" and :'1' be the coordi~les 01 poinl A, lhe
poinl of inlerseclion 01 Ihe Hne 01 action of force P \1.'lIh 1tM- ("~ 5.
lion. We shall selt the positive dirlion ofaxes 011 and 01 in wd1
a ""'ay lhat point A 81"""Y8 n'mains in lhe !inl quadr:ml. rhen bolh
9,. and lp ""'ilI be poslive.

ell. !II
In arder lo lind Ihe ma:r.imullI ~tressed point of lhe stl:tion, \\"t ll'fHe
the expression lor normllllress a .lit an ubltrary poinl B having COCl[dinales Ylnd l. The .stresses in section C-e art mide up ofaxial como
p~ive ~trelS due 10 foroe P.1IM bending stress dut lo pure unsYll'Imelric bending by moment Pt. \\-Me t=OA. The compressive .stress due
to rorce P is equal to ~ al t:\'ery poinl, whl'ft' S is Ihe CTOM-seclional
area of the bar; unsymmelric bending may be replKed by hending rooments in lhe principal planes. ,\\onI('111 pyP bentls the bar in plllne
xO, about lhe neutral llJCis Oz and gves rise lo normal compressive
stress p~,.g at poin! B. Similarly. Ihe normal stress al poinl B dile lo
bending tn plane xOz c.1used by momen! PZ p is :'lIso compressive and

""

is equal lo -,-.
Summing th: slressC!S due lo axial compreuion and bending in IlIJo
planes and considering Ihe etllllpressive stre.ss/!S to be negalive. u'e get
Ihe rollowi", formula lar Ihe sIras at poinl B:

o"=_!:.-_~_PlfK=_p(-l.-+~+~)
s

Ja

J.

J.

J.

(21.4)

This ormula is ,-alid 101' calculatio (he slres.ses al any painl of an

arbilrary .seclion. only the coordinales al Ihe poiot in lhe syslem 01
principal ues should be substituled rO( !I and z .....ilh proper sins.
In lhe case d eccenlrk: Itnsion. Ihe signs oI all the lerros in the u"rmloo lor Ihe normal slress al poinl B will be reversed. Therefore,
In order lo oblain the slrm Iliith Ihe proper sign Irom formula (21.4)_
regardless al whelher it is eccenlrk iension or compression, u'e musl
<:on.!I;der lhe sign of force P in addition lo Ihe signs o coordinates y and
z: in 'll<:centrk: tension there should be a posili\'e siiT! bdore lhe expres-

sion
p ( 'J
1

+'"+'-")
J.
-r;

and In ~nlric compre.s.slon a negative signo

The above formula may be modified soll'lewhal. Ltt lIS fac!orou! ;;
"'e obtain
O" -

+,. +,..
''')

-'$
P ( 1 '"

'.

"

(21.5)

He'fe i. and ir are Ihe rldi of g)'ulion al lhl! sec:lion aboul the priado
p.11Xl!S (recalllJlal J.-i'S and l,=I;sJ.
To lind Ihe mu:imum slr~po[nt 'Il"t musl self"C1 Ihe y- and 1M
Z-Ul.s In .such a way that (J altairu the maximum v.lue. The varylng
terms in formulas (21.4) and (21.5) are lhe last two, which reJlec:t Ihe

jParl VII

inlluence el beoding. Also, since lhe maxirnum str\!5.SeS in b81ding oc

cur al poinLs whith are rarlhesllrom the neutral a:Il'IS, il is essE'nli.I,
as in unsYlnmelrk bending, lo locate lhe neulral .xis lirsl.
Lel us denole (he coordina les of poinls on the neutral axis by !l'
and lo. As he normal slresses are zero at poinls on Ihis axis, after sub
stHuling!l. and l. in formula (21.5) we gel

o--~([+~+~)
s
r. "
1 + i'~ +~=O

(21.6)

This i.s lhe equaHon of 1M neutral axis: it is {he equalion el a slraighl

line nol passing Ihrough lhe cenlre al gr8vHy of Ihe section.

The sinlplesl way of plolting Ihis line is to calculale lhe segmenls il
culson the coordinale U('$. Lel us derlole these segrnenls by a, aud a.
lo order lo fiodsegntenl a~ cul on Ihe y-axis. \Ve pul in equalion (21.6)

1.",,0,

y._a,

and obtain

1+ i'~, -O,

",

Similarly, assllming lhal

",""

a,=-_

""'

(21.7)

!l. =0,
we oblain

(21.8)

Jf !JI' Mld lp are posilive, segmen\s a~ :md a, u'iII be negalivt>, Le.

the neulral axis will be located on (he other side 01 thecentre of gravity han poinl A (fig. 312).
The neutr.l uis divida lhe secUon inlo two parts, compr~ IInd
siretdied. In Fig. Jl2 lhe slretch!d parl has been sh.ded. Drt"'ing
ta~ts lo the conlour of lhe sec:tion, IlIngenls parallel lo t1~ neulral
axis, "':1' oblain n:o polnts D, and D. whkh m subjecttd to the rtlallimum compressive and tensile slresses.
\\easuring the t'OOrdinales!l and l al lhrse points and sU~liluling
Ihem in formula 121.4), Wf' eakulatc Ihe maximum stresses al poinls
D, 3nd Do by the formula

II,~'" -

P (\

+1
~PVll,OJ + Z":(I.I) )
; - ---;-

(21.9)

1f Iht bar's malerial has equal resistance to lensLn and compress.ion, then Ihe slrenlh condilion mil)" be \\'rilten as

I~..~l- p ( --+~+ zf,' ) ,(a)

(21.10)

'"

CI. 2/J

For sections wilh comers in which both principal axes oF inertia are
also Ihe axes oF s)'mmelry (rectangle. [beam, etc.), Y'=Yn... and z,=
=zm..' Therefore formula (21.10) may be simplified and wriiten as
lollows:

IOmul=P(:r+ ~

+::J ~ [a]

(21.11)

H lhe material oF lhe bar has unequal resistance lo tension amJ compression, lhen Hs slrenglh must be checked in lhe slrelched as well as
compressed zone.
However, in sorne cases one check may sulnce for Ihese malerials
a15O. lt is eviden! from lormulas (21.7) and (21.8) Ihal Ihe localion 01
poinl A 01 appliclllion oF Force and thalof Ihe neulral axis ar{' inlerrelaled; lhe ncarer poinl A is to Ihe
cenlre 01 gravily lhe smaller Ihe
coordinates YP and Zp and Ihe grealer Ihe segments 0v and O,. Thus,
as polnl A approaches Ihe cenlre 01
gravily 01 Ihe secUon, the neutral
a.~is fIlOves away rom il, and vice
nrS3. Therefore, in certain positions
of poinl A the neulral axis \ViII
pass outside Ihe secl ion and Ihe
whole secUon will experhmce eilhe.r
tensile or compressive slress. Ob
viously, in such cases il is always
sufncient lo check the slrength oF
Ihe malerial at poinl DI only.
fij!. 313
Let us analyz.e a case of practica]
imporlance, when a bar of recian
guiar secUon (Fig. 313) is eecenlrically loaded by force P al point A
on lhe principal axis Dy. The eccenlricily DA is l.'qu<ll lo e, and lhe
dimensions 01 Ihe sed ion are b and d. Applying Ihe Formulas oblained
aboye, we gel
Yp_ +e,
lp=O
The slress al point 8 Is
S ) - P l'I+Iz"y)
rJ-!:....l'I+'1P!l
- s
~ --;;
"""'P'""

(21.12)

because
S

12M

12

J; = -;;; = F

The stresses are equal at al! polnts on a line parallel lo axil 01. Location 01 the neutral axis is determined b)' the segmenls
(21.J3)

IPMI Vil

Tite neulral axis 15 paraJlello lhe z-axis; lhe poinls which experience
maximum tensile and compressive stresses llre localcd on Ihe sides 1-1
llnd 3-3.
The values of 0.." and O"'ft mal' be oblained by subslituling y~
= ~ in formula (21.12):

.... / -bl'(I~)
T
..

(21.14)

111

124. Core of 5e'dlon

In lIesigning elemenls from malerials which have poor strenglh un
der tel1sion (concrete, slone), il is highly desirable Ihal the whole
~ction should work under compression. This can be achieved b Ii
miling Ihe value 01 eccenlrieily, Le. nol shifling lhe point of app ica
tion 01 {orce P loo lar from the cenlre of guvity.
II s desirable Ihal Ihe designer should know belorehand lhe vlllue
al eccentricily Irhich may be permitted for a particular sed ion willi
oul Ihe risk 01 slresses 01 two Iypes occurring in il. Here we requirl'
the concept 01 rore o! sectiQ!. The term core of section defmes an area
alxwl lhe centre of gravity wilhin which force P may be applied al
any poin! withoul giving rise lo stresses 01 dilIerenl l,pes_
As long as point A r<-'mains within lhe core, lhe neutral axis does
nol intefs:t lhe cOlllour 01 lhe seclion, lhe complele secUon Hes lo
one side 01 the neulral axis and hence 1I'0rb only in compression. As
we move poiol A away from lhe centre o( gravity, the neulral axis approaches Ihe conlour _rhe core boundarr is delermined rom lhe condi
tion thal ",hen poinl A lies on lhe boundary, Ihe neutral ;lxis passcs
clase lo lhe contour just louching it.
Thus, i1 voe move poinl A in such a ""ay thal the neutral axis rolls
"long lhe (ontour willlOUI intersecling JI (Fig. 314), Ihen fhe locus 01
poinls A will form he core or :ecljoo. Ir Iherl' are ~depressons" in lhe
con tour. lhen the neulral axis should foil along the ('nvelore of Ihe
conlour.
To plollhecore 01 sec!ion we musl dra\\' lhe neutral axis in a nllmbcr
of p05itions touching Ihe conlour, delennin:' Ihe scgml'nts Il r anrl a,
and ea1culale YP anrl lp-lhe coordinatcs of Ihe poinl of applicalicn
01 lorce-wilh lhe help of relalion~ [21.7) and (2[.8):
l'

yp=---+,
"g

fl

lp~--i1..
~:

(21.15)

They represen! !J,- and "o-Ihe coorrJinales of poinls on the core's

boundary.
Ir lhe eonlour 01 tlJe scction i,; a polygon (Fig. 315), II-e can find lhe
cOOJ\lnales y, amI
01 points 00 lhe corc's boundarj" by succcssively

"e

ell. 111

""

dTawing Ihe neulral axis coinciding wilh the slde$ <i lhe pol)"gOO and
calculating lhe sements a, and a. lar lhe corresponding sides.
In lbe lralUitlon rom one side ollhe tonlour lO another the neulral
axis u'iII rolalt aboul the apu btlween the Iwo sides; the point of
ilpplkalion uf force will move 0J1 he core's boundary betu1!Ul lhe

Fig

Jl~

Fil. 315

poinls already obtained. Lel us eslablish ho\\' Ihe po;ol of applicalion

01 force P sholild move so Ihat lhe neutral axis always pass through one
and the same point 8(g". ZII) and rotllte about lt (Fig. 316). Substituto
ng Ihe coordina les or this poinl of Ihe neutral axis in equalion (21.6)
1

+"',
IpZ,,_O
,...- + -r
,

Yo"f see Ihat coordinales YP and z,. 01 poinl A. UK' point of application
allorce P, are related lo eat"h olher tinearty. Thus. jf lhe neutra! uis
rolales aboul a fixtd poinl 8, he po;nl 01 applicatioo of lorce moves
along a slTllighl line. ConverseIy, lhe llIOtion of lorce P along a slraight
fine is consislent wilh lhe rol8lion 01 the neutral axis aboul I lile<!

pomL

Figure 316 sho'ftos Ihree posilions of Ihe poinl of applicalion of force

on this Hne and Ihrre corresponding positions of lhe neutral axis.
Hence, il lhe conlour 01 the .section is a polygon, Ihe tore's boundary
belween points cOHesponding to Ihe sides of lhe polygon tonsisls 01
slralghl]jne segmenls.
Jf Ihe contour of the section s made up oi curved ILnes eilher parli
aU)' or ful!y, tlle core'$ boundary will be drawn wilh Ihe help of poinls
(formula (21.15). Lel us slud)' a lew simplee.umplu on plotling he
cores el sections.
For ploUin~ Ihe toce 01. rec:langullr M'Clioo c'Figs. 313 and 317)
'Me 511811 ernploy lhe lormulas derived al lhe end al lhe preecding seco
tlon.

IPQtI Vf

For plotling Ihe core's boundary when polnl A 100v~ along axis Oy
we mus! Iind \hal value 01 eccenlricily e=e. corresponding lo which
Ihe neutral a~i5 occupies Ihe p05ition ti,O (Fig. 317). From formula
(21.13) \Ve Jind Ihat

"

a~=-2=-~

wherelrom

(21.16)
Hen~e, along a.~is Oy the core's bOllndary wil[ lie at a dislance of
~ Irom Ihe centre 01 gravily (Fig. 317, poinls I and 3). Along axis Oz

Ihe core's boundary \Viii be determined by a distance o, {- (points 2

and 4).

N,

y;
iNt

,
O,

'1

1~L rt,I

N,

0, ' e:
f,g. 316

--O;

.y

I--O;
I

~ lO!

fjg. 317

To draw the core's boundary completely, let us plot the neutral axis
in positions H,O, and ti.O. corresponrting lo lhe extreme points I
amI 2.
As the force moves from point 110 point 2 along he core's boundary,
Ihe neutral axis must pa~ Irom position ti,O, to H,O, alt thl" time
touching the seclion, .e, rotating abaul poinl D. For this lo occur, Ihe
force musl move along he straight line /2. lt can be similarly proved
that lnes 23, 34, and 4/ wil1 form the other boundary Jines of the
core.
Thus, for a reclangular seetion he core is a rhombus with diagonllls
ellual lo onethird 01 the corresponding sides 01 lhe secl ion. I-Ienee. if
the lon;e is applied on lhe principal a~es, lhe whole seclion experi
ences strrssl'S of n particular sigo, provided the poinl of application of
Ihe force rloes nol tie beyolld one-Ihird al Ihe d~lanee 01 Ihe corres
ponding sirle lrom Ihe centre of gravity.

399

CIl. 711

FiiUre 318 shc:w."S the dislribution or normal slrtsSeS along lhe hcigbt
of 11 rectangular seclion when lile ecct'Jllric'ity is equal lo uro, leu
lhun, tqual to and more lhan OM-sixth 01 Ihe width of Ihe section. 11

.
p

'

Fil. 318

shnuld be noled tha! for al! localions of lorce P Ihe stres.s al the lWltre
of gravity of thl" secUon (point O) is the sanie and equallo
ami force
P does nol have any e<:eenlrieily along Ihe S'Ond principal axis.

f,

, ,

8
Fit(. 319

,I,

-1
,I

, ,,

Fil 320

?/_L._

"

.~

_a

FIl[.

;,

'"

FrOIll syrnmetry eonsidcrallons the core o 8 circular !e<:lion 01 r;ld;r will also be a cirde 01 radlus r. Lel usconsidcr an arbilrary posi
tion 01 !he neutral a;o;is t.ngenl to the rontour. We Wiall dire<:1 axi.s Oy
perpendicular to lhis langt'flt. Then

U5

Htnee. the core is a circle of radlus four limes less \han the radius

of lhe sec:tion.

IP~/I

.00

YJ1

In an ]beal1l the neutral nis will nol inltrSed {he soclion "..h ile
moving round ji, il iI remains langtnlial lo reclangle ABCD dtsCribed
around Ihe IOOm (fi. 319). Thtrefore. in an l'~am the cort is
rhombus, as in a redanul;Jr stion, bu! onl}' ~'ith dilf('fffit dimen
sions.
In 1 channel bar, a.~ in oliO )bum, points J. 2, J. 4 or lhe cort'S
boundary (Fig. 320) corr~pond lo posilions of lhe neutral axis \\ilen
it coincides wilh lhe sid~ of rec.tangle A,8CD. The dilitances may be
foun rmm formulas (21.15).
Eumple l. A culoul element Di a chain (Fil' 321) s madI:! of slte!
wire
diameler d-SO mm; 0_60 mm. Find Ihe muimum permiso
sible value 01 rom P ir (he permissibJe tensHe stress in mlion A s

or

101-1200 kgffcm l .
In Ihe gven section Ihe wire material Is subjected lo ecccnlric Itll'
Selecling axis Oy in lhe planc
sion. Ectentricity e is eqtllll lo 0+
passing through force P and Ih~ axis al th~ 'lralfll! par! or he wlre as
th~ olher axis, we gel

4.

y.. =t_D:+y

1,_0.
St~

al an arbilrary poin! or the seclm jj; ivtrl by the tJ:ptasion

P

o-+$'+
Sululituling lhe \imiling valucs
minimum slr~;

o.... \ ... (P ti(PM

,

O' .. I~

";jj'i

2rrd'

lhe maxJmum Ind

_~ [1!!]_ " [1 8(.. I-f)]

rrd'

"+[ +;.i2]
~
I

J.

y={. we find

The strenglh condilion may be

p(ll+f),

d""'iiifi"

"'Tillen as
= :~ (8D:+5d)~f(JJ

wherefrom

P_ MI 101 _3.14X5"XI200 \610 kgf

4 {8l+~ 4l8xi5+5XD):::;:

Eumple 2. A 100( bulkhud h=J m high and b=2 m wick!

(Fi. J22) supporls In earth mound. Earlh pressure Pfi meire lenglh
of he bulkheld is H-3 ti and scls al ;1 heigll! of ~ mm he [ounda
lion. Specific weihl 01 brrckv.,k i,..,-2U/m". Find he Iimilinc VI'
Jues of stresses in s seclion tsken lhrooh lhe loundalion.

."

CQmblncd &lIding Qnd Tur$/oN

Ch. 221

\IIe isolale a portion one melre long from Ihe wall (Fig. 322), we
can consider il asa bar lixed at one end and subjected to bending duc lo
('srth pr(!S5ure and compression due lo ils own weight. Asthe mllximum
slrcsses occur at Ihe lixed cnd, il is surlicienl lo check Ihe slrength 01
lhe cutoll" portion in !lis section on\)'. The problem ofdetermining
stresses in lhis section is equivalenj lo analyzing a bar subjected to simullanooU5 compression and bending.
_~-----<
The lorces transl1Iitted Ihrough his seco -f="='l~"""'''''
tion are theweighl
(he culolf porlion
t
I
N=lx2x3X2=12 tf ami earlh pressure H-3 ti. Thc bending momenl in
.
his seclioll due lo lorce H is equa] lo
I
M=H-}=3 Um. \Ve shall employ
11
~--formula (21.3) lor caJculaling [he max
imum normal slresses at he edge 01 ~~~;lhe foundlllion. The seclion \\'hich is
being checked ;s a rectangle with dimensions b==2 m ilnd d= 1 m; Iherefore lhe maximum compressive stress
on side 11 01 this seclion is

or

__L_

f~

H
M
12
6X3
a""~=-s-iF"'-ZXI-lx2'

=-6-4.5
= - iO.5tr/m' = - 1.05 kgf/cm'

~/~

2
Fi. 3-"2

The rompressive stress at poiols on side 2-2 or ihe secUon is

N

o"ln=-S+W=-6+4.5
= - 1.511tm l =-- 0.15 kgf/cm"
CHAPTER 22

Comblned Bendlng and Torsion

125. Dell'rminalion of Twisiing and Bending Moments
In Chapler 9 \Ve discussed a problem on checking he slrenglh of a
shfl under lorsion. Howo:-ver, machine parls such as shafls rarely work
under pure torsion. Even a strai/!ht shafl working under torsion hends
due lo i1s own weighl, weight of Ihe pulleys and Ihe pressure e:<erled
by the belts. Hence, a majority 01 machine parls working under lor
sion aro:- aclulllI)' subjecled lo combined ~nding and lorsion. Crank
shafls belong lo this group.
1"_S';

ReslslanOl Ufllkr Compound Wading

[Pur VII

In Ihe analysis of elements subjecled to combined bending and lor

sion Ihe firsl Ihing to do is lo filld Ihe design values of the benrJing
momenl M b and twisling moment M,.
Let os consider a slraight circular shatl wilh a pulley and crank.
The loading diagram 01 the shafl is shown in Figs. 323 and 324. A pul
ley oi weighl Q is mounled at ils leH end, 1he belt pressures 00 lhe
tight and slack sides 01 lIJe pulley are T ami f, respeclivel)' (1)1),

1,

L~---l

N
8

IP

c..!..

,..L-r~T,
I

V
-p7'fN%
'

,L

.Le pJ

Fig. 323

Fig. 324

and a horizontal force P ads at the erank pin al Ihe right end oS Ihe
shaft. Lel us eonsider Ihe inslanl when Ihe crank is vertical. AH tlj
mensions are given on Ihe diagrams.
.
We have to calcula le the bending and Iwisling mpments lor shalt
AD. Forees T and t (pull 01 Ihe bel!) act ing 00 the ulley may be replaced br a forceT+t acting at Ihe centre ollhe pu ley and a momenl
(T-(R., where R. is the radius 01 the pulley. Force T+I along wilh
the weight 01 pulle)", Q, bends the shaft; momenl (T-f)R., whieh
twists lhe shalt, is balanced by Ihe moment applied lo ils right eod.
Lel us replace lorce P ading al the crank pin by an idcnlical force
P acting on Ihe shalt at poiol N 01 Is exlension and a moment Pilo.
Thus, Ihe eods al lhe shalt are acted upon by rnoments PIl. :md
(T-(R. lo equilibrium, when Ihe machioe runs unilorrnly, these
two rnornents are equal lo Ihe twisting momen! M ,=Ph.=(T-f)R.
If we know lhe number of revoluUons ol Ihe shafl per unil time. n,
and lhe Iransmitle<! power, N, lhen Ihe twisting moment can be lound
from formula (9.3) 01 46:

MI

716}N,

hence
,

T--'-"- R.(I-I1I)'

where

=1

m=r

As far as beoding is concerned, lhe shalt is acle<! Upon by vertical

force Q and horizontal forces T+I and P. Therelore, we must plot Ihe
bending.moment diagrams for the horizontal as well as the vertical
orces (Fig. 325 (a) and (b). consdering Ihe shalt 10 be simply supporl

...
ed al the bwings B and Cooe o the burings pcrmits horiwntal dis
placement).
Having ploUe<! the bendlng.momenl diagrams lar the vertical and
horizontal rorces, \\-"e can Iind the total bending momenl Mil in a seclion as lhe geometrk sum o the two! The geomelric addition of Ihe
veclors representing lhe bending moinenls in secllon B is shown in
Fig. 326. The 100al bending rnomenf In secUon B ma)' be wrilten as
M~_bY

Q'+(T+f)'

Eaeh .seclion will have lis own plane

U~ ~tion

lhroUgh lt centre of gravity,

\lit

bendiflg. HO\\'eVeJ", since

can superpose lhe bending-moment

t-6-1~1_

#."
(tJ?t~
A

lf-~K

,1:

, I
~ll

1
1

r..6+-f

or

moduli 01 a circular body b Ihe same about atl axes pming

--:....,-tP

l/;
1H
NI: '
I

'

:rNJ6

ilhl

,
I

I
I

I
I

(Ttt)J

,
I

1
Fil

planes of all5eClloll5 in lhe plane ollhe diagram and [hen plol the resultant bending-moment dlagram, wilhout In an)' way aftecling lhe
final results. This precise! y has been done in Fig. 325(c). We wish lo
poin! out withoul a formal proof Iha! belween settlons 8 and
the
resultanl bendingmoment diagram does not have a mv:imum.
Il is eviden! from lhe shape or lhe dlagram thal critical loadin
occurs eilher in bearing 8 or in bearing e, depending on lhe numeri-

...

al values.

(PUl YII

126. Otlermination 01 SlrtsSeS and Stnnglh

Check in Combined Btnding and Torslon
Having calculattd the lTIU:imurn bending momenl M~ 3nd the ma
xhnurn I""istin IROmenl M,: ....-e can now lind U~. nllumum slresses
in le shaft material aOO wTlle lhe slrength condlhon. Lt't us assulUl!
Ihe shaH lo be cul in lhc crilkal s.edion e (Fig. 327) and anal)'%C il
....,1Ih 1I~ Mtp of lhe princ:iple al wperposUion oIl~. We shall cal
culale Ihe stres.ses in Ihe cross section dIJe to lhe bendmc momenl and
adtl to them Ihe slre.s.se.s due lo lorsion.

"
I
I
I

I ,

"

'"
"

'.
Tl~

bending momenl acts in the horizontal pl3ne'. lhe neutral axis

be vtflkal, and Ihe maximum normal slreMCS (JI> will occur at
POll1ts c, and el al lhe endpoints 01 the horilOl1tal diameler. Torsion
wiJlglYI:' ri.se lo shearing slres.ses only, whkh will b<! IR3ximal al
pomts on lhe conlour,
Thus, poinlsc, and e. in lhe seclional plane \ViiI eXpE"rience nHu:irnum
normal as well as maxinlUm shearing slresses. At poinis c. and c. 011
Ihe vertical dmeter Ihe she.'lring slre.sscs due lo torsion wilt be suh
stanUale<! by s]carin slres.ses due lo bending, However, lhese' slres
~ are snlOlIl in magnitllde IInd experimenlal sludies show thal poinfs
e, nd c. MI' the critically loodM poinls, Lel u.s ;;ola le cuhic elemenls
01 Ihe shalt's material around thesc ponls (Fig. 327). Four faces of
these elements will be subjeded lo shearing slresses TI (t\\'O al Ihese
four races will experience normal stresses too) and lhe olher two races
01" lhe cube ~ill be complctcly free of st~ (Fig. 328). HJCE', Ihe
elelflMt is In a lwodimensional slressed slale. It is Imown ( 39 ami
Ihat in ortler to check lhe slrefW"lh d a material in lwo-dimensional
stre:ssed sta le, we musl find lhe principal slresses 6, and o~ and sub
slitule Iheir vallK'S in Ihe strenglh contlilion .....ritlen on Ibe basis al
one al lhe lheodes 01 faHure,
An e!cnK'lli ola bent ht'am cut al a dislance: hom the oculral axis
is al!lO in /l slIllilllr 11l.,.",nK'n~ion:ll slale of slr('U. We discuSSNlltO\\,
lo cheek lhe slr('llglll of Mlt'h 3n l'r,'ll1cnl l 77J while stud}'ing lile

10\'111

Ch. 111

slrenglh 01 beams thal experience both a bending momenl and a shearng force. The only dilference was Ihal bolh lhe normal slress (J and fhe
shearing slress T were cause<l by bending in Ihal case.
For checkin::: the slrenglh al an el('menl ~ul from Ihe shafl, we can
direcll) afpl; he formulas derived in 71 by subslituting o~ and TI
in pia~e a, o and Y, respectively. Then we obrain the following strel'lglh
cond1ions according lo !our diITerent theuries 01 failure:
Ihe Ihieory 01 ma:dmum normal slresses:

+(0. +JI01+ 4-,:;) ~ ra]

Ihe theor)" 01 maximum sira in:

(0.3.So. -1-0.65l o~+ 4-,:'J) '" foj

lhe Iheory 01 maximum shearing slresses:

(22.1)

V~+4-,:!~[al
Ihe theory 01 dislorllon energy:

l.ro"H3-G~ro]
\Ve IIlusl calculale O"b and t, lo correlsle lhe slrenglh check wllh
Ih" nurn"rical value of moments M~ and MI and Ihe dirnensions of Ihe
shaft. Sln.'SS 0". whicb is the maximum normal stress due lo bending
momenl M b , is

11:' ,

For a circular sh:lft w=

whcre r is Ibe radius allbe circular sec1I0n. Ol1 Ihe olhcr hand, lhe maximum stress "tI due lo tOfsion is
M,
Tl=yl'

M,
llr'

AII

,'~l

=---;;T=W

2-,-

Subsliluling Ihese values in Ihe Iirsl expression 01 formula (22.1), we

oblain

.!..(
~+V
2 \ W

M:+4~
~_M.+'~
Md~(U]
4\17'12W
=r

W'

We can similarl}' oblain tlesign lormulas for lhe olhcr theoril'S of

fllHure. [1 is evidenl Ihal ,111 Ihese formulas can be rcprcsented by 3
single general formula 01 Ihe type

Md..-
1
W,"","O

(22.2)

[Puf VII

"llere M" is {he desin moment whose nlue depends nol enl)' upon
lhe moments M. lnd M, bul liso upon (he tMorr al railure applied.
According to

lhe lheor)' of maximum normal shessts:

M"l =-r(M.+ V Ml+ M:l
Ihe lheory 01 maimum slraln:

Mof, .. O.35M.+O.65V Mt+""n

the theory 01 maximum shearing slresses:

(22.3)

M....... V Ml+\1~

lhe theory 01 distorlion energy:

M"4-VMl+0.75M:
Formula (22.2) is similar to lhe formula by whkh \\'e check lhe
slrenglh under normal stresses due to bending by a momeol M".
Thefelore. Ihe strrnglh check al round shaft under combjned bending
and torsion ma)' be reploced by a c.heck due lo btndingonly by lhe ~n

di{1g momenl M".

In sorne constructlons Ihe shafls are subjected lo tmsion or comprrs
sion due
an axial load N in addition lo bending and lorsion. lhe
elfect ol the axial forces on Ihe slrenglh 01 lhe shart ma)' be taken ioto

lo

lecount by lhe addiiion of slrtSSeS 0'. caused by Ihem lo he maximum

bending slresseso.: o.~~, where A is Ihe crwseclional area ollhe
haft.
FroOl formula (22.2) we ob!.in

w=~a;;."*
wherelrom the radlus of Ihe shall
~rm;

r~v ~.

d",,2r

('l2.')

For using Ihis formula all we have lo do is lo eslablish which ollhe

theories of faHure should be used ando consequently. which 01 he expression in formulas (22.3) should be employed lar ca1culaling the design momento
We tan slr'ighlaVo'ay rejed lhe Iheoryof maxlmum normal slresses
(see 39). beau.se shafls are usually mide [rom slm and froOl duclile
materiais in :eneral. Unlil recent limes, shafts in mac:hine tooilnduslry "'al! desined by lhe formula based on the second theory (Ihe Ihect)'
DI muimum slr.in). The formula Is sometlmes also referred lo as

Ch.

nI

Comblrwl

e.ndin aIId TOlsiOll

Sa/llt-Venall/'s formula:

~(O.35M~+ 0.65 V Ma M) :o;;;; ra]

Tt was used lIespile Ihe lael Ihallhe hypothesis unllerlying il is definileIy nollrue lor duclile malerials. For sorne lime now sh~fts are designed
by formulas whieh are based either on lhe third Iheory (lheory 01
maxmum shearing slresses) or on the lourlh Iheory (dislorfion energy
theory):

WVM~+MJ::;;:raJ

and

~VM1+o.75Mj::;;;;ra]

Table 15 compares Ihe values 01 shaft diamelers lor differenl ralios

01 M~ and M" using Ihe same permissible stress in all lhe Iheories
01 lailure. The dameler oblained by Ihe theory 01 maximum strain
(Sainl-Vemml's formula) is laken as unily.
Table 1'5
Comparlson 01 Ihe SlIalt Olamelel1

111 '1>00."

IV th"'Y

M.... O

1.15

1.10

MI - 2

1.07

Lro

,ro

1.01

11 lh"ry

, M,

M~~M,

It is evident Irom Ihe table thal, firstly, Ihe differenee in lhe dimensions 01 Ihe shaft is not large regardless of the lheory used and, second
Iy. Ihe diameler by SainlYenanl's lormula is in al! cases less Ihan the
diameler oblained by the olher lwo Iheories, This helps lo explain
the lad Ihat SainlVenanl's rormula is sliJl used scimetimes in engi.
neering practice, allhough it is based on a hypothesis which has been
proved inapplicable to duetile malerials.
A designer musl remember that Iransllion lo Ihe new design rormulas basel! on more aeeurale Ihoories would have been practically impossible il the old values 01 permissible slresses had beeo relained.
This would have led lo Ihe use 01 shafts or bigger dlameters, where
old shafls 01 smaJler size designed according lo S,alnt-Venant's lor.
mula I'r'ere working salislaclorily.
The idea is lhat when we change over lo a new formula we cannol retaio the previous lactor 01 58fely and the previous permissible slress.

'"

R~ssr(lru:e

Undt, Campound I..ooding

IPnrl VIf

NOTe aCcuTate dcsign ;md dl"t'per knowledge aboll! Ihe working 01

materials musl, as a rule, be accompanied by a raluc!an in he faclor
of sarety ami consequently no ncrease in the pennissible stress, [(JI.
Therefore. when we are ca1cu[aling the design mamen! by LhC' nc\\'

formulas, we musl "creaS<' Ihe permiMible stress lerl by suth a value

SO lhal we can juslify lhe t1imensions 01 shafts alreadr working salls
faclorilyon he basis of Ihe nevo Iheories and reliabll' experimenlal invcsliga[jons.
CH"PTER 23

General Compound loading

127. Stresses in a Bar SecUan Subjeded
lo General Compound Looding

Th'1' nlethorls or finding s[resses and delormalions used in solvil1g

pnrlicular problcms ()f cOlllpound loading may also be l'mployed in
sHua(ion, uf more cOlllplex loading 01 the body. Limiling our <.Iis(:ussion lo I'rismlic bars, in \\'hich Ihe cenlre of bending coincides wilh
Ihe cenln' of gravily of Ihe seclion, we 3ssume Iha1 suth a bar
(Fig. 329(0) is in equilibrium under lhe forees acting on il; t!le' orienlalion 01 Ihes<' forces in space is arbilrary. To Silllplify lhe di3gram,
only collcenlraletl lorces have been ShOWll in Fig. 329 (a). Huwl'vtr.
dislributed luds and mum...nls may also be applietl. This will nol uflecl our dlscussion.
For finding Ihe slresses al an arbitrar)' poinl A of Ihe bar, let us <.Iraw
a St.'<:lion nlll perpendicular lo Ihe bar's axis; lhe seclion culs Ihe bar
into 1\\'0 parls tl al1dll). Le{ us remove one par!, say, Ihe righl one,
and lnmsrer ~lllorces acting on I lo lhe c('nlre of gravily 01 sKtiuJ1
1Il1l. lo paint C. In Ihe lulure discussion we shall UlIe a righl-hand reo::~angular coordinale system wilh {he xaxis passing Ihrollgh the crnlre
uf gravity of secUon mil and normal lo il and the olher 11'00 axes coinci<.ling with lhe principal axes of ineriia of Ihe secUon passing Ihrough
the cffilroid.
When a force P h is translerred lo poin! C (Fig. 329 (b, \Ve obta]n a
force Ph actillg al the centre 01 gravil)' in general and nol coinciding
wilh nny 01 Ihe coordinale axes and a moment Mh=P~al ading In
general in aplane which is inclined to all (he coordinale planes. Projt'Cling rorte Ph on lhe X-, yo and z-axes, we lind the components Ph :<,
Ph~ and P~,; similarly. projcdingM~ on {he X, Y', and laxes, we oh(a in the Compommts M"T' M~v and M~, (Fig. 3Z9(c) shows the resoluo
ton of veclor L h represenling momenl M h inlo (he cumponenls Lh ,
L,~ and l.~,). By doing Ihe Sllme operalion wilh all the forces P~ acting
on lhe right parl of {he bar, \Ve can replace Ihe force system Ph by a
slatically equivalellt system consisling 01 six components; three lorces

along

lh~

coordinale axes acting al lhe centre. 01 grJvHy afilie sed ion

Q~=~P~~,

,.,

(P"rl VIl

and Ihr~ moments about these axe5.

M~= ~ Mu ,

"_1

M,-1:: M~,

M,= Y M...

tf:l

(FIg. 329 (d). Forccs N, Q,. and Q. wiU beconsldutd posilive if they
coin<:ide with fue positi\'e dire::tions 01 lhe eo<rdinale ues. wbile
momenls M., M" and M, will be considere<! positive illhe}' ad in
the anticlock\\'Jse direclion abOlJl Ihe cormponding axtS (a1l the force
and momen! cnmponentt shown in FIg. 329(d) art posiUvt).
Frem the earlfer discussion \\'t know Ihe simple forms of deformalion
which resull from Ihe aclion of each of Ihese componenls. It should be
borne in mind lhal lhese lor<:es Iransrerr!'d from Ih!' righl cutoul part
lo the leH reflect Ihe Iction of lhe righ! part on Ihe leH and Iherelore
In section mn are manifesled as slresses. Thus, N is the sum 01 normal
slresses distribute<t over the secUan, M" is Ihe sum of moments about
Ihe x.axis 01 all shearin str~ actlng ~n SKtion mIl. and SO Orl.
11 is evideot Ihal N gives rise to lerision OC compresslon, Q, and Q. to
$hear In the direction of Ihe y. and Ihe zaxis. respectively. Ai" lo lar
slon, and M, and M. to pure uni.planar bending abaut lhe!/. and lhe
zaxis, respectively. Thus. in Ihe IllO.SI general case of loading 01 Ihe
bar, Ihe laUer uperieoces fOllr simple delormalic:ns: lensioo or como
pression (N), Imian (M,,) and uni'planar bending about N.O nes,
(tU, and Q.) and (M, and Q..). Three lorce Iac:lort. N, M,. and M"
ive rise to normal slr~ 111 Iion mn \\'hile Ihe remaining Ihree.
Q" Q.. and M". loshearing slresses (Fig. 33:>(0) and (e).
Lel os lirst sludy lhe case when enly normal st~sses appear in the
bar Iion. 1I can be mily seen Ihat his is a particular case el como
pound loading-lension or compressian wllh pure bending In 1\\011
princlpal inerlja planes paSlling !hrough lhe cenlroid.

128. Determination of NOfmal Slresses

Lel us assume Iha! Ihe lorctS acting on lhe removed parl 01 Ihe bar
can be reduce<! In seclion mn lo three components: {he normal lorce N
and two bending moments M v and M.; we shall usume alllhe componeols to be posHive (Flg. 330 (o)). Leol us derive a lormula for determino
ing norma! slress al a poinl A loc.altd in Ihe I\l'5t quadrant of secHan
mn and having coordinales JI and l.
TIIe positive normal Ion:e N gves rise lo the unlormly distributed
tensilestress, o'=NIS,lheposilive bending IOOmenl M,gives in the
I\nl quadrant 1~le strus o"-+M,z1J while lhe posllh'e bendine
mamen! M. gives compres.sive stress CJ"=-M JI!I. (~ Fig.33:>(b.
Surnming up lhese component.s of normal stress \\'e rel the lollowing
expressiDn far calculaling he lolal normal stress al poinl A:

(J=(J+a"'+CJ-=4.+MJr'_~
,)
,
J,

(23.1)

CA, DI

'"

For ca1culating U~ total normal stres.s at any olher point of he

bar's cross :slion, il is suflicienl lo subslilule in formula (23.1) the
and M, and coordlnates !I and 2 wilb lhe proper
values of N,
signs; IbIs Ives us tbe total normal stress witb lhe proper signo
It is obvious from formula (23.1) Ihat lhe normal stresses are linear
lunctions 01 coordinales II and 2: lbey mus! attain maximum al lhose
points of tbe section which are lartbut Irom tbe neutral axis (at lbe

M,.

'f

'

,.

r,)

(1)

Fi,. 330

neulral axis tlle normal slresses lre uro). Figure 331 (a) depicts a 5.
tion ollbe bar; in all lbe quadrants lhesigns 01 normal stresses, (t) (J',
(2) (J" and (3) CJ~, are shown in Ibe assumplion Ihat N, M, and M. are
positive. It is ob\'k!us Ihat lbe neutral axis will intersed Ibe qUlId
rants witb normal slresses of diflerent signs and in the given case will
nol pass Ihrough Ihe centre of gravlty and the top leH quadran!.
Assuming that in formula (23.1) stress (J is eqllal to lera and dcnoting
the coordinates of a poin! on lhe neutral nis by !In and z~, we get Ihe
lollo\\,jng equalioo of the neutral axis:

N
M,
M
11.",,0
5+7'.-7
'

Equating lo UfO first 2. and then /l., we find Ihe intercepls cul by
lhe neutral axis on lhe axes of !I and '. respectively (Fig. 331 (&)):
NI,
a,_ SM,

,"d

NI
a,=--iit:

(23.2)

As lhe presente or absence of factor N/S in.formula (23.1) does not

all'ecl lhe Inclination 01 Ihe neulral axis wlth respect lo lbe coordinate
axes, tM tnclinalian may be delermined [rom lhe equation

M.

7; 1.-7';11. =

IPOfl VII

wherelrom 11 ensues that

r~
'J. M,
lanu'""--r""""
,.
"'r
j

(23.3)

By ~metrkally summing the moments M, and M, ading in~'

ion mil in planes X~ and xy, we obtain the resultant bending mamen!

M,~VM1+M!
Angle

(23.4)

bebA."ffn he plane in u'hkh MI 8ch and Ihe ver! ical piune

n may be lound (rom Ihe eJlpressioo

tan ~." ~.

(23.5)

This expression tnables liS to wrile formula (23.3) in lhe follO\l,jng

for",:

(236)

Angles lX and 'JI wlll be considere<! positive ir they are a id in Ihe anlic:Iockwi$t' direction Irom lhe cOrTesponding axes (lX Irom lhe yaxi.s and
fmm he 1JJ[is).
It is citar rrom (23.3) Ihal in g~alltK" neutral axis in lhe.sUon
js nol petpendictJlar lo he trail el tM resullan! beflding r.KInll'nt

(Figs. 3JJ ~nd 332) acting in the salOl' section. The neutral asis \\'jlJ be
pt'rpendicu!ar only when angles lX and " are equal. This, in lum. ls
possible only under lhe rol!owing condiliom: (1) rp-O. Le. M.-O;
(2) .. =

T' Le. M ....O~ and (3) J.=-J. In lhe fi~t 1\\'0 cases lhe bar

el. 23J

41J

experiences uni.planllr bending in one 01 lhe principal planes of iner

tia irrespective 01 Ihe magnitude of lhe principal momenls Di inerlia;
in Ihe Ihiro case a1l Ihe axes 01 inertia are principal central axes 01
inertia (circle, square, ele.) and
therefore bending is uniplanar in
all oirections. The whole discussion
Jeads lo Ihe following general con
clusion: bending is uni.planar amI
Ihe neulral axis is perpendicular lo
the projeclion 01 lhe plane of aclion
of Ihe resultan! bending moment if
Ihis plane interseds the seclon pero
pendicular to one of lhe principal
cenlral axes 01 inertia al right angles.
In general Lhe neulral llxisdivides
the cross seclion into l\Vo IOnes:
a slrelched rone llnd a l'ompressed
rone. Drawing lines parallel to Ihe
fig. 3J~
neutral axis ano langenllo Ihe con
tour 01 thecross section, we ftnd Ihe
points O, and O, 01 rnllximum lensile and compressive slresses whkh
lie farlhest from lhe neutral axis (Fig. 331(0)) tor bolh zones. Subsli
tuting the coordinales 01 (hes> poinls (Yo and lo. or!lo and Z(I)
with Iheir proper signs in formula (23.1), \\'e 'fino the' maximulll lensile
and compressive slresses:
N MM
Al,
(23.7)
o",u=s+rl'-TY'

'

While solving practical problems H is sometimes more convenient

lo replace general formula (23.7) by lhe lollowing formula:

INI

'M~lol

1M,!!,]

om"'=""""S""-J-.-~

(23.8)

in which lhe absolule v~lues uf N, MM' M" Y. and z, are subsUluled,

and lhe signs DI lhe lerms art' ascertained in each parlicul<lr case rom
Ihe actual direclion of lorce radors and locaHon 01 the poinls in lhe
seclion.

lZ9. Delerminalion 01 Shearing Slresscs

Shearing slresses in a bar's section occur dile lo torsion 01 lhe bar
abonl Ihe xaxis, Al"" and shear in planes xy and xz (Q~ alld Q,); see
Fig. 33O(c). For a bar 01 circular or ring sed ion Ihe shellTing stresses
l", due lo Iwisling moment M", can be calculaled by Ihe wellknown

,1<

RtsisUzIIa Unkr CQmpound l.cIu!;1I/l

[Parl VlI

formula
(23.9)

For a bar of any other cross seclion Ihe ma... imum shearing slresses
mal' be delermined by Ihe formula

&.

(23.10)

maXT/= Wf

using the data for W/ give.n in (he seclion on Iwisting of bars f noncircular ~jjon. In al! lhe cases 'the maximum shearing stresses (tor
sion) oc;ur atlhe contour of lhe section and ad along lile tangen\ lo il.
The shearing slresses due lo Sorces Q~ and Q. are, as a rule, 01 secondary importante; (hey are determined by Zhuravskii's formula
QuS~

'fv=J.~I)

anel

Q.St
1:'=J,IJ(l)

(23.11)

In rectangular and round seclionslhese shearing stresses al!an their

maximum on Ihe corresponding principal axes 01 inedia: 'fu on Ihe

z-axis anel _,on he y-axis. Al those points 01 Ihe conlour where lhe di
TecHon 01 maximum shearing stresses due to shearing forces (max T~
or rnax T.) coincides wilh 'the direction 01 rnaxirnum shearing stress
due to torsion. the lwo are arithmetically summed up and the maximum
total stress is llsed lor strength analysis:
T.... -maxTr+maxT~. or

T....... maXT,+maxT.

Since the normal slresses dile lo bending and Ihe tolal shearing stres
ses dlle lo shear and lorsioll are bolh maxirnlllll at the conlour of the
secUon, it i5 logical lo search for the maxirnally stressed points and
also to check Ihe slrength 01 the bar's material on the conlour. The
poinls experiencing maxirnum shearing stresses do no! always coincide
wilh lhe poinls subjecled lo maximum normal stresses. In such cases
the slrenglh of the bar's material should be checked at those points on
the contour where lhe combine<! elTect ol normal and shearing stresses is
most unfavourable.

l30. Ottermination 01 Olsplacements

lf we recall lhat in the general ca~ of compound loading the bar ex
periences, besides olher lypes'6f elemenlary deformaHons, twa pllinar
bendings in (he principal planes or inertia. it becomes clear thal in
general (he deRecled axis 01 (he bar musl be represented by a curve in
space. The curvalure of Ihe axis in plane xlJ is
~_'__ M.

P"M
EJ.

(23.12)

."

Ch. 13J

ami in plane

Xl

lis

x.,

__'
P".

.!!L

(23.13)

EJ,

If lhe curvalure v~tcrs. x. and x . are laid on Ihe COITesponding

CDOl'din.le nfS. veclor x of !he tolafcurvature 01 lhe dellecled lIis,
which ~presents lhe geometric.al sum

x=Vx;+x:

(23.14)

makl!S In angJe ., wilh the loaxis. Ind the llnenl of Ihis angle (set
Fig. 331(c) is lound from the Icrmula
..

M. J,

tan l' =.::f.;o

--lC,
M, J.

(23.IS)

A compari5Ol'l of formulas (23.15) and (23.3) assures us Ihal angles

ttand'l are equal, Le. the lolal curvalure vector is parallel lo Ihe neutrel axis. and il lhere is-!lO .rormal lorce lhe 1....' 0 coincide. Hence.
Ihe resultanl curvature plane, which is ptfJX!:ndic.ular lo Ihe lotal curvalure vector and langenl lo lhe deftecled axis of tlle bar in the given
secUon. is always perpendicular lo lhe neutral axis. The centre or
gravily 01 lhe given seclion geu displaced perpendicular to Ihe neulral
uis only when lhe bar is subjeded lQ,bending in one plane (when 11'COlJst and OI=cdnsl along Ihe whole lenglh 01 lhe bar, for instance, in
uni.planar and unsymmetric. bending).
11 J~>'J . s In llie examp!f!! depieted In Fig. 331.1hen acrording lo
(23.3) lan OI>llIn !ji and a:>lf, Le. Ihe centre aS gravity geb displaced
in a diredion whlch is indined lo lhe pllne o( acUon of bending momenl M_ and lends towards Ihe I/axis. It can be easily notked Ihal
Ihe eenlre of gravily always deOecu lrom Ihe plal\(' or lhe resullan!
bending moment lowuds Ihe axis lIboul'whic.h !he momelu 01 inerlia
is maximum.
lt lollows Irom the aboye that lhe delltcle<! ub or Ihe bar can be
represenle<! by a eUl'ye in a ptane only JI lhe lolal curvalure vtOl'
makes 11 constanl angle 'Y=tt with thegouis llong lhe \I:hole Itflith al
lhe b3r, Le. (we (23.J5) ir lhe product ~ ~ is independenl lrom
lhe x<OOI'dinale. The last may ~r. f ins'ta~, wtlen 3 bar 01 unio
form secUon is tOlde<! by forces Ihal ilCl in 11 single plane.
Applying lhe principIe al supt!l105ition 01 (orces. we. tan use the dil
ferenlial equalions obtained lrom. (23.12) and (23.13) f nding Ihe
folal dlsplacelllenl of I.he tenlre of r3vily of an arbilrary section.
Alter integrallng and !inding Ihe conslanl$ of integration frolll the
boundary condiHons and then delermining lar Ihe givell section lwo
displacemenl components f. and f. in lhe direc.tion or he principal
axes el nertlll !I and l. we can dell!f"mne Ihe total displaeemenl as

."

(Pal/ VII

lhe geoml'trk surn:

f-V"f.+fi

(23.16)

Besil!es Ihe ,nalrlical rnethod. (~ displacemerrt can ai.w be found

by Ihe graph-8nalylic method .nd Casligliaoo's lheorem, which 1$
parlicularly userul when dealing wi!h crank rods (see below). When
Casligliano's ll1eorem Is employed rOl' delermining disp[accments un

dt'f compoum.lloading, lhe polenlial energy d eiormation, U. mus!

be expressed as a fundioo 01 al! {he si:\" fon:;e componenls: N, Qu. Q..
M" M... and Al '0 Negl('(;ling the energy or shearing stress due lo shellT'
ing forees, Wi! mal' write
U=U (NI+U (M ..)+U (M I )+ U (M,)
As.suming Ihlt in geneulnorlllal 'orce N and I\risting monten! M ..
dO no! rtm'lo constanl OVe!" lhe "'hole lenglh of lhe bar, \\"e ean "Tite
Ihe following expressions ter lhe energy slol"l;~d in an clellJellt oI l~lh

d,,,

N'th

and

dU(N)-UA"

M.:.u

dU(M")-"lGh

and Ihe lollowing expressions Jo.- Ih!!. mergy slored in a segl11enl o

lengtb 1 of Ihe bar:
U(N)","f""- dx alltl U(M) fM~...

...... t

(ffi

2GJ l

We have lhe following e;(pres.sians for lhe energy due lo nanual stres
in uni.planar bending (5 100):

$t'5

Al"

U (M,I'" Jr -7ftT

.:u
U(MJ=- r 2EJ.

and

Keeping the abov!!. upressions in mint!.

U as lollaws:
U-

\\"t

can wrH!!. th!!. formula rOl"

h' 2C;1
M' +iif;+
Al'
Al') dx
tr( m+
n';,

(23.17)

where sub.>cripll shows (hal (he express ion is inlegratcd over lJ length
J nf he bar lor wfich jhe lunclions al Ihe xcoortlinale. Le. N. M...,
M~. and M ,. are conlinuous. rr lhe bar conlains a nmuber of such seg.
ments, then st'parate integrals should be cakulaled fOl eaeh or lh!!.m
and {hen summed up.
Applying Castlgliano's theonm. we can find (he displacemenl in fhe
diredion al an)' o Ihe forces P ftom Ihe follO\\'ing epression:
6

lHI=-'~r(..!i...iJ.V+&iJM.,+~iJM. T

='<"'Jli

""'J EAV

'.'"

GJIIW

EJ,7

Al z cMl z )dr(2318)
"U;iiP
.

Ch. 231

By P and 6 we denole here a general rorce ami Ihe displacemenl coro

r(oSponding lo l. The formulas used io Ihe melhods 01 \Iohr amJ Vereshehagin can be derived in a si milar manner.

131. Deslgn 01 a Simple Crank R,od

Crank rods are olten used in engineering practiee as parls of crank
gear and other mechanisms, erankshaHs, etc. lhe design 01 crank rods
is a little more dillicult Ihan thal of slraighl rods. As an example, we
shall explaio ho\\' to design the crank rod shown in fig. 333. lhe rod
consists of lwo parts: a vertical parl (01 rectangular secHon) anri a hori
rontal part (01 circular section). rigidly connecled al righl angles lo
eath olher. The 10110wJng loads are applied lo {he erank rod. [n Sl'Clion
A: P,-I200 kgf, P.=IOOO kgf,
P.,=400 kgl and a momen{ M.=
=800 kg[ m; in section 8: p.=
110 P
Ji
= 6000 kgf and P~-300 kgf. lhe
lirsl part is /,= 120 cm long, the
second 1,=8Ocm, b=8 em,h= 15em.
The rod is made of carOOn sleel: E=
2x 10' kgl/cm". G=8x 10" kgf/cm l
amI [ol=8OJ kgl/;m'. Tt is required
to eheek the ,$trenglh 01 lhe rod in
{he lirsl parl, determine lhe. diameter oS {he second part, lhe tolal dis
~ y.
placemenl of centre 01 gravily 01 seclion A, llnd lhe angle ol rolation of
this secUon aboul lhe longitudinal
r-g. 3J.'.I
axis of lhe lirsl parlo
lhe analysis slarts by plolting
diagrams thal show lhe variation of
atl loree factors 00 each par! 01 the crank roo. Each may be assignerl
its own syslelO 01 rectangular coordina les, choosing the axes in such a
way that force N is always a normal force. M x a lwisling momento and
M u and M, bendiog momenls. lo Fig. 334 such diagrallJS for Ihe lirst
part are shown lo the right 01 Ihe erank rod (Fig. 334(a)), and lor lhe
~e~ond part belo\\' the crank rod. On lhese diagrams Ihe values 01
force factors al lhe beginning and end 01 eaeh par! are "'Tillen in arilhmelic lorm. After plolling Ihe rliagrams {or atl Ihe parls we are in a
position lo locale the eritical seclioos. in which the combined elTC'C1 of
atl lhe force laetors is mos! unfavourable. In OUT eXllUlple lhe criliCill
sedions are: horizontal seclion 1/ in ihe first part amI vertical seclion
22 in lhe second parl, bolh in lhe vicinily of seclion B (see Fj.!,. J.N(a)).
lhese seclions mld the forces acling on Ihcm are shown in Fi~. 334(b)
and (e).

["",di'' '?,

R(sisla~a:

Undtr Compound Loading

IParl VII

Le! us check he strength of the rod in section 1/. The forces acting
on t~is seclion may be reduced to !he force N-P, = 1200 kgl, twlsting
momenl M,,=M.=-BOOOO kgf.cm, Bnd two bending moments:

'~/1a

111.

-- .-...-..,.----+

PIs:. 334

M.l'--PJl=-IOOOX [20=-120000 kgfcm and M ,=P,ll~400x

X 120::048 000 kgl. cm. Normal slresses at any pojnt of this seclion
may be cakulated by the formula (see (23.1
N M~ Md l~ IWM
~M
lW
O"=s+J-T-w-"""'ffiOZ-""&iO!I~
IO-T z - 75y
,

since S=t>Ii'""8x 15=120 cm', J ~=bh"!12=8X 15"/12=2250 cm', and

J ,=/lu'!12= 15x8'/12=&lO cm'. fhe neutral axis culs the following

Ch. 23)

Gmera! CompolJ"d Looding

'"

inlercepts on the y- and the l-axis:

NJ,

1200 X &40

a~= SM. =120X 48ooli~i5".O.I33cm

NJ~
1200x22S0
IJ'=-SM;=I2XI20000

3
m=0.1875cm

Maximum normal slresses occur al poinl 1 which is farlhesl Irom

the neutral axis and has coordinales y,=--4 cm and l,=-7.5 cm
(Ihis is a case of uniaxial stressed slale):
'"0
0 .... -om-10+T

x 7.5 + 75 x 4=710kgf{cm'

< [oJ

=800kgl{cm'
Hence, the rod's malerial at point 1 is suffieiently strong. We musl now
check the slrenglh of Ihe rod's material at points 2 and 8, which experiente torsional shearing stresses in addilion to lhe normal stresses.
The normal slre.sses at Ihese points are
01,) -..;.N

~J: y.= 10+ 75 x 4 =310 kgf{cm'

Mu

160

OI'\=s+TZ'= 10+TX 7.5=410kgf/em

To lind the shearing slresses we delermlne J,=ao' and W,=jlo".

From Iheratio n=hJo=!i -1.875 we find (rom Table 9 ( 54) by linear

inlerpolalion Ihe eoeffieienls a=0.416, jl=0.406, amI )'=0.808.

Henee J,=OAI6xa'=2506cm' and WI~0.406xa=233cm. At
poinl 2
M

80000

T"I=Tm.. =~""""'233=343

kgltem

and at poinl 3
TI"

= y-T..... = 0.808 X 343"" 277 kgf{cm'

We wiJ( check Ihe strengh 01 the. rod at {hese points by the lhird
slrcngth Ihoory:

a!Jg,,, = V o~.. +4ThJ = V 310'+4x343'

=753 kgf/cm' < 800 kgltcm'

a:tl <3l z: Ya!,,+ 4T;., = V 41<P +4

X 277'

= 689kgf/cm' < 800 kgf/cm'

Hence, al these poinls too he rod is slllficientJy slrong.

IPar{ VII

Lei us nolV undl'l'lake (Ile analysis of Ihe second parto In critical

seclion 22 lile force faclors are

N =P.+P, =400 +6000 =&lOOkgf

M.. "" - P.l, =- 1000 x 120= - 120000 Ilglcm
M,-P.I,=400 x 120=48000kgfrm
M. = -M.=-80000 kglcrn
As lhe seclion Is a drde and 11 as equal momenls of inerla for bE'milng
aboll! lhe 111'0 principal axes 01 inerlla, LE'.
1\1'

JM =J.=J.=7

and

Ilr'

J,=J"=2-2J,

bending momenfs M~ and M, can be geomelrically slIlllmN up inlo

lhe resultanl benulng moment

A'/. "'" V M;+ M~ = V4800Ql +80000' = 93280 kgf cm

The projeclion 01 lile plane 01 aclion 01 fhe resullant bemling mo
men! pmes fhrough lhe centre ol gravlly making an angle!l' with the
z-axis such thal
M.
~OOO
5
I arlf!=M=~=3

and

o ,

q=592

The crllicar point oI the secUon is poinl 0, which Jies al Ihe inler
scdion 01 Ihe projecllon of Ihe M,,-plane wilh lhe CQnlour. Al lhis
poi ni Ihe normal stress is
N

0",0)

= 0 .... = S

M
N
4M.
6400
4x93280 2037
llsno
+-w;
""';vr+;:i'"
= ~+~ = rr +-,,-

and lhe shearing stress is

Al ..
2M .. 2x80000
1"10)""'1".... =117" ""':;:r= 3.14r"

76300
r"

To delermine thl' radius 01 he section lor (his par! of Ihe crank rol!
shall gain use Ihe lhird slrenglh theory:

W~

0~(,= -V0;0, +41";0.

_/ 7(~;',''.'":+-'i,;',:il!""")~-+:-4-:-("'-',"~ij')",

.s;; [0"1 "" 800 kgf/t:m'

Taking Ihe square of bolh sides of Ihis equatiofl llnd mulliplying
Ih(' result by r', we oblain

2037'r' +2x2OJ7x 118 770r+ 118770'+ 152fiOO'~6.( X JO',I

<2,

Ch. 131

<TI = r'-6.485r'-756.lr-58516 ~ O

Whilc solving equation ({J=O by Irial ami error we neJ!lecl lhe laelors conlaining r' 3nd , in ihe lirst approximalion (Le. we n{gLd Ihe
relatively smaJl norm31 stress N/S). This gives

, ~ ;158 516=6.24 cm
Ir we subslitule a slighlly larger value 01 ,=6.3 cm in lhe equation
IVe get

(1l~O,

11>_ 6.3-6.485x6.3'-756.1 x6.3-58 51G

=-IOI3kgl.cm'

We Ihus see that lhe selocted value 01 , is not sullicient for salisfying
Ihe inequaJity (.): let liS Iry r=6.4 cm. In this case lD=+5099 kgfx
Xcm", By interpol3!ion \Ve iind Iha! r=6.32 cm. This corresponds lo
S ... or t = 3.14 X6,32' "" 125.5 cm'

.--,-= J.14 X 6.32'

!Ir'

1253

cm

'

J r =1 p= 2J~- 2x 1253 =2506cm'

We shall apply Casligl iano's Ihoorem lo calculate lhe displacemenls.

In Table 16 force faclors N, M~. M~. and M, alld Iheir derivlllives
PI> P" Po, and M.llre expresscd foreachof the crank rod partsas uncTable 16

Force rador~
Formulas for
a;iJP,
iJjiJP.
iJiiJP.
u/iJM.

tb~m

N
P,
1

Formulas lor force P,"'P,

fadors
iJ/iJP,
iJliJP.
rJliJP.
aliJM o

-,
-P,I,

-1,

-,

PI,_P,r:

-,
1,

Plr:-Ip.... -M.

-,

Parl VJ/

."

tions fI x. Using the dal. of

1.=

iW

(he

table

_r{ES. ~d.t+?i
A',

lP,

-e euily rind that

"aM.,d-f
EJ ro

7P7

Cuf'Jtd 8(1f.

I
-2X 10'

(T,.,ooo/
f0Jl:J(b:
1 o.4x1104 +r

800(0){ I)dx)

1253

- 2~~ =0.00794 =0.455

The total displaeclD!flt is

1- VF.+fHIt VO.2P+O.m +0.408'

_O.787tm

CHAJ'TER 24

Curved Bars
132. General Conupts
Besides slraight-axis bars in struclures we oBen come IlCJOSS bars
In which Ihe ax.is, Le. Ihe line passing lhrough he centres of gravity of
sUlX:essive cross ,secUans, is a curved line. Chain Iinks, lugr, hooks,
arthes, vaulls, hoisting crane Ira mes, ~tc., aH belong to (his group 01
elemenls (Fig.335). Slricl1y speaking, no bar has an absolulely
slraight uis. AII ban, whiclJ we design as stralghl ban, have a sllght
curv.alure. Theref01e, a study 01 the efTec:1 01 curvalure of Ihe bar's axis
on the distribution of slresses will, on Ihe one hand, enable us tocheck
Ihe slrenglh of ban having appre
ciable eurvature and, on the olher
hand, judge the inRuence of a slight
de:viation al the axis from a slralght
Jine 011 lhe strenglh of a straighl bar.
We introduce Ihe lollowirtg reslricUons lar cbecking {he slrength of
curve<! balS:
(a) seclions al lhe bar haYe an
axis of s)'mmetr)';
(b) lhe axis al lhe bar is a 11.1
curve which Hes in Ihe plane of s)'ll'lmelr)';
(e) .11 extmal forces also lie in
the s.ame plane.
On accounl of s)'mmetry, defor
malion 01 the bar wi1l al.so occur in
the s.ame plane, Ihe bar's axis wi1l remain a ftal curve I~'ing in the plane
al ulema! forca and {he pldure will be ldenlic.l lo Ihat of un'-pla.
nar bending of beam.s.

(Pllrl VII

By wriling he abol'e reslrictions \\'t eover almost an siluations ol

lhe working 01 CUf\:ed hars. Our task is lo find lhe maximum slrESSl.'S,
check lhe strenglh and determine lhe dclormation oC rurve<! bars.
The :iOIulion "",ill be similar lO the rase: oC bendiug of Slraight beams.

133. Delerminalion of Bmding Momenls Ind Normal

Ind .$huring Forres
tmagine a curvro bar (Fij. 336) loaded by exlernal (orces P" p p.,
ano p. acling in lhe plane 01 srmlMlr)' or the cross sectoos. The Slipporl ~8Cliolb., nol sho\\'Il In lhe figure, lit in lhe saltl(' pla~.
To dell,'l'minr Ihe slres.ses in scctions perpendicular to Ihe bar's
ni! Y.'t r;llll a setlion fIIll which divides Ihe bar i!lto two parts, J and
11. Let us remD\'e parl 1 and ron
sider lhe equllibrium o pUl Jf
(Fig. 337(0). Part Jf is acted uKlJ1
b~'

;~r-:::..,~

P,

force p., lhe reaclions at lhe

fixed end (nol shovm in lhe figure)
and slrt'SSfi in seclion mil which
:lppear because uf lhe acliOll oflhe
removed part on the parl under ronslderallon. Whlll are lhe slresSf!6
in secllon mil?

The scclion will experiroce nor

mal as well M shearing stresses (001
shown in Flg. 337{a. Wilh Ihe res
triclion! of 132 lhe normal slres
ses will give lhe following resulto
FIII:.336
anb: Ihebendingmomenl Al and Ihe
normallorce N. The shearing stresses in lhe S('(:lion \\,ill rield 8 re'
sultant ml.'3ring fortt Q. Th~ Ihree forces a~ shown in Fig. 337ta).
Lel us now coru;itler pan I 01 lhe curved bar (Fig. J.17(b. Al! ~x
I('(nal lorces acling on Ihis parl or Ih~ CUl'\'ed bu nlay tx- teduced in
general lo I resultant f~ R antia lllOnleTll M,. Resultant R mar be
resol~'ed inlo two C1lmponeflU, R" antl R. These Ihree n5ullants are
lk'Pk:ted in Fig. 331d. Th.,:)" lIso rtpl'e5f'fll Ihe aclion Di parl lof (he
CUl'\'ed bar on part JJ.
A comparison or Fij!5. 337(0) and 337(c) immffllltl'ly revl'alll that
bending mOmerlt M in scclion mil will be e<ual lo M f' normal l~
N \\itl tx- equallo R" antl waring fortt Q lo R,.
The lnlemal forces in cur\'ed bars-lhe betldinR momenl, normal
force and shearing foree----can be e3lcul31efl a~ in thl;' bendlng of
slralght hJrs lhrough exlem:tl forces arling on onc sitie Di Ihe cross
seclion. Th~ir compuilllion amounb lo $Oh'ing Iheequations of sllties.

Ch. 24)

Tlle bending momenl is equal to the algebraic sum of the momenls

of al! Ihe lorces located on one sirle 01 Ihe secUon about the centre of
gr~vIY of Ihe scclioll.
Tlle normal force s equal lo the alg<,braic sum of Ihe projcctions 01
all Ihe rorces located on ane side of Ihe section on Ihe tangent lo Ihe
bar's axis drawn Ihrough Ihe given seclion.

"
1"

(i,

Fig. 337

The shellring lorce is equal to lhe algebraic sum ollne projections

of al) lorces locllted lo one side of lile secUon on the verUcal axis of
Ihe ~lion.
lh(' bending momenl will be considered posiHve ir j{ increases lhe
curvature 01 Ihe bar. TIle normal forcl.' \Viii be considered poslfive if
it t('nds lo detnch Ihe portion under consideration (rom Ihe removed

Fig. 338

FIl:. 339

portian. Tlle shearing force will be considered positive ir il is oblaincd

by rotating lhe positive direclion 01 lhe norma! forte through 'i1f'
c10ckwlse (Flg. 338).
As in a beam, while determining M, N, and Q we may consider fhe

equilibrlum 01 either Ihe leH or the righl portion of Ihe bar, lnlo which
II is divided by lile particular section; the selection is arbitrMY and
depends upon the convenience of etlmpulations.

.,6

[Por' VII

Tite 1ign oonv~liol1S dided ahoYe for Ihe bending moment, normal force and .shearj~ force aff independent el whelher the Idl or Ihe

rifhl portian is considere<!.

1.el lIS study .In example rOl' determining M, N. and Q. Considet a
bar repres.enting one qUldran! of a drcle ol radius R.. 6.xed rigidly.t
one md and loaded al Ihe otlte by a f~ P (Fig. 339). Dra"" an arbitrar)' plane wilh lhe ~trt' 01 gr3vity ala. Loc:ation of Ihe plaM is d~

I'J

('1

FIle. 440

lermined by angle 'P \\ilich iI makes ""Hit the vertica1. We <:'OIUider the
'Ighl portion el the bar lo determine M, N, and Q. This spares UlIlhe
t'ouble ol delermining lhe reaclions in seclion C.
Tite btnding momenl is equal lo the n10ment oI force P about
polnl O:

M_+PXOD=+PR.sin'l'

(24.1)

Projeding force P Ofl lhe normal lo lhe section and on the plane ot
lhe seclion ilSt'lf, .....e oblain
N--Psinll'.

Q=+PCOSljl

(24.2)

Hence Ihe rnaximl.lm bendlng momen! nlld normal force occur at

th~ M, N-, and Q.
diagrarns. The axis of he bar has been laken as he lero lineo Ordi
nales have been cut along lhe radii of curvalure of the bar.

lp-9O", Le. al thlt fixe<l end. Figure 340 shows

134. Delermlnalion 01 Slresses Due lo Normal

and Shearifl Forces
The shearing stressu ading in a sedion al lhe curved bar add up
lo forro the shearing ree, Q. We un deri\'(' precise fDlmwas 101 cal
culating shearing slresses in curved bars lISing lhe same approach lhal
was emplored in calculaling shtaring stresses in slraighl beams. Hov.'ever. theoretical in\'csligations re\-eallhat lhe distribution al shearlng
slresses in curvtd baes c10sely resembJes lheir dislribulioo in slraight
bealtlS. Jt is lherefore permissible lo calculale shearing stresses in

..,
curved bars,by Zhuravskii's formula, which was derived fOl' straiht
be3ms:
Qs'

--=

(13.3)

'-Jr!'

The strength condilion ror shearing stresses in curved baTS may con

sequently be written as

"""'l

,.... = Q.....
s.... ....
J~

(13.7)

Let lIS now determine the normal stresses due lo the two nsullanl
inlernal !orces: bendin mamenl M and normal force N. lei lIS Iirst
consider lhe normal fom.
Considering an..element of lnith cb al ihe curved bar which is acted
upon by orces N (Fig. $41), ....-e nollte lha! lhese for<:es acting al lbe

F1e- MI

emires DI gravity el lile sedions tesult In simpk! ulallensiOll oc como

pression al lhe elemenl under considention. Therefore. the corresponding stresses must be normal to tlle sedi0n5 and unilormly distrihuled Dver lhe crossseellonal area, A:
N

a-A

(24.3)

The sign of lhe stress Is determined by Ihe sign of force N.

135. Delermination 01 Slresscs

D~

lo 8ending

_~l

The task of finding lhe law al' dislrihulion oi normal slresses due lo
lhe bending moment over the ~Iion and deriving appropriate formu
las for computing them is stalically ndelerminate and, as in slraight
beam.s, require3 that beslde.s-wriling and solvlng the static equatiom
we mus! conslder the corre.sponding detormations and wrile down ad
ditional equalions. While determining stresses due lo Q and N \lIe
could manage wilhout similar oompulations, because W~ made use or
known solulion.s; lo delermine the normal stresses due lo Ihe bending
moment M \I:e propase lo carry out 111 the computations, which. lnej
denlally, 1Iro-e have already given "'hile deriving lhe Jormula f na'mal
stm.ses in straighl beam.s.

Par{ VI{

'"

Undt'J' Ihe aelion 01 external momen! M lhe curved bar A 8 (Fjg. 342)
expcriencJ;s pure bending over ils whale lenglh.
Figure 343 depkls (he part DC oi lhe bar which is acled upan by internallorces transmtted [ram lhe removed parts AD and CB. Bending
momen! M is shown on lhe lert and Ihe elementary normal lorce (1' dA
on Ihe right.
The locatiOIl of lhe neutral layer along Ihe height
lhe sed ion is
not knowll and has lo be delermined; we shall assume that il does not
pass through lhe centres 01 gravlty ot lhe seclions. Let Ihe orign of

or

,,

Fig, 342

Fig. 343

coordinales be located al poin! e, whicll Hes on IhC! neutral axis, y.

but dces nol coincide with Ihe centre of gravi!r O; moreover, dislllnce
OC is as yelto be detennined. The zax;s is lhe axis af sy~metry. and
lhe x-axis is perpendicular lo the planc of thesection. Bendlng moment
M He.< in Ihe plane 01 symmelry xCz, and eaeh elementary arca dA
wilh coordinlltes IJ and z is ade<! upon by a lorce tI dA. \Ve can wrile
six equations 01 equllibriulll lor lile portion, which retains ils equilibrilllll lInder thl' influence 01 M and a dA.
The projection 01 the external forces on the xaxis is zero; Ihe sum af
projcctions of forces (1 dA ma)" be representeu by an integral over the
whole crosssedional area:

~ adA =0

(24.4)

"

Equations that r('presenl Ihe projcelions of all lhe fOfCes on Ihe y'
and the z-ax is,
~Y=O
and ~l""O
bocome idenli ties, because {he a's are perpendicular to 1he!J' and the
-axis. We similarl}' gel an idenlil}' from Ihe equalion 01 momcnls
about the xaxis:
~M.-O

because nellher lorce (J dA, which is parallel to Ihe x'axis, nor bending
momen! M, which !ies in plane ACz, give a momenl aboullhc x-axis.

Ch.

241

Curotd Bars

4~9

By similar loglc Ihe moment M abolll lhe za"ls musl also be zero;
as lor elementar)' orces a dA, their moment aboul lhe above /IX is is
glven by Ihe integral a dA y.

S,

rhe fi(lh equalion 01 equilibrium will Iherelore be

.3M.~O,

,\odAy~O

(24.5)

lhe last inlegral is zero on Deeouol of the symmetry of Ihe seclion

about Ihe z-axis.
Now we equate lo zero lhe sulo 01 momenls of all the external forces
300Ut lhe yaxis. rhe equation ma)' be writlen Ihus:

~M~=O,

M-~adAz=O

(24.6)

Henee we get lhe (ollowing lwo equalions b)' eonsidering lhe slalie
equiHbrium o[ Ihe portion:

,SodA ~O
M-~ adA Z=O
,

(24.4)
(24.6)

We still do nol know lhe blw or dislrlbulion of normal stresses over

the heigllt ollhe section. For this reason lel us first sludy Ihe deformaIion 01 the bar.
As in uni-planar b<:nding 01 slraighl bars, we shall make use of the
hypothesis 01 plane s&lions, whkh has been experimentally lound
H

,'-'e,
",

t.}

(; ,

,-'~
~tt

\ ./ J..'------':I ../
11 '/
Plg. 344

11
Pig 345

applicable for curved bars also. We shall assume that, under lhe in
fluence 01 bending momenl, sections perpendicular lo the axis of lhe
bar remain 1Ia! ami simply turo w.r.t. one another (Fi2. 344). rhe
libres 01 lhe neutral layer C,C.C;C; relan their originnl Icngth, DlId
libres IOCllted at elJual distances lrom the neutral axis C!ong!lte and

Rala/lCt UIIIk, CQmPOUnd LOQdin

[Pan VII

sIlorlen by an equal amounl and hence experience equal slresses oyer

Ihe widlh of the secUon. Le,t us e5.lablish a relation belween the relaUve angle of rolallon and deformalion of libres for 1<.',0 adjaeenl seco
Hons. 'Letus cullrom {he curved' bar
which is being aded upon by only
a !:lending mo'menl (Fig. 345) an elemenl by two close sections making
an angle dq> w!th one anolher. This
elemenl is depided in Fig. 345:
O-O, "is Ihe l-xis of Ihe bar, and
C,C, is ils neutrallayer.
The normal slres&eS acting in Ihe
cut planes lar,m couples;. due lo
Ihese lorce couples Ihe angle beIween adjacen~ ~ettions /-/ and 2-2
changes by 6 dq>()n aecount of rela_
tive rolalion of these sedions.
Lel us delermine the normal stresFlg.3-lli
ses in these sections al points A,
and A, which lie al a distancez {rolO
their respective neutral BXes. We
seled the posilive direction 01 the zaxis towards the ouler fibres. Fibre
A,A, elongates by A,D.; Ihe corresponding stress is
(1=tE

where t is the relative elongation 01 fibrf' A,A,. lt is equal to lhe ratio

of absolule elongation AtO. to the ini/ial length 01 the libre A,A,;

e= A,D,

A,A,

Denoting the radius of curvature 01 libre A ,A, by p, we oblain

A,O.=z6dq,
e=.!.6d'f
p

d~ ,

A,A,=pdq
0=~6d~E
P d'J'

(24.7)

Formula (24.7) gives the dislribulion of normal slresses due fo bending

momenl Mover Ihe heighl of the seclion.
As ~~'" and E are oonstants for each seclion, (J depends only upon
the z-(:oordlnale and the radius of curvature 01 libre A,A, (p=r+z,
where r is the radius of curvature of Ihe neulral1ayer).
For a straight beam we had oblained a linear law 01 distribulion 01
oormal slresses: in a curved bar o varies according to a hyperbol ic law
(Fig. 347). It is also evidenl from formula (24.7) that in libres whlch
are on the outside w.r.t. {he neulral layer the increase of stresses

Or.

241

<3,

isslo"'..er Ihan that of z, wheteas in libres ",hich are on 1M inside w.r.l.

the neutrallayer stresses increase lasler Ihan z. because.z changes slgn
mm positive lo negalive.

Hencein a curve<! bar lhe normal stresses at Ihe -nside- oultr libre
are greater. and al Ihe "outside- ouler libre are 1m lhan lhe slresses
for the same libres 01 a straighl bar. This is quile underslandable since
Ihe initial lenglh of lhe inslde libre
01 a curved bar is much 1m lhan
that ollheoutside tibre; in aslraighl
bar Ihese lengths are equal. This
explains the difference in rdaUve
derormation and hlmCe lhe dilference in slress rOl these libres.
Lel us pro~eed wth the soluUon
or equations 01 statcs '(24.4) amI
(24.6) wj(h lhe help of relation
(24.7) obtained by considt'ring Ihe
deformation of the bar. SubsUMe
expressi()(J (24.7) in equation (24.4):

10dA-=~E6::fdA-O
FaclOl'lng oul !he constanl quantilies.

Fil. 347
\\"e

obtain
(2-1.8)

This equalion enables us lo determine Ihe locallon 01 Ihe neulral axis.

Equalion (24.8) implies Ihal in Ihe case al a curved bar it is nol Ihe
slalic moment aboullhe neutral axis. 1 dA, Ihal ls tero. This clearly
shows Ihal in bending 01 curved bars, Ihe neulral axis real1y does not
pass Ihroogh thecenlreol gravlty 01 lhe secllon. Substituting in equa
lion (24.8) z"'p-r (Fig. 346), we lind

~TdA-JdA-rld:-O
wherefrom it ensues Ihat
(24.9)

Th... methorl for compuUnj! rwill be rJilferenl lor ~a~h particular s(-c'
tion. Substiuting no\\' expression (24.7) in cqualion (24.6), \\'e get
M-E ~d",

~dA =0

d<p ~

(24.10)

where M is lhe bending momen!; integration is over lhe whole efQS.'!st'Ctional aTea. The inlegral in lhe above' eqllatan may hl! modified
as lollo\\'s:

On Ihe basis 01 'qualion (24.8) lhe S<'Cond 01 lhe lasllwo inlegrals is

fiJlIal lo zera, whereas lhe lIrst is equa! lo Ihe static momen! 01 fhe
crOSS':>eclional area about Ihe- neulral axis. This integral may be com
puted as Ihe proclUCI 01 lhe crosssedional areil by Ihe distante of
its centre 01 gravily rom lhe neutral axis, lo (fig. 347):
S =Az.
(24.11)

Hcnce, equation (24.10) ma}'

\\Tilll.'11

M-E ~~'f' 5=0

(N.12)

wherelrom
(24.13)

antl Ihe formula ror normal stresses, (24.7), betomes

M

a=Sr

(24.14)

Equation (24.12) confirms Ihal {he slatic moment S of the crosssectional area aboul the neutral axis is nol u'ro, Le. in bending of
curved bars Ihe neulral axis does noi pass Ihrough Ihe cenlre of gravity
but is slightly (by z.) displaced. In Fig. 347 we !.!epicted this displacement lowards Ihe centre 01 curvature 01 {he bar. After actually delermining r from equatlon (24.91 for a number 01 secUons we lin!.! that th('
Mutral axis reaHy gets disp aced lowards lhe centre 01 curvature.
This displacemenl occurs on accoun! of the equalily Df Ihe total compressive and tensile forces acling in lhe section. Since the stresses
due to bending mamenl are less al the "autside flbre 2nd grealer al
lhe "jnside~ libre, as compare<! lo slresses in lIJe corresponding librl!S
01 an idenlical seclion 01 a slraight bar (Fig. 3(7), lhe neutra! axis
musl get displaced tQ\';ards the inside libres in order lo main!ain an
equalit}, Df Ihe total tensile and compressive forces.

CA '"

Addin: lo Ihese slresst5 Ihe stresses du!' lo he l\Ol'IIl31

in the preceding seclioo,

'A"e

rorc~

obllil'll.'tf

gd he following 'ormula fOl' lotal normal

slrfSSCS in a curve<! bu:

N

Al 1

a="A+Sp

(2".15)

The maJCimum ensile and compressive st~ \Io'ill ott'ur al 1M, outtt
libres 1 and 2 (Fig. 347).

136. Complllation 01 lhe R:adius 01 CtrvallH'c

01 lhe Neulral Layer In a R.langul.r Sttlion
Equation (24.9) is the expressil)ll lOl determining r:

r:
A

r ..

Le! U5 solve 1his equlItion lor a bar o redangular cross section. le!
h be lhe: height and b the widlh 01 Ihe seo::lion. R.llie radius of curva

ture oI lhe bar, R1 lhe radlus of curvalure 01 lhe

QuiN

libres,

R. lhe

t.

flg. 318

I'lr. 349

..

ralBus of curvalure af the inner libus and r Ihe !adlus of curvalure of

lIJe neutral layer (Fig. 348). If Wl' divide Ihe seclion inlo elementar)'
strips af area dA ... bdp. then equaUon (24.9) lOa)" be \\Tilten

.- ""'-----~
'-Fb
I~
A

\\1lCf'efrom

(24.16)

lnR,'
I

(24.17)

IS-UIO

434

R~.is"Jna Vllde, COm(HJljM 1.otldirli

Formulas 1.24.16) and (24.17) enable

lIS

JPatl VII

to determine r and l. and,

hence, S for a rectangular sed ion.

Location 01 lit!.' neutral larer in seclions consisting af a number Di
reclang[es is determined by Ihe same melhod 3s in Ihe rtclangular
section 01 a curved bar; only Formula (24.16) becomes more campli-

caled.
Let LLHonsider an ]heam havng llan:es el jifferenl sizes Wig. 349).
Tite denorninalor in equa!ion (:24.9) is calcuJated as 101101'.'$:

The radius 01 curvaiure 01 the neulral layer is delcrmined frorll the

expression
(24.18,

137. Determination 01 the R.adius oi Curvalurc

01 lhe Neutral Layer for Cirde and TrapeZfJid
To determine the radlus of curvalure oi the neutrallayer for a

CifCU-

lar secUan 01 diameler d, we cut thE' disc lnto C'1E'mentary slrips ol area
dA by ]nes ]rawn parallel lo the neutral axis Fig. 350).

Fig. 350

Let us express dA and p a~ funclions 01 angle q> subleml.etl at Ihe

cenlr(!. It is clear rrom the diagram that
p ... R.+{sinq,

dA=b1>

cutl

Bol
b.=dr051p llnd

dj:!=2'"COS9dtp

which implies lhat dA=~C05"l1d'. The denominator in equation

(24.9) may be written

Arter Integral ion we gel

el'

.".

S 2~~~ ..-:t(2RI-V4R:

d')

-"12

Putting this yalue in equalion (24.9) and 5ubslHuting :td'/4 fOf A. Wt

oblain
4'

r=

bR.-V 4R:- ....)

(24.20)

FO! a lrapezoid (Fig. 351) we agaln use equalion (24.9). lhe area 01
the Irapezoid is

The width of lhe Irapezoid al a dislal1C(! p from {he centre of curvalure

b

b(pl-b,+(b.-b,){l-RP ,
The integral

f':

,- o

dA_b(p)dp

has lhe iollowing value (dropping lhe inlermediale

operalions):

id: -( b1+ R ~.;6'I) In ~-(b.- ha)

Now irom equation (24.9)
r=

v,'e

gel

II~

l.)

R,
( H R' - , - In'l;_(6'._b,>

(24.21)

When b,=-b" l.e. when lhe frapez.old beoome I rectangle. lbe above
formula becomes ldenlical to formula (24.16).

,,.

IP<lrt V/f

When b,--O. \\~ oblain lhe formula h.. ell.'t'mining 11M.' nculral
<Ji Iriangulr ~Iioo:

a~i$

f=

It
R
2R,-ln...,.!- -211

(24.2'1)

"

138. Oelcrmining lhe Lotalion 01 Neutral

Layer from Tablu

With Ihe reasoning uf 136 and 137 for reclangular, circular and
trillWzoiiJal seclions, wp can ca1culale f and l. for an arbitrary sed ion,
lile resulls lor a fpw shapes are given in Table 11. In Ihis lable lhe
valucs 01 l. arel given as IracUons al the radius R. epcnding upon lhe
ratio ~., whete e is Ihe I!islanct' or Ihe tnner librt'S from lhe cenlre 01
gravilyor lhe section. In lhe exlreme leH oolumru are gh'ffi values or
R.t. '\1 lhe lop or alllhe olher rolunms isgiven lheshape of lhe parli.
cular curve<! bar. The quanlit, l. is oblaincd by Plulljpl)'ing Ihe cor~f'OI1ding labulated valu!', It, wilh R.. 1.1'.

z.=kR.
11 is !'videnl from lhis !able lhat ""hm lhe ralio

~o ineceases. Ihe

ratio :: rapidly lIpproaches zero. .e. lhe neulral axis approadleS

lhe centre of gral/il}'. This llIeans thal lhe dill"erPOCe in Ihe v.orking of
material In a cu~ and a slraighl bar dilllinishes lo 11M.' poinl 01 be
comIno: immalerial. It rollowslhal in Ihe limil lhe neutral uis passes
Ihrough Ihc cmtre al grlwily al lh!' secUon. Hence. when ~ i.~ largl"
lh!' localion of lhe neulral axis am] Ihe slressps in lhe curve<\ bar are
uelermined. with a small error, by lhe saIne Formulas which are u~d
for slrighl bars.
ror a ratio of ~. equ1 lo len, lhe qU.'lOlily lo ma)' De consil!ereld
cqual lo zero for al1 prllClical purposes.

139. Analysis of lhe Formula f(M" Normal

S~ in a Curvcd Bar
5ubsUluling Ihe roordinates oi lhe rarlh~l poinls or lhe ~tion in
the formula lor normal stresst!> C2U5),
ror poinl 1,
1, ami R, (o\ll~ille libres)
{or poml 2,
- l t ami
R. llnsidc libres)

o. 141

Ol/Vtd Safl

."
Table 11

t.at11l1 he /rfeulfll Llytf Irolll billa

~i
.1
. 1

,.

~' ~~I
.1

'1

t."

'-'<

].2

L'

I.G

,'.0.....
'.8

'.6
2.8
3.0
3.6
'.0
'.0
8.0

10.0

!!<.
,

0.336

0.229
O.lr..s
11.128

0.243

0.116

0.102

0.110

0.070

0.0
0.052

,,....
,.,

L8
2.0 .

2.8
3.0
3.5
.0
6.0
'.0

10.0

0.067
O....
O....

O. . .
0.024
0.011

0.029

O.Ola

0._
0._

0._

~-_

1-.

\"'_~-4

0.269
0.1.14
0.104
O."
O.OC..s
0.051
0.049

0.138

.....

'1
;. -

O.I,\'l

0.179

O.'"

0.003

o....

0.352

O.'"
0.071
0.061

0.078

0.0<3

O..,.

o...

o....

O....
0.012
O.....

O....
0.0081

0._

~I ~I Al
~.' flJ
'.0010

w. . '.

0.0031

'.0010

'.-1

I:=_.J

L'
,L'
..

1-....

0.361
0.251
0.186
0.144

0.000
0.082

...,,~

".

'

-1

~-I,~

11

~r

0.~t18

O.'"

0.285

O...,
O.:'!l!)

O....

0.236

0.205

fl.l83
0.149
0.125
0.106
0.091

O.IGO

O.IW

0.088

0.183
0.147
0.122
O.IIM

0.067

0.0<8

0.418

O.'"

O."'"
0._
O.,.,

0.0<0
0.018
0.010

O."'"

0.127
0.104

.....

0.077

0.041
O....
0.013
0.0076
O.....

0.000

O.'"
O.""
O....

......
0.016

0.0057

0 ..'\99
O.,.,
0.121
O.1IN
O....
0.017

O.'"
O....
0.042
0.001

0.014
0.007l"l
O.....

<J,
\\1!

[Parl VII

may write down the following slrength condllion of a curvetf bar:

O,"'"

~ + ~ ~l.
N

""fa})

z,_[]

,\f

a.-r--S

R. """

(24.23)

11

H Ihe material has unequal slrength under lension and compression,

101 will have 1'1"0 dilferent ",Iues. On 8C<:oont 01 lhe facllh.a( 11l.'O
factors, M and N, glve rise lo normal stresses. ills morecomplicated lo
determine Ihe critical secUan for a curved bar Ihan for a str.lght one.
In sorne cases (see 133) M and N attain maximum values in lhe same
secUon, whil;h obviously ls Ihe crilical section. If Ihe silualion Is dif
ferent, lhe slrength 01 (he materia! has lo be checked in a number of
secHaos and lne crilical sl!<:tion can be dl.'termined only alter appro
prlate calculations.
Ir lhe ,adills 01 curvalure R. or 1M bar s large as compared lo the
lh~n

heighl 01 Ihe stelion h

(prec~Jy.

wheo R.>5h), then lhe ralios

i (1i; oc ~J become nee:ligibly small and the nCImal slresses which

depend upon lhe bending momenl dill'eronly slightly from Ihe normal
slresses c.alculaled by using the formula lor a slraight bar. This slalemenl can be easily \""ft'"ified Irom he dala given in 135 and 13&. Let
us Iake. lar e.umple. equali01l$ (24.10) and (24.7). Eliminating
and .sub.stituting r+z 10' p. we ohtaio

EV!

!tI1

!tI1

a=(r+I)~..LdA
. r+~

(I+-=-)
r

~
1+",

(24.24)

TI we negled ~,Ihen formula (24.24) b:omes the same as Ihe formula

lor calculaling normal slresses In a straghl bar:
M.

a=y

Lel lIS drlermine lhe error lhat is made ir we del~rmine Ihe maximum
nOC"mal stresses due lo lhe bending IIlOment in a curvetl rectangular bar
from lhe formula 'or sttaiht bats

R,=Sh
The radius 01 curvalure el lhe neuttallayer I.s
r -=

~.+f)1J

In ~.-lI.Sh

oco

---s:5 -=-o:mr - 4.9833h

In 4':>

CIt. M

CuRll'd 8an

wd consequenlly

z.=R.-, ... OOI67h,

or

z.~O.()()3J4R.

I.f'. Ihe IYUlra\ uis passes !rom Ihe centre 01 gravity at a disbnce
which is 001)' ~ el Ihe height of Ihe section.
Thp normal stresscs duc ta hcnding, \\:hen clllculated from lhe lar
mulas lar cun-ed bars. are lound to be

__ M..!.!..._

a.- s

,1!;<llSI67h

"",O.5167xMX/\_0935~

R, hhxOOh:;:hx~5.'I
O.;,sllbh l
.
W
Al '.
MXOA~
O.41133xMx6 1071 Al
a'=SR;-JxO.0I671x4.51'- 045l$ttlli ....
;

I.f'. Ihe values of slresses dlller by 7% Irom those calculaled by Ihe

formula lar sluight bm.
This is Ihe main reason Vo'hy curved bus are divided inlo hilO groups
for purposes of strength check. Bars with a large curvature (~~)
1111 in lhe first group. In such baTS Ihe normal stresses should be ~(.
culated by the fallowing formula:
N
MI,i
(J1"=ASi:;~[(JJ

(24.23)

Prldkal eumples 01 this group 01 baTS afe machine parts like hooks,
chain links and rngs. To Ihe second groop belong bars w;tl1 a small
curvalure, in Il.'hich Ih{' radius al curvalurl' ollhl" aiis is largl.' as como
pared lo the dirntnsions ollhe croo seclion ~>5 In soch baTS
t~ norm"l str5e$ del' ta bending ftla)' be ('alculated according lo
thl.' formula far stralght baTS:

(J.,. =

.~

"

M
17 ,;;;; (a)

J.

(2US)

1,'

This group gentl"allyconsi~ls oS curved bars US('d in variaus structures:

arr.:hes, domes, ele,

140. Additlonal

Remarh on Ihe
Normal Stressc:s

Formula lor

While che<:king the- sbength 01 curved bars, we afien oblain consi

derably hlgh slrwe.s al Ihe inside libres. Thes!' stresses (Fig. 347) staft
da::reasing faitl)' sharply al a small distante (rom Ihe edgeallhe secHan. Thus, ihey bl.'ar strong restmblllnce lO local slresses and Iheir ef
lecl 00 the slrenglh al a material musl ~ taken into accoont accocdine:
lo the- recommendalions glven in 15: dudile materials (mild st~l) do

...

,Purl VII

nol (ace danger 01 lllilure bccause 01 IIlest strases exc(*.f/ing he rield

slr<':Ss. ir lIJe loadmg i5 stalic.

lhe fundamentals or lhe throry el analysis or curvtd ban, di.sc~

in 135. \\-ere firsl pul {(o,acd by he Russian Academic:ian A. V. Ga
dolin belv..-een 1856 Ifld 1860. The accurate theoryof bmding of cuc\'td
rectangular bns \\'as rOfmulat~ in 18llO by I(h. S. Golo"in; resul ts ab
tained b)' him prove lhallitions al curve<! rectangular bllrs rema in
planes arter bending. Experiments conducted rOl" Ihe v~iliClllion of
Ihis lheorr show salislaclorrcOClCurteneed the resul!! v!ith Ihe t~_
tbU)' COlOputed valucs.
The hypt:rbolk law of dislribuliOll el treMeS can bt' disliocllr sern
by beaming monlJl:hromatic pol3rized light on a lransparent mod('l ol

a deforllM"d curv<'d bar. We notice ro\\'s 01 dark and Iighl sirips in lhe
motJcl; lhe shllrper lhe change of slressn lhe nurower and IIIOft' rre.
quenl are hese strips. Figure 352 slJoo.l'5 lhe distribuliOll of strips un-

lzr
,

Fh:.

~2

del'" puno bending lor a model .\..hich has a straighl as well as a curvetf
portian. The sirips are spaced uniformly In lhe slraighl portion because thutressachange Iioearly. I.e. unifonnly. In lhe cut\'td portlO1l
\\-e notice a concenlration al lhe slrips on lhe concave sidl' and an op
posite picture on lhe convex side. which correspOIlds to sharp Ind nonUnlform increase al stresses in Ihe former tone and a ronsiderably
slow~ change In lhe laller.
While studying the dislribulion of normal slrrsses in t"Ur\'ed bus
we ignored lhe radial normal stresses \\lIic-h occur due lo mutual romo
presslon 01 libres of the bar materiaL These stresses have much ~alCf
importance for rnrvtd bars Ihan fo.. stralght bars. as is sem from exper
iments on IH'psum (britllr) models. These siresses are pllrlicularly high
in sedions in IlIhich lhe width chllnges suddenly (lbeslllS).

",

C""oai Btlfl

CI'.NJ

141. An Exalllple on Detcrmining Slresses

iJl a Curvcd Bar
A beJlt (rame is acted upon by t\\'O rorces P of 800 kgf each. Find lhe
slresses in section .48. The radius 01 the axis is R,=80 mm,
nd he cross seclion is a redangle SOx30 mm in size (Fig. 353).
mn~imum

1-- ZjfJ =---....l

Fig. 353

As ;,'<5, \Ve mllsl use the formula applicable lo bars wilh l.1rge
curvalure. Lel us determine raulus , of the neutral lay~r:

,~_h_

, R,

"

In our example 11=80 mm, R,=l20 mm, anu R,=40 mm; lherefore
r=

80
so
-rw
= TiiE'i9"" 72.8 mm
ln

No\V \Ve ca1culate !he quantities necesS3ry for 3nlllysis;

z.= R..-r = 80- 72.8=7.2 mm =0.72 cm

S = Az o =8x3XO.72= 17.3 cm'
t,
z.=4+0.72 = 4.72 cm

=% +
h

2'-"2-z,=4-0.72=3.28 cm
Bending mamen! a!>out the centre 01 gravily el Ihe Sl'Ctien [s
M =-SOOx25=-20 000 kgfcm
N"ormal force N=+800 kgf. lhe crosssectional area
normal stresscs at point A (ero) and 8 (a,) are

A=2~

cm'. Thc

800 20000 4.72

a, = +z:-""'i"f.3X
12 = +33_455 __ 422 kgl cm'

o,'" +~ +~7~X 3;8 ... +33+948= +981 kgf/cm l

fatI VII

Had wt' ignored Ihe curvalul't' of the bar and wmputect Ihe stres.ses
by Ihe rormula

W'e

lI.'OUld have obtained

O,}
_, =-+~=F:~=
__

+33"F625_{~}
+658 kgfcm'

The stresses in the inside fibres would have bren

9BI-G!i8,OO
33'<
~
... , ] t

les.s, which is be}"ond Ihe provided lactor of sa[('ty. J-1ence, we ma)'

conclude- thal considerable overstrl'SSing ma)' occur llhe cross Sl'l.'tiOfl
of a CUT\'ed bar is designed witOOut laking into consideralion ils curva
tute.

142. Ot:lcrminalion of Disptacements in Curved BaTS

AnaJ)'sis llnd expcrjlTK'flls show thal though lhe curvature musl be
attounled rOf while determining stresses in baTS ollarge curvature. the
sall-.e ma)' be ignored in majority of CMa when deformalion is bejng
delermined. Let us study how to
calenlate potMlial energy expended
in bMding of a curved bar.
Let lIS cul from lhe bar an ele
IlK.'nt olll'rtglh ds by two cross seco
tiOIl.'l (Fig. 354). 80lh laces of the
ctclllenl will be ctNlupon by shearing slre.sses, which give 11 resull
,lIlt force Q. :li1d narlnal slresses,
ti
1
Z
'ti
which give a normal force N and a
bendlng moment Al.
For ~Icrmining Ihe potenlial
l"f1ergy lIccumulaled in lhe elem51l,
\\'l' musl compute Ihe work done by
_
aH the forces acHng on the elemffil.
F,C 354
While delerminjng the potential
energ)' 01 11 btam \\~ f1eg1ectcd the
~'Ofk d~ b~' Ihe sh~aring IQnrs. ThIS ~implification is all th\! lTIOJ'e
JU!>tlfied 1II case el cun"NI bars because Ihe etrect el shearing force is

c9J

still 11"$5,

Now all we hav~ to do is lo ealculale N and M. If \\"C' neglecl Iht'

curvalure el lhe bar, Ihen Ihis is equivalent lo assumlng Ihat 11M:

Os. UJ

deformalion 01 the element under 101' couple M Is ldenlicallo lhat 01

a beam. The polefltial energy due!o lhis deformalion is equallo!t/f i
the OI1ly dilferenc:e when compared lo tlle ellpresson for potentiel
energ)' 01 a beam lies in a dilferenl oota!ion 01 the length of Ihe element,
ds instead 01 dx.
On attOUnt 01' lhe lad that Wl: ignore lhe curn!ufl' or lhe bar, the
n~lral axis must pass Ihrough Ihe cenlre 01 gravity of Ihe sectioo.
Therefore, whm the secUan rolates under Ihe action of M. the centres
of gravlty O, and O. do not move and N does nol do aoy \\:ork. Conscqucntly, wt' may calcula!e Ihe \louk done by N in~dent 01 M <lnd
Ihen add lo It Ihe value obtained (rom lhe npression given above.
F~ N acUng en lile element prod~ silr.ple tension or compression; lhe polential energy accumulated durlng leruion or compres.sion
is giyen by lhe rxpres.sion ;;;.. The po!ential energy accumulated in
the elemen! Is

The potenllal energy accumulated in Ihe whole 01 Ihe bar is oblained

by inlegrating lhe aboye express ion over its tolal length:

N'"

U~SMld5+S
, 'fU , 2"E'A

(24.26)

According lo Castigliaoo's theorem, lhe Iirsl derlvatiye 01 !his expres.sion ""'.r.1. concentrated force P gives us lhe linear displacemenl of
Ihecenlre 01 gravily 01 !he seclioll in whkh [orce P is appHt'd. SimilarI)', Ihe fint derh's!ive o U u'.f.1. M, 'ves us Ihe angle of rolalion of
!he corresponding secnon:

iHJ

SMdJIMI+SNt&iJN

(24.27)

au

=SMds~+SNlb aN

(24.28)

-=arr- ETW
t!AfW

7:T iJM,

6=

, n;m;

Meh,'s method rnay illso be used loe- determining dlsphu:ernmts in a

curvC1J bar. Formulas (24.27) llI1d (24.28) are replaced by

.-S M (x),If'dl +S
, EJ
,
Let

U5

aply

th~

N (.r

li'd5

EJ

(24.29)

formula for cakulalin 1he verlkal displacernent

al end Bol the CUrlled bar whose axis Is descrJbe<! by radius R. The

bar mus! be dr/lwn in lwo .stat~;

(a) when Jt i~ loaded by the gven rorce, P (Fig. 355(0;

IParl VII

(b) when il is loaded by a unil fon:c JH-I acling 00 5e("tion B lo

lhe direction 01 Iht requirtd displllCtrntnl (fig. 355(b)).
ul us c:akulatt M (x), M, N (xl, and N'"

M=+PR.sin
N=-Psin!f,

t\f.... R.sio",
N'=-~inlp,

Subslitutlng tht abo"t vIlutS in formula (24.29), wt' obtain:

:</J

f=-} ) Psin1 lJ1R:dlf+ E1,4

Psin'o,pR.d,p

PR.) T"
(er +nPR.) . SIO.. T dlJI- (7T +rr

PR'

co

.... '

PR'

ni}

J)

_"PR: (I +~ -'"4ET
""Rl ( 1 +~
" )
-4ET

wtlert i is lhe radius or e:yration of lhe 5100.

lhe lirsllerm in Iht plt'ftIthtses shows tht tltllt{ 01 lhe bending mGmmt on del\edion, lht SOnd term shows the tfftct 01 normal lorre.
Siria: in the majOl'ityof cases ' is a small quantily, lhe tll'ecl of

Ri

normal force on lhe deformalion 01 cur"td bars is in a nlunber of cases

compara\l\'ely small.

,
' "''\ ,PI.,

'<1.

.------~D

i'J

lf 1I<'t' ~'anl lo lind {lit horizontal displacement el poiot B ...."e

should applya unil horizonlllllor~ P-I al lhe aboye poiot. We can
similarly find lhe anglt ol rolalion of Ihis section by applying M"".
11 it h I't'iluired to brtak fhe bu ioto a number ol porlions lor cal
culating M Ind N, then eath of lhe cOlTt'Sponding 10tt'J;!rals in formula
(24.29) bccomes a sum of inttgrllls wilh approprialt limils.

Ol Uj

Cututd B..,

143. Analysis of a Circular R.inll

Let us find the str~ in lhe critical seclion 01 a circular ring

(Fill. 3S6) subjcdM lo 1....'0 lensilc force P. Th!' radius of the ring Is
R. and Hs rigidity EJ. The problem is statkally ~terminate as lar lIS
tl\e utemal forces are concerned. However. wilh respt lo inlernal
{orces H is slaBall)' ndeterminate.
let us cut the ring by. horizontal section lnlo t.....o parls; (he UpPft"
part is shlW>'n in Fig. 357. The se<:liooing plane .....ll! experience lnier

fil_ 357

nal lorces Iransmlllcd Irom the 1000'eT (remo\'ed) part: oormal I~

N-O.5P and btnding momerlt M... drawn rbitrarily as sl1o.....n in the
figure (Ihert' is no she.aring force in Ihe horizontal sections). We have
exhausted 3111 equalions 01 slatics in drawing the$t ClX1Clusions f10m
tht' symmelry of lhe ringo bul moment M ... still remains unknown. Let
us now considff a sed Ion making an anllJe q wilh the stioning plane
(see Figure). TIle followlng forees will let in Ihls se<:liOf1;
,\-1", = M,,+O.5PR. (I-COSl{!)
N.,=O.5Pcos~

Q... -O.5Pslnlll

(24.30)
(24.31)
(24.32)

Since Ihe seclion is symmetri<:, Ihe angles of rollllion of horizontal

seciioR.\ lo .".'hich TJ\Qmenls M" are applied ....'i11 ~ uro; lherelore lhe
parltal d~ivlliveof potenliaJ erIl!fgy with respedlo M ........m also be

mo;

.u

cJM ...

'S .....

-Er M"lM;l$

...

P"'" VII

Tite equa!lot! is solved as follows;

-,I (Al.. +O.5PR.-O.5PR.rosfJ)dqI ~ M.. ~+O.5PRI';'-O.5PR. - O

M.. =-O.SPR. (

I- )_-O,I82PR.

Hence, momeo! Mol aclJ in lhe opposile direction lo the one shown in
the figure.
With he help of formulas (24.:1l}(24.32) we can determine he Internal (orces in any sed ion of lhe ringo The sec!ion Iha! evokes n13xi
ruum nteres! is scclion B. In this seelion al 'Il-nf2 we have
M8

Q.182P R. O.5P R. - O.3J8P R.

QIJ-O.5P,
N 8 """O

111US, we see Ihal fOl" a ring secllon B, whcre (orel' P is applied. is

crilical allhough the normal force in Ihis sc<'tion is zero.
lile reader is adyjSf'd to plo! lhe bendingmomenl, normaJ()(ce and
shearil1f!'-force diagrams fOl' lhe ring seclion using formulas (24.30)
3nd (24.32).

CHAHER 2S

Thlckwalled and Thln-walled Vessels

144. Analysis of Thkkwalled Cylinden
Wc .....ere perfectly juslifittl in considering lhe dislribulion of stres
ses u unilorm over lhe Ihickn~ 01 the wall in a lhin.....alled cylindri.
cal reservoir subjecled lo internal pressure (~29). This ~ssumption has
mini mal eITcd Oll lhe accuncy of designo
J.lowever, such an assumptioll in Ihe ca~ 01 cylinders having con
sidc:>rable wall thkkness as compared lo Iheir rlldius is sure to result
in large {'rrors. lhe analy~is 01 weh cyllnders was worked out by
G. Lam and A. V. Gallolln in 18524. lhe latlc:>r gain~d .....o rldwide
lame lhanks lo his lVorks on una!ysis li curve<! bars in applkalion lo
sln:nglh anal)sis oi artilleq guns. Figure 358 sllow! lhe cross sectioo
ola lhkkwalled q'hnder 01 uternal radius" and intemal radius '.;
Ihe cylinder is subjected lo eJ:lern..1 pres.surt P, ..nd intemal preso
sure P.
Let us oonsider a \'cry lhin rin li rndius' in the C)'linder "all. Let
dr be the Ihicknw ollhe llng and let A B tFig. 359) depicl a slllall element of Ihl$ rmg subtending an angle de at the :nlre.
Suppose Ihe element has uni! Ihkkness in a pl...ne p"'lpl'Ildicular lo
Ihe- plane 01 the figure and suppose o, and o,+do, are the slresses aetin

.,

01. 2S1

al tht innec and outec faces of elemtnl A 8; a/so suppose 01 is lht slress
al ils side laces. lt is obvious (rom Ihe symll1tlry 01 Ihe slion and
1M load Ihateltmml A8 will no( warp and Ihlt no shtaring $I~
aet on its f:C'l'S. Faces el lhe fiemenl ,...hich lit' in (ht pJaoe 01 lhe

. .m

Fig. 358

figure will experienct' lhe Ihird pril\CipaJ stress. 0"1' causcd by Iht prcssure on 11)(' cylinder Inse. This stress may be considere<! cons!.ant over
the cylindtrs cross scclion.
In lhe plane 01 the figure. elemml A8 is acled upoo by l\llD forces
(J, dr X 1, making In angle dO betwel'll thl'~lves. Ind a radial (orce
(o,+da,){r+dr)d8x l_o,rdOx J
This force is .Jirecled lowards Ihe oulee surface. In equilibrjum lhe
lhr('l'. forces collStilute a dosed Iriangle abe. II is tvident then lhallhe
radial force reprcsmled by .segmenl ah is connectcd wilh force (Jir
(stglTlent ca) by he fol1owing ~lalion:

ab=rodO
[(a, +dlJ,) (r

+ dr)-a,r] dO = a, dr dA

Neglecting the small quanlitil!S of higher order, wc gel

a,dr+da,r=(J, dr
wheeefrom
(25.1)

The equilibrium condltions 2ive us onl)' one equalion for dett1'min-

mi ,....- 0 unknou'Tl slrmes. The problt'm is slatiul1y in<!elerminat, and

we musl consider lhe deiormalion of lhe cylinMr.

Delormalion of lhe cylinder consisla in ils elon2alion and in radial
displacemenl 01 all poinls of i15 cross sectionst Lel lIS denole the radial

...

RcsisltlflCll Undu CMlPOl.Ind LoodI~1l

IPtlr/ VII

displaceml'ni of poinls of Ihe inlernal surlace of lhe el('ment by u

(Pig. 360). Poinls CIl (he outer surfllce wil! gel radial1y displaced by
u+du. Thus, thkkness dr of {he element will "crease by du antl lhe
reJaUv! elongalion of Ihe cylinller

material in flte radial ditection

will be@r='fjf.
In Ihe direclion of slresses o/Ihe
relatille elongalion ti will be equa!
lo fhe re!alive elongatron 01 are ab
whcn jI occupies position cd. As

lhe relallve elongation ollhe are is

Ihe same as (he relative E'longation

of radius r, t,,,,,.!!.,
, From Hooke's
I(lw (formulas (6.21), 34),

~ (O,-~W,_,,()'~) ... ~ }

t, =

F'lg. 300

e'=7 (o,-.I!J"-WI)

=,
u

(25.2)
As bolh @, and F., are !undions 01 u. lhey must be comp!ible. Dj[
ferenlialing ll, w.r.L r, we get

"
(;'=7'

de,

'"d,

-'-/1

6r

..,..,.- /1)'

l(dU

~~---=-

"

(6r,

(e

-~,)

"

(25.3)

This is Ihe condion of joint delormalion. Subs(iluting in H lhe

oi~, and ~I frolll (25.2), we oblain {he se<:ond equalion correJal
ing 111 and a,:

values

, l' (o,-f

"';i; T

1=,--y-(o,-a,)
1 1'; 1"

llJ,-'I1,)

d"l
d"r
1+"
If(-I
IIF""'-,-o,-a,

Substiluling in lhis l'qualion lhe value uf

da,

d(l,

(.(

7f-~7r=-

0,-11,

(25 A)
lrom (25.1), Wl' gd

+JI )",
Iif

~+ da, =0
dr

/Ir

'*

(25.[,)

For sillluJ(aneous solulion 01 equations (25.1) ami (25.5) we difierentia le Ihe hs[ IV.r.1.

r md

subsli!ule in it lhe vaJue of

from lhe

Ch. 25)

'"

second. lhis givl'5 us

da, _ da, +r tiJa,

T
-r
ti,

+ d",_O
ti'-

lhe dillerl'ntial equation mar be rewrilten as

rf'<J, +!.~=O
/ tir

(25.6)

-;;r
lh~

solulion of lhis equalion is

8
o,=A+,.

(25.7)

which eDO be checked. Conslanls A and 8 are calculaled rom lhe

boundar)' conditions al the internal and exlernill surfaees of the ey
JintJ~r;

(o,)...,, __ P,.

(25.8)

lile neg3tive sign in {he righlhand sides 01 these expressions signi fies
lhal Ihc positive direclion 01 a,eorresponds lo ten~ile slresses tFig. 359).
From lile expression (25.8) we gel

p,', p,r,
", " '

A_

B .... -

,r,-p,)r","
~,

"

!he values uf Ihe eonslanls and equalion (25.7) give us Ihe final
lormulas lor a, and a,:

,
,
C1 - P.',-P,',
,
'i ti

(J

= Po'.

(25.9)

p,r,

't /;

It is obvious [rOlfl Ihese formulas Iha{ (he SUIll (1"/+0, does no! ,Jepcnd upon r, Le. lhe slrain along {he axis d lhe cylin,Jer is 11lc sallle
ill all poinls 01 Ihe seclion (as 0, is Ihe same for all poinls), and the
seclion remains aplane.
A situation in whieh only inlernal pressure p, aels un lhe eylinder is
of considerable practical imporlance. Here

.,~ ,!, (1- ~)}

(J,=

:'~~i

(1 + :!)

(25.10)

Figure .361 shows lhe dislriblllion of sln'ss~ o\'~r Ihe lhickness 01 1h('
cylindc( w~lls when 1',=0. As 0", is usuall)' much I<"'ss than 0, ;lOd 0", in

R~.ist(ltl'"

""

U"du Coml"",,,d Looding

[P<lT/ VII

magnitude, unly he JaUer twa are considered in checking he slrength

of lhe Cjlinder. From lhe thinl lheory ollailure (Ih('or)' of maximum
<hearing stresses) we find lha! lhe maximum t1i!Il'rence of principal

slres.ses,
(25.11)
occurs al points 01 Ihe nternal surrare of lhe cylinder nd is alwa>'s
consil.lerabl)' greater in magnitude Ihan Ihe inlernal pressure.
Thus. permancnt dc!ormalion begins Jlt Ihe internal sUTface o] Ihe
cyllnder when (o,-----a,l",.. becomes equal to Ihe yield stress 01 ils material; aoy attempt to curb the appearance 01 perlllanen! delormation

'.

';

Flg. 361

FiR. 362

by intreasing Ihe external radius r, is 1CI;ompanled by ao [ncrease 01

lhe 11\1111er310r as weH as denominalor in formula l25.II), Tlierdorc,

allhough Ihe difference 01 principal s!resses (01-0,).... becolTl\'s less,
Ih"" t1ecrese is verv slo\\'. However, \\'hen permanent rlelermillion be
gins allhe interna! surian' 01 Ihe cylinder. Ihis do('S nol mean thal the
111a;.;imu111 lifting Cilpacity ef th<, struclure has been exhaus!etl: wr can
properly l'valua!e Ihe slr('nglh 01 thl' cylinder only by analysis baSl't1
on the melhod cr permissible loatls.
Urting rilparily 01 lhjrk rylinders in lhe elastic unge may be improved by crellting nllial stresses. For this the cyJinder musl be madI'
of 1"",0 cvlinders. one fill~ into the olher. lhe ~ternal dlarnder 01
Ihe inler'nal cylinder is mad<." a liltle more Ihan Ihe internar dianleter
of Ihe oulee eylindee. lhe ouler cylinder 1S pul on the internal one in
healctl stale am] upon cooling gives rise to reactions at the suriace 01
contad: !he reac!ions compress the inlernal eylinder alid slrelch lhe
outer. lhe analysis given below wi11 show lhal thl'Se inili;] S\rE'sse5
improve lhe working 01 lhe eomposite eylinder whirh is subjeclcd to
inlernal pressure.

O. Ul

'"

Figure 362 shows composite cylinder alter it has cooled. Sl~

in a langential direction will be: foc lM ouler cylinder (tensile)

P"'~

P.,~,:

(J""ro=T'+

"

,'('O

, .rO)

. ..

ami lor the inner cyHnder (compres.slvel

P."

p",r,

or=-- ':_': - ,,('~ 'i)

Figure 363 shows the distribution
lhe following numerical data:

,,_11.50 cm,

CUf\'es

of thrse initial stres.se5 lar

'._8.25 cm.

'0.:5.70 cm.

r,-=280 kgflcm'

for lhe outer cylindl'f stresses al Ihe exlefml sudace are

21-:
CJI,_+p.-;::-;_+61J
kgl/cm'
"

'1

lInd stresses at the internal surface are

111, -

+ p,

,'-r'

~_-=
r. 'i

- + 895 k:fcm'

FOl" lhe inner cylinder slresses 111 Ihe inlernal surlllce are

01,--

2':

P1 ti="i3'"
, , - - lOBO kgfjcm'

.nd stresses at lhe e.dema! suda are

r:;+r:
" "

o',=-Po""""i=-r--BOO kgi/cm'

Le! us now 3.'lsume that the cylinfier is subjeded to an internar pressure of p,=3400 kgl/cm-. The dlstribution of (J/ without c:onsidcring
lhe inilial stresses p, wll! bt' given by formula (25.10):

. (1+ )

o 1 =....!L:.....
r'_~

"
rr

The limiting vall.1l'S of these slressn are:

al lhe externa! surlace 0r =+22-15 kgllcm'
at 1M internal surlace 0, ~+5620 kgl!cm'
The conesponding curve s'depieted in Fig. 353. '\>en internal pres5UN and inihal slresses act simultaneously, !he tolal stress may be

<52

[Pnrl Vil

R,s/smu Vnde, Cnmpound Loodinf!

token as lhe sum 01 ordinatt>S al curves 11+(l; and

1+0;;

Ihe curve

af total stresses has Ihe shape 01 a looth, as i5 shown in Fig. 363.

The shape of Ihe resultan! curve sho\\'s Ihal whl"n niHal stresses
p. are ac\ing, lhe slrcsses in Ihe outer cylinder inc~ase whereas Ihe
slresses in (he inol'fc)'limler del:rease.
As a consequence, Ihe material
works more unilormly-the maximum stress comes down to 5620-1080=+4540 kgrcm' and Ihe mi
nimum stress grows up to 2245+
+613=2858 kglicm'. al course, Ihis
distribulioJI holds Ivell only when
Ihe material is working within Ihe
elasUe IlmiL

Le! us determine ht! di!ference of

radii, 6r.=,;-,;, II'hkh is essential
"""",. lo creale Ihe required inilial slrl;'SS
P. (here ,; is Ihe injtial ex lema!
radius ollhe inner cylinder, and,;
is the initial internal rodius 01 tht'
outer cyHnder).
As Ihe ouler cynder cools, Ihese
radii lenu lo beco me equal due
Fig 363
lo a d~re8S(' in ,; by .6,; and an
increase in ,; by M;; the sum uf abo
salute values 01 lhese deformalions musl be t.r.:
S1

,:=::t:

16';1+16';I""lI."
Relative angenUal elongation al Ihe material al Ihe inlerna! sur

race 01 lhe ouler cylinder is

,'('

') -E
,"(r~+':
r~-r: +1" )

el-E (JI.-~oc.

In Ihis formula lor,; we subslituted Ihe radius '.=';-6'; common lo

both cyJinders; Ihis is possible because lI.r; is a small quanlily amI lhe
error commitled by il is ver)' smal!. Relative elongation of radius r;
lI'ilt also Ix- e;; Ihert'lore

l =---p:
p," ('i+';
)
6r.=elf
~+fl
, ,
ReJative Iangenlial compression of {he material at Ihe extemal sur
race of lhe inoer cylinder is

p, (

'H'

c'--E. (o':1, -I"Jt. ) = ---E ~-lt

.~_t:
'

CIr. 25J

and he shorlening uf radius,; is

Poi. (';+'~
)
tir'''''''--r
",_,I-'
,

,,n -tv.
Hd1Ce. in ordn' lo create the desired initial stress p v:e must provide a difference 01 diametEn
4"-"
",-",
.. - -"-'
-,;c:=;f;7,';'=c;;
E ('1 r:) ('~ ':,
J -

Thl' minimum trmperature ~ up lo which the ouler cylinder musl

be heated befare il is pul on the in
ner qlindtr can be delermined from
the following relation:
I
/SI
t:t,r.!'_j".

"

wherefrom

'r-r;

t' _ 2p,,
J;-tll

(rt

r~1

(r:

~-

li6 OC

':)

(We have assunJed tht following

numerical vlllucs; t:t-I25xlO-',
E-2x 10' kflcm', Ad.=O.0137em.)

145. Slrt55d In Thick Sphukal

Ve.ssels

Figure 364 shO\\"S an element cut

bom lhe wall of a !hiel.; spherical
\'es.wl. TIJe elenX"nl ha.~ internal radios' ami exlernal radios ,+dr:
strt:55e$ acling 011 lIJe element are abo shoY.T1 in the figure. From the
~llalioll$ o equilibrium and jolnt deformation \\'t get
8
a,=A+ P'

8
D'1-A-;7

(25.12)

Conslanls A and B may be delermintd (rom the bound.ry coodilions

at the internal and external surlaces oIlhe vts.seJ al '-" and
respectively. where " and '. are the external and internal radii of lhe
\esseI.
For example. ir lhe vessel i5 sllbjected lo In external pressure p, and
an internal pressure P.. ronstants A .nd 8 ma~' be determine<! from

'='1'

IPvl VIJ

Ihe lollowing condiliol1!;

O',-A+-:T--p.

"

al the intemal surface

H
O'r","A+,=-p,
at
,

wherdrom

lhe exlt!wal surface

.,
,'e

B--(p.-P,. (.~;,.

A=+ Po',-P,"

";-1

(25.13)

146. Analysis 01 Thinwalled Vessels

If lhe Ihckness of lhe cylinder wall, t=f,-r. s SIT'.3\1 col:lpared

to radii,. and,t. then from formula (25.10) 1Jl.'t! ~I

O'-lf
whkh is lhe same as oblained earlier ( 29).
A genC!rallOfmula can be derivcd lor calculalng stresses in Ihin
wallrd vessels wtich represenl surraces or rolaUon ond are subjecled lo
inlernal pressurc p symmelrk:al abou! the axis al rolaUon .

Fig. 365

Let us cul from Ihe vesse! (Fig. 365) an elernen! by lwo rneridlan sec

tions and 1\\'0 se::tions perpendcular lo Ihe merldan. Leol d.<w, and ds
be the dinleflSions oS Ihe e1em('nl along lhe mcridian and perpendk:ular lo 11, and lel us dcnol(' b~ P.. and /1. the radii of curvatu~ al the
meridian and 01 tlJe se::lion perpendicular to it; let 1 be lhe wllIlhlck-

0=.

<55

ThlrkOC'l1I1H! (md ThillWlll1td VtSSl'IJ

Ch. 25)

From syrnmelry, Ihe laces of Ihe clcment will be aeted upon by nornlal slrcsses 0", in the direction of meridian and o, in Ihe perpendicular direction. The eorrcsponding rorees aeting on Ihe laces 01 the clement will be o".ds,t and 0.1s.. 1.
Sinee a Ihin shell, jus1 tikc a flexible
slrlng, has re:.istance only agains!
tensile 1000ding, Ihes!' rorees ac1
along Ihe tangenls to Ihe meridian
and lo a section normal lo Ihe
meridiano
Along the normal lo Ihe surface
d9t
........
of the cIernen! forces /Jds..t=ac=oc
iSldSr,t
(Fig. 366) give resultanl ab, which
is equal lo

"':~'1Z8~--

ab "" oc de, = a, ds",t

PidJ

~.

--

Similarly force a",dst gives a resul

Fig. 366
tant a",dslds",..!.... in the same dirceo
lion. The sum ollhcse forces must balance lhe normal prcssure acling
on lhe clernenl:

,-

P ds.. ds = o.. ds, ds", -+0, ds.. Js, I

1'..

PI

wherefrom
(25.14)
This basic equation, correlaling 0m and 0, in IhinwalJed \"e5SC'[S
having a surlace 01 rolalion, was derived by Laplace.
As we had assumed tha! thc slrcsses are dislributed (unilorrnly)
over lhe sed ion. Ihe problem is s!atically determina te; Ihe s<xond
equilibriulll eqllalon can be oblaint'd by considering the {'quilibriurn
of lhe lower portion or Ihe vessel cul by a paralJel circular seclion.
Let ~s consider a vessel subjecled lo hydroslalic loading (Fil!". 367).
L{'t us descri~ Ihe rneridian curve in the syslern o x and y coordinale
axes wilh Ihe origin at lhe apex of lhe curve. Assume Ihatlhe 5eclion
ing plane passes al a heighl y from point O, Radius 01 Ihe correspondo
ing parallel circle is x.
Each lorce oouple o..,ds1 acting on diarnetrkaJly opposile C'lel1lents
ds, 01 Ihe scclion will give resultant Ix equal lo

be = 2ab cos e = 20.. ds/ cose

The sum 01 these lorces acting on Ihe whole circular section will be
2m:o.. t cos 6; il will balllncc the Jiquid's pressure p=V(h-y) al

'"

RtSislGna: UTlIk, Ccmpml/ld

Locd;~g

IPn,1 VII

111i5 level and weighl P r of lhe iquid in the culoli Jodian:

211XO.l cosO'"" I1X'P

+Pv

wherdrom
(25.15)

I(nowing Ihe equalion 01 lhe meridiao curve, we can lind e, x, amI P v

!/
or all values 01 JI ando consequently, determine amo We can lhen determine al
mm equation 125.14).
For inslance. lar a eonical reservoir havo
ing apl':t angle Za and fillel:! \vilh a JI.
quid 01 specilic weight l' lo a height /
we have

,
v"':r

r .. ""'oo,

x=yiana;

)'1tx'y ="j 'I'Jly" lant('J.

p_y(h_y),
9=0.:
, _ _'__ tanll
1t \

Therefore
lJ = '1'(10

\8 ,/ .
''l,

"'1elanla

6n1/ lan al eos"

'1 (h_y}ylan<l

..

CO,O:

y)yt3111l+
21 COS a

la

.OH' -

21 (05a
1'11 hna (

Y'l'tall<t

+ 61rosIl
')

= ~ h-3"Y

~V

., __,_=-_
PI),

)' (lo-y) Y tan Il

1~"oH'

ril!. 367

Far a spherical vessel 01 radius r. sub

jeded lo internal pressure P rom syrnUll'
lry we have cJ,=a",=(J. Now as p",,=p,-r., equalion (25.14) giVl'S

20=!!!..

'.

'

or o=p;~

If lhe meridinn curve has n disconlinllily 01 angle~. the equilibrium

01 Ihe thin sh('1I at Ihe poin! of disconlnuity can be achievt>d only
ji <1 readion ads at this poinl of Ihe shell. Such a readion can be made
lo app(,llr wilh Ihe 11('11) or specrnl rings eapable or laking Ihe load
lhal occurs t1ue lo unblllanccd slrcsses 0m en both sides ollhe poin! of
UiS(:ontin\lity.

DUl!1l

/ot

Ptflllln>l1l, L.. ...b

457
CHArTflt l '

Oesign for P~nnlsslble Loads.

Olesign for Limlllng States
147. Drsign lor Pmniuible Loads.
Appliu.lion lo SlllIcIUy Determinlte Systcms

In Ihe methods c.xplained aboYe I~ designing un~ tensioo or compression s1atically delerminate as well as ndeterminate ~Iruclures
we proceeded from lhe lundamen!al slrenglh condition fT"b~l(Jl ( 4
and 18). At~~ding to this condition, lhe dimensions ol lhe slruclure
should ensure that lhe maximum
~Ircss in tht' critical ,celion dOl'$ no!
tlreeed !he pCrlnissiblc value.
"c
Let us view Ihe problem from a
diffcrffil <Ingle ( 4). We require
Iha! Ihe 'oau aet ne: on Ihe whole
slrlldure shollld 001 excerd a permissibIl' vlllue. This oondilion ma}' be
expressed as

foJlO\\o~:

P_.<[P]
!he permissible load is Ihe klh
parl al the load at ".. hieh U~ stnlt
ture c~ases to function properly Ind
no lonlZCf serves the purpo&e far
which il has bt'lm desilZ'1ed. The
F'Il. 368
llller isgroerallycalled lhe ultimate
load .nd solllelimes lhe break/ng load in the broader!renst of lhe "'ord
(delllruclion 01 Ihe slruclure means Ihat il stop, lunctionlng properly).
Let us conslder a s)'slem consisling 01 1\\'0 sleel rOOs AB ami AC
(Fig. 368) loaded with a force P. By lhe conventional melhod or desigo \\le determine (orces N, snd N, acmrding to Ihe formula
p

N,-N ..... ~""N

(Irom lhe equilibrium or poinl A). Henct the eross-st<:!ional arta 01'
t:leh rod musl be
N
P
S;;ot.ToT= 210lean
By the metbod of permissiblt loads ,,t have

P<;[P]
Taking foc" lhe \\bole struclull! the same fatlor of safdy k \\'hich II.~
bad assumed in Ihe melhod oi permissiblt stresses, y,-e get IPI"'~ ,

Rw$lana Ulldtr Campoond Lcading

[Parl

~'fJ

The ullimale crHicalload, Pu, is he load at which hestresses in Ihe

r'lds r"'3ch t~e yicN,slr~?:
,
Pu", 2Sa u cosa
(a)

.'-

Thus, he permissible load i.s

'

The slrength condilion (a) takes lhe form

P <;
!(eeping. in mind lhat

?- =!u),

2S<.IuC03a

we havI!

PO:;;;;2S(aJccsa
wherefrom

s.,

.2 [<.1] cOJsa

Hence, design for permissible lcads gives lhe same results as the
design lor permissible slresses. This is a!ways rue or slaUcally deter
minate slructures with uniform stress dls!tibulion, when the malerial
is ulilized full]" over lhe whole secUon.
148. Dcsign of StaUcally Indelerminale Syslems
UlIder Tenslon or lmpression by Ihe Melhod
01 Permissible Loads

. We gel enlirel)" dilferenl resull,.; i we apply Ihe melhod of prrmisslble loads for designing slali<:<llly indetennillate s}'slems in which
Ihe rods 3Te made 01 a m:lt('ri~l Olpable 01 laTge plastic <!t>farrnations,
for ~xample mild sll'Cl.
Lelns cunsider as 3n example a s)'stem consisling 01 thrre rods loaded \\'ilh force Q (Fig. 369). The rods are all assumed lo be made af mild
sleel having yield stfl':.'>S o"~. Lel liS denote lhe lellgth~ 01 lhe sid<> bars
by 1" <1ml thal 01 the miadl<> bar by l . The permissible stress [01= ~. A.~ in lhe previous case, we aSSUffle the ratio of Ihe rross-seclionji aTeas 01 alllhe bars lo be known; lel all the rods be of equal crosssecliollal areas S. Solving the problem in the same wa)' as in 18. we

g,'

N,

Dtsip

lor

Ptrm;Ai1/u JtJb

As Ni>N" the middle rod is stressed more Ihan Ihe side rods;
lherefore S should be ~termined from lhe larmula
A',

S;;' TdT"" 1l+2cosa"'Hcrj

The sitie rods have lhe same tross-seclional area: lhey will have a
slightly grealer reserve.
Let 115 apply {he melhod of permissible loads; Ihe slrenglh condilion
mal' be written as

Q"[Q] ~

Q;

What is Ihe ultimale load or Ihe slructure in Ihis ca~? As; Ihe slruc
lure is made or a material havtng a yj~Jd plateau, In analogy wilh
simple lension 01 a ro<! 01 the same malerial, Ihe,ullimalc load is Ihe
load at which the whole structun- starts yitJding. lel us denote Ihls
load by Q;. Unlil rorce Q is less Ihan Ihis value, the delormalion
(Iowering of poinl Al is posslble only by ncreasing lheload./u sooo

Fil. 369

Q /lllans {he valuo Q:, lurlher deformalJon occnrs wilhout snl'

increase of Ihe load and Ihe structure gets oul of ord~r.
Le! 115 study the process or deformationof Ihe system lo determine
As Ihe middle rod is stre~d more than the side rotls, l altllins
Ihe yield slress earlier Ihan lhe side roos. L~t lIS denote the load
oorresponding lo this inshml by Q,. il 1l.i11 be
Q,""ll+2coo'aJ Nr
35

cr,.

where N[-So, is thc force on lhe middle rod corresponding lo ib

yleld stress.
TIle slresses in the side rods, having the same crossseclional area.
will not have re.ached lite yirld s\res:s as yel, and hey ",.-in continue
lo be subjecled lo elaslic delocmalioo. For this delormalion to OIXur,
it is necessary thal lhe load on lhe side rods be increased until Ihe

IPul VU

stresses do not altain Ihe yieldstress. Only l~ witllh~ muimum lifting c.apacilr. q;, or lhe strudutt be readled.
As Ihe yield stress a, has been already atlained in Ihe middle rod al
load Q" furthl'l" incfcl3e of lhe load don nol all'ed iI and, ~1K'fl1
Iy. ror~ N. remains unchanged. Ou, slatkally indelerminatesysltm i.s

r{la -

1"J.

,
Fi:. 371

Fil. 370

IransfOl'med inlo I slallcall)' determinate one comisling al two rods

AB and AC and loaded with the f~ Q acllng al poin! A verlically
dowmnrds 3nd lhe tuxw.", lO!' Nr equallo Sa, (Fig. 310). The slruc
lure will cootinue lo Il.'Ofk in Ihis way until
Q,~Q~Q;

let us plot lhe grlph of force Q vtr'Sus displaumml f lo ilIuslnle

the (oorse of deiormation of {he givt'n slrudure (fig. 3il). i\5 Icng a.s
Qs;;Q" lhe dislanct by which point A 1000~s is equa! lo lhe elongali?n
01 Ihc middle rod and i.s detcrmincd by Ihc formula
Q"

When Q lalls in Ihe inlerval QIlr;;,Q<Q', ihe dis]llacemcnt 01 polnt

A hitS lo be calculated as lhe lowering or the joint 01 Ihe srs1em 011\\"0
rods AB and AC loaded at poinl A wilh force (Q-So~). From 18
one knows thal lhe lo\\'t'rlng el poinl A is

f=~
~.

In ils lum
N,l,
. / I-"""ES

'
IQ-SG,)/.

(Q-Sn,lll

',.- 2EScos'(1

<=

'Jl::~roti'(1

...

CII, 1'61

For !.. (in Ihe 5ot'OOml seg~l) "'~ again get the equation or a straighl
Jine, bul in Ulis CllSt not passing through Ihe origin or coordinales,
When 1cn:1! Q aHains the value Q;, Ihe stresses in the side rods reach
the yield stress. and lurlher deiormatioo al lhe syslrm OCC\lrs ll'i1hout
ncrease in load. The displacenJmI curve i5 now paralle! to Ihr x-:axis.
To delermine the ultimalr lifting capacity Q; of the whole syslem
we must. lor a system 01 t..'O rods loaded wilh force (Q--So,). lind lhe
value al Q for which lhe slresses In lhe side roos reach lhe yield stres.s
(the .s.a1J1t problem "''lIS sclved in lhe previous stion). Substlu\ing
Q-&, fot P in equalion (a) 01 147, \\'1' gel

(Q-So_). =

Q~-So, ... 2So.

coso!

whencdrom
Q~

_50_ (1 + 2 COSo.)

The pctnlissible load will be

IQ1-!?j:.= S<I,(1~7mu,)
Taking inlo aceounl lhal

.; = ral
[Q)=S(oJ(J

+ 2 cos 11)

Finally

Q ~IQ1"'SlaJ(l +2cO!o.)

and

S;;'OJ(I +Ql1roul

This vatue is less lhan lhe value oblained by the convenlional method,
Lc. les.s Ihan

Al Q-4 u. 0.=30'", 10,1-1000 kgf,'cm ' (steel)

(1) by Ihe convcnlional I1Iclhod

"""

S=IIIQO(I+2ms-"oo

we gel:

l.14cm'

(2) by lhe melhod 01 permissible loads

"""

S - 1000(1 +2 toS 30","" [.46 cm'

ThU5. in dcsigniogn sllllic:ally indetNminllle s~'sll'm fmm a mal('filll

having a yicltl plaleau, Ihe methoo al permissible loads i$ more ccono-

Ru"tllll Utldu Comp0wt4 Loadl1li

[PGrl VII

mica! Ihan Ihe melhod al permrs.sible SIre6SeS. This is quite obvioos:

in lhe melhod el permissible slresses we {ake as the breaking load liJe
force Q. al \\ilkh only the middle rod attains Ihe yield stress (the side
rOOs ttmaining undef$tressed). In Ihe method or permissible loads Ihe
ultimate Iifting caracity is determined lrom the condiHon 0;> Q,.
Tht material d al lhe lhree rods is lully emplo}'ed at the load q:.
Hence. the melhod 01 permwible loads hdps us lo discovcr lhe l.
lent sources 01 reducll18 the salety fllC10l of st.tically in~lerminale
slructures. increasing their design Iiftingcapadly and achieving great
('f uniformily oi strenglh of .11 their parts. Wilhout any diFficulty
the mel!lod can be applied to the case ....~len Ihe atlsNedional .reas
oF lhe mlddJe ami slde rods are not equal.
The Ihl'{Jrelical consideratlons lliscussed .bove were uperimenlally
verilied a number of times, and Ihe calculatc.d and uperimelltal vlues
ollhe ultimate load were found lo be in good lIgreement with each oth
('(. lhis assurcs tha! lhe Iheoretical premises on whlch the method al
permlssible loods is b~d
wrrect.

.re

1"9. Dr:terminalion 01 limitlng UfUng

Capacity 01 I Twlsled R;od
lile method al desining fOl" permiSliible loads may also be applied
lo lorsion. As aIread)' exp!ained in 148 Ihe result obl.inl'd by this
melhod in tension J.nd compression dilJlfi ftOI:l Ihe one obtained by
designing lor perrnissible stresses only rOl' a slatically indelerminale
s)'stem oi bars, because lhe slresses are dislribuled uniformly over lhe
cross sections of each har. lile situalion is dilJerffit in lorsion: the
slresses are oot dislributed lIniformly over Ihe cross sa:tions.
In 49 we delermlned lhe required dimensions oi a twisll.'d shQft
from lhe condition tha! (he maxinlUm shearing stress al points on Ihe
con tour 01 the cross section should not e)(ceed Ihe permissible shl'aring
slress [TI. \Ve conducl<'d th~ analysis on (he hasis al permissihle slresses wilhoul consid<'rillg he inho~neily oI slress dislribulion in
the seclion.
In Ihis metbod of analysis, as in Ihe analysis ol slalitally indeterminate s~~tems. under lension Ol compttS5ion. we do nol utiliLe Ih~ ultimale HUing capacily 01 Ihf' nKI to lb!.' rull. In 49 we considered as
critic31lhe slale of the material ....hen lhe slif'aling stres.ses T f'quallhe
)'if'ld stress (rOl stf"tl) only al llit' conlour 01 lhe secUon (Fig. 372(0.
Accordmg lo the dislorlion energy lheory of slreng!h. T. should be
tqual to 0.6 o,. The twlsling mamenl in Ihis use will be:

Ch. 261

and Ihe ang1e 01 \Visl wjJ] be

Al,1

'P, ""''Tp =

""Tv!

1~1
'lG llr' =0;

To fllrther increase 01 the anglc 01 Iwisl \Ve mllsl Incr~ase Ih~ twist
ing momen\. bt'CUl1~ lhe rnt~rial in~hle lh~ r(}(l ~ ~till in un elastic
sble. While the delormtion inereases, the inerease in stress al lht!

'"

(b)

('1

Fl. 372

edge of the secUon will stop (rielding), and at a cer1ain value M>M
the dlstribution 01 stresses wlll correspond to Ihe diagrarn shown in
Fig. 372(b). The material inside the nonhatched cln'le 01 radius 08
will contlnue to be in an eIastic slate as before.
The limi(ing state correspomling lo complele uti1lz~lion of Ihe ]ft
ing capadly of the rod will be Ihe slate In whieh Ihe elastJc 'lone wilhln
lhe shaft is eomplelely abseni; (n such 11 slale Ihe ~lress all over Ihe
!;l'('tion will be equal lo tite yield stress 'l"v (Fig. 37210).The 1ilnJtin lwisling moment MI may In Ihls case be calcula\ed as
the sum 01 1l1omenls of aH internal forces about lht' centre 01 ltw cirele.
For \his we divide lhe arca 01 Ihe iven sed ion by col1ccn\ric circles
inlo a mlnlbcr 01 infinilesimal rings.
In the Hmiling slale Ihe slressl"S aclil1( al each poinl al lhe secUon
have ~ con~tnnt va1ue equa! lo '1:. (Fig. :J72'c)). The Inlerno1 forre aet
ing on an elellll'tltary area 01 radius l will b:: eqllal to iFlg. 373) 1:.115.
and thc momen! ollhe inlernallorce \ViII be pT~dS. By suml~jng the
(>1clnentary moments 01 Ihe inll;1"nal lorces over Ihe area 01 lhe whole
eircle, we gel

This mao"'r ef werkiog ;n Ihe limtn~ state I~ only ~rproxim3t~. Adually.

aUhollgh Iho .1,= .llhe ""ntre clI"ng~ sharply, th~y de nel nonase in jumps.
~nd 31 lhe su.ria.;e they du nol remoill 0011.1"01 bul lncrease due lo wark h~'dell;n~
uf tbe malerial.

IPllrt

vrr

11 we /lOW \\'rile he ~uilibriultl rondition fo.. lhe Iimiling Iwbting

mOIllfflI. \\1.' flOd th31

MI=~2nT.pdf'-O

M'''''T:u"'t,

(26.1)

TM muilnum pcrmissible n,'isling momeot IIX' safely faclor k is:

M,~,.,2."

fMIJ""T=T"-r-T"fT]

(26.2)

ThcrerOl'e

,." V1~~~1
Silllultanl'Ollsly, from ronventional analysis ....'11' have ( 50)

,;;, V ~\f!

;olll

Hcnce, the deslgo

\1$

00 lhe oasis of limiling liIting capacily entibIes

lo reducl! Ihe shafl diamecr in Ihe ralio

Vm-

O9!

Due lo nonunirorm stress distribuliOll ovcr Ihe section in e-Iaslk

slalc, lhe Iramilion lo design on {he basis of limiting liHing capacilr
hclps reduce tite ronsumplion of m<llcrials.
It should, oo\1:evet', be borne in mind Ihat he aboye analysis holds
huI' only under stalic loading, whm
lhe failure octurs due ta yield
ing. A vast majorily 01 lhe shafls
under lorsion, however, work under
varying 100ds, \,'hen the faHure occurs due to lheappearance 01 faligue
CTlICks: therefote the analysis sbould
be b~ on lhis lactor.ObviousIy, lhe abo..'c anal)"sis caonot be
applied in the design of Y1alls in a
rnajority oi the ca~. As 1Io"e shaU
ste latrr, the anal)"liis el beams uoder bcnding will be enlirely dilJer.

"'l.

The resulls obtainNI are 01 interesl because they can be checked lo

('J.

261

Dm;it1" fur PtrmilSlblt Loods

practice. 11 has been e~lablj~hed e~peritllellll1l1y thal 1.. . oblllined from

lormula (26.1) in lermsof Ihe Iimiling twisling moment, also deler
minl~d experimenlaJl)'. is wfflciently time lo O.60~, whkh il oughl to
be according lo lhe dislortion energy lhecry of slrenglh.
150. Seleding Beam Section lor Permissible Loads

We have seen in lorsion 01 shalts Ihal, ir Ihe slrcsses are not distribuled unilormly over lhe sectioo, Ihen lhe dimensions 01 Ihe sedions
obtaioed lor permissible stresses and p('rmissible loads are difierent.
A similar phenomenon Is observed in Ihe bending 01 beams.
In lhe analysis baed on the method 01 permissible slresses we deler11l ille Ihe size or lhe section from ihe condition
0".... -

M"'''--r
--7"" ...., J
C}

For malerials having a yield zone (mi Id slrel), l(Jl is l<lken as

I(fJ=~

"

whefe o.. . is Ihe yield stress, and k. the corr~ponding salely faclor.
ThllS. we conslder lhe material 01 the bearn io crilical stal!' wheo
Ille rnaximllm stress io Ihe crilical section reaches lhe yield stress.

H~-+~iT=Iil
~e~
(11)

lb)

(~)

(d

PIg. 374

Lel us denote the bendiog momenl glving rise to this stale by M,: il
corresponds lo Ihe ailaiomen! 01 rnaximum carrl'ing capacily 01 Ihe
mato?rial in the maxilOurn stressed layers of lhe crilical sedion. How
e\'cr. lhis staledoes nol mean lhal lhe lllllximum cllrrying capacity 01
Ihe whole beam, as a slructure, has been exhausted.
Lel liS consider a slcel b...m of syrnmclrical (ror exarnple, reclangu1M or lsecHon) seclion (Fig. 374[a) and (b)). lhe dislribujion 01 slresse;; n the critica! sectioo for a mOlllenl M is shown in Fig. 374(t);
tlle yleld stress is reached 001)' in Ihe boundary layers, llnd aJl lhe rellI11ining portion 01 the beam remains n an elastic sta le. Thetefore,
l&_~~IO

RtslJI_ Urtdtr Compoulld Load/lli

(POf/

va

fo.- turlher defo.-mation 01 the beam ....'e musl jncrease Ihe l()3d and lhe
bending momeol: lhe lifliog capacUyal Iht' bt'am remains lo be ex
ploi!t'd fulty.
As ate jJlCte3.S!' the momenl lhe yield rol}{' sprtads lowards Ihe inside
01 the bum, the stress diaram appears as in Fig. 374(d) and in lhe Jimil. when u~ material begins to ftow along thecomplt'tt' heigblol Ihe
SoeCtion and the lifting capacily of the btam is exhausted, iI lakes lile
lorm of 1.....0 reclangles {Ftg. 374(e. The bending momenl in Ihis siete
al lhe beam will be Ihe IimUing one lar il as a 1I.,00Ie. Furlher deforma
tion or the bt'am will occur wHhout <Iny increase in the momen!; a
socalled ductile hiflge will be forme<! in Ihe critical se<:tion.
Let us delermine lhis limiling [nomen! M~. II is t'qualla the sum
01 momenls 01 forct'll Ilbout Ihe neutral axis. as Is evident from Fig.
374(e). A force> cr~ dA acls on lhe elementary afea dA al a dis1ance z
from the neutral axis: Ihe momeot 01 thi5 force about Ihe neutral axis
i,s zo, dA. As Ihe secUon ls s)'1I1metric, it is ,sufficienl to calculale lhe
sum ot momenls 01 these forces far lhe upper DI" lower hall of the Sf'(.
tion and double the resulto Thus

M;=2 ~ o,zdA

'"

\\ilere A Is the area el lhe wnole sediOll. As a, Is constant lar a11 polnts
01 the section. \\'e nave

M~_2cr, ~ zdA=2a,S...

'"

bause lhe integral

~ zdA =S",u

'"
represe.nls the slatic momenl 01 one haH 01 lhe ~ction about the neul

ral

:lXlS.

The strength oondilion mar be "''Tillen

liS

M_.<;;[MJ
For a salely factor

al t.

gel

\l.'e

,Ito: 2S""""".
rM J-T-~"'2S.nfoI
,
Henc.e lhe slrength condition becornl.'S

~2S
[J
M ..........
o

..... M...
or 2S.... -lO!"

(26.3)

C/I. 261

Design

le,

Pumi$$lbl'

LcaiU

'"

Therefore, when analyzing a beam 01 symmelrical secUon for permissible load, its dimensions should be calculaled nollrom \he seclion
modulus W bul lrom lhe slalic moment ol Hs half-seclion multiplied
by two. For a rectangular secUon 01 height h and wdlh b
h h

bh'

bh'

2S",.. =2b2""4""'-.-= 1.5""6= 1.5W

Pulling this value in formula (26.3), we get
W

*"

Mm"
1.5101

Thus, \Vhen designed lor pcrmlssiblt' load Ihe required secUon mociulus 01 a rectangular beam is 1.5 times lcss than when il is designed lor
permissible slresses.
For any symmelrical section the quantily 2S..... mal' be laken as a
produd 01 Ihe secUon modulus and a constant tl which depends upon
the shape 01 Ihe secUon:

2S.... =nW
Therefore lormula (26.3) takes Ihe form
W

*"

Mm..
nol

(26.4)

For a rectangular sed ion n=I.5, for seclions 01 the type which we
are conside.ring ti varies belween 1.15 2nd 1.17; Ihe mean value 01 ti
mal' be taken as 1.16. Thus, il we slari designlng steel beams of Ihe
commonly used stclions by Ihe melhocl of permissible loads, we may
increase IlIeir carrl'ing capadly by 16%, which is eQuivalenl lo
incrwsing ther pennissible slress. Such an increase in the permissible stress musl be Ihoroughly invesligaten (during strenglh check) in
conjunclion wilh olner possible fadors which may cause lailure of
Ihe bearn.
lt has been ell:perimenlally eslabllshed lhal I.section sleel beams
never fail solely as a result 01 the yield stress appearing over Ihe whole
secUon. More commonly Ihe failure is due lo Ihe loss 01 slablill' 01 the
flange (Fig. 375) or the web. Therefore, special a!tenUon should be paid
lo checking Ihe slablily of the elements ollhe beam when higher permissible stress is used upon analY'Ling by Ihe method or permissible
loads.
lf a repealed load acls on Ihe beam, Ihe possibilily 01 failure due lo
Ihe appearance 01 faligue cracks should be laken inlo collsideration.
This requires an additional check againsl a ailure 01 Ihis nature occurrlng in lhe structure.
Th", analysis based on permisslble loads is somewhal more complicaled in lile case 01 bealI15 having one axis 01 syrnmetry, for example in
T-section beams.

...

".

I?Ui5/01la Umk, Compaund LcGdI/li

[Parl Vl1

FIgure 376 shows suen a sedion and lhe diagram 01 normal stress
distribulion when lhe carrying capacity 01 {he beam is reached. In
such beams we mus! lirsl determine Ihe location 01 (he neutral axis;
C!ven al Ihis slage of working 01 Ihe beam iI does nol pass through lhe
centre 01 gravity 01 Ihe secUan.

Fig. 375

Fie:. 376

Le! liS dt'nole lhe MM oi lhe compressed portion al (he sectian by

Al anu Ihe slrelched portion by A,. The oondition Iha! (he sum af Ihe
[ensile and compressive slresses should be equal gives
(J~A,=O'~A.

or

A=A,

The neulral axis divides Ihe area af {he section into wa equal por
tions. In bemling wilhin lhe e[astie Iimils he same candil ion brou~hl
liS to lhe condusion tha! (he slatic momenl:; 01 Ihe compre&Sed aod
slrelched portions of lhe seclion should be equal and, IhereroTe, ihe
neulral axis should pass tl1rough the centre 01 gravity 01 lhe section.
Here il divides lhe aTea of the section nto lwo equal parts.
Having determined lhe local Ion of Ihe neulral /lis, we see l!lal
rMl=I1~(Sl+S')

"

where SI ~lJd S, are the slalic momenls of lhe upp('r 3nd lower hah-('S
01 Ihe area ollhe s('Clon about lhe neulral axis. The strenglh condition
takes Ihe form

-.,.M....
(S 1 +S)
1 po 1l1J

('65)
W

The aboye d"tscussjon is valid (or pure bending; tlJe presence d

shellring forces compllca!es lhe anal}sis.

151. Design of Slalically [ndelenninale Beams lor

Pennissible Loads. The Fundamenlals.
Analysis 01 a Two-span Beam
lt was eslablished in [he prece(ling sed ion Ihal Ihe formalion of a
ductile hinge is neccss;Jry lo CllUse Lreakdown of a staticaHy determinale beam.

ODI',,, lar

C/I 161

Pt,mlJJilllt LoGdJ

In stalkall)' indelt'1'minall' bl'alll5 Ihl' lormalion or one ductil.. hin~

i5 1101 enough lar fuI! utilizalion of Iheir bt'ntlin~ C3p3cil~: il is ,"'<,(1\,
liul Ihal al kasl one more duclile hingc ~ forllK'u. \\\, shall ,'xlllain
Ihll> wilh lhe help oI an example.

..,

'_

-,f.c'__---j"1l.
~
;1.Q.
,
,

"

-I-~I

ItiI

!!J. ~"l

-: l"'i>:, ~fZpt,
I

'N

'I 1.\Fl

,-,-;...--;...:
1
Ir

In

i-i"i'i:,...
,(1111'
~
(~11

y,,~,---+.-_~I
~

"

l'!,

/1

.".,

r..

1.1.

*1,

,,

Fil1.. 371

Lel u.~ coosidrr a I....n-span ronlinuous beam or unifNm '<l"(:lion

(flg 377to). II~ Iwnding 1II(lIIl('nl dia:!ram IN wor\.; .... ilhin eh!' elaslic
hmil5 (Fil;. 377,bll i~ Ihe t1iftrr..nt'e of 11M' hendinj.! roonM'Tl1 diagnllm
IOf forct' P and supl'OI"I monil'nl.\I, -~ 1'/. Graflhit" suhlracliofl 01
1111' dlagrams is 5holA:n by dottNl lint'$. lhe rf'SU1tanl bending molTK'Jll
di~Jgram is halched. lhe ma.\imurn slrl'SSf'd slioru; 3rt lhe S('('lion 01
3f1plicalion of lhe load wHh a mol1l('nl J\f,. ~-~Pl=kipI anu

Ih.' n1iddl.. SUllporl ....ith l1Ionll.111 M'-I~ PII< PI. "'h("l) Ihe lood
is increastd, 51resses in Iht' bram bol1l(' t'qualeo IIIt' ~jtlu strt."M 0.
flr'! of all in Ihe lop and bollom la}"l'rs or lhe 51 ion under load p.
:11111 rn:l~ 1M' l'~prC"<...<;('11 h~ lhl' rl'lation

111'~
"Ui ... o~.

\\" "It'rt' rOtll

lPIlJ"/ VII

If lhe load is furlher increased, a dudile hinge is lormed in fhis

secUon when lhe bending mamen! ( 150) becoml"S equal to:
M~=20'~S .... =lVtW

However, undel such a load the beam does nol cJ(hausl its maxilnum
lifling capacity. 1t Iransforms into a slalkally determinalc beam with
a hinge at point D Ihrough which momenl M; is Iransmitted

1',' I /'l.'
O
.;;;;,

)'('
'j)

Jh

Fig. 378

(Fig. 378)-this beam is s\i11 capable of laking more load. When lhe
looel is further increaseel, the momeol al poiol D remains consl<ml
whereas the mamen! at the support iom~ases until il also becomes equa!
to M" another duclile hioge is lormed al the supporl, Ihe left span
lransrorms iolo a movable syslem and lulllilting capacity of Ihe beam
is utilized as Ihe load iocreases \0 P~. lhe bending moment diagram of
the beam far this slate olloadiog, wnlch is shown in Fig. 3n(c), is the
diagram far breaking momenls. It Is lhe clilJerence oflhe ordinales 01

Iriangle adb wilh maxlmum ordinale P

in Ihe seclon of load

~ppli-

cation and lriangle. aek with an ordinafe M~ al the supporl J flncl ~

in he seclioo of load application. lhe breaking load P; is delermined
irom the candil ion thal segrneot cd equal lo
equal to

~-iL must also be

M~:

!2_~=M<

2
,
wherelrom

_!:'.._,,'f~
M 116
~

",,,~,

(26.6)

The strenglh candil ion may be v,'fitten as lollows ( 147):

P~[PJ

(26.7)

where P is lhe load acllng anlhe beam, anel {PI is Ihe pcrmissible load.
To obtain [PI \Ve divide bolh sides of equatioo (26.6) by Ihe safety
iactor k anel gel
(1&.8)

Subslituling this vatue ollPI in ('quation (26.7),

'lit'

oblain

P~:;/"'ll" 1"1
whcrelrom
(26.9)

M,=~ is lhr

rtdund bmiJifl' monltflf in 5l'Clions I and D.

Ihe b.'am ~o('"lion in ihs t'lample ma} bf- seleded in
8C\.udan' whh Ihe redund momenl M,_~ and lhe pt'fmissible
WhtfC

C"nSlUrnll~,

stress 111fT!.

M,-!T

It is e\'iden! Irom thr formulas

ami i'J~="': lhal Ihe
ordinales of Ihe diaram of f\'duced momenls IFig. 317ld)) are proportionallo tite ordinales oi lhe diagram 01 breaking momenls alld are
oblained from them by replacing the brealdnllload ~ by lhe aclual
load P.
lf \Ve deslfn the bellm for permissible stress, U'e should take M ...""
CI ~ Pf >~ (Fig. 377(/1)) as lhe reduced
momenl and 101 as lhe permissible stress. Hence, deslgning slalicll.lly hldelerminale beams for
permissible JOllds has 1 doub\e advantage-the permls,sihlc slress increases as in slaticall)' delerminale 1x'lIms, and Ihe diagram oi reduced
momenl.s "shrinks", Le. ils ordinalu in corresponding se<:lions become
smallt'r.
lIJe tncre~ in lhe lifling clll'acily ci lhe beam is i'... en by lhe ralio
~

r"",.Fxl31

P, "" IxlJ.olil

a,

;~

_~f1

Assuming th.11 11=1 16 (for I-beams. 1501, \\'t 6nd lhat lhe lining eapacily 01 the beam increascs hy <I0~ il 1I is desigoed acrordir.g
to lhe new melhod.
In t~ cumple dlSCussed above the diaeram 01 redoced IIlOments
(Fig. 377(,) is oblainrd lrom IIR- condilion Ihal in lhe t\\'o maximum
slresstd secliortS lhe bending momenls are equa!. lhrrefoce in the design 01 M-al1l5 al uniform section this method 15 somelimes referte1:llo

lIS the

n~(/1Od

Ket'pi~

o/ ~ual f1IOOittli,,

Ihis in mind. 1!:e ean plollhe diagr.m 01 redlJ<'ed momcnls

(for permlssible loads) graphically: Iirst we plol lhe beoding moment
diaram 01 forte P far span I 01 the beam (adb) and then plol diagram
Ol'!l of 5Upport moments such lhal ~-cd (I!lis can be done by dividine:

1f'1Ir1 VU

If anolher fon.~ P .....ere octing allhe milhlle 01 1114: S('\;()nc.l span,

the diagram of reduet'd momenls ""'{luld remain unalJeded (Fig. 3i9).
te. no uinforcemmt ol the Mam \\'lluld bf- r~uired evm if an addi

lional rorcewereapplied. There would on!ybea change in Ihe OJ'der of

appearance of lhe ductile hlnges: a hinge \\1)llld lirsl be formed at lhe
middle sllpporl and lhen in Ihe seclions ~ lhe I\\'ll orces Kt.

152. Analysis ot a Thrtt-span Bcam

Lel lIS nowconsider a beam having an addilional span in lhe nliddle
(Fig. 380(0. The bending mament diagrllm 01 Ihis beam for work
wilhin lhe elaslic regian is shown in Fig. 38l(b). When lhe load is gra
dually increased, ductile hlnges are firsl lornled al the inler~lIle
sllpporl I and Ihe cenlre (approJ:imalely) ol lhe middle span (Fig.
380(c). Hov,'ever, lhe beam is still gpable ollaking further loads un
liI a Ihird hinge forms al supporl 2. Tlle final diagram 01 brellking
mamenls is shown in Flg. 380(d). The limiling value al {he moment is:

M'
J ~ q",J'
~""z 8 ""'16

Iml lhe reduced moment i.s:

The required section modulus is:

W ..... -"1,
q(O
,
11 lo! = J6If I"J
Thus, Ih~ ductile hingo must be forme<! befn lhe middle Splln
fails. and 1M moOIefl!s in all the Ihree hinges will be equai. 11 311 the
spans al tlJe beam W@fe loaded, it ....-ould be essenliallo check Ihe possibility 01 railure 101' ('3ch span by ploUitlg the correspooding diagrams
d reduced momenls (by equating tlteir value:s In tite critica! .seclions)

C1t. 261

Dtsign. for Pe,mlsiWle LQ<ldJ

.73

and seled W lor lhe maximum value of M, Ihus oblained. As a conerele example let us load Ihe three-span beam (Fjg. 381) by 11 uniformly jistributed force q in Ihe middle span and coneenlraled forces P=2q/

.,

ading at the centre of eaeh side span. The reduced moments M, fO'
alllhree spans are sholl'n in the diagram wilh dotled lines; their vaJues
are as folloll's:

",

M'=ij

The sectiOIl shoulcl be selecled for the momen! M,=

",
w;;,..3Il[<11'

~'; Ihe secUon

modulus should be
Similarly, we can analyze a beam wilh any number of spans by assessing Ihe possibility ollailure in eaeh span separately.
The method 01 designing eontinuous beams explained above cmploys
a number of approximalions and reslricliotlS. Firstly, il is val id only
lor slalic lcads. Secondly, lhe physical pkture 01 lailure 01 the beam
i5 much more complkaled even for stalic lcads Ihan the highly simpli6ed concept of duetile hinge lormalion. whkh \\"e employed in Ihe
above discussjon. PlasUe delormation is nol limited lo.a p.arlicular
seetion but covers Ihe whole be.am 1c'nglh. In :Hldilion. lhe maximum
lifting: eapaciiy or lhe helllll rlln be rcslriclcd nol only by ils plaslic
dcformation, but also by Ihe vjol~tion of its slabilil)' as.a \\'hole or Ihe

!f'/lf! 1///

Range pilles and \1l't'b separaleJy. lherelore, Illhls llIelhod i~ appliN

~tability al

In .clual deo;ign. grealer atlention should be paid to lbe

lhe beam eVefI thougl:l Ihe loading may be slatic.

,,-f-

1
Fi,. 381

EJcperilllfllts on lhe lailurt' al sfalically indelft"minale beams undft"

slllic loading re\'eal lhal, iI failuu dlM' lo lit\; 01 slabllily is prevenl
NI, lbe breaking load nkulaled Ihl"tntic:allr by lhe above Jr.elhod
concurs \\'t'i1 .... ith lhe expft"imenlal1y determine<! value.

1S3. Fundamentals of Dnign by lhe ,\\elhod

of Limiiing Statts
Design by {tiC' melllod of Iimiting slales is outsidc lhe scope of Ihe
basic cours... on slrenglh 01 material.>. 11 is compulsory ollly in deslgn
of building slructures and is nol y<'l used in tlIech"nic~1 enginet'l"ing.
Howevcr, k......plng n lIIind Ihal Ihe mdhod LS ultinlale1)' based upoo
strenglh el JrnIlllfials, we giv(' be1QW lhe fUIl(tam('nllll concepls of de
slgn ol building slruclures b)' lhr mt'\hod of IImiting slales to enab1e
lhase studying Ihis melhod lo coordina le Its DlethOOs IInd Il?fminology
with Ihal 01 I~ slrenglh 01 Imlll?fials.
l\1lll groups of1 mitmg slales are ('Onsldcll'd belO\\. lbe Iirsl gmup
t1eal.s wilh Iimiting sta les that appear dile lo 1065 oi load C3IT}'ingea
pa.:ityor becilll5C Ih.e structure is nol lil lor ll'OCking. lhe second group
titals wilh lhose lhat appur beause the slrudurt is not tit for normat
funclioning.
The main Iimlting states 01 Hit' lirst group are failure. loo of stabi
lit)', u<:t'3Sive opening oi cracks, etc.
The limiting states el. Ihe secolld group include conditions that hin

C~.

25J

der normal funcUoning of the strueture or reduce ils Sl'rvice life due
mainly lo impermissibly lafge displacements (d..lIeclions, angles of
rotalion, e.lc.).
The raled slrellglh, R,', whieh is specilied by design slandards on Ihe
basis 01 control conditions and slalistical varialion of slrength, is
the main parametcr eharaclerizing lhe resislanee of materials to Ihe
adion 01 external forc{$. We may choase as raled slrenglh he yield
stress, ultimale slrenglh, faligue sttE'nglh, criticlIl slress ami olher
similar eharaetetisties al Ihe malerial, which in Ihe cOllrse al slrenglh
01 materials are eal1ed crilical and are denoled by ff.
The possible harmful devialion 01 slrE'nglh characterislics Irom Ihe
raled strength is taken into acoounl by Ihe SIlfely factor uf material, k,
py whieh Ihe raled slrenglh is dhided.
The numerieal valuc of k depends on the properlies 01 materials and
their slalisUcal variatton. WhE'll ca1culating Ihe load carrying capaelly 01 struclures, lhe value 01 k is nol lake-n less Ihan 1.l.
By the design s/rellgth of material, R, we mean lhe strenglh which is
eonsder~d while designing a strllclure and is oblained by dividing
R' by k:
(26.10)
The roefficic/lt 01 optra/ing ccnditiOIlS, m, lakts care of Ihe speeial
leatllr('s of a syslemalie nature Ihal arise during actual functioning
01 D1alerials, elements and joinls and structures, bul which are nol
diredly reflected in the design procedurl.'.
Coelficienl m lakes inlo account he eftect of lemperature, humidlty
and corroding efreel of Ihe almosphere, englh of time during which
orces ad and sorne other faetors.
The reliabilily and capital inveslmenl laclors in design 01 buildings
and slruelures are ac.::ounled for in a number 01 caSl'S by Ihe coefficient
01 reliability, k,. The numerical values 01 eoefflcienls k, m. and k r lIre
eslablished by slandards.
Thus, formula (26.10) fer design slrength R with suitable coeffi
cie!lls m and k r when necessary may be written as follows:
R'
R=m-

"O

(26.11)

In lhe courses of strenglh of malerillls design slrength R is known as

permissibJe stress and is denoted by [olor 11'1. However, R contains
a more detailed breakup oI Ihe safcfy laclors and does not provide
for salety againsl overloading. When a slructure is designed by the
method of limiting dales, Ihe safety lactar against overloading is calculated by a special melhod, whieh will be discussed latero
The loads are delin~d mainly by their ra/ed values, denoled by P'.
These are spe<:ified by standanls lor various slructUres.

'"

IP~'1

VII

The probable harmlul ueviation of Ioads from lhe raled values due
lo varialion of load5 01 cha~ in conditions of normallundionina: is
lakm accounl d by lhe cctf~c~nI ct t;(lf'noadillg. /l. CoeHitienl f1 ls
Ihe salety factor against overloading. 1lle ovrrloading c:oeilkients m3;t1
be diJferenl lor dilferenl loads even ir Ihe laUtr IIrt applied lo lhe
structure simullaneously. 101" instance,
permanent aOO lemporar)'
loads. This is lile' dilference betwterJ Ihis design melhod and Ihe ooe in
slrengtll of materials in which lhe ufely laelor againsl overloading is
Ihe same (ex allloads simulttlnoously actina: on a slruelure and is taken
inlo acrount by a comlllon safety factor.
The loads used in actual design are oblained by nlultiplying Ihe
raltd valul'S wilh Ihe corresponding overloadin coefficienls 11, llnd
IItt known as dl'sign 10000s.
Ir Ihe difTeren! vulues 01 lhe overloading coellicient for permanenl
and te111JlOfary loalls lIfe taken into accounl. then. fOf inslance, the
~ign bending !IIomen! M due lo simullaneous oc!lon 01 permanent
and lemporary lorces GIl a beam may be delined as

ror

"'1-Il.M~+II.M_

(26.12)

Slruetures should be designed by oonsidering lhe possible unlavour

able combinllions 01 loads (for example, simuJlaneous loading 01 a
bridge by a Irain, bT9king fOtCes and .",.iOO. or sJmullaneous loading
01 pov.1!r iransmission J/TIe IQIlm by wJnd and ofle<osided lensOfl due
lo snapping of wire in the adjacmt $pan). The probabiJity of such combinaloRs is lakm mIo lIccounl by lhe corlficjtn/ of romtlina/lon, lIe'
The va/ues 01 coei6cimls Illlnd n~and lhe rom~dations regarding
IheJr application are lIvailable in standards.
Thus, il the slandards require Ihal a coeflidenl 01 combil1alion for
lemporary loads be included in ihe design of a slruclure, lormlIa
(25.12) ror Ihe design mOnlenl becomes
M-II,Mp.rm+/lell,M....p
(26.13)
Ir the siandards do not coniaio instruelions for the lIccounling
of inelllsllc deforlllations, it ls permilled to determine rarees in sla
tlcally ndeterminale s}'stems on Ihe assumptlon {hat deformallofl.!
olthe struc!ure remaln in the elastk reglon. The slrength condilion,
for nslance, in bending, can lhen be wrilten liS follo\\'S:

;'<R
Takng into a<:1:OUnl lormulas (26.11) and (26.13),

If.'l'

gel

",&!p"... +Il.....Af....p ::s;;;m R'

;
11 ttle strength is to be ehecked foe Iimiting stales of lhe .sond
group, we musl det~mine the eiaslic deforlllation OT displacement
(e1ongalion. twist angle, delbdion) due lo normal load. Tile deformaUoo thus fOllnd musl nol uCl't'd lile permissible value laid do.....n
Jn Ihe standard$.

PART VIII

Stability
01 Elements 01 Structures

CH,y>TEIl 17

Stability of Bars Under Compression

154. Inlroduction. Fundamentals of Stabllily
of Shapc af Comnssed HaN

In all pre\'ious discussions lI,'e delerll\irltd Ihe croSHedional dimensions 01 baTS IraID Iheir slrenglh conditiofl. Howt'ver, a bar may {ai[
nol be<:ause 01 insuflicient strenglh but b~auSl' il <locs nol relajn ils
dcsigned shaH". This ehanges the nature or slressed sial!' o Ihe bar.
rile rnost t~'piclll eX31npll' \5 Ihat 01 a bar eompressed by axial rorces
P. UnlJl now \\'e have chccked Ihe strenglh 01 bars by lhe following
condition:

where

fol '"" ~

or

ro}- ~

Thls rondition ls based on Ihe aumption l/lal lhe bar works umler
"xial comprtssioll righl up to lhe momenl of lis lailun' du\' lo o, or
Ho\\'~ver . t'VeJl Ihe simples! 01 l'xperin:en!s sho..., s thal il is 1101 always
possible lo load Ihe bar up lo its ridd slres.s or ultimate strwgth.
If \\~ subject a thin \\"OOdm seale to axial compression. I{ may lail
due to bending. Al Ihe lime o la_Iure the compressive force acline on
ilie seale "".ilI be oonsiderably l~ Ihan Ihe foro! whieh tbe seale can
wHhsland befare ils ultimate slrength is reached. lhe seale fails be
cause lt dOes not retain ils designcd shapt' of. reclangle bul bmds, e'
in rise lo bending lOOlIlenls due lo fOf\.'eS P and, oonsequentlr. lo ad
ditiooal bending stress: 1M scako loses Ils stllbility.
Therelorr. 101" sale \l;orking al a slructure il is nol enough lor ji lo
have sulfieie:nl slrenglh; it is t'SSef\lial lhat all ils elemenls art' slable
and lheir deformatioo under lhe a<:liofl 01 external (orces is .....ilhin such
limits Ihal the nature 01 Iheir work relPains unaffected. Htttce, in a
number of cases, in particular in bars under compression, the slrenglh
check musl be subslantiated by a check al slabilily. Berore we carry
out sl.lCh a check iI is neces.sary to eel closely acquainled wilh Ihe
conditions whid lead lo the bar losin its stability.

0._

IAI

lIS

consider a bar suf6c1t'nfly longer lhan ib crosssecliooal sil~,

hi~ed at both Mds (Fie. 38'2) and loaded by a graduallr incr~aslne

axial force P. We nola Ihat lhe bar remains slraight as long as P i:s
smal!. 1f we Ir)' to bfttd il lo one side by applying a lI1OlM!ltary hori
z.ontallorce, il comes bllCk lo its original shape upoo Ihe rernoval ol
the e.xlemal force causing deftedion afler doin a 1_ oscillaliOl1s.

H ,~
,

,
,,
,

,,,

'" i

Po
f. 382

F. Sd3

AJ force P increase, Ihe bar lakes Ionger [o relum lo its original

sl.ble posilion: Iinally force P may a!tain a valu~ al whieh Ihe bar
fails lo slraighterl \\l1en it is slightly benl lo ene side. 11 \\"e Iry lo
strllghlen lhe bar wilhoul feQloving lorce P, wt' lind Ihal it i$ inca
pable 01 remaining slraigtll. In olher words, al a parlicular value of
P, cal1ed cri/ieal foret: p., lhe slraighl.1 ine shape cellSeS lo be stable lor
a bar under cOlnpression.&
lhe [ransilion lo crllical value is sudden; a small decrE'ase oi fhe
compressive lorce from Ihe crifjeal value is enollg!J lo make Ihe
straighl.line shape slable again.
Ihe olher hand, if lhe eompressive rorce P is sllghtly higher lhan
Ihe critkal value, the slraighlline shape beconll'5 extremely unslable.
In thiscase a small eccentricity or lhe applitd force or Ihe nonunifor
mily 01 Ihe bar malerial is eOOllgh 001 only to bend [he bar bul ,Iso lo
incrtase lhe curvalure or bent bar due lo a conlinuously increasing
bendina moment; the process oI bending COffil'5 lo a stop eilher when a
new position of equilibrium is achievfil or when the bar complel~ly
bre.aks down.
lhus, ror aH practical purposes ...." t can consider erilical force Po
equiVllenl lo a load which Mcripples lhe corr.pressed bar and creates
a condition in which normal working of the bar becomes impossibJe.

en

b,ftstalicr.s ,evnl Uuot [mtabtlty bteir.3, at valUfl1 or P .1lic!l ucud 1M

critlcal Iorce only by a lOOCId..... quantly.

Ch.l'7I

$Iabi/itll

01

Bar, Undu Cllmp,,$SiM

Jt must be k<,pl in mind that ~railllre~ of the bar dIJe lo a force grealer
Ihan the crih:aJ occurs Ollly when there ls no obstacle lo bendin.
Th<'l"elorc lailure may be avoided if buekling is prevented by a sidt:
supporl which reslricts lurlher bending.
UStlally sueh J,:ossibility is TeOlOte-t1le critical compressive rorce
should prac:lically be considere<! as Ihe 10weT Ilmit tha! causes '"fail
ure~ al Ihe bar,
The IO$.S 01 slabilily under compr~~ion ma)' be explained by Ihe
analogy lollowing (rom mechanics of salid bodles (Fig. 383). let us
rotl a cyl ind on an inclined plane ab \\'h ich clianges into a small
horizonlal plaUorm be an I~n an inclined pIune cd or opposile in
clinalion. Tile c~lim.ler remains stable as lons: as we 1m il along plane
ab holding it with a support perpendicular lo the indincd plane. Equi.
Ilbrlu1l\ 01 Ihe c)'linder is immalerial when it rolls on platform be.
As soco as it reaches poiol e Hs equilibrlum becomcs unslable-Ihe
slighlcsl push to the rigb! is tnough lo make it go rolling dm'n.
lhe physical piclure. or 1055 DI stllbillty in Ihe compressed bar de
scribed aboye can be aClually r<,produce<! in aoy labarator)' \\'llh very
elcmenlary equlpment, This dcscriplion is 1101 a theorelical or idea!
pklure 01 working al a co:npr~d bar. bul r~al one sho\\'ing how
actuallr a bar works whtn it i.s aded upon br compresive lorces.
rile 1055 01' straightline slab!e stale b)' I compressed bar i.s $Omelillles rcferred lo Maxial btndlng, becau!.e iI manilests il.sell In Ihe form
al considerable bending of Ih~ b3r under axial oompres.sioo. Thererore.
lnslead of check on slability fhe lerm check on axiallHonding" is still
quile prevalenl, allhough iI is nol very appropriale, because we ate
basically interesled not in lhe check en bcnding bul In Ue. check on
stabUil)' 01 lhe slraighllint shape al the bar.
Having eslablished the ronc:ept al crilie'! lorce as a -crippling" load
which pub an enel lo Ihe normal lunclioning of Ihe bar. \\"e can casil)'
derive a conditlon lar checking lhe slability of bars identkal lo Ihe
slrenglh condillon,
Crilical force P, givcs rise to "crilica! stressu" in lhe bar, which are
denoted by 11 =
Critica! slrcs.se.s in lhe c011lprcs.sed br are strcsses
atwhich lhe bar !aHs. Thercfore, lo ensure stabilily of a slraighl bar
comprl!SSed by forces P, il i.s e.s.senliai that Ihe slrenglh check (0=
-~<;lal) should be aompanied by a siabillly chock
0

!f.

(27.1)

[Parl VIII

'"'
\\tlere [0'.1 15 he IJermissible $tress far stabil il}' equal lo critica! .stress
dividl.'d by a factor of slability:

[a6J-~
Before Ilr'l! explain how stabil Iy is lo be chteked, ....-e IDust .!tia..... how
lo dl.'tl'rmine Oc and how to seled k,.

ISS. Eultr's Formula rOl" CriliUoI Force

For dderminin critica! stress (J. \Ve must fir.st caiculate lhe critica!
f<rte, p Le. the minimum uial compressive force which a sJightly
benl compressrd bar can withstand and )'cl remain in equilibrium.
lhis problem \llas fies! solved bv leonhanl Euler in 1774.
Lel us poin! out Ihat {he problem is enlrely dilfert'nt from afl problems discuSSot(! in previous seclions th is book. Unlil no\\" .....(' have ko.
termined dcl"ormalion of a bar when the exlernal forces acting on iI

'1

~~'
Fil:'. 384

are known. QUT problern i$ jusi Ihe opposile: \\:e assume a certain de
f1edion or lhe bar's axis and lhen determine {he 3.lial compr~h'e
force P at which the assumed de8eclion ott:urs.
Consider a unifOl'm straight bar hingtd al bolh ends. One of Ihe supports permits axial displacernent of Iht conesponding tnd or Ihe bar
(Fi. 3&1). The dud 1!reighl oI Ihe bar is negligible. Lel lIS load the
bar wilh an axial compressive force p~p. and impar! lo ji a sJight
deReclion in Ihe plane el minimum rigidily; lhe bar rl'mains in equilibrium in the benl sute because P-P <.
1ht imparttd dellecHon is assumed lo be vtry smalL Therelore. !he
probJ(!m may bE' solved by using lhe approximatc diD"erl!nlial tquation
of Iht- delltcll'd axis of Ihe bar ( 82). Seltcling lhe origin el coordinales
al poinl A and directing 1he coordina le axt5 as shown in Fig. 384, \\'e
gel (rom ~ualion (15.7)

El ~,. M (x)
Consider a seclion al a distance x lrom Iht Ofigin 01 coordinales, The

ordinate ollhe dl!Reded axis in this sed ion is!J and lhe fxllding mo-

Ch. 27]

...

SlabilUIl 01 B"TI Under Comprwil

menl is:

M(x)=-Py
When c011lpared with Fig. 384 lhe! be!nding morne!nl is found lo be
negalive- allhough Ihe ordinales are posltlve lor lhe selecled diredion
01 Ihe yax is *. (!-Iad the- bar bee-n bent wilh ils convexity downwards,
Ihe momenl would have been positive, the yordinale would have
been negative and M (X)=-PlI.)
Consequentl)', differ'nlial equalion (15.7) ma)' be writ!en as fol
lo\\"s:

~"
EJ ;Er=-py

(27.2)

Dividing bo!h sidr:s oi Ihe cqualion by EJ and denoting!lr by k', we

mal' rewrite Ihe above equalion as

10110\\"5:

~"
;r+k'y=O

(27.3)

Thegeneral solulion 01 thi5 equation i5:

y=a5ink.t+bcoskx
This solution contains Ihree unknowns: oonslanLs

(;:-,

(27.'1)
01

intcgraliOll a

and b and k ...

because Ihe critical force is nol known.
lile houndary oonditions 01 Ihe bar give us I\VI) equations:
at poin! A:
al poi nI 8:

x=O denedion y=O

x"", deftt"c1ion y=O

It ensiles frorn Ihe lirsl condition (since sin kx=O alld coskx=l) Iha!

Q=b
ThllS, lhe bent axis is a sine curve having equalion
y=-aslnkx

(27.5)

Upon subsliluting Ihe second equalion

y=O

aud

x=1

we obt;in
O=Il~jTlkl

(27.6)

10110\\IS lha! either a or kl must be zero.

If 11 i5 equal !o zero, then lrom equation (27.5) we see 1I1al lhe deftecton of {he bar is zero in all secUons. i.r. Iht" bar remains 5lraight.

lt

H lhe v-axis i~ di...",I." "<J... nward<, " ~H bl'l1dillJ: monte"t rI1 (r) w,1I
\0 a pl\Sitll'e d.OtctiOl1 '/, lio",.".r. 1" lhls case Ihe cu""l,,,,;U be
nq"8tl\. "nd d',/ldO<JJ. liencc, the $igns ,n equlltion (27.2) Il.'JIl remailJ lile ame.
~r.,;pond

'"

SlabU,tg 01 EI.m'"IS 01 $lfU'tUft$

[Par/ Vlfl

Tl1is conlradicl~ LhC' assumplions made al th~ very bcginning 01 this

derivalion. Hcnce, sin k/=O, od ki may have Ihe lollov.'ing values

kl_O,n,2n,3Jl, ... nn.
(27.7)

whe.rc n is ao arbitrary inleger.

Tltis yiclds

k=7' and sincc k= V;;.

p
"
ET=O/l'

o/

P ""'

n'CJ

---r n

(27.8)

In other words, a 111<ld capahle nr holding a sJighUy dellectlOd bar in

el]uiJibriuln can, in IlIeory, I1llve a numbCf or values. Howen'r, as we
are

inLere.~ted

in determiniog Ihe

mnimum axial compress.ive force nI

whkh axial bending Illay OC<;UI, W~
mus! take Il=n""n
According lo Ihe Iirst roO!,II=O,
Ihe crilclll force p.' llIUS! be zno,
bul Ihis conlradicts lhe givcn data.
Thcrefor(' lhis rool is rllled out nnl!

Ihe mnimum valuc 0111 is lakcn as

11= l. This gives
p
~

,,1EJ

... ------p-

(27.9)

(Herc J is Ihe mnimum moment of

[nerlia of Ihe bar cross sectian.)
P,g 3&0
This is known as Euler's formula
for cOfllpresse-J bars hinged at lhe
ellds. This value 01 Ihe critkal force (27.9) corresponds lo bending ar
Ihe bar along M sine curve wilh une halfwave (lormula (27.5):
y=usln .~x

(27.10)

Higher valu<:'S of th~ crilical force correspond to bending Ihe bar

along a sine curve wilh two, Ihree, etc. hMlf'\\"avC5 (Fig. 385):

p~ .... 4Tf.I:E,

k=~:'

p _9....EJ

k= 3"

~----r,

l'

y=usin
.

;;c}

3;[",

(27.11)

y=asrn-,-

Hence. Ihe greater the number 01 nll~lion poinls in Ihe sine cur"e
of Ihe t1ellecled aXIs or Ihe bar. lhe grealer thecrilical force fIlust be.
Inlensve investigations show lhat Ihe equlibrium modes Jelermined
by formula (27. J 1) are nol slable; slable equHibriurn moJes can be

Ch. 27]

SfrlbUII!I

o/

80rs Undtr Compl'tssion

.83

achieved ooly il we place Inl~rm('dillte supports al poin!s 8 and e

(Fig. 385).
Thus. we hav~ sol ved Ihe problem which we had set b<'lorc our
selves: !he critica] rorce for our bar is calculated by lhe rormula
n'El

p~ =---'i'"""

and Ihe delleded axis is represented by lhe sine curve

"

.
y=asm
The conslanl of integral ion, 0, has remained undelermined; ils physkal nature will become clear ir we substituie x=~ in Ihe equalion of
Ihe sine curve. The contlition y~/' (dellection al the middle or the.
bar) yie!ds

u.... =f=a
This means tha! a is lhe deneclion of the bar al ils middle point.
Dellection f remllins undelermined. because thl' dellecled bar can remaJn in equilibriul1l in various delll!Cled positions from lh", straighl
lineshape for a single value 01 critical force P, pro.... ided fhe denections
are small.
Delledion f should be smal! ~nough lo enable us lo use Ihe approximale dff~rential equation 01 Ihe defiected axis, Le. (~)' shou!d be
npgligib!e as compared lo unity ( 82).
Havlng lound the critical rorce, W~ can immediately determine
critica! stress (Ja by dividing p. by lhe crosssectonal arca, A. Asthe
critica! force \Vas delermine(] by considering lhe derormation 01 Ihe
bar which is not much alfected by [ocal weakenings in lhll seclion, Ihe
moment of inllrUa lIse(] in the epression lor Pe is JI ""i'A /. Thus
whiJe ca1cuJating critical s(r~ or wrilillg the condifion of slabilily
we mu~ll'"nsider nol the -veakened but the total area A 1 01 unweakened
sedon. Then
(27.12)
We find Ihal crilica[ stress in a bar 01 a given material Is inl'erscly
proportional lo the square 01 the ratio 01 ils lenglh to lhe mnimum
radiusol gyralion of its section. This ratio,
is calied Ihe {lexibilityollhe bar and plays an imporlant par! in a[1 slabililychecksol
compressed bars.
It i5 evident from formula (27.12) Ihat he critJcal stress may be e;..
treme!y small in long and tiln bars; il may be less than the permissi.

),=+'

ble strl'$ lo!. Fot sl..el wilh llltiulalutl'l.'fIgth 014000 kgf!cm' lhe prrmissiblr Slress lIIay be as,sUIlIe(\' ~ual lo 10'1-1600 kgf'cm. rOl' a bar
!laving ftulhilily '-=-150 and modlllus oIelaslicil}' or lile malerial
[;o2XIO'kgf'cllI t lhe crilical slrW will be

o~= :\'~~1JO" "",871 kgfcm' < 16Mkgl:cm'

Ha\\ H~ cross-secliOOil\ arell oS lhe compresstd b.9r al given n~.xibi
lily been deten!\ined from the slrength tondition, lhe bar "'"QUId ha"e
failw due lo

Io!;s

of slability o[ its sinight-Iine sllape.

156. Elfett 01 ConslJ1llning lhe 8ar Ends

Euler's formula was oblainedby inlegraling Ihe appro.ximale dilfer
ential equation of Ihe dellecle<! axis 01 lhe bar wilh ends constrained
b~'lI particular melhod (hinged). Thls implies lhat lhe expressi\lJl ros
determinlng lhe critical lorce is vaiil! enly for bars wHh hinged emir,

p,

,p

r-

1 "

Jj-

j",,/'

F;~

I .""..

L'7

,I

" 1
I}_jI

" '"
ano changes when lhe llltlhod of conslrainl

\J

,.-

JeG

"

I
J

P
Fi:: 388

is dilJerenl. 11 tM mUs or
tbe bar are hinged this t)'peof fixalion will be relme\! lo as lhebasic
rnelhod 01 oorlStm/llt. Al! other iIletOOds o constrilint wil1 be discussed
by oomllaring {tlem {o Itll! basic. 1I1elhod.
Ir 1\'1' repeal Ihe. derivation for a bar rigid\y thed III one entl llnd
loaded ill Iheoll1er by :In u.fal oompr~si\'e r()r~e p (fig. 386), we shall
obtain 11 diIJerent cxpression lot the criUc.alloroe amI. c.onsequently,
lar lbe criticar stress. Lt'aving llo lbe reader lo d~ivc such an trpre5'
sion hilJlS@lf, we p~ lo explarn how l~ exprC$Si:>n tar the Cflicat
force eln be oblained in this case wilh lhe help oi the lellowing simple
CtN1Sidenllions.

Ch. 27]

SI,lbilil!l 01 8"r, UlI<kr CUlttprtOlJon.

SUppD'>e lhe bar relains ils equilibriulTl under critical lorce P when
il bulges slightly along lhe curve AB. Comparing Figs. 382 and 38G.
we observe thal Ih~ t1eRected axis 01 Ihe bar rigidly fixed al one end is
in lhe S<lme conditions as the upper haH 01 a bar al double )englh
hinged al bolh ends.
Th,s mcans Ihat lhe critica! force in a bar 01 len~th 1 which is fixed
at one ene! and lree al lhe olher is Ihe same as in- a bar of lenglh 21
hinged at boll1 ends:
(27.13)

H \W consider a bar in which bolh ends are rigidly fixed and are incapable 01 rotal ion (pig. 387), we observe that Ihe middle portian of
lenglh {al Ihe deRl'ded bar works under Ihe same conditions as a bar
which is hlnged al bolh ends (poinls 01 inlledion e and D Illay be considered as hinges. because lhe bending moment al Ihese poinls is zcro).
Thus, Ihe criUcal force in a bar 01 length 1 which is fixed al both
ends is equal to the critical force in a bar 01 length { in whieh lh('
emls are fixed by lhe basic mf'lhod 01 constrainl:
n'J

4n"tJ

P~=(I!ZJ' =---r-

(27.14)

Formulas (27.l3) and (27.14) may be combine<! wilh lhe formula

and Ihe
lar critical force in Ihe basic melhod al constraint
generalized formula may bc \vrillen as lollows:

p.="'/;J,

,,'l
p. - (Il l)'

(27.15)

Here Il. ls Ihe coclficient 01 lrngtll wilh the following values:

when bo[h ends are hinged (basic case)
\\Ihen one end is iree 2nd Ihe olher
rigidly Iixed
when bolh ends are rigidly hed

I~

= I

For lhe bar shown in Fig. 388 which is rigidly fied al one end and
hnged al (he other. coefficient I! is approximalely found to be equal to
-Vr~O.7, and the crilical force is:
(27.16)

Strlblli/II 01 Elt_/$

o/

S/r~/ura

Par! Vflt

Th~ produe1 11/ is called Ihe reduad artt) (rrlgth: with lhe help 01
the coellicienl ollength a bar wilh arbilrarily conslrained ends can be
rffiuced lo a bar In wheh Ihe ~ds are roostrllioed by Ihe basie melhod:
whl!e cakulating neJllbiJity lhe adual lenglh or lhe bar musl bt replactd by Ihe reduetd Jength 11/. Thetonct'(ll of reduce<! Jength was Iirs!

r'

p-Z

r JS

introduced by Prof. P. Yasimkii" or the SI. Pelersburg Instul~ of

Railway Engine('rs.
Formula (27.12) lor crtica! stresses in baTS wilh hinged ends ma}" b~
gencraJi:wd lor other trp~ 01 constrllinls by introducing in Ihe denorni
nalor Ihe reduced f1exiblity

='T,,/

and

.,'E

(1'-7

(27.12')

The value! or roe/ficien!}Io for some t}'pes of conslrilinlsare given in

Fig. 389.
In prlK'tiee. however, Il'e rarely find eonslraints exacllr in the lorm
as IlIey llave been coosidered here (Fig. 389). Cylindrical hinges lIre
genecaUy used instead 01 hin~ supporb. SUth bars may be consid
ere<! ""' simply hinged ir they buckle in aplane perpndicular to Ihe
uis ollh<.> hiTge5. n, h(f,\'ever. lhe bar bends in lhe pl.line ol llJies,
Ihet1 Ihe ends should be considered rilidly fixed (wilh the reserva
tions. discussed below lor rigidly fixed ends).
In slruetures U"e oflen lind compresstd bars, ...:hich are riveled Of"
welded al the t'f1ds lo other elemenl5 quite oftt'n wilh he help al cover
plales. Stx:h a cornlrainl cartl1Ot, however. be considered rigid. b'a~
!he elemenls lo v!hich Ihe compressed bars are- secured are Ihen~lves
nol absolutely ri'lid. IncidentaJl}', ev~ a sUght rolalion al Ihe liJed
md in the fLl3lion is enough lo render it more c10se lo a hinged con PtOfrtd1ts o{ /JI(I Confmna
Rl3Slan).

af R,,t;w, Eflf1U't'T,

St. Pttenbur, 1892 (In

o.

271

~
~

"

.;

"..
e
o

~ ~

"
.,
<

,,

i
o

<

"

"

"

eo ~

"
(~ ,
8

-,

,
~r-

~IT~<
.
- '1.
O '1:-
, ,
~

M~

:; l
;S

.
~

<:: ..:

...

."

Slllbilif" 01 Btm Udtr CDmplUJiOll

~I:

\3~
~

~
+ g
"-

,
~

re

o,
o

"

m
,;

~IT;
,r.-e
I

.:

.58

SllIbilitlJ

"1

Elrmmls

ti' Slructll'ts

[PIlI/ VIII

slrain! ralher Ihan lo a rigidly fi:o:ed ORe. Therefore, il i$ inadmissible

lo consier wch a bu as one wilh rigidly Iixoed ends. Only \lIhen we aTe
quite 5Ufe aboul Ihe reliabilily orille tixation can a small tabou! 1020~') decrease or tite free length 01 lhe bar be permitted.
finallr. we hav!" bars lI.'hich rest on Idjoining elemenls v!i1h Ihe
whale area 01 theirend faces. Such bar! include""~ posts, indepen
denlly standing melal columns ....flidl ar! secured lo lhe fO!.lndal ion b)"
bolts, ele. Ir Ihe end face i.s properly designe<! and SKUCed te Ihe fauno

dation, soch bus may be considere<! rigidl)' he<! al lhe end. This
group 01 bars also includes large columns with c)'lindrical hinges
whtn lhey are designed lar buckling in 1111" plane of the hinge axis.
GeneraH)'. il
dif6cult lo msure uniforn. contact be'h..een Ihe end
lace 01 he colnpresscd colulnn and I~ supporling loundaUoo. 1hm
rore, lile load Clrr~'ing caplICit)' 01 such columns is only marginally
grtaleT Ihan Ihat 01 columns with hingl'd ends.
The formula lor critical loads ma)' bE- oblained in a form dosc lo
lhalol Euter's 10flllula (27,15) even for bars of nonunifOfm seclions
and bars being acted upon by several fon::es, Derivations for a fe".. cases
of practteal nteresl, whkh have been obtalned by Ihe theory of elastl
cily, are iven in Table 18,

es

157. Limlts 01 Applkabillty 01 Euler's Formula.

Ploltlng of Ihe Diagram 01 Total Crltical Slresses
[1 would seem Ihat the results obtained in the precedillgsl.'dion were
enough to check Ihe siabiJit}' of compresed bars; lhe coeflicient of
stabilily, k" remains to be delermined, This, however, ls far lrom
true. Toe vt'l"y Iirst slully 01 numerkal vlues obtained by Eul(>t's
formula conlirms Ihat the formula ives proper results only wilhin cero
tain limlts.
For example, ir v.'C ulculale the critical slress according lo formula
(27.12) rOl" a sleel bar (E-2x 10" kgllclll:'j al IIcxibilHy ;'.-50, 1""e
obtllin
,.'/: 314'x2xlO" 8000 k I1
O-V""
5@
g cm

lhis is almosl Iwice Ihe uUimate strength of sleel; Ihl' bar \VIII
ccase to \\'Otk even belare the critical stress is achie\ed. We Ihus set
Ihat ter 10\\' lIexibility baTS Euler's IOfmula ives exaggeralt."d valu~
of critica! slresscs and fOtt'e$. Whal are lhe reasons roc ihis? Figure
390 shov.s lhe relalion belweetl o~ and l. lhe curve is 2 hypt'toolll.
whkh is known as -Eul"'s hypubola-, While using this curvt. it
shouht be ktpl In mina l:l~l lormula (27.12), which il reprcsenls ..,,as
oblain<.'il by inlegr:lling Ihl' dilfl.'rrnUal cqualion oI 111,' fl1'8cclt1l axis,
Le. il WIlS d<>ri\'ed 011 1/1{> a'!.'\.IJnlfllion lhnl Ihe <;1f'f:'SSCS in Ihe bar al\'
1eM. Ihan Ihe Il!llll o prulJorlloolflil), when lt loses ils stllbilil)'.

..,

c'-'"

ConSt'qllt"ntly. ""'t" canool use 1m- critica! slresses calculaled by Eul

K'S formula ii t~y ~<:eed (he limil Di proportionality of the ven
material. In other ....u ds. Euler's formula is ...alid only when ji sali
fies the follO\\'ing conditlol\S:

(27.17)

If "'~ e;tpre~ J. throu~ tqulllion (27.11), he mil 01 applicability

al Euler's formula will changc:

,, .. /"."
"

(27.17')

By subslituling he val\les of modulus of 1'1asticily nI! limil of

proportionalityal !he iven material, \Ve can ftnd the minirnum llexi
~:-l

-- -

.-1
l'
I '

,' ' 1'\

~L

---~

T,
\

WJ

::--

80 OlfllJ fj{J
Fg. 390

bllll}' al which Euler's formula can sUIl be applied. Far sl~l he limH
01 proportionalily is o{'-2000 kgf/cm"; lhererore, as is eviMIlI fram
lormula (27.17'), Euler s formula can be used for ban 01 ihis material

on1y when
k,;' y",.~O"

-: :

100

te. when A.}t js grealer tlan lOO.

For another t)'pe or sl~l. 0,<':1::3000 kflcm' and Euler's iNmula ls
applicabl~ ....ilen i.:;.o85; Eul("J"s (<<mula is applicable lO!" cast ron
when~. or pine ..... ood when ,~IIO, etc. Ir 1Io'e draw a horizonlal
line in Fig. 390 with an ordinale Gl'=2000 kgf/cm", Jt ....;11 cul Eultf's
hyperbola into 1'NO parts; only lhe lower portion 01 the diagram, which
is .. alid for hin and kmg bars, can be used, bec:ause SIlch ban beoome
wulable at slresses less thnn lhe limit of proportlonality.

00

IPDrt VIII

. n~ Illeorelical sululion obt&ine<i by Eult'r can be applied lo a ver)'

limita! calegar)' el bars, namely Ihin and long bllf"$ hl\'ing high llexl
bUi/y. In struclures wt oittn nd haes having low lItxibilily. Altempl5
IOllpply Euler"s formula lar ca!culating uHlcal slresses in $och bars
1('(J to cataslrophic reulls. and txpedments on rollJpreMion ol bars
also!bow tha!, ( lhe crUica' stresses I'xcroed l~ limil 01 proporlionaIlIy. lhe aclual critical fon:e is roruidcrably 1m than the value ob-

1.llnea by Euler's formula.

Le! liS note lhat rOl o';>",,, lu:lal

compr~on of lhe bar is accompa

nil.'d no! on1y by e/aslie bul also by p!aslic deforJ1lalion; additional
benJlng slresscs appear al {he inslan! when Ihe bar lases its slability
(whcn lile bar axIs beco mes curved). Whell {he load i5 removl'd, lhe
bar fajls to slraight('t1, as il dl)l!s when cornpresser.l wlhin lile elastic
Ii lIlils.
I(l!eping in mind 1111 thes!! fadors, y.,~ se<' Ihal I l~ necessary to find
rrll'lhods for calculat in: cri! kal slresses in lhose C3St'$ when Ihe}' ex
ct'Ed Ihe llmil ol proporlionaJHy, LE'. for bars I!.'hich ha\'t' a f1exibi1ity
1f'S$ I/Ian Ihal determined by eQuation (27,17'), fer examplr, for low
carboll sleel ban wilh f1exibility ),=-0 lo ),,,100.
A. A t~lical solution ol lIJe problem ol slabfllty al compressed
bu !ubject~ lo critical slresses exceeding lhe limil el proporliomtlilY
of lhe bar material was fint altempted by F. Eng.sser (1889), who
obtained Ihe followin fmula ldentical 10 Euler's, (27.12);
a~

= ~
X'-

(27,18)

Hm P., ls a variable mOOl.Ilusoi e1aslicily. wtJkh j~ dt:lffmined as Ihe

langent 01 lhe angle of slo/* which Ihe langenl al a point berond Ihe
flroporllOnal Iy lirnil makes wi1h th~ lompl'wion leos! dingrllm
(fig. 391 (a)) The /(/ngtl1lilll modulus E, =:
depends upon lhe. t~,pc of
dl3r,:ram a~ w.'ll as on Ihe mallnilude of crilie&1 slress 0< at lhe ins!:.IIl1
when the bar loses stabililv.
rl wa~ Yasinskii who poited out thal formula 127.18) was lncorrecl
as It Jld nol take inlo account the fael Ihlll when 1I bar losl slabititr
and Its axis became curvcd iI uperierll.:ro addilional slres,<;es no! only
01 compresslve but also of hmsik' nalure. Conreding lo lhe validllY al
Ihe critical remarks of Yasinkli, \Vilo pointt'd oul he nccessity al accounling for load relaxalion Olllf'Ko conveJr side oi a benl bar, Engesser
(1895) and indepenlknlly Th. 1(arman (1909) canK' lo the cooclusion
lhat in formula (27.18) I~ langenlial modulus should be replacetl by
rtdufflJ modulus E*, which look nlo 3CCOllnt load addition on I~ con
CI\'e side wilh modulus E, and load relaxatfon on Ihecol1\'ex side wlth
roodulus F.. (load rdllXaton, as is ",e11 kOOl.\n, loItov.'s Hooke's lawj.
The fOfmul8 ror critical slresses ex~ing Ihe limi( of proportionallly

Ei

."

0.211
{Ioc bars having !Iexibillt) ~>i.,,) may be rewriUen as

(27.18')

!he retlnced modulU$ 01 elasticity may be calculatN lrom lhe fol

lowin expression derivw Irom lhe c.ondlHons al equllibrium of addi

-~

tIona! stresses (toad addltlon-lood relaxation) and

lhe hypolhesis of plane seclion.s:

E'

E,J,+f/.
-

00

the basis of

(27.19)

where J, is Ihe momenl of inertia oi he concave haH 01 [he sec.tion

about the neutral axis, J. i5 lhe moment af inerlia af lhe caovex half
01 Ihe secUan and J is the momenl 01 ioerlla or lhe whole secUon aboul
the central axis.
On account al lile dilference belween moduli E and E, in expression
(27.19). lhe neutra! axis dividing lhe colJtllve hall o the seclioll
lmm lhe conva half does nol pass lhrough the ~ntre of gravity ol the
secUon (Fig. 391(b); its localion (and this means tnal lhe ar~ lhat
experieace addtional Ioading and load rtlaxalion) depmds upon the
m.pe 01 lhe section as \\Iell as upon lhe crillealslrC$$, which ...'t want
lo delermine.. Foc dlllerenl sections, assumin a particulu vallle o
E, and using Ihe method of succwive approxima(lons. \\'C can find the
lacaUan 01 Ihe neutral axis and calculale the momtnts 01 inertla J,
and J. and then Ihe rtduced modulus o elaslicit)' E- as a funclion 01

modull E .nd E,_ Fa. a rectangular seclion, 101' instante,

E"

U:E,

=(YE+ Vif,1"

(27.19')

1I ls evilllmt rrom equations (:27.19) Hnd 121.19') lha! when lhe (rili-

~a[

slrw docs nol exceed [he limil 01 proporlionalily 01 the malerial

(Le. when Ih' delorrnalion is within lhe l'lasUe limils and E,-E),
the redocM modulus 01 elll5ticily EzE.
For nk11iats having Bv..eJI define<! yield plal~u E, and P l<md lo
zero as thecrilical stress approaches Ihe yield slres,.\. This imtl1ies that
in such cases ttlc critical slr~ caono! exCffd lhe yield stress 01 lhe
material.
1e Engesser-Karman formula did 001 find applicalion in practical
design since lhe deterrninaion 01 E". whkh depends upoo UIC critical
.~Iress. ralses serious dilficulties in compulalion and also because it

gives ('xaggeratcd values'of critica! slresses as compared lo ellperi rnen[al results.

lhe applicatlon al Euler's !)Tl11ula to the inelaslic region 01 delorl11jtion became possible onl)' arter F. Shenly pubJished his 'oVark in
which he ~uggesled a new approoch lo the 31lalysis of slabilily af compressed ban (19-15) subjccled lO elaslico-plulic deformaUon. Looking
upon lhe loss 01 slabllity as a dynamic process under the aclion al 3
oonlinuously increaslng compres:sive Ion:e. Shenly, in lacl. I1'lumed
lo lhe original formula 01 Engesser (27.18) wilh langenlia! modulus of
dorslicity E" which had l'arlierbun rejf'Cled (if lhe curllalure i~ small
at Ihe IOOmCllI when Ihe bar loses ils slabilily. an mcrcase oi Ion:e P
by tJ.P bi.lances lhe load rclaxation on lhe oonvex side due lo addi
tional oompression).
The tr;Jl\~ition lo generalizl'd formula (27.18) cOllsiderably slmplifieJ the calculatiOll of critital slrl!:-<SeS for bars in which loss of slabil ily
ls acoompnnil'd by plastlc deformalion. i\t prcscnl. theorelic;l1 Y/llues
af critical slresses rO( lowand medium !1e;tlbility or dilJ..,.mt male"'als hall~ been cakulaled 011 lh(' basis af experimenlal dala on E, corr1'.5ponding lo diffffi.'nt valll~ 01 critical st~ (J, gri'at<'f than op,
ami with lhe h('lp oi lnodefn computaliooal tf'Chniques. These valua
ue in good agreem('nl with lhe results obtained Iraln expnimenlal
research.
B. The lirst experimental invesUgalions on slabilily of oompr~
h:m \Vt'f(' conrlllc\ed with lhe Mm of cllecking Euler's formula. It
W:'ls found perlcdl)' vatid lor long (nexiblt')1J<lrs bul W:lS observed to
givc ti lnrge discrepancy wilh experil\\('nlal results lar shorl bars (as
is lOvidl!nl from lheoretkal consiLleralions). On the- basis o lh~ uperiml'l\t~, afien 001 OOllducled wilh due carl!", v.Ilrious empiricallormulu
Wl'ft' propOS/!(I far detl!fllllning critical $lr~, Ihollgh wl1holll sufficienl jUllllkation m JOO!Iit oi thlO cases. How~ver, Ihl! qll:lllty 01 ex
perimental investigatiom improved as new apparatus \Vas de\'doped.

'Io.2n

Slohl/dy

of

Bor. Un4u COIf<{JrtJJi(lft

..,

EXW1sive experimenls thal covere a wide finge el ItIIIlerials and

were distinguished by an extreme lhoroughnen were conduetetl in
1896 by L. Telffiajer. The r~ulls ollhese upt':l'"lmenls were processed
by Yasinski who compiled ;5 table o{ "breaking~ (criliClll) stresses de.
pending upon ftexibility rOl' baTS from comloonly use<! strudural maleriais.
Al! txperiments ~ow Ihat shorl bars having stability j,=~O kl:sl
their loatl carrying capadt}' nol due lo il\5Urlicienl slrength bul beC3lR 01 Ihe comprcssive slres.5eS rising lo a dangerous value 04 which
was critkal for {tI(> given matl.'fial (recali that 0,,-=0_ (01' tluctile slall!
of material and 0d-O. fOl' britlle slale). H may lhetefore be 3ssumetl
that lor bars with low f1exibilily crilicat slresses lor ductile matedals

are practically equal lo Ihe riele! stress IJ u and ror brittle maleriats ID

Ihe ultima!e slrelll!lh 11."

For medium lIeXibily bars. whkh lind maximum applicalion in
slruclures, il was ~perilllenlally established Ihllt Ihc.y lose Iheir load

.-'

2fJJO

,
\

"
- --- ' [\,
I
I
I

r---

carrying capacily lIue lo Io.s.~ 01 slability 01 siraillhlline fOTm under

stress D, greater lhan lhe limil 01 proportiona1Hy T p bulless than Td'
In suth burs, the variUon el critical slresses as a lunclion 01 nexi
bility folIows an almo~t lint'ar law. Por inslance. Ihe empiricaI
formula 01 Telmajer'Yllsinskii is:
CI,_a_bA
(27.20)
u'here a and b are coefficienls Ihat tlepend upon lhe material antl are
seltcled such Ihal lor nexibilitr 4.=;") 0,_01' and for l()',l,' Dui
bilit)' o. is clase lO 001.
This dala is used lor plotlin lhe total crilicalstre!oS diagram $hov.1\
in Fig. 39'2 lar lowurOOn mel havin a liDlit of proporlionalily
lJ,.-2lXXl kgl1cm" and yield slress " .. -2400 kgf/cm". T1Jl!' diagram con
si.sl.s of thr~ parl.s: Euler's hyperbola when ;.>),,1....... 100 (on lhe righl).
hori1.Olltal Hne lor AIii;40 when o~a, (00 the leH) and an inclilU'd

...

Slabl/lfll 01

slraight Une (27,20) when

~fMtll$

o,

40~},~IOO

SI"'e/u.es

IParl VII/

(joining poinls

f/l

and

nI,

In

otder to avoid sharp inilections in he (fe versus), curve al poinls m

Ilnd n. "''e may use he empirlcal formula due lo Johnson which recomo
mends a parabo1ic vadalion 01 critical stress in lhe inelastic wne
O'c=a,,-cxl.'
(27.20')

"="11,"'

Here, when :1.=0 then (1<=0<1. and when

lhen (J~ap; more
over, coefficienl el. is sele'CI('d such so as lo enSllfe smoolh conjunclion
af lhe parabola (27.20') wilh Eul~'s hyperbola (a common langent).
For exarnple. for slructural steel having yield stre~' {J~=2800 kgf/cm',
a=O.09.
Hence, eilher by llsing lhe general lheoretical formula (27.19) oc
combining Euter's formula with experimental resu1ts, we can plol {he
total erilital stress diagram foc bars of dilTerent rnaltrials and deter
mine critical slress 0< for any flexi.
~J#.G'"
bility.

158. lhe Slabillty Check 01

Compressed 811rs
We noled in 154 that lhe 1011011'ing two checks should be carripd
out lar bars under compression:
Ihe slrength che<:k
p
o""-A~[(J],
D

!IJ' tal

f!IJ

whcre

(01=~

lhe slabilil}' cht>ck

}.

o=~~[(JsJ

Fig.393

where

fO',]=i;

Having plotted lhe lotal crlical stress diagram lar bars of any flexi
bi1ity I 157), we can also plol lhe permissible slress diagrarn lor sta
bilily lor Ihe given malerial by redudng the ue-ordinaltS k. times:
(u,l

=:

\Ve only have lo rhoose a proper vallle for coeflidenl k,. Bearing in
mind a number of errors, which are unavoidable in axial compresslon
(inilial cllrvatllre, eccenlricily, etc.) and seriollsly nfluence the load
carrying capacily of the bar, Ihe lactar of safely for slability is taken
greater lhan the safely faclor lar strenglh, k. Far sleel lhis roeffident
vares between 1.8 and 3.5, lar iron belween 5.0 and 5.5 and lor timber
between 2.8 and 3.2.
Figure 393 shows lhe diagram of pl'rmisslble stresses lar stabilily

Slabilil.~

al Ilar$ Vmkr CamprtSiM

'"

Ilnd the safety faclor [or stabilily for Jowcarbon sleeJ haviog )'il'ld
stress 0.=2400 kg[icm'.
Jn arder to eslabJish a relation belweeo lhe permis~ible stress lar
sabiJity. 10,1. 3nd petmissible slress lar streoglh. 101. !ct us takc Iher
ratio:

rO.J=~.~ro]

" ,

Denoliog
(27.21)

we gel
(27.2:2)

where tp is Ihe rl!duclloll coeffitiell/ 01 Ihe perrnissible stress lor compressed bars.
11 we have Ihe 0< versus}. curve lar 11 given materlal, know o.=or
or O.=Ou and :;elect Ihe salet)' laclors for strength. k and 5labillly,
h.. we can pul togethet atable for ffl as a funcHon of fiexibiJity.
Tibie 19
Coelfident Il'

51<",,'"nl .,...1.

I'IMlb;lIl~

/. ~..!!!.
,
O

'"'""
"
"'
r.

70

""
..'''',
lOO

"O

1301

150

'00

'70

''''

190
200

Jli~~

LOO

0.988
0.970
0.%1
0.005
0.M7
0.820
0.170
0.i15
0.';55
0.582
0.512
0.448
0~7

0.:H8
0.305

(H/li

C.461~~

, .00
0.987
0.%8
0935
O. ll'lZ
0.843
0.192
O. no
0.61'.0
0.592
0.(;15
0.440
0.:183

LOO
0.986

0.3.11\

0.285
0250

0.965
O.'"

0.986

0.837
0.780
0.710
0.637
0.5(,3
0.482
0.413
(1.350,
0.302
O.25G
0.22G

w,

5'..1

("U

w_

, .00
0.97
0.95
0.91
0.87
O."
0.79

J.()O
0.97
(1.91
0.81
O"
0.57

0.99
0.97
0.00
087

on

0.G5
055
0.43
0.35
0.30
0.26
O"
0.2!
0.19
0.17
0.15
0.14
0.13

'M"

0.4~

0.3<
O."

O.'"
0.16

LOO

O.'"

0.71
0.00
0.48
0.38
0.31
0.25
0.22
0.18
0.1(,
0.14
0.12
0.11
0.10
0,1)9
0.08

fE'..tJ

VIII

Table 19 tonlains data on coeffki~t ~ rO( strudural sleels n.oo:'lI:n

mended by lhe lalest Soviet standards ror designing metal struclures.
The tibie a!so conlains lhe rtduclion cocrfidtnls of majn permissible
stresses" for improved quality aleels, iron and U;rbt'r (pine). lhe dtsien standards u:sed in conslruction rommend Ih.1 roefficil'nl " 1
nlb should bl' cakulaled by il1<' lollowing IOfmulas:

ir ftt'xibilily

A~75,

lhen

'1"'"

> 75,

lhl"n

"00
tr="'J.T

if I\exibilily l.

I-O.8c~r

The valut'S 01 q oblained from lhese formulas are quile clO!e lo the
labulate(] values.
lhis lable helps us lo selecl Ihe crosssectional area of the como
pressed bar. lhe crOS!sectional area depcnds upon [0-,1, whkh in ils
lurn depl"nds upon '" and fh.~ibil ily ,. i.1!. upon Iht' lIrea and shape 01
Ihe croo;s ~lion. lherelore, lhe cros.YSeCtion:Jl Mca is dele!"mined by
auceessi\"e approxillllllions in Ibe following order.
We select the sbap<> of tht' ~tion and deline iis di!lleO:Sions. Nut,
'M! cakulate lhe minlmulQ radius al g~Tation and Ibe lIe:tibility. We
lind corflicien11fl (rom 111<' table and ea!culate the pt'I"nlissible stress
f slabilit), 10,1=",101. We oow compare lhe actual strt'SS a- \\ith
la,l, if the rondilion

(27.23)
is nol salisfied, or h salisfied with a big IrnIrgin, 9.'1' change tht' dimen,
sloos .nd repeal the cakulalioll.'\. ObviousJy, the seclion finally
lected musl also satisfy Iht' slrength tondilion

o~[o]

In adual caltulalions the stabilily cnndilion is sometimes wrltten

as folln\\'S:
(27.23')
In liJe Icllhand sidl' o, represents the de:sign (rwuced) slrt'SS.
The order 01 calC\lI.lions will be elaboralW on in lhe lollo\\'ing
ex'D1ple.
Tt.. $l~b Xft1lled In lbe lilaOOmlli ar~ chatxlfflU'Cl b,. ultimale s1ratt1/l,
f1lUmetalor} and plOlol $lnss (dtll<>""Nlor) in q'~. Stand:udli do llOI pumit
lbe _ nl s....11ws ......"1 ~J;JbHijr l>ISD in SllUtlurtS ali io;Id cafl"}'l~ mrotll\s
loUbif<ltd lo amp~, In del1cn by tbe meiOOd 01 Umltrlll:' s1alts (_ Chaplel' 26)
rotfk*,l 'i' IS coosldered 1 totlfcltnl by 'l'hld> lbe raled load sIlould be ltduud.

01.171
Find the cros!-~tional dimensioo$ of :m ron pipe coJumn hi~
111 bolh ends and subjecll."d 10 a compressi\e fort'l." P...85 If, ir lhe ratio
ol internal diameler lo Il'te exlernal is diD-0.6. The oolumn is {-4.8 ni long. The mllin permis~ible slress under comprt'Ssion
iron

ror

IS 101=1200 kgllcm~.

Lel us express lT('/l A or Ihe st'Ction and ils radius 01 inerlia l

Ihrough diametrr O:
A _ n (0'4- cP1 _ 7(0'-0.360") = O.503D'
_ .. /7

Y A

-/

,,(O'

"')

&-I.:!.(D'-d")

.. /o'+d'

r----w-

_0.2910

(a)

(b)

In slabilil)' condilion (27.23) we know nrilher the CTOSS-secllonal

area, A, nor Ihe reduclion coefficient ror permissible stress, IJI. Thereore it is essentiallo assume a value ror one or lhese quanlitit'S. 111 Ihe
first approximalion Jet us assume fJl""0.5. We gel
P

55"

A;;;'''llIJ=~"",142cm'

In the finl approximation the diametcr is (a) D,=V142tO.503=

-gem. The radius 01 inedia is (b) i,-o.2910.-0.291 x 19-5.5 cm.
Flt'xibility '.'-fllli ,= ~ =87.5. Foc ficx:ibilit)' be:lween 1..-=80 and
1..-90 we find (rom tl'te tabJe by inlerpolalion that ... =0.215. The design slresses trom formula (27.23') are

a, -f-O.2~~42-2800 kgfcm' > [a]

The .section does not salisfy lhe slabilily condilion. Thrrel<n, in
the second .pproximalion let us assume lhal dlameter 0,-25 cm.
Cro!,ssectional area A,-o.5OOD:==O.S03x25'=314 cm'. RadilJ$ ol
inertia i,""O.29l x25-1O.2 cm. FlrJfibilil)' f..=IIi,s:48CL!IO.2..:47 ami
cp-O.6S4. Thus

55"

P = 0.1>54><:314 -= 41 Okgf/cm~ 1200 kgf/cm'

a, - lI'A

When diameter is D,_19cm Ihe slresses are considerabl)' greller

Ihan lhe permissible. aOl,I when iI is 0,-25 cm they are much less.
L.e1115 Iry in lhe Ihird approximaiion 11 setlioo of di.m~ler 0==22 cnl.
In Ihis case A...o.S03x22"=245 cm', i-O.291 x22-6.4 cm, )._
11_111'

'"=48016.4=75, p=O.30 and Ihe design sttesscs are:

Slobifillj o{

0,=

O.~~45 =

fI~men(

o{ St,</ctures

1150 kgf/cm'

[p<lrt Vfll

< 1200 kgl/cm'

The calculalions may be terrninaled here as understressing is Jess

!han 5%.
159. Seledlon 01 the Type af SecUon
and Material
A. As Ihe nexibility 01 lhe bar and consequently (he rninimuTIl radius
01 gyralion plays lhe mosl importan! par! in resislance lo axial bllnd
ing(los.s 01 stabilily), i is importan! lo lake into arroun! nol anly lhe
cross-seclionaJ atea bul also ils shape.
The mas! economic solution of {he problem is obtained iI lhe section
01 a certaio crossseclional atea has lhe minimum radius of gyralion 01
Ihe rnaximum possible magnitude. To 1Ithieve (his, we lry (o se[ed a
secUon in which lhe minimum and maximum radii of 8rration are
equal, Le. a section in which Ihe moments 01 inertia about a11 central
axes are zero and consequently the nerlia ellipse transforms into an
inerlia clrele. Such a bar wil! have uniform resistance lo buckling in
IIll direclions.
Ir he free lenglh of the bar ( 156) is diffcrenl far defleclion in the
Iwo principal planes, then the principal maments 01 inerlia should be
sllch Ihat coefficient ql is the same in bath the cases.
It s now es.~enlial lo obtain the maxllllllm possible c<'nlra! momenls
af inertia for the given eross-sedional arca. This is possibJe ir Ihe malerial 01 lhe scction is located as lar awa)' from (he cenlre 01 gravHy as
possiblC'. Bo(h lhese conditions are, lor example, lull~' salisfied by a
pipe section (Fig. 394(a)), which is therelore afien llsed in colnpressC'd
bars and eolumns.
The lower Umit 01 wall lhickness 01 such sections is detcrmined either
by easlinQ' lilnilations (as in casi ron) ar br the (onditian Ihal local
deformation (warping) ol' Ihe seclion shou!d nol occur when Ihe bar is
working.
To preven! sueh local delormations ami lo ensure tha! Ihe bar re_
lains i1~ design...d shnpe, Ihe pipe-sed ion is reinfort.ed wilh Ih<' help of
platc--5 placcd al a particular dislance from one another, \\'hi"!J incre<:lse
lhe rigiditr 01 Ihe thinwal!ed section (Fig. 39-lb)). As a matter of
lael, proper use of reinforcing plates is extreme!r important in dt.'si~ning cOlllpressed bars.
Sanie .sections whieh have excellrnt bending resistance in one plant'o
lar exampre beams, ar<' round lo be of 110 llse as compresS<'d bars,
Examples arC': an l-bC'am, a .seclion consisling 01 two channe! seclions
place<! in such a way that their webs louch eaeh olher (Fig. 394.(c).

'"

Slability 01 SO" Undtr COl1IprtsslM

These secllons are disadvantageous when used as compreS5e'd bars 0f1

account 01 th~ large dierence in Ihe val~ of th~ir principal Plomenls
of inerlia. This drawback may be overcome by n10ving aparllhfo channd sections, as shown in fig. 395(c). To tnsure Ihat Ihe sections ....v rk
logelber as a single unit. lbey are
joined by means of a netv.'Ork (fi.
395) 01 fixin plates.
Troubl~free \l.'Orking of such como
positt sections can be g\laranttt'd
only by providmg a suflicienUy
$otrong fixalion (by network 01 plales
and angles), wtllcb ensUTe$ lhat
al! load earrying elemtnls function
simulta~usly
Thus, If we join
two slrong ehannel seclions ....'E'akly.
(,)
lhey will not work as a single unit...
(11/
Each hall 01 the sections witl work
independentlyand lis stablHly will
be eonsiderably less than thal 01 11
secUon in whkh bolh halves operale
as a single unit.
lnsufficienl allenlion paid 10 lhe design 01 rclibl~ fixatlon of eom
posite sec.tlons has been Ihe cause of serious catastrophes in the past.

8r
,
"

,,-+

+,
-"
+:

'+

1-1+,
-,

l-.J

}tf

----+-..,-,1 '.
"'-

1+
,
1+

+1

JI
IJ,
---_1- __'-_

"1

In designio a eomposile .section. dislante b by which lhe 1\\'0 halvts

of the se;:1ion shOllld be moved aparl 15 dtlermined lrom the oondilioo
thal the molnents 01 inertia abont principal axes !I and l be almosl
The IlIlIlysis Ind mHhods 01 doh:rminl", lile dlmtMIons: 01 rrtwork pIllea
for comJKlllle c;ompr~ bm:>re g(ven In the OOUI'R (In metll ltllldtIT!S. Abo $I'e
N. M. Bely"v. Sfrmgih o{ MaJuil/h, Naukl, l~ (in !l.u\ollan). :!12.

n'

Sfabim!l

01

Ellmttlfs

~f

St,,,,,,,,ts

[P",f HU

equa!. Usuall}', however, Ihe momerll or inertia ahout Ihe axis perpendicular lo lhe nelwork plane is laken a litlle highrr, bccause the
nelwork cannol ensure simullaneous \\'OrkiJlg uflhe 1',1,'0 halves as well
as of a section ',1,'hich is Olll! rigid unil.
\Ve will show below how Ihe stabilily oi a composite bar subjeded
lo compression can be improved b}' rational1y pl<lcing Ihe elements 01

z..

1t lo
rd:z=

"1
seclion, SUEPose we have lo desi;n a seclIon from 111'0 chanm.>1 SI.'Ctions
(steel C38J23) ror a 4m long eolumn Ihat is hingecl al bolh !::nds and
is subjected lo compression.
\Ve shall compnre Ihe maximum permissibll' (rrom IhC' point ar "iew
of stabIlity) comprcssive force aelIng 011 Ihe l'oluml1 mluJe up 01 two
chann('1 sectiOIlS ~to. 30 (sC'e AppC'ndix). Le! us eOl1siclcr h\'o vl'rsions:
in Ihe rsl Ihe t\\'o channcl seclions are altached alun;: heir heighl
baek to baek so aS lo !orm an Isectiotl (Fig. 396(u)); in Lhl' second version lhe Iwo channel sedions are attached br 11 ne! .....ork and placecl in
sllch a way lhallhe section h:tS Idenlieal motllenls 01 inerlia aboul Ihe
lwo principal axes or inertia (fill. 396(11)1' The Illain pl'rmissible str~'SS
under compression is assum<.'ll to he [O" =1600 kj:!llctn~.
Por lhe! rtrst version (eh~nnel scetions n\lachl.'d wilholl! any gap)
the minimum moment or inl'rtl(l 01 Ihe scction is.
J"'ln"'" J.= 2 (327

+40.5x2.52: -

IIG8em'

The area of Ihe composile seclion is A~2x40.5-S1 cm'. Radius of

inedia 01 Ihe sed Ion is i=,/ JIA =V-I 168lS"-1.8 Clll. Flexibilily of
the bar ~'=1In,,",~()O'1.8=105.
Inlerpolllting frolll Table 19 (he Vll11le 01 'r bC'lwl.'Cn ).-100 ami f,=
"'" 110, we oblain '1,==0.541. Tll!: mnx imutll cOlrtpressive force \\'hich can

c!I.m

Slabllltll 111 Hars Ufld,t, CI1I1IPr1$$101l

."

bt salely applitd lo Ihe eolumo is:

P, =-[o}A",-I600x81 xO.547 -70 SOO kgl z71lf

For Ihe seoontl version (when lhe channt"1 .slIons are apart) lhe
ment of in!'ftia of lhe composHe .seclion (Fig. 396(b is:

"

=,~=

RJOo

2x58IO_11 620 cm'

Thc radius ol inerlia i=VII620181-12cm. Ult HalbHitr A."",i_

-400 '12=-33.3 .nd Ihe coeflicienf ip""O.931.
Tht ptl'mlssible load on he bar may in Ihis veFSion be laken P,_
=loIAip-I600X81 xO.93I=I20 900 kgf::::s121 tl, Leo. 1.7 times greiller Ihan in the lirst. Henct'. a raUonal approach in selecling lhe shape
of a .so::lion tnabled l.lS lo raise the load carr)'ing capacil~' of lhe cornp~ bu by 70%.
Simultllneous Illnctioning 01 bolh halves (channel sedions) of lhe
composile .stion is po.ssible only ir lhty a~ reliably .secun>d to eaeh
olh by a nell,l,'Ork or pll1les (Fig. 395(0) and (b). Dislance o betw~n
the seo::urin, elements should ensure Ihal neilher ol Ihe chaullel seco
lions bend In the planc or its minirnUI11 nexibilily. This conllition can
be satisfied only If lhe Hexibility or eaeh hall (in Ihis cumple eaeh
ehanne! seclion) docs not exceed Ihe l1exibilily 01 Ihe eolullIn over
lenglh

a:

For 0111' channel .secUon Ihe mini mulO rltdillS 01 g~ration is ......
",,2.84 cm. Therefore
a"" .,i...l. =33.3x2.84 _94.6cm
This means Iha! Ih{' distance belween lhe securing plales shoold not
be more lhan 94.6cm.
DistaJa b ~Iweerl th~ channtl sections (Fig. 396(b) may be determinro Irom Ih{' condilion '.-"" ""here
',=- 2(J: A.c");;;'

J:

2):

H.. re J; and
are moments of inertia of one channel seclion ~boul
Ihe axes passing through Hs cenlre el gravily. and A. is lhe eross-:stional area ol one channcl section. Tht-rdore

_ '/J;-~_
lUlO J21_ 116
A, 40.:5 - . cm

c_ y

Since b=2(c - Y.) nd horll lh~ specilicatiolls yooo;2.52 cm. \\"t get
b--2(ll.6-2.52)=18.2 cm.
B. TIJe rn~lerial or compr~ bars is S<'lected holO lhe rollov.ing
COllsiderations. As long as Ihe critieal Slress does nol cxc-u the

S'abIllJII 01 Eltmtnts o{ SrucfurtS

50'

[Par' VIlI

limil of proporlionality, Ihe resislanceof 3 bar to buckling is detecmined by only ane meehanraJ properly, Ihe modulus 01 elasticily. E.
In bars 01 medlum and particular!y 10\\' f1exibility he critical stress

depends lo a considerable extent upon the yicltl stress or ultima/e

slrenglh of hc material. These considerations should be takcn into
accoon! while seleding a malerial
for compressed bars 01 high as wel!
\
as low f1exibility.
C:".fi ~\
Far example!. Ihere is no sense in
using spedal high-strenglh sleels
-J8 '
lor long and thin-walled bars. be
21J1J.

,
,
,

cause Ihe modulus uf elasUely is

r--

approximately Ihe same for a1l

grades 01 steel. 00 he olhcr hand,

il is advantageous lo use highgrade sleels in bars having critlcal

s\l't'ss higher lhao the limil 01 pro
portionaJily, because in such bars
Flg. 397
the increase of yield stress results
in an ncrease of lhe crilical stress,
Ihus improving tne resislance of th(> bar againsl bucklillg.
Figure 397 snows approximalc diagrams depktiog cl"iiCilJ stress
as unclon of lIexibility lar struclural steels: loweilrbon steel (38/23
and stronger slcel (46/33, whkh nave yield stresses ('qual to 2300
and 3301 kgflcm', respedively.
[1 is eviden! from Ihe diagrams tnal forhighly lexible bJfS (10. greal
er Ihan 100) the critical slresses, which are limited by Eulu's lIy
perbola (27.12), are the same ror bolhsleels. as Ibe latter have ideolleal
moduli 01 elasticliy E upon whkh 0 depemJs; Ihe perrnissible stre5Se5
lar stabilily are CQnsiderabJy higher ror steel C-46/33 in eomparison
wilh sleel C38/23.
It 101l0w5 Irorn the above discussion Iba! Ibere is no advantage
in using high-slrenglh steels for bars al high s\rength 5uhjeded to
compression in slructures. Also. considerable saving or material can
be achieved by using stronger steels lor bars olio\\' llexibilily.
(J

8U

!20 150 M(J.t

160. Practical Imporlance 01 Slabilily Check

The check on stabilily is of great importance lor an engineer. It
can be said wiLh authorily Ihat sudden faHur(, 01 mosi of ih('. siruc
lures OCturs only due lo loss 01 slabi1ily or ils compressed el(>menls.
Engineers know ahau! a large number of cases or cataslrophic f~Hure
01 slruclures in Ihe pasl: yet, somehow. Ihey ail to appreeiale the
aclual reasons 01 Ihis. This c1early ShOW5 that oHen engineer5 do not

pa)' ~uflicietlt allenlion. io seemingly unimpotlani bul adually ver)'

imporlant 35pPCIs In lhe \\-"Ol"king al compressed b3rs.
Loss 01 slabllJl y js 311 thr more dangerous because il OCturs suddenl)'. OelormalloTl ~ no! nollceable ami laiJs lo arouse suspicion
rghl up to lit<! momenl wheo Ihe compressive force beoomcs uilltal.
In acldition. as mrntioned ear1irr. a number 01 raclon-eccenlncilr
of lo~dlog, initial cllrvalurc, loenl overslrr:ssing 01 lhe mal<.>rialcan further considerllb1r frUUCIl the rt"Sislance 01 compresSC'd bars
lo buclding, allhough Ihe same f.1clon have almost no eITl'Ct 00 Ihe
working of other elements 01 lhe slrucltlre.
Specia\ llenllOn should be pajd lo the reliabilily of jomts of parls
in compll.'5WtI baTs made 01 comp~lle seclinm. Nl!gJect al Ihis
factor was tht- cause al 'fllgie accillents in Ihe pasl, e5pl'('lally in C~
ol large brd~.

Al presenl, ao engineer has al his di~l al1 n:nns lo prevent

$llch mistakes provided ~ designs prcptrl) and Ihe dcsigned slructure
is lIIanuiactured accuralc!)'. The 1Ik.'Of}" o analrsis 01 5tabilil)' check
has been worktd oul quite soundl)', as has bee:n ahnd)' discus.sed
( 154-159).
fhe stabilit)' che<:k 01 machine parls is sliihll)' dilTerenL Herc
particular attention mllst be paid lo Ihe value 01 permissible slress
[o), While seleeling lts value, il should be borne in mind tha! such .
machine parts llS connccting rods, plungers, ele.., are subjCled lo
d)'namk ioarlinjO!. Therelore in Ihe formula 01 pcrmhsible stress lor
slbUil)', Ilamel)'

fO,)-lf[oj

l(JI should implr Ihe permissible slress lor slnongth under dynarnle

loa,ling tset Parl IX, OuIpler 29).

In 154 the' was a mef1llon abaul lhe analog}" Mlu-een suddm
increase in deforllUllion \\'ht'n stresses uCC'e'd Ihe crilic"l 51rl':<o$. This
analogy Icalis lo Ihe idea Ihal in sllllieally innelerminatr struetureo;
falture ma)' flOI OC('ur de5pite lhe stres.ses achievillg crilieal ...alul.',
e5pl'tially ir Ihe slresses are below the limil of elaslicil)'.
Eumple; of such situ.lllions are laHlce lrusses of old bridges which
are still wocking under present eonditions allhough Ihe load Ihe)'
ha"e to take now is considffab1r higher. Parl or Ihe bars in thcsc
Irus'lts TIla)' nnd lhemselves loadl.'d UJl lo the crilical slress limit
Rnl! yet remain in Ihe elaslic stale 01 delornlalion. The load or IhCSl.'
baN is laken up by Ihe opposite bars \\,t,.-king under tension. When
UK' load is remov~, lhe bars relum lo their original posilions.
Other inslances of such loading c<ln be: found in vial ion enginerin
ilnd ship hUilding, whtre \\'1' have lo cope wilh buckllng of nol only
bars but abo beam.~, plales and shells. Thus in CJ:ceplional n~ "'-e
may 3110lIl' Ihe slrfS,$('$ in a colOprt'Sscd elelllenl lo reach lhe crilkal
lim.l provided Ihat Ihe slre:sscs do nol exceed lhe elaslic limil, the

S/ubilily

of

Ehmnrfl uf Slflldul'tr

slructore is slalkally ndel~Plinale and lhe load 01 eleDll'nls lhus

ovenlressed is lakm up by OIMr elelJ'.enls.
We shall discuss below a few lJ)(ln' tODlplicaled problems en stablty chk.
CHAHEI 2a

More Complicated Questions of Slability

in Elements oi Structures
181. Stabilily nf Planc Surfacc In Btnding
01 Beams
Buckling occurs no! only in axial compression 01 b3rs. For exampie. buckllng may <X'Cur in an l-beam under bmding (Fig, 398).
lhe 10000lff lIange or such a beam represents a bar rigidly fixl.'d lo
lhe \\'eb and subjeeted to uial compression. lile Wf\straint does nol
permit the f1ange to bud:le in lile web pla~. Hou'l.'ver. lor parlkular

beam dimensions the Range. may buckle on one side.causingrolation

of lhe secliOfls w,r.l. one another ami ;:iving rise lo torsion of lhe
bealll (FiJ:. 398). Inslcad 01 bending in Ihe plane of maximum rigdil}'.
as in tended by designer, the beam starts working in unSYlJlOlelric
bending, which results in a sharp ocrease in deformalion ullimately
leading lo tolal failure,
Stahility of lhe btam depends upon i1s crosssect)ooal dimensions
and Is Irte lenglh. lhis I~th is restrided by providing conslraints
belwten Ihe beams. Serious acddenls llUI}' OC'Cur if insufficient allenHon is paid to Ihese side tonslfllinls in long bearns, allhough
lheir height may be sOlall llar t.lalilple, failure of lhe larbes-bridgf:
in Franct).
Buckling is also dangerous fO(" thin shells undl.'f" colllpresslon,
I.e. fo!" elemenis in which one dimension is considerably less Ihan Ihe
other. A Ihin and wide llange in an I-section will warp under como
pression: a web which ts not sufciently strtslg(hened by still"ening
Ingles will bockle.

Ch. 281

Complica/M

Quu{ms

01 Slabiltl!l

'J5

Lel us determine for a beam Ihe approximate crlical load al which

the. plane shape of Ihe beam becomes unslable leading lo complele
lailure dUe lo side buckling if lhe Io;d is further increased. Let liS
consider a si mply supported hum 01 Ihin rectangular sedion (Fig. 399)
acled upon by a lateral force P.
Lel us assume Iha! force P has reached is critica! value and the
beam is buckling slighlly to one side, as shown In the lap view as

rig. 399

well as the seclion in Fig. 399; only ends A anrl B remain in the
original posilions due lo Ihe conslrainls applied lo Ihem.
Wilh buckling Ihe poleotial energy 01 lhe deformed bealO should
increa5\: dlle lo bending 00 one side and lorsion (Iheenergy 01 bending
in lhe vertical plane remaining conslan!). The potenlial energy 01
Ihe external force should decrease, because 01 lhe lowering 01 ils
poinl of applicalion.
Let us denote the polential energy of side bending by U" oi lorsion
by VI, and lhe work done by Ihe load in Jowering by V". As al the
l'rllical force lhe lransilion from plane shape to budletl shape is
accornpanied by Iransformation of energy or Ihe load into potential
I!nergy 01 ddonnalion of Ihe beilm, we rnay assume Iha1.

U,+U,=U,

(28.1)

Potential energ)' 01 buc:kling (\V,r,L axis l,) is ( 63):

U ~SM'(XldX
J

2EJ,

Hl'rl' thl' ben<lin;( momenl in arl arbitrary sed ion nI a rlislance x

frolll Ihe lert support \ViII be (assuming the anglr or rol"lion, ~., lo
he small)
P.
P
MI X) "'"TXS!l1(PZTX'P

..

jParl 'III

5ubstiluting Ihe

e~pm.sion

U_

for bending mor.lef1l.

;, ~ x'q>"dx-

4f:.l'"

\\'e

gel

x.,"dx

(28.2)

Tht: poltntial energy al" lsien may aiso be uprtSSed through 'r.
1e Yi'Ol"k done by Ihe twisling nJO.
ment over a length dx is;
dU

M,d.

-,-.

,"h".> ~."

.\1,4

'P=~

Ket'ping in rnind Ihat

Mt"""GJ, d'~
ili'"

and

d<p
dq =;dx

.....'t' obtain

GI,d!Jdl

OJt(J'l',t

dU'-,..i1Zlu ... z

;} d.'

~ lolal poltflti..1ellergy of tor-.ion

due lo bocl..ling of Ihe MilI is:

Fla:. 400

(28.')
Ler liS lirst d..lermine lhe \'erlical di5phl~nlenl of Ihe polol of
applicalioll oi !orce P Fig. 400) in urde!" lo CalCllltlle Ihe work done
b)' force P in lowern~. I-Iere, il [s relevant to rooJ/l1 out lhal {here IITt
!wo reasuns rOl' Ihe displacenl('nl of point
lo
TlItalion 01 Ihe

o,:

sectiOll about poinl

by an angle ql ami dlsplilCemetll in lhe d
r-lion 01 a:ds Oy"
Sinct' Jowering 01 polnl O is nol possibl~ dUe In rotal Ion, obviollSly
Ihe callse al lowcriog 01 the poiol 01 8Jp)cali0I1 ul rore\! P ls huckllng
01 the bealll Irom plane 1.0:.
The "crlknl displaccll1cnt of point O can b\! louml by CasUgliano's
theorcm rrolll e~pre:sson (28.2):
P
bU,
-(jp=ur

."l' .._
x" . . .

,.

(28.4/

Wh~efrom ""ork dolK' by I~Cf P (which s tqual lo critical lorce P,

\'ohen buckJing start~, in eausing displacenM:n1 6 is:

po

"

U,.=P6,=21:..~, ~ x.... dx

CA. 281

Cot1lp/inJd Q..n/iGlu "1 SlobWr,

NOIll 5ubstituting the v.lues

128.1), \\"e ~t
Ifl

4~~J

or V"

U. and U,. in lhe original equation

//.

x'.,'dx+ GJ,

ItI

5 (~rdx=~'J x"lp'/

wherelrom

m;5

",

1/.

;llj,ldx_GJ, 5(~)'t:

Ocnolin,: rigidily in bendlng by EJ .-Cl> and lorsiona! rigldily by

GJ -C" we get the followlng express ion for critica! force;

",

S (~y",

P:-4C,C ".

(28.5)

....

\ '"

Under the integral sign ",-e have two variables, , and x. which are
inlt'ff'l'lated because '1' chanlfe5 along Imgth x, i.e. ,-('(xl. Thl! law
of v.riaUon 01 ., as a (unctien al x is not known. Using Ihe melhod
al approximate solulion, \\'e assume a value of '" which relales il (o %
in 50th a way that lhe condltioos of ronslrainl al the I!flds are satis
fied. Lel us assUm<! Ihat

.
.

(28.6)

, - smT

\Ve see Ihal q>=O al %=0. Iha! ql=If-, al x_

:Ind Iha! lf"'O III
x=l. Thus. Ihe fundion vanishes at lhe supporls and is maximum
at Ihe middle of he span. In olher words, lhe Fundion salisnes lhe

boundary conditions.
5ubsliluling Ihe values of rp and ils Iirsl dcri ...alive in lhe integral
in equallOll (28.5), we oblain

."

*':t 5tos'": ""

P:=- 4C,C,--",;,:,----1

lt"ft

.~ ,,",$tl" .~"

Upon inltgralion lile

~l

P -!!.:!I/CC
,
"
'1

(287)

..
The exacl ,-alllt 01 critkal lon..- loc a simply supporled fi!\Ctangu'

Iltr beam (Fig. 399l i5 given by the Immula

16.93.~

P~=-r-Yt.,l.,

('frol'" al approlfimale .solution is about 1.5~. TM crilicallOftt

el"-'I1d~ upon (he product 01 rigdit)' undl'f bending C,=EJ. and
lorsional rigidl!r C.~GJ '"
. '.

TIM'

Jf Ihe load is uniforml), dislribuled along lhe axiS. tllen Ihe crltlCal
"alue 01 lIJe distribnled force .....ill be
~3V
(ql).""--iC,C,

(28.8)

For 1I canlilever of length 1 which is lo.1ded by a unilorrnly dislribuled force we gel

(qll(_I~8S,,~
(:28.9)
For a cantile-.'er IK-ing acltd upon by a ronCffilra!t'd lorre al ils
free end \\"e have

.= ro

~VCC
,.

(28.10)

TIM' fornlulas 101' critlcal fort'e in an 'bt'am are Iht sarnt as lor a
rt"l:langulilf. TIlt' dill"t'mJCe is Ihat Ih.. loolkienl bel'Ofe
is
llol .1 constan! lluanlil~' bul depend5 upon (he resishmce or fIallgl"$
lO bu<:klmg ami IS determine<! by 1M fstlo

vc;c;-

C,(,),

et_/:'; h

where h i5 Ihe heJght 01 lhe bc-am. Thu5, for an lbc-am

p.K:'~ Ve,e.

(28.11)

whc-re ~ has lo be delc-rmin,od individilally lO/' each value olt;t. The

Vllues 01 coefficil'nt ~ have been dctermined lar various lypes 01 loads
and an.' gh'en below in Table 20.
I1 i:s evident lrom lhe lable Ihat Ihe valuesol L-oeffic.ient ~ appro:x:h
its valLll'!> far a rectangular ,9l'(:lion as lh is inecease<!. Al (1= 100.
~ almos. coiocilles \\ith its nUlIlCl'ical value for a rectangular beam.
Whllt' sludring Ihe sllbilily of plane ~apt during bending il is
essenlial Ihal 1he- normal slreues due lo hending should nol exeeed
S. TlIllCISllti1lco, 1'1INt1/ of EL:U1c S"'bilirv. Toroo14, lOO!.

C-plicaftd Qut-Jlic"lJ (jI

Ch. 181

S/abilil~

T.MO'
lM:fklenl

""ro

in 1'01....1. (28.11)

'. Ca,i'

"-l';

..,
l.,

2.0

'.0

(,.0
8.0
12.0

l.

,
31.6
9.7li

8.03
6.73

'Cl'

... ~ ii

"

143.0
8G.'
31.9
53.'
2.... 6
42.tl

21.8

6.HJ

2(1 ..1

~.1l7

19.0
18.8

5.:J6

"
"'"'"

..

JIl.J
33.8
32.6
31.5

70

,'O

1,

.......5.'""
<.J5

.. '"

4.10
4.0~

18.3

:fUI

JO.'

'"
11); "
".,..
11.4 28.8

17.9

1; 2
17.2

2M
28.6

C.olumn 2 , lo< r'llllle"er lo.. d"d .1 UI~ 11ft md

Col""", 3 15 1 .. ~mply 5Ilppo<Ied lw~1l1 .nlb fOftc acllng al 11<.. lQidd'e
of ib ~:n.
(,,'umll 4 is fo< ~mpl)' :Illpporled I;u .... .1 wllh Ilniforml)' Jhlrlblit.... ror~.

the pcrmissible stress lor slabilily, lo.I""':, where k. is lhe ufety

laclor.

K,nowing lhe critical rorce for each Iype of load on lhe bcam, we
un easily determine the critical stress:

o ",. \f....
<

w,

where M'"", is the maximum bending momeot due lo Ihe crilkal

force and Wf 1s the seclion modulus in lhe web planeo
Tlle resulls ohtained ohove hold good onl)' when Ihe crilical slress
under buckllng does nol exceed lhe Jimil of proportionalily of Ihe
material.
If o'>:1p, Ihen he formulas dl'f'ived ahove give {'xaggerated values
of lhe l'ritlcal str~,
as Euler's formula gh'es overslated '"alues
lor compressed baN 01 ow DexibilHy. Dala collccte<! by expeIlmenllll
studles should be ustd ror delerrnining Itl{' actual critical slresses
unckr buckling 01 bCams "..hm 11.>0"". Prol. Yasinskii suggesls tbat
the analogy witl ettmpresstd bus can be sucressfully cmployed by
assuming Ihal Ihe ratio bel"'tt'fl the actual stresses and {he slm&t'S
delerminet.l by the formulas derived in lhis section is Ihe same as
belwt'rll the aclual stresses and critical st~ in colllprcssed bars

'lISt

when 0..>0,,_

Lel us consider lhe rollowing example. A simply supported Ibeam

No. 60 l.see Appendix) witb a span 1-6 m is loaded by a unilormly

".

SlbJl//1I

of ElunmlJ of Slruct..rn

IP..rl VIII

disttibuted force of inlensity q=-9 U/m. Check Ihe strength and sta
bilHy ol plane sha~ 01 lhe beam ir the permissible stress 101_
-1600 kgf/cm' and lile safely factor ro.. slrenglh and stability aTe
both ~ual to 11-1.7.
The dimensions of Ihe sedion (Fig. 401) and ils gmetrical charaeterisUcs, as obUinM from the sp"ilicalioos. 1ft': h-60 cm, b= 19 cm.
6,=1.2cm, 6.=1=17.8 mlD",=,I.8cm, h l -60--2x 1.8-56'" cm, 1.-76 S(X) cm', J,-1725011', U7 -2560 cm'.
Tlle torsionar momen! 01 ine!"tia has been
calculalt'd from formula (9.38'): J r=~ 'l~M,.
wherC' '1-1.2 for an bcam. 5ubstituting he
numerkal values. we obtain

-, h,

- 1&

'<'=='1

i -l'*'F'
" :\

J 1-:1
!.1(h"+2b/l')
l I

_0.4 (56.4 X 1.2"+2x 19x 1.8')_127 cm'

Let u.s check lhe btam ~liOfl lar slrenth
and slabilily of plane fonn.
(a) SJrtTllll1 drll:

,~ ."f."-8~----a-f!: 9x6' '0"'

,atm
(J. . . .

M....

-405X10' kgfcm
40Sx lll'

--w;-=~

_1590 kgl/cm"<IGOOkgf/cm '

(h) CiI:ck ror slabil//y_ Tile critica! load lhal lcads lo inslabilily
el lhe! uniplanar slale ef bending may be calculated Irom formula

(28,11):

Q,= (qf),=fl-I~
where C,-E), is lhe rigidity undl'f bending, cl-a) t is lhe torsional
riidll)". ami ~ is a coefficienl lhal depends upon l~ ratio of rigidi.
Ucs and litl.
Assuming thallhl' motIulus el elaslicily lor steel E=2x 10" kgf/cm"

and shearing modufus frcm formula (6.38) G -:?(I:"Jll

~

~E

Q,=(ql)'-i' 1 (.,C'=7

=.

I'i7'EXffi
~

=-p~ l' 84 100_~x5.56x290"" 1610/,>

v.1!

get

Cit. 28]

COIl,pliC<lltd Qt'fulO1lf

As toefl1eltul

01 Sfabilily

,,,

depcnds upon lhe ralio

e ( I .J" =U;.h
GJ, ( I ')' -n;x'ffl
'"
(''''.J'
-i,.7i
lO "",2.84
b)' using

4) :md inttrpolaling belv..cen (1=2 and

Ihe erilic... 1 load Is:
Q._ (ql). _ lGlox39.4 _63400kgf

Tab[~ 20 (Colurnn
~.,39.4, and

=4 ""'e 6nd

In order lo a\'old btlekling lhe permissible load shou[d be bkm as

IQJ= Q'=~_37300kgl
.t
l.'
For the ehosen value of k_1.7 the
lribuled load should not exceed

inl~nsily

o! Ihe unilormly dis,

q=~=~-6250kgf/m
Hence, reliable functloning of the bealll can !le ensured on1y if the
ven inlensily 01 9 111m is r('(]uecd by abaul onc and a hall er by
providing side supports which prevenl bu.:kling 01 Ihe btllm (ir Ihe
beam I1csign permils Ihis).
Le! us see haw he vlllue of erHital lorce chan~es when side oonstraints are 2pplietl. Applying side eonstrainls is equivalent lo
redudng lhe fr~ length of the beam b)' Iwo and using other values
01 c()(!lficienls (lo ami ~:
Q: _

el
(!!'!!J" =
e'; h

GJ,

EJ,

0.25

(1.)"
_ 2,6xli2S
rZ7xo.2S (""J" _0.71
1t.
'm'

From Table 20 \\IC ohlain ~-O.57 by graphic inlerpolalion belween

-0.1 lInd rx~1.0, TIIe critical load is;
E Ir= O
E (T;T; O 7 2XI O"X290
Q'-~{O.51)'
'"- .57if.2Sii
1 Tij= .5 o.25Xm ... 357000 kgt

This corresponds lo critica!

st~

Q~I

J(i7000X/lOO IOJOOkgf
I
a~_lIl'p """ 8x2560 ,cm

Thc value d (1'. is considerahl '1 grealer Ihan the Ii mil d proportionalil'l 01 lhe material; therefore, lormula (28.11) canllOt be applied,
The "alue of critica! stress obtainfil abo\'e acluall)' eOlTesponds lo
Ih~ )'ield slress al the material. Thereforc, in Ihis case it is sufficienl
lo carry oul Ihe strength check only.

."

Stob/llty

of

E~IJ

of

S/rlldllm

[p.,, VIII

1&2. Design of Compresscd-benl Bitf'S

While studying lht: combined el1 ofaxial and lalHal orces in
Olapler 21 Il."e ustd ihe principie ef 5tlpetposition 01 forcC$ and addtd
lhe stresses due lo lension or compression to Ihe stresses due to bend
lng. The stll'ngth condUion in Ihii case is:

N.M""_I)
O'-ST--;-'"
(J

(21.1)

Assuming lhat lhe uia] force N_P lloes nol parlicipatc in

hendlng. in lhe formulo \\le uSC'd bending momenl M",,~ caused only
by laterallorces. Howcver, we have aIread)' see" while studyin lhe
slability 01 bars by Euler's melhod ( 155) tha! in Ihe case of buckling
lhe axial compressive force P crl'ates an addllional bending momenl
M'_P!, which gives rise lo a!ldilional streues and disp\.acenllmts
due lo addilional bending of lhe
bar (Fig. 402). The ma:dmum stfeM
in Ihe critical sedioo Ill8Y be delermim~d by lhe formula

~
:'-t
,

-----lO

'"

~--,
..1

.,

(J........

lf+M;.. +~1 (2812)

....1\ere f is Ihl' maximum dellection

due lo the latenl and axial ctlmpressive forces. Ji the axial force is
tensile, il decreases Ihe curvaturt'
of lhe buckled bar and reduees slress
" ....: lhis case is of little interest
(lhe lhird lerm in formula (28 12)
wi1l ~ deducled).

Frolll a comparison 01 Formulas

(21.1) amI (28.12) \Ve .see Ihat by

applying Ihe principie or superpositioll or rOfces (Chapl~r 21) we
neglect Ihe additonaJ btnding moment PI dut lo allia! rorce.~ and
Ihe stress P/'W. Slrictly speaking. the principIe of superposilion 01
forcts cannol be applled al all iF both axial and lateral forcC!t ad on
the bar. By neglecling Ihe Ihird term ln formula (28.12) we inirod~ a l'fious error ~cepl when lhe bar is $ullieiently rlgid and
dtftedion f is small in magniludt. Ho.....e ver, if we ignore Ihe bending
caused b)' aXIal forces in ftl'xible bars. this Da)' Il'ad lo serious errors
.....hile delermining Ihe slresses.
ln arder lo a,oid such ('lTt)I'!, ii i.s ~nlial lo lab nlo xcount
lhe bending lllOrnl'nt duc lo uia1 forces P b}' deiermining delleclion f
cal1s~d bv lhe ctlmbined adion of both axial and laleral forces.
For ltie oompresedbenl bar 5hown in Fig. 402 the differcntial

'"

equalion oC lhe elastic curve is:

EJ;_M._Py
qI

(28.13)

q..'

HE're M''''''ix-T is Ihe bending /Ramen! due lo he lateral

torces. Oivlding (28.13) by t i and subsututtng l:.~ """k',

Il.'e

oblain

'('1l'x-T
.....)
y., + k'Y-uThl!' general solution 01 Ihis equatioo may be txpteMed

y=C, .!'inkx+C.oosb+y

Alter choosing Ihe particular .$Olulion y' (here !I'=~:'CI X

X

(}.+lx-r))

llnd determining Ihe constan!s of inlegralion

llnd C. from conslrain! oondilions al lhe bar eods (y=O al .0=0
8nd y-o al x-t) we may calculaleyand lind defteclion f al x=li2.
HO\\'ever, Ir several forces are ctng on Ihe bar, (his approach
leads lo cumbersom... cakulations, because roc dilferent portions M.
has dliferent expressions and he elaslk curve consis!s 01 a number
of conjugaled curves. In 5uch cases it Is slmpler lo salve Ihe probJ~1l1
by an approximate mt'thod. Tlle idea Iying al Ihe rool of thls melhod
is thal lhe shape 01 the elastic curve s defined belorehand with Ihe
coodillon Ihal iI must satisry Ihe boundary conditions; Ihis makes
it much easier to solve lhe problem.
5uppose a beam is loaded by laleral rorces P" p. p. and axial
compressive lorce P (Fig.403). Bearing in mind Ihat a sinusoidal
clastic curve was obtained while solvng Euler's problem, WI.' assume
{hat in OUT problem also the elastic curve due lo lateral lorces is si
nusoidal:

e,

11 CM be easil)' seen that lhis equalion lor lhe elastic CUfV\, SlI.Ii5lies
Ihe boundary condiUons: d bolh supports, at x=O and x=l. deflec
tion V.-O. Al Ihe sUPpof!s lhe bending momenis al\' also ZefO IM.=
=EJ!I;--Ef~ sin ~ becomes uro lar x-O and x=l); l. is lhe
maximum deflection of (he beam due lo lateral lon:es acting at righl
angl~ lo its axis.
Let US rN'I'i1e equation (28.13) by subsliluling EJy; lar M.:
EJ y6_EJy;_Py

'"

EJy" +Py = - EJ :'1.slJl ~JC

,,.

Stablfily

oJ

EWIIIOlls of :""ut:IUflJ

Oh'lding by El llud subsliluling :-k', ....' e

A'

[Purl

~'III

get
n..

!f +k'lI- - TI. sin T

(28.15;

T,

11 ",,II ~ ~asiest to Iook for (he solulion in he rorro y=f !ill

ssume 11\21 under the culllbined atlon 01 axial and teral

i.~.

p:PJ

(orces lhe br3tn hwds along he same sine. curve. Arter

in equation (28.15), \Ve oblaio
lt".nx
.1lX
,.',IlA:

sub~lilulina

-;.fsIOT+ k'/ sllI T --/TI.3m T

wherefrom

ISubstiluting

l.
--;l

(28.16)

1-1iT

k'~P,'(EJ) and ke<:pin in mind Ihal expres:;ion

n:;J

may be represenll:d as Euler"s crilic.lll force. we get

1-- l p =Cf.
l-p':

Coeflici('fll

e acrounts

(28.17)

lor UlE' elled 01 axial lorces on drfiedion:

'
P,
e =-:--T'=~
l_;;

(28.18)

11 i.s cluc Imm formula 128.18) Ihat delleclion f should Iheordl

caJly becomr inlinite when wmprmive locu P attains i1$ mUral
value. Note thal critical fOfC1" p. tIllers Ihe formula fonnally as a
subslitulion far :.'(111". where J is the rnomeni al inedia 01 Ih!.'
sa':lion about the neutral axis wheJllht btam is al.'led upon by latC'flll
forus. This ml.'ans thal J s not J. 1 as the beam is usually plaet'd
in such a lIl'ay {hat the momenl oI illt'rtia 01 lis se<:tiorJ is lIlaximum
about Ihe neutul axis.

Ch, 281

CwnplictJl<'<! Qulsliw15 01 Slabilll!l

515

Lel us apply lhe solution obtained hl're to parllcular examplcs,

For instance to a simply supported beam subjecled lo bending by a
unifonnly dslributl'd force q and compressed by orces P (Fig. 402).
~ already cstablished,

M",.. =M.+Pf=lI: +Pf,C

where

Sq/&

f.= 3/:IolEJ

(28.19)

(see Chapter 15); Ihererore

s,I'

qll

ql' (

SP/')

M .... =T+P3&iEiC-'F 1+m!JC

Multiplying and dividing Ihe fcaction inside lhe parenlheses by

nO, we obtain for thls fraclion
5.. .P"
1.02SP
4lmt EJ::lo---p;-

and lhe expression for Mm.. becomes

=i//I(I+l.02tlPC)

---p;-

"'''"'ir

-=

!!:.C
8

'

(28.20)

Por practical purposes we may assume Ihat 1.028P=P, and alter

subslituting coeflicient C=pP~ p In formula (28.20) we gel
0-

(28.20')
For (he a~suml'd approximation (1.028::::d) coefficienl C,=aC is
fOllnd lo be eCjual to C, Le. lhe same as in deReclion. Sorne authors
suggest Ihal we can always assume thal C,-.-C on the basis 01 lhe
assumplion lhat bending momenls art' proportlonal to deOectlons.
Formula (28.12) for normal strcsscs acquires Ihe lorm

P+.M o 1
P+M.
w--P =5 W Ci

0""'''=$

,--Po

(28.21)

Whcn: is small, coefficienl C, is clase lo unity and formula (28.21)

o

coincides wilh (21.1).

Le! us note thal wht'n the beam is symmetrically 10Aded by laleral
lorces, approximate formulas (28.17) and (28.21) give results Ihat
are very clase to Ihe exacl solulion. The results in Ihe case 01 unsym
mt"lric loading are slightly poorer, yet Ihey are quile acce,lable for
praelical ca!culations (discrepancy does not exceed 57,t). lf all
forces ael in one dlrcction, Ihe delledion f. may be considered maxilllum at Ihe middle of lhe span.

",

[Par/VIlI

lt is evidenl (rom the Formulas derived ahoye lha! there t'xists

a non-linear relalionship betw~n dt'fteclions ud slresses 2nd lhe

rorces applied: ir all lhe lorces are increased, S3Y, n times, lhe strt'SSCS
11 limes due lo lhe ncreaS(' In lIJe value of coerfkien! e,. This means tha! lhe strenglh concltioo <Jm,,~[ol ceases

ncrease more lhan

lo be valid.
Therelore. in arder lo l'nsure surficient slrenglh lhe compresscdbenl hllrs should be designed for permissible loads. Le! liS derive lhe
strength condiUon for the bealll discussed aboye.

Let us asSurne tha! in OUT beam lhe rnaximulIJ stresses become equal
to yield stress when al! fhe forces are raised k. times. Formula (28.21)
may be rewfillen as [011011'5:
k"P

k,I/l'

+W

,-P,

----;;p -= ov

where k.P and k./ are limiting load5. To go ayer to p!'rmissibJe Joads

\\'e di\'id(> tllis cquation by Ihe salety fatlor

!)(>comes

k~.

The (>qualion lhen

Here " =10-1 is lhe main permissibJe stress undcr compr~sion.

The strength condilion may be writtcn as lolJows:
p

crmn=T+w-;;p~ioJ

,-P,

(28.22)

lhe elfed 01 axial for<:es on stress in the given bar is t3ken into atcount by coelti(>nl
l
P,.
e.-~.
~~P
P
I-~

P,

I"'<-~.I"'

(28.23)

We no\\' impose a reslriction on defledion by writing lhe rigidity

condilion:

1m.. =I~~=I.
1- f

'"

<

~:;JP ~f/J

(28.24)

where II is Ihe pernssbJe deflecllon and k f is ht' safety lactor

against defleclon.
Bcsdes checking the strenl':th and rigidity of lhe bar in lhe plane
01 bcnding il is necessary to check i1s stalJilily in \h~ plane 01 mini

517

Ch. 1.51

mum rigitlily when it is subjected onl}' lo cempressive orces P ( 158)

;lnd al$o check lhe stabilily lor plane surillcc in bending ( 161).
Lf'1 U$ oon.sider onf' more f'Jtample. Sup~ that a simply supported
beam is subjected (o bending br a ior~ P. acling al the nliddle ol
.Is span and is compressed by an axiallorce P. From formulas 128.(7)
and (:18.18) the delecUOI1 al the middle oJ t~ span is;

f-f;,

f_ PtP

or

I
4m7"""P
-1';

(28.25)

The maxhnum absolule normal str(';S5eS in the crilical seclion are:

tJ",H--f.+~

12EJ

II'''J

(28.2G)

p ..

--z .. ii]'2'fi = [rz

\Ve obtain
(28.27)
Aftcr Iransl'ormations,

Wl'

get

_.!:.+p.lP,

".,,_ S

4lf'

O.17SP

JS.. P

(28.28)

p +"C
a"=5
lF '

He

e.

is slightly les than C. Foc example, wben P"""O.5P.., C=

"'p:.!:.p_2 ..,.-nile C,-I.822. Calculalions a~ lhe same as in the

pr~ing

example.

1&3. Effed DI' Eccentric Compressive Force

and Initlal Curvalure 01 Bar
A. In case 01 eccmlric application the axial compressive force lealb
lo ecctnlric (."Omprc:ssion. which, as shown ea.rlier (Chapler 21) results in axial compression and bending ( 162)- By using lite resuHs
ebtained in 162 ""'e can ta.ke inlo accounl lhe elIecl ei initial eccen
lticity, of lhe axial IXJmpressive force P (Fig. 404 (o).

Stability 01

EI~lIIlnts

[Parl VIII

el S/fuclufa

'"According to formula (28.17) lhe maximum defieclion in lhis case. is

f=!.C
where

f.

s Ihe defledion due to bending caused by momen! M... Pe

and is equal lo (Chapler 15)

M,i'

PeI'

t ... w"""W
and coeHicienl e hal accounls lar the e!red 01 axial lorces on tiene<:tion (28.18) is:

'

P,

~--p=P.=P

1--

P,

ConsequenlIy
Pe/'

(28.29)

,--P,

f=8U-:-P

antl lhe maxmum compressive stress accorJing lo formula 28.(2) is:

P

p,

PI

m.,=s+j't+W
Substilullng Ihe value 01

1,

(28.29), wc oblatO
pp~,

PP,PPd'[

6,... =s +ji'+ \l.'

PF-I)

8ET--p
= s+w(J +w--p
1-1-Pe

(28.30)

P<

Arter openjng Ihe brackets, \Ve fnd Ihal

P

M'

a.... =S+W

l'

were

e,= Pr +0235P
Pr-P

(28.31)

B. If there is an nitial curvature in lhe har compressed by forces P

(Fig. 44 (b), Ihe eccenlricity 01 Ihe point of applicalion 01 lorce P
is assumed to be known: in lhe middle 01 the splln il is equal to i.
and Ihe lotal defleclon is (28.17):

f=f.C, or

,
,--

f=t~ - p -

P,

As in the earl ier case of eccenlric application of compressive forces,

rise sharply on1r when force P approaches the critical
value, p . In bolh cases (A and B) Ihe Eu1er crilica1 lorce should be
consldered dangcrous. Therciore, irrespective 01 eccenlricily and
initial curvalure, lhe slability 01 a bar againsl buckling should be
checked as in axial compression. The slrenglh ch~k is dilierent,
defl~lions

CII. 281

COn/pI/N/ro QUeI/ilJlu of S/abllltl/

bec-auSl.' in Ihrse cases bending should be comil.lcred in addilton to

cUlllprl'ssion \Sl'C (22).
Hellc~, wnen highly flexible bus (O"m..';;:;:o) ar~ subjectcd to a;o:ial
coltlpr~ion, they I~ slabilily upon Ihe cotllpres.~jve lorce altilining
Ihe critical value delermined by Euler's lormula. Euler's critical
[on:e P=P< shou)d be taken as the brt'aking load. Neither the eccen.
tnc llpplicalion of compressive force nor Ihe presence of niti,l! cur.
vature have any influ('nce upon
Ihe breaking load in these bars. p
The above conc:lusion does nol
A
hold we][ for bars of smilll and
f
, 'medium f1e;o:ibiJty. At critical
stresse..< exce('tiing the limi! uf
I
proporliooalily Ihe abovemen
(-,
tioned lactors considerably re......-1.---1-

A:p
.,

~,

---

--

'P::~:-~~'~~~~-~~~tP[

duce 0",. This has

observed
experimentally
andbem
confirmed
by <
_ -r- L
theoreUcal attempls al cillculat
1
..,
ing critical deformation. ExperiW
rnenls reveal thal eccentricil)' uf
application of force oon5id<:rabl~
Flg, ~Ot
alfecls lhe stabilily 01 bars of
slllall and medium n"",hilily, il also affects lhe slability 01 long
bars, bul lo a Itluch smalier degree.
The additional raclurs. which have bee-n discussed in this section,
compel us lo incr~a5(, tho: slabilily factor for bars 01 small and medium
nexibilily and ....ll'Ct il value whkh is slightly grealer than the sao
rety factor ia Ih~ case 01 long bars. For proper evaluaton of lhe influence of l~C.lIlricily ami nilial cllrvature on the stll'ngth amI sta
bility of ~ompJ'('ssed bars, we mus! ge.1 an idea about the numerica!
valucs or l' amI y.
In accuralely manulaclured bars we may e;o:ped an initial deflection y. which is the I~O of the lenglh; jf the m~nufac(llring accurac}' is not high, Ihe ntial defiedion may be tWlce as large.
If lhe centering ls proper, eccentrkity ma)' be the 7~ of lhe
lenglh. Furlher, we mus! lake into a~count the tolerances of (he
crosssecliona! dimensions; il may be assumed that Ihey are equi

:o

and an nitial defleclion of the same

valent lo an eccentricilr of
magnitude. Here h is the cross-sectional dimension in Ihe plone 01
possible buckling. In composile sections we must provide lor an
additional ro::entrkity 01 about I~,() on aecoun! of Ihe possible
dilference belween the areilS 01 individual elernenls.

Slabililll or ;,mcnts or SlrU(/"ffS

[Po, 1'11/

Tllus, lor a SQJid sec1ion \Ve llIay IlSSUlHe the loJlowing: mnimum
values oi e and yo:
I
1,
t'=150+'

and

I
h
Y.=]{Ul+:j

Besides oo:enlrkily and initial curvalure, Ihere are a numb~ of

other factors which aliect the stabilly al compressed brs lHuch
more lhan the ~trength of beam~ and elemenls undee tension. These
faclors inelude work haedenng, ntial stresses due to manuladurng
inaccurllCY 01 various parls, tocal delects in castngs and knots in
limher. In slecl siructurcs Ihe effecl oi all these addlional laetors
is takcn into account by an increased (by 10-20%) slabiWy factor (SL'I'
153J.
In conclusion let us nok lhat in this seclion II"C discussed only a
few problems in which crilical force was dcterminl'd at the inslant
wlren lhe lJ:lr crosses over lrom (he exstin:r sta te of equilibrium lo a
new 0111.'. It was assuln?d lhat bending was the only source that caused
instabiJily. H;)wevcr, it is kno\\'n lha! loss 01 slabilty may occur in
other forms too, in particular as hending plus toes ion and pure toes ion
(in case 01 axial eompression 01 thn-walled bars).
Instabilily s characteristic nol on[y of bars. The lhrory of stabilily deals wilh lI1an)' comp[icaled problerns 01 stabiJi(y of como
plete structures and their individual ell,'menls-arches, Ira mes, SI1\.'1I5,
plates, elc. or speca[ inlerest are problcm, of slbilty 01 su~h slructures and their elemenls when subjected to dynamJc loadng"
amI also invesligations on stabilily in the process of elasto-plaslic
deformation and viseo-elastie deformaton (see QJapt"r 32).
Il s impossible lo salve these problelns if a s[atic approach is
adopted towards problem; of slability as problems 01 ~uilbeilllll in
one or the olher formo [n all these prob[enls deforll13tion ShOll[d be
sludied in tim:.', .e. [h(' stabilily of 1l10vemenl musl be jnve.~tig<J(ed.
"\/Iny comp[icaled problems of stabilily are solvcl[ a[ prcsrnt Ilrecjsely 01) the basis of lhese prncip1rs. The reader can gel acquainh:d
wilh them in the special literature. u
~ N. M. Belyaov_ SITt~gI11 uf ~la!uiu{ . Nauk . 1\16S O" R"~;all), ~ 213.
,. The ~roblC"/ll uf dyo~mjc sl,,',IIIY el prlsmatlc bar sIIUJtC/I lu I'~rabh'
kJ.dnll ...s first 501I'cd n 1924. St.'C N.M. Belyae.... S,I'IJ.'i Works un [lIgifll'tfUlg

Lellmerad. 1924 (in Ilusslall).

Seo:-. jI)!' iIlstance, 1. l. Gol<leobl.t. Madrrn Pfol>/rmso{ V,b",", <md SI<l~I/i111
o/ t:ngin,w"g S",...UT('s. Stroiiz,I.1. 1!l<18 (111 R"ss~ll); V. \" BllI011,,_ DI/Mm;';
St,'bi/ily Q{ O<lMIc Syl'l"III', (J'l5t~khiI""I. 19[,(; till R,,'~iall), i\. S. Vulmir. SI,,
bilily al I)rf",mu~/~ Sy.<I~"I$, Nauka, 196; t'l1 R'iSS,all).
Slrudllr~

PART IX

Dynamic Action 01 forces

, CH"PTER 29

EHect of Forces oi Inertia.

Stresses due to VibratiOI1S
164. lotrodllction
Until now we were solviog fhe fundamental problem 01 slrength
of ma{eri]s: determining cross-sedional sites and selecling proper
material for elernenb 01 struciurcs by assuming Ihe Joading lo be

stalic.
It was explained in 2 that loading may be considereu slatic il
Ihere is no mechanical lnovement of Ihe parts whell pressure is transferred rom one part to lhe other or when bolh parts are ac!ed upan
by botly rorces. Undcr SUth loading each clelnenl of tlle ~lruclure
remains In cquHibrium under fhe aclion af externa! fon;cs md slrC$Scs.

The constan'.:;, of movement is charactetized by constant velocity

oi Ihe parts under cor1sideration antl complete absence of lI;cell.'ration
01 lhcsc parts. 11 aa;eJeralion is experienced by the body or lhe parts
conlacling with it, the Joading is said lo be dynalllic, for instance,
the earlh pr'SSure on a bulkhead is nn example or slaUc loading,
because neHher Ihe bulkhead nor lhe earth mass move, ther veloCJUes are conslanl and equal lo zero.
Similarly, Ihe lorce exerted on lhe rape by a Jood which is IiHed
by jt may be considered stalic provided Ihe load is raised wilh a conslanl velocit\'. On Ihe olher hand, Ihe [orce exerled will be dynamic
r Ihe load
raised wilh acceleration. The <:onneding rods of steam
and internal combustion engines expl.'fience dynamic 10ading. be
cause their individual elemenls have ditierent velocities. Two other
ex.amples of oonstrudions working under dynamic loading are Ihe
loundation o[ a machine with rotating parls mounled eccenlrically
w.r.L Ihe axis or rotation (the foundalioll in this case experiences
centripetal acceleralion) and the loundalion and pislon rod 01 a
steam hammer (in Ihe process 01 forging Ihe hammer block comes
to a stop in a very short period on aCCQunl 01 very slrong retardation).
Even thesc c.xamples are enough to make iI clem that in pradice
\\"1.' come across varlous types 01 acceleralion which bodies under

DytKlmle ActilJn. 01 Fa,en

pa,1 IX

conslOOlltioo OC bodics contacling wilh tht'm havt' to eJ:perience.

The 8C\-eleration ma)' be constant in direclion as well as magniludt'
or only in direction, il mal' also be reversible_
Under variable anu revmible stresses the bodes (aH due lo., grad\llllly incre35ing cl':tl:k. and Ihe failure is $lid lo occur dllt lo 13
tigue.1F Ihefe isastlllrp change in the velocity 01 an eleroent al stroc
lure w.r.t. Ihe force being t'lterlt-d on il b)' lIdjacenl elt'n:~ols. i.e.
i( !he clernenl experiencts shock loading. lhe n.., terial of Ihe eJenk'ul
mal' 1>clIlVt as il il were briltle. allhough il is ductile under sla!lc
loading. Therefore. in tooouding a slreng!h dleck lor elemeots el
slruclurcs subjeded to dynamic loading, t is important to s/udy no/
only the elfl!et 01 externlloading on the magnilude or slresses in Ih~
elemen! but also ils clfecl on Ihe nature 01 ~sislance 01 the e!t'Hlenl
material.
The dlecl 01 ac<:eleralion 01 elemenls el struc!ures on the s(ressed
stale of lhe material may be accounled for as follows. II a bod)' moves
wllh occeleration. it is beiog acted upon texperiencing) by rorces (ptes
surt) Irom other bodies. From lhe law rJ equal readions Ihe body
under consideration ad! upon tht other bodits with rorus equal In
maanHude and oppositely dirtcted, namely Iht forctoS of inertta.
Tbs logle is .Iso appllcable to tach "Iemenl el the body movi!1R wllh
aeceleration; !ht e1tments act on the COlllactin elements with a
rcrce equal to lile ton:e or inerlta.
ThU!. when tlenlenls 01 struclures move with ac<:eleratbn. lhty
tX)X'rience addilional s1resses which a~ equlvalenl to slatic slrt'$Sf$
caused by f~ or iuer\ia; each elemenl 01 the slruclure ives r$E'
lo ~trcsses in the adjacCflt ell!menls. as ir Ihe Iiler 1o\.'l"fe acle<! upon
b)' torces equal lo Ihe corre-sponding forces el inerlill.
Here \\'\' musl diITerenli8le between lhre<' situalions. 11 lhe mago
nilmle and loclltion 01 the txtero81 forces acUn/! on the elemen! undN
considl!rlllion does not dt'end upon lhe dt'rOl'malion Qf lhe elemen!,
Le. ir lhe ddormalion drx'S not change Ihc nalure of molioo 01 the
body, lhC1l ils accelcralion is delermilleJ rrom lhe mt'lhods uf kim"
malks of solirl bodies. ami Ihe dynamic acUon nf external crees is
redlk'ed lo he llddition al a sllltic load corresponding lo Ihe in('flial
forces. This melhod is applicable lo a majority of situalions 01 prac
Ikal imporlal1Ct' (excepl shock loading).
Ir the lk.."'Celcralion changts. in thl' process. Ihis in\'ariably gives
rise lo vibrations in he tlenlt!lt under COIldsideration. Tht' vibralions
in Iheir tum may c.a~ resonance tha! resulls in a sharp incrtaSe in
defOlmatlorl and slresses. TItesc slresses may bt very high and mus!
be added lo Iht-' sttesst5 oblained by a>ruiidering lhe inerlial forces
as an additional slalic load.
Finall}'. tht!'"e lOa)' be c~ (shock 1000ding) ""hen lhe accelcralion
and oollSE'quently lhe corresponding forces or lnerlia depmd upon
lhe de(ormabilil)' 01 Ihe eltmenl und('f cOflsideration. In such cues

Ch. 29)

Fora. o{ {",rla. Slrtssu dut lo

Vib'allo~'

523

Ihe mechallical properlies 01 Ihe malerial must be taken illlo acrounl

while calculaling the IIertial forces. The melhod 01 strenglh check
in raeh 01 the above cases will be explained Ihrough Ihe following
examples.
165. Delermintng Slresses In Unilormly
Accelerated Motion of Bodies

We shall bcgin Ihe study or strength check under dynamic loading

wilh the simplest case when points 011 the elemenf ofslructure uJlder
considrration move with constanl acce1eration withoul causing vi
bralions. Af, an example we shalJ sludy
the unHormly acreleraled lifting 01 load
Q sllspended Irom a sleel cable ef CTOSSseclional area S. The specific weight of
IhecabJe material is y. tIJe load is Jifled
wilh a conslant acceleralion a cm/sec'
(Fig.405). We shall determine lhe slres
ses in an arhilrarv secUon al a distante ;lO
:c Irom fhe lower end of Ihe cable. Lel us
cul the cable at this section and study
the equilibrium 01 the lower culoff por
tion. 1his portian moves upwarrls W l t h !l1"r"
acreleralion n, which means that beg-a
sides the force balancing its weighl it is
{a}
(!JI
aded UpOll lrom the upper portion by a
F' (05
lorce equal lo ils mass limes acc{'lera19.
tion a, i.e. Q-~YSX D, where g ls the acceleration 01 gravity.
From Ihe law oi eqLla1ity 01 adion and reactioo Ihe upper porlion
wil1 e:cperience a similar force acting downwards. Thus the dynamic
stresses (JD acling in the sedioned plane on Ihe lower portion will
balance nol only Ihe sfalic load Q+yS:c blll also tIJe additional lorce
~D. To determine Ihese slresses we mus! study Ihe equilibriulll 01 the lower porUon under Ihe acUon 01 (JI), stallc load Q+ySx,
and the rorce of inerlia Q+;VS~ n acting downwards (Fig. 405). We nd
that
o{)= Q+ YSx.... Q+yS~ a= Q+ySx +~)

'gS

Ratio ~ represen{s slatk stress

Iherefore

(J.

(1

Ir

in the section al cutting;

(29.1)

.0<

Dllnam~

Jlcl101l 01 afea

[Parl IX

Le. lhe dynamic stress is equal lo the static stress multiplied by

coelficjent 1+ ~. This cOf!fficienl L~ called (he dynamic coefficient
and is denoled~Y K D :
oo=KIfJ,
(29.2)
TJjs roen ol lhe Formula lor dYJ1amic stresses shows why we paiJ
spe<:igl attention lo calculating (he slresses unrler statk loadJng:
il! 8 large number al cases dynamic slresse5 may be expre5Sed lhrough
sta tic slrcsses by multiplying lhe laller with the appropriate dynamic
coeliicient.

The slrenglh condition may be wrltlen

<ro .... =lJ$ .. "

'
(J+)=KD(JIIll,,~[(Ij

wherdrolll
[a]
[al
a.m,.';;;---r

+::...,

,0

12' .3)

Thus in a numbH al cases dynamic ana1ysis may be replaced by

slalic by simpl)' dividing Ihe permissible stress Ivith {he dynamic
coelficient K". This is done when it is dirficult 100hlain the dynamic
coerlicient lhoorelical1y and we have lo be satisfied wilh Ihe valuc
or Ihe dynamic coeflicient determined e;.:perimentally_ This method
is employed, lor exarnple, in !aking into accounl Ihe dynamic najure
01 lemporary loads acting on bridge-s.
166. Slresses in a RotaUng Ring (Flywheel Rim)

As a second example we shall delermine lhe slresses in a uniform

ring rolaling al a high speed (Fig. 406/a)). Th(' flywht'el rim works
under similar condilions, provided we neglecl Ihe etIed of spokes.

lel S be! Ihe cross-scclional 3re3 of Ihe ringo '\' Ihe- spccilic welghl
o[ it.~ (ll.1tcrial, !/ il.<; mllnber of re\-olutions per unil liOll', '" ils ~n'
guiar velocity u[ rotation and D the mean dianwter of lhe rlng.

Fercts el

Ch. 291

lfl~r/{a.

Slrtuts dli4 lo VibrallCJl.5

Lel llS i$Olale an element 01 lengtl1 ds Irom the ringo When Ihe
ring rola les, Ihis element moves along a circular palo wilh constant
angular velocity w. An~ulilr acceleralion E is zero. Therdore tangenlial acceleration of the ciernen! is Wt=~D'2=0: normal (cenlripetal)
acceleration 01 the ell.'nlen! is w,,=,,)tDf2 and i~ dirccted lowanl
lhe cenlre 01 the ringo In order to delermine I1 D, lhe force of inertia
IllUS! be appl ietl lo eaeh and every elemen! of the ringo This force is
dirccled aw,jy from Ihe cenlre and is equal lo

S'd Sy",,'D
W'g
s=T2ds=qds
wherl' q is the int.ensity al Ihe inertial force per unil lenglh of the
rilO. Thus, Ihe ring experiences stresses as il il u-ere loaded by a radial
force 01 'inlensily q per unt lenglh (Fig. 406 (b)). Force P slrelching
Ihe rilO is ( 19):

Stress 11 n is:
P

DI/

DSyoo'O

ylJl'D'

yv'

on=-S=E=2gs T=-g=-g
whcre v_(cD.'2 is the linear velocily of poinls on Ihe surface of Ih<'
ringo Thus, slressl'.S in Ihe rim depend only upon the sp'c'Cific weight
of the rim material and lhe linMT velocity 01 points on Ihe rim surlace. Lel llS salve lhe fol1owing problem lo gl'1 an idea about Ihe
approximate value 01 these stresses:
n = 360 rpm,

D=4m,

v=7.5gr,cm

Angular velocily is:

2-~fl
2nx.lOO 12
_
w=-;:=-ro-=
:sec'

The

slres.~

is:
_Yf,}1D~_75l(144"'XI6XI0'_435k
(/)- 411 ~
4xl(iiX\ltl1
-

I1

g cm

167. Slrcsses in Connecting Rods

Let us check the strength of connecling rod AB joining tu'o wheel
axles of a sleam enginc (Fig. 407): to lhe driving wheel O, is Iransmitled a torque from lhe steam engine. The connecting rod is secured
lo Ihe wheels al poinls A and B with fhe help 01 cylindrical hinges,
AO, anrl BO, are both ('qual to r, diamelcr of lhe whN'1s i~ D, ll.'ngth
01 Ilw connecting rod is l and lhe sleam engine moves wilh a constant

vclociiy

~.

".

Dyfl4ltllc Ac/iOll

o/

Ftma

IPor! IX

As lhe connecling rod is in mov~mtnt, the first slep in c:hecking

i1s slrl.'flglh is lo establish whelhff lhe moHon is wilh 2cceleralion.
LE'. solve a c.lear-eut problem 01 kintmalrcs. The connecling rod i5
in relallve motion w.r.i. lhe sleam engine. and he engine imparb
lo il translational molion 01 velocily v.
M Ihe lnns/alional molion is of constan! ve!ocily, the aet'eleration
can !Ippear ooly in the I'1"lalive motion. NOIlo' in relalive motion 01
the connecting roo h'l<lof its points A and B lIlOVt' identkally, de-

scribing drcleso radius' in a single plar'l!. The Tt'lative molion of he

conne<:ting rod may lherefore be considerl'd plane'Tt'Clilinear and il
may be safely ooncluded Iha! al! poiols or the connecting rOO have
lhe same veJocily and acceJeration as poinls A nd B.
Poinl A moves with the second whcel describing a cirde of radius r.
rr Ihe sleam coglo!' is moving wilh uniform veloc:ily, the angular
vclocity 01 rotallon (tl 01 Ihe wheels mus! also be oonslant. Thls means
Ihal angular acceleratlon must be zero and hence the langential
acceleralion 01 poinl A musl also be zero, Le. w=O. Poinl A expe
riences only cenlripelal aeteleration direcl~ from A towards O.
and equal to ",r. Any olher polnt on the conneding rod. sayo poinl K.
!Xperiences lile sallle aCCt'leration parallel lo O.A.
Tocheck Ihe sirenglh of Ihe connecling rod. {he load due lo inertial
I~ mllst R added lo its dead weight. The ineriial force per unil
lenglh al lIJe conneeting rod b:

q_....,-Ul.. _,1ll r
IXSl'

Sy.

th'; lorct ol ineriia acts paralie! lo O,A bul is direcled oppositc to

lhe dire<:lion ol acttlerdioo.
In Ihe posilion of 1M conneding roo shown in 1M diagram. bending
caused by Hs dead "'eigill is opposile lo Ihat caused by the (orces of
nerlia. lhe connecting roe! finds itsell crilicalfy loaded in Ihe lowef
mast position A,B, when bolh the rorces aet in lhe same direcllon.
!he lotal load qn per unit length 01 !he oonnecling rod will in Ihis
castoR
yS
(1+,
.")
qo=i'S+"ill,l"""i'S

CJI. 291

Fr",rs of IM,tia. SlrtllG d,,~ /o Vlbnl/jOllI

'"

"Ole connedinl'l rod should be analyzed as a beam hin~d at poinl1 A

alld B anllloade.:l by a unirol"lnly distribuled fore\." qD' The muimum
bending moment at Ihe middlco of span will be
M

_qrJl ... .,sI(I+~)

.oa-T
8
,

1e maximum stm.s in Ihis seclion will he'

,w..,

yl' (1 +"")
t

ll..,;=r-""rT

Ex.arnple. Analyu tillO follo';l;ing shapes 01 {he oonnecling rod, (Q)

rectangular HOSS 5C'Clion and (b) I,sediofl (Fie.408), fOl" Ihe dala
givrn bclow:
111_30sec-', 1'-7.86gflem, r_SOcm, 1~I50cm
In this example

:f( I+ "';')- (um~x[~' (1 + 5O~~)_I036kgf/cm

For Ihe rectangular secUon

S_JOx4 ..5=45cm' ,

s " O. 6 cm -, ,
Y-7'5-

W_~_75em'

OD", .. -0.6;<

1036 ... 622 kgflem'

For the: [section:

S=lOx4.S-2x6x [.5=27em', W_ 4 IiXII)';~;1.5X6'

v-ro-0,42cm-',
S
"

(ID ....

64.2 cm'

-0,42x 1006 --435kglcm'

Hm:e, despite: Ihe: decre.asc in lhe sedion mOOulus (Imosl by 15")

the mUinlUn stresses in the: second case: are 1m br 1.5 limes due
to ronsiderable decre.ase in Ihe weighl 01 Ihe: connccting rod.
Resides btnding, lhe ronne:tling rod is subjected lo lension Of
compre:ssion dile to force: P wilh which wheel 0, acts on wheel O.
In pasillon A,B, Ihe OOfllK'Cting roo upe:riC'flCe:s comprcssion. Neglect
ing tht eltect 01 delleclion 0,1 lhe beridin moment we IDaY ....rilr Ihe
slrmgth COfIdilioo as folIO\\~:

+,

p
,s" ( 1 "') "'fa]
a =-s+W

In addilion lo lhe strl'flglh clleck lhe COIlnl'<"ll'd rod should a!so

be ch('('ked lor stability by consldering il 35 5110(11)' supported in lhe

Dy,wl1Iic Acli""

528

Jt F(}rrt~

IPUlI IX

plane of bending caused by qr, ami as a bar lix...d rigidly al one end
in a perpelllJiclIlar planeo While caklllating lIe;o;ibitily the maximum
value 01 lhe radillS 01 gyraUon snoultl be uSl:d in lile flrst case and Ihe
minimum in the second.
We Illay ~milarly design connecting roo AB hinged al",ntl A with
(he cf3nk 0.'1 Ihat is rolating abolll poiol O wilh angular vl'locily ID
(Fig. 409). lf he crank rolates \\'ith t"nslanl angular velocity, poinl
A 01 the conneding rod l';o;periences onl)' cenlripl'tal acceletatioo,

Fig. 409

whereas poin! B experiences only langential acceleralion. Al! olher

points 01 lhe l'onneding rod between poinls A and B e.'<:perience
hatl acce!cr;Jtions. Limiling ourselves lo force, of inertia arising in
the cannecting rod due lo centripetal ac<::eleration anly, let lIS sludy
the posilion 01 the connecling rod when il 15 perpendicular lo the
crank anLl. consequently, when he cenLripelal acceleralion of poinl A
is perpelHlicular lo he crank axis. Lel us assume Ihallhe cenlripetal
ineclial force q s perpendicular lo the crank a( all poinls and changl'S
linearly along lhe length of Ihe connectiog rod ram q=q. at poinl A
lo q-=O at poin! B. lhe greater the length of (he conneciing red as
compared lo (he rrank the higher is Ihe accuracy 01 Ihis assumplion.
The connecllng rod may be considered as a simply supported beam
hinged at points A and B. lhe hending moment is maximum al x= r~
(x is measured from point 8) and is c!qual 10 (see 59)
"~O

"'m..... 9 13
Since

q.=SV; 1,)',

llnd

OD",..=M;.",
q./t

On m.. = \1

IV\!

gE't

Syl'OJ"r

V3"W= 9 Y3Wg

For_ DI IMtI/D. S/IUJU due ID

Y~r11I;MJ

168. R.olaling Disc 01 Unifonn Thitknd$

'"

Th~ probl~m 01 dtlermining siresses and dtformation in shalls

ami discs rolating al hi&h speeds is 01 mnsidl'f"able interest. D~ lo
th~jr high speeds 01 rotal ion. l~ steam lurbine shalts and disc.s ex
per~ large eentripftal forces.
The stresses caused by these lorces
a~ distrihllted symmelrkally abollt
Ihe uis of rolalion 01 lhe disco
Lelus studY;l simple problem on
3J1:llysis 01 discs 01 uniForm Ihick
n~s. The analysis of such di.scs
lies al lhe base of several approximate melhods employed in analyz
Ing dist.5 of an ilrbilrary shape. We
shall use here som(! rl!SlJlIsobtained
while deriving Ihe lormulas for lhe
aBalysis of thickwalled cylinder:s
( 144). Lel us asSllIlX' Ihat stresses a, and a, ~man constanl over
lhe width 01' lhe disc. 01 unlt thick
Fil 410
ness; we shall conslde!' axial stress
a. lo be equal to uro.
Le! lIS write Ihe condilions of equilibrium of elernenl AB isolaled
from the disc by I'NO meridian sections and twu concentric cylindrical 5tJrfares (Fig. 4101' In Ihis case, besides lhe 'orces aclin on ele~t AB. we musl a so take into aC'tOunt nerUal force

dj=-ro'r y,XIXd,ofO
which acls from the centre 01 Ihe disc towards lis periphery. Equa.
tion (25.1) derived in 144 may be replaced by the followin relaton:
do
yw'"
a , -.,+,-'+--_0
dI
I

(29.4)

Equation (2S.4) of tne $ame secUon (equation 01 joint deformation)

remlins valid in lhe prestnt case also. i.e.
.."
da, 1+" (el
--.t-=
drd,t'

-0', )

(29.5)

Subslituting Ihe value 01 ta,-ol) from equalion l29.4) in equation

l29.5). we fet
(29.G)
1"'1111

D!lnamic ACIlOll o{ F()TI:~$

Differenliating equalion

(~.4)

{Pa,j IX

wilh resped to , and substiluting

~:I frum equalion (29.6), Wt get Ihe lollowing linear dilferenlial

equaUon:

f, [+i,; (,to,l} + 3~ei'w'r=O

Upon integration we obtain

o,_A + ~_
, 3,+"'yw'"

(29.1)

It ensues Irom equalions (29.4) and (29.7) Ihat

-,-= A -rr- 'le yoor"

"'+YJ'"
0,"'0, + 'liT

(29.8)

In formulas (29.7) and (29.8). A and 8 are conslants 01 integration, which musl be determined from Ihe canditiaflS al Ihe disc sur
lacto In determinlng Ihe conslanls we shall sludy lhe lollowing two
cases: (a) dis<: with a central hole, and (2) soliti disco Let us assume
Ihat ends of the disc are Iree af external forces.
For Ihe disc wilh a central hole, stress o, mus! be zero at
3, weU as al
(Fig. 410). When Ihe condHions al the disc suriace
are applied lo formula (29.7) we gel the fol1owing equations:

,=r,

'-T,

A+ B,_3;;}YW"l=0

"

'"'

A+ ~_ 3t: yoo"~

'" O

"

wherefrom

A=

3tl yw' (r, + ':,

8= -

3tl yw'r~':

Substituting Ihe values ol A and 8 in formulas (29.7) and (29.8),

we get

,,

(1 ,

'"'

=3tr,,,,,,
'''')
g ,- (,'+,'_,'_
,.
--;r-

",
Assuming

rOl' brevity lhat

+,
m

"-'.-.

_m

....-e may ....Tite lhe equalions

obtain~

aboye as follov.-s:

.-pl 1+a'(I-~)_P']

(29.9)

. -_[, +.'(1 +~)-m_']

(29.10)

Let liS polnt out lhal CI, becomes zetO al p_1 and P""I%, Le. al Ihe
Internal and external peripheries al lhe disco 11 is posltive lor values
01 p belween I and a and, ILS Is nol dlrticult lo prove, becomes
ffiulmum al

Al lhis value
(O'r1. =p(l-a)'

(29.1I)

Stress 0', i$ also positive 101" all vatues of p and becomes maximum

al lhe inlemal periphtry of lhe dist, ....'hen! P-II.:

(o,>..,_p[2+(I_m)Cl' ]

(29.12)

From a comparison 01 equalions (29.11) and (29.12) we can eHy

notice that (a,). .. is al...... )'s greater Ihan (0,1.. . Therefore ne.splive of whelher ....-e clltck the slrenglh al lhe disc by lhe Ihoory
01 maclmum shearing slresses oc lhe dislOflion cnl'fgy lheory. Ihe
slrength eondition "",lit be
(a,).... -

Jt," yw'ri [2 + (1 -m) o.'J '" fa]

(29.13)

Figure 411 shows curves depicting Ihe changc In values 01 o'i=u,lp

along Ihe disc radius for values 01 o; belween O and 1 and lor ...-0.3.
We nole that Ihe maximum values of
(29.12), (al the internal
periphery 01 Ihe disc) do not change much wHh Ihe value of the
hale's radius. i.e. \\'lIh o; (curve ab). Al a::=O, .e. when the radius
ni the central hall' i.s very small, Ihere i.s a sharp dlange in the value
or o, al the hole edie due lo stress concentration (curve ocdJ. Under
lhese conditions
(29.14)
(0').aa"",2p"", 3ttt~'r:

o,.

In a very lbln circullT rin. where

',':::Iir. and ClJ'I:l;t.

(a,).,., = -~":
,-

".

(29 15)

'32

{Port IX

which is Ihe same as oblained in 166. In Ihis case lhe maximum

vaJue 01 0" e29.IS), is onl:; 20"-, greater Ihlm (lI,)",.. for a disc wilh
a very smal! hole (29.14).
JI is evident rom rOfmuJas (29.9) and (29.10) tha! strtml'S 0, 311(1 0',
IJlcn~ase sllarply with lhe increase in Ihe peripheral I'clocily v=w,.
[t shoulrl be noted Ihal besides velodty ti 2nd mechanical properlil'5
of lhe material 11 and r these stresses depend cnl)' upon dimension-

"1

le:ss quanlilies l' and 0:. Henceo, and

will be equal in twa gcomet
rically i<lentital discs having 53m", r'~. This properl)' enables us lo
replace lhe actual lesting 01 large discs by lesling 01 small models
in he laboralory.
In a sol id disco 0, and (J, ilre equal althe centre, where r=O. A como
parisan 01 formulas (29.7) and (29.8) indica tes tha! Ihis condition
can be salisfied on!y il lhe conslanl or integration 8 is equal to zcro.
Tlle olher constanl, A. can be lound from the followillg cOlldition:
Le. al the external surface or lhe disc, stress (l', must be zero.
al
Therefore

'='"

A = 3+.yw,,~= p
Subslillllin~ the aboye

f,2!1.8),

W~

"

value 01 11 and 8""'0 in formulas (29,7) l'nrl

obtain
c,=p(J-p')

(29.16)

..d
G,=p(I-n1p')

(29.17)

Tbe corruponding tur... ~ shO\\'ing \'arialion of (J~= ~ and G1_:J

along lhe disc radlus are giveIl m Fig 411 ICUt\'es fh amI jal). 80th
slresses are positivt rer al! values of [' and increase towards !.he
~ntre. Al p=O
(o,)", .. _ (o,)m.. = P_

3~.. yw'r:

(29.18)

ThU5. in a disc with a verr small cenlral hole, stress a, at lhe edge
of lhe hole is 1\\'0 lim~s grealer than al Ihe centre 01 a solid disc on
Cl'OUnt 01 stress ooncentralion (see (ormula (29.14)).
The above discllssion was based on lhe assumplion Iha! Ihe l.'dgl!$
or lile disc are [ret> of external loading. This assumptioo generally
does no! correspond lo realit)'. Usually Ihe dlsc is mouElted on Ihe
shalt in Ihe ho! slde OC' by a hydraulic press wilh an interfererlCe
fit, which emures tha! deformation of Ihe disc ho\e dile lo C1.'I1triprlal
(orces is always less Ihan Ihe deformalion 01 the opposlie sign incurred during mounling, Le. lhe dise sits Iighll)' over Ihe sh.ft in
norOlal \\uking. The exlernal periphery o lhe c1isc is usually fittftl
wHh "rim lor mounUng lurbilll! blades; durio rotatioo Ihe rirn eh'es
rise lo additional eenlnpdlllorees which re transmilled lo the disco
Thus Ihe internal and ntPmal pet"ipheries of Ihe disc ar~ subjt'Ctl'd
io unilormly e1islributed tensile or compressive forces. The slres.ses
elused br lhese for;es ma)' be compuled by Ihe formulas derived in
lhe anal)"sis 01 Ihiek-wal1td qlinders i10rmulas 125.9). 144). Upon
adding lhe stresses obtalned (rom formulas (25.9), (29.9) anel (29.10)
wt' ean draw a cumplele diagram depicting dislribution of slresses In
8 rolaling disco
169. Dlse ()f Unilorlll Slrength
The formulas clerived in lhe prl!(eding se<'liCll\ And he curves drawn
in Fig. 411 sIlow lhal Ihere is eonsiderable vuialion in lhe \tlllues
al" o, and 01 along Ihe rldii of discs al unirorm lhiekness. The Ulost
nonunilorm disi.ribulion al slresses ocrurs in di$C$ or uniform thick
ness wllh a cenlral hole. The design 01 such discs is ba~ on Ihe
m.aximum stress 01 at lhe inner edge of lhe disc, whieh imposes re
slriclions 00 lIJe. limiting value or maximum velocil)'. For achi",ing
high veloc:ily Di rolation the di~ have lo be mide of vlriable Ihickness whkh decr~ from Ihe cenlre lowards 1M ~ripherr. The mosl
economkal shape of lhe disc is ORe in whic:h lhe sarnt stress acls 00
al! poinb of Ihe disco Sucll d.iscs are knowTl as discsl!{ ulli!,nm slrmgth.
While designing sueh discs i( is ~umed Iha! Ihe slresses remain

(f....t IX

constant O\'l'f lhe thickness 01 lhe disc; this gentrally gives a small
error in Ihe calculaled stress \'alue.
The buic formulas 101 designing discs 01 variable Ihickness can
.
be derivtd as belare by consid
~,.lr(I'r$.lrIi) ering lhe ~uilibrium 01 In tlel'l'o/l,.
menl abcd (Figs. 410 and 412) 01
r. ,. L - the disco Lel us denote by z the
1fIl,; ::.Pi e
variablt Ihickness. \Iollich is I cero
lain lunclion 01 lhe radius, l.
...
,....
Faces ad and be 01 Ihe element
!ir
I
eul by meridian seclions are acl
C/lil'
d
I~
clulr
ed upon by rorces a,l dI mak
\
(J_lr(1
ing an angle da wilh eaeh other.
r \ tJJ I
face de of the elemen! is acted
'<r',1
upon by a radial 'orce a,zrdB di
~
recle<! towards Ihe centre and
faee ab is :H:led upon b)' a radial
Fil m
lorct tl,u dO+d(o,zt da) directed
Irom lhe ~lre towards {Ilt out
surlace oIlht disco To these lorttS U~ must Idd lhe larce 01 inertia
due lo Ihe mass 01 the demenl,

-,;........::f

zdt , dll

,,;t

acting from lhe cenl~ towarm. tht ptriphery.

Projtcting all Ihe lorees enumeraled abovt on Ihe radius,

'1:1'

get

lhe lollowlng dilferential tqualion lor tht tquilibrium of a disc 01

variable Ihkkness:

d(o,ud6)-o,zdlde+ldtdB
do
~
;;(rzo,)-lOI+t
,

e1

""0

-o

JI z=const, Ihe above i!qualion Iranslorms into equalion (29.4) derived in Ihe prtding seclion.
In a disc o( unilorm slrenglh slresses lJ, and o, are conslant al 111
po:ints and are equat. Equlling their "alue to lbe ptrmissible stress
101, f t can wrile Ihe rollowing equalion or equilibrium;
d
fO"r t -O
-{zr)-z+z-101 r

.r

FllraJ 01 /lIUlill. Sl~ t:I: lo VlltnlUOflI

...

'"

n ""'[IJlt
Upon integratlng the aboye equalion, \l'e gel

l_Ce-'
\\'here C is a conslanl or integration. tr the llisc does not have a ceno
Iral hale then rom Ihe condition 1-1, al ,-0, il ensues tllat C~l.
The Ihlckness 01 he disc at Ihe centre (l.) is delermined from con
dilions al ils ouler sur/aee.
A soIid disc of uniform slrength can be used even al very high
peripOeral velocHies. Hov.-ever. (rom Ihe poinl al" v[ew al" convenienct
al" manufaciurioe, discs of variable thickocss wilb central holes are
generally used. These discs. which in shape are d(R lo di.scs of uni
Jorm slrenglh, provide Ihe masl advanlageous dislribulion el slrases
Ilong lhe radius. The methods el analysis of such discs are discuss.ed
in speciai rourses.
110. Effttt 01 Resonanee on lhe MagnHude
"' Sfresses
In lhe first Iwo problems discussed in 165 lInd 161, (he accerer
alion ",as assume<! lo be fixed in direclion w.r.t. Ihe ..Iemenl on
which il was actins; in Ihe lasl example Ibe accele:ration \Vas conlinuously changing i1s direclion lhrough 3fU during one rolation of Ihe
wheel. In Ihis C~ Ihe srtesses and deformallons ~riodically changetl
lheir sign rl'!ulting in vibrations or Ihe body.
A similar siluation will arise if he beam is 'oa~ '4'ith a maehine
which has a rolaling load having ecce:nlricily w.r.L lhe axis oi rolatlon lFig. 413). ~ forct of Ine:rtia 01 lhe rol.tin load will gin
rise lo slresses and deformalions in Ihe beam which periodically chan~
lhelr signo Tile beam will begln lo vibrale wilh 11 Jlt'riod whkh is
equal to the period 01 rotal ion of Ihe load. These vibralions are known
as 'orad vibraJiolls. If the perlod of lorced vibralions is Ihe same as
lhe period or natural vibralions of ihe beam, Ihen resonance occurs
llnd {he amplilude or vibrations lncreases sharply wilh Ihe passage
01 time. The ampllude 01 vibrations is in fael reslricted by fr!cliollal
rorces and rl'!;SlllnCe of Ibe atmospheric medium. Howcver. despile
these reslrictions Ihe amplitude may assurne large: values. which rar
exceed lhe deformations the beam would have uperienced under the
same acceleralion al" conslant direclion.
Th('l"e was a case when due lo resonanee the angle of twisl 01 a shaH
lncreased six-fold as rompared to lhe angle belore resonaoce. This
happened wilh the crankshall of a motor oi Ihe airship Cita' kpxlirt
in ils w:ry firsl ftight acroo the Allanlic ocean.

D'lQmir AdiQ/l af Forre;

IPur IX

Thus, ji resonance is no! cur1>ed at the very oulsel bul i~ allowed

to <.:onlinue for sorne liu1e, it results in a gradual growth of deforma
tion and a eorresponding inerease in stresses ultimately leading lo
failure. Therefore, al Ihe design slage it is essenlial to prevenl reso
nance in s!ruelures whkh are subjel:ted to variable aceeleralion of
eon~tant periud.
Since tlle period'ol (he extiling lorces is general Iy giv('l1. lile designo
er can control only Ihe period 01 natural vibralions 01 the strueture:

.;;.

(2

F"ig. 413

the period al natural vibrations should be selocted in such a way that

it differs considt'rably lrom lhe period 01 Ihe e-xciling rarees.
Questions conccrning the delermining al periodo frequenq :md
amplltudl' of natural und loreed vibraliolls are discussed in Iheo
relieal me~hanics. Therelore, belo\V (~ 171) \Ve shaJl apply ","ithout
proof lhe resulls 01 lheoretical me<:hanics in delerminlng slresses and
ehe<:king Ihe slrength 01 e1ernents 01 slruelures subjecled to vibration.

171. Oetermiflatiofl ot Slresses In Elements

Subjetted to Vlbrallon

A. An elaslie. syslem dlsturbed from lis slable slale of equilibrium

begins to vibrale. Tlle vibralions occur near Ihe position 01 elastic
equilibriulll in whic:h lhe loaded sysleru experiences slalic de{ormation
't" depending upon Ihe
nalure 01 deforlllalion). In a syslem sllbjectt'tl to vibralion, lo Ihe
static delorrnation is added dynamk delorrn~tion which depends
upon Ihe lype 01 vibralions and Iheir lImplitude. This results in 11
change in lhe value 01 P Hence, while checking Ihe slrength of a
vibraling syslem jj is essenliallo determine lhe dynamk de!ormation
no lhe rorresponding slresses in aodition lo the static deformation
and stresses.
In a number of cases Ihe nalure 01 vibralions 01 lhe syslem can be
completely defin~ by one quantily (one eoordinale). Such syslems
are known as systems wilh a single degree of freedom; the eX<lmples
of sucll sy.~lems are a light slrelched or eompressed spring witll a weighl
suspended at ils end performlng longitudinal oseillalions, a bearn 01

6, and a <.:orresponding stalic slress P. (o. or

~.
M<'f'hn"ir.<

for inslan(, L. G. Loihyanski and A. 1. LUTl'., A Cowso 01 TlliJOrtlicol

" ..... t.<~;.rl.t t~!>.S 'I~ ,",,,.. 1.,,1 P.rl Ir.

C1l. 291

F{Jr(v.

~f

/lIu/lo.

St,~.

tIsut lo VUII'o/iIl<fU

."

snlall (as romparf'd lo Q) dtoad .....tight (shov:n in Fig. 414) p~I()I'mina:

oscillalions in a direc:lion perpendicular lo i1s 0\1.'0 uis, elc.
In vibrating sY5lems having roe degree of flffdom. lhe tolal deformatioo el an arbitrary seclion may be oblained by adding lhe 51alic
and dynamic delormatiom. Obviously, Ihe strmglh check should

be carrled out for lhe section whcre the total dclormallon i! mul
mum.ln the !implesl ca.se! lhe total delocmalion is oblained by add
n~ 111(' rnllximum stlltiC deformation 6._~ IIml lhe maximum amphtude A o lhe vibralions:

6D=05.... +A _6._~

(1 + 6.~J-J(D6....

(29.19)

A5 long as thl" syslenl delOfIJ\! wilhin lhe elaslic limits, the stresses
are directly proporliona\ to slrain. ThertlOfe

PD"'P.(J+6.~J=XDP.

(29.20)

(29.21)

15 lhe dynamic coefliclenl under vibralion.

this case is as follows:

PD "'" K DP. '" [p J

rhe slrenglh condiliOIl in

(29.22)

Thus. as in the previously discussed problem. in .....hich lortts of

mertia or conslilnl direction ""efe considered. Ihe delerminaHon of
t1)'namic slresses antl slrenglh check under vibrallon can be replaced
bv Ihe delerrnination el slalic slresses and dynamic cotflicient K Do
Slnce K" depentls upon A. we must know haw lo deltrmint Ihe
ma.'Il:lmum ampritudt- of \'lbrations under dilrl'fl'nt silualions.
It is 1...('11 known IhJt Ihe dlfferential ~ualion of an osclllaling
load Q perfOfllllllg n31ural vibralions, mar be \\TiU('n in the form of
0'111 t'qullibnulll equallOll which lakes inlo accounl Ihe iorces of iner
ha in audilioo lo lhe exlernal force (load Q) and Ihe force of elasUc

DJ{namk AtliM

cf

Foras

[Par IX

resistance 01 Ihe syslem:

~~+P-Q=~~+P(=~f+a=O

(29.23)

Hl're x is Ihe coordinale which compl...tely determines lhe localion

of load Q during vibration (Set, for example, Fig. 414), P is Ihe tolal
elaslic resislance 01 Ihe syslem lo vibralions, P - Q=P, is lhe
resloriRg force (IT\ addiliORal elaslic force which appears iR Ihe system du:' lo lhe displacemenl by dx of lhe poinl 01 applicalion 01
lorce Q on account 01 vibration) which in Ihe firsl elastic llmit may
be considered proportionallo coordinalex (P,-cx), and C is a preportionalily conslanl which is equal lo lhe force required lo C8use unl
slalic deformation 01 Ihe syslem in lhe direclion 01 force Q. If lhe
stalic delormalion due lo load Q is 6Q , then c=~.
AIler solving equation (29.23) we get the following formulas for
calculating frequency oo. and period al the nalural vibralions i.:

00.= y%=

JI f

t.=~=2lt (~

Hence, natural vibralions of a weighlless bady are equivalent to

simplf' harmonic motion with a frequl'ncy (period) equal lo Ihe Ire
quency (pertad) rJ oscillation d a simple pendulum which is equa!
in length lo lhe stalic delormation of lhe sysleffi due to load Q. For
inslanct!, i[ the load strelches a prismalic bar,

w.~ / f,~ /~
In Ihe case 01 a simply supported beam Joaded by a lorce Q acling
at Ihe rniddle 01 ils span,

oo.

/fmu, _ /4~EJK
(JI'

B. lf in addilion to force Q and force or ~Iastic resistance P Ihe syslem

is acted upon by an l'xciting foree F and force or resislance d Ihe al
mospheric medium, R, lhen Ihe differential equalion of vibralton
mal' be wrillen in lhe form of 1Il equilibrium equalion similar lo
equalion (29.23):

~~+P-Q-F+R~gf+P-F+R

"

=~x'+tx-F+R=O
g

(29.24)

In a sulficienlly large number of cases lhe resislance 01 lhe almospheric medium, R, may be considered directly proportional lo the

01. 291

FOf(tS

01

ltli:ftUJ. Sfrtssu du, /O Vibroli4tu

\'tlocity al lhe vibralinll body: R=rz'. If lht uciling fOlee varia

ac<:Ofdin to lhe sine la""

F=Hsinwt
whtrt H-Frs>. and (1) is lhe lrequeney el tht exciling foree. Uttn
tqualion (29.24) ma)' be writlen as foUows:

~~ +rx' +cx= H sin(a)t

(29.25)
Here n=;g is the dumping ooelficienf and liJo is Ihe frequeney 01
nalural vibrations which oc:eur in Ihe system even when Ihe ~xciting
forct, F. and Iht loeee of resistanee. R. are absenl.
Afler solving equation (29.25) we gel the lollowing expression for
amplilude A ol the loreed vibralions in the presence 01 damping:
A

- Q V (~

fol~)' + <In"'"

,N

:.r

-7"F=,.""";'-=r"",,,,,,,,,...

~...: ~[ 1- ( :.JT +. (;)'(

'.

(29.'6)

H,,,
iH

IN

"Q

~-Q7=Q6q""6H
Is lhe slatie deformation of the s)'stem due lo maximum exclllng
force F (F"",,=H). The ralio of amplitude A 01 {he 10reN! vibralioru
lo delormalioo (jH Is eaBed lht ampli[ualion !actor DI vibraliollS and
dtnoled by ~;

(29.27)

ThefOrt loemula (29.21) lor d}'namic eoeflK:lenl K D may OO'N be

""Titlen as

KD - l

A
'.
+-,-=
1 +"...~
.....
"'O

(29.28)

IPar IX

Thto amplHude al naluu1 vibrations has nol betn accOt/nteti lar

ill I~ abov~ upression. bccause It can have apprt'Ciablf' elretl only
.,1 Ih~ bt'ginninl: 01 v.brations; in prcseIlCe al JI resislin:: medium il
0Illarp1r decreases wilh lh~ rassagl' 01 time.
Figuft ~15 COlllaillS cun'es depiclin;: lhe varialiofl of ompli{i.cotiJJn
(1ft:U, ~ as a fUIlClion 01 ~ lo, various ,'allM'5 al Ihe damping coef

l. 11 1M rreq~)' 01 Ihe l':\:citing force is d05l' lo

lile.' rreqUl't1Cy of nalural vihralions. Le. if =-:::::1. and ir lhe damping

liej~nl n (ratio!..

".

coefficienl is nol large. II/'n Ihe denominalol'S in formulas

and {29.27 lor d/'tennining A :md

5"o

(29.26)
wil! ])(.. v/,ry smal1 and Ihe am-

JII .,

.!!...-.f)
aD15

o
l.

"

la.
~z~
al

,I

r-- f-.-

f.Q

plihlllc and all1pliliellion faclor will be very lar~ Fig. ~15). Undf'r
sueh eircumsb.nces f'Ven I sDlall exciling fotee "Iill resutl in high
slresses (00 attounl 01 resonaoce).
Wilh tht incrase in dalllpinl!: rfSOnallte becor..lt5 1m declive. JI
should. hoY.'tver, be noled lhal damping can comidmbty decrease
Iht amplilude or fOf~ vibralioJU only under neAl" resonante con-

01. 191

F~fC" /11 1""tiG. SII?.s!", 11..,

//1 \'ibral,,,",s

,.,

-.

djlions (O.75<.!.~J.2S); lhe ('[('('\ of damping is impf'rttpliblr il

lhe ralio :. is outsidr Ihis r.nge.
l! is evidenl froro rormulas (29.26), (29.27) and (29.28) and Fig. 415
lhat if frequency I<l oJ lhe exdling force F js ver)' 10\\1, Ihen il~ amo
pflude 01 vibrations lenlis lo 6H , (he ampJii<:3lion fador trnlis lo
unity 3nd Ihe rnuimum slress can be: catculated as 1he static stress
due lo load Q and maximum \'31ue 01 uriting lortt F (F... -ff).
il Ih<' Irequency of lhe exdling lor~ 15 vtry hlgb, thtn Iht ampli.
lude 01 vibralions and lhe amplificaBon laclor lend lo Z~ and 'orce
Q may be considertd as a Iixed load. Te muimum slress in Ihe
5\'5Ieln Is in Ihia case equal lo the slalic stress due lo load Q.
. 1hia is a factor 01 greal pradical imporlaflC"t'; il is employf'11 in
lhe design or varjous Iypes of damper5, selsmographs. vibrographs
and olher inslrumenls. In machine design fhe shock 3bsorbel'$ pro
ltcting 11\( 'oundalion rom vi1H"alions 3re selecled in slK;h a way
Ihal lhe frequency 01 natural vibrlllions 01 lhe machine mounlell on
Ihe absorben Is considerably less lhan the Ire<uenc)' of he exci!in:
force.

172. lhe Effecl 01 Mass 01 the Elutic Syalem

on Vlbralions
A. H Ihe vbr3ting system carrying load Q has a sllrficfenlly dislrib
lllrd maas (meaning lhereb)" thal lhe numbtr 01 Ihe degre('s of freedoln a large), then lhe simplified cakulalions discussed in Ihe pre
cetling .seclion will give a wnsiderable error. In such cases lhe dilfcr
elllial equalions 01 motion should be wrillen wlth Ihe mass of Ihe
syalem bein taken lnlo accounl. fnnead 01 solving soch probltms
lroUl equillbrium condilions. en lhe basis 01 which ~uations (29.23)
and (29.24) \!Jere obtained, ji is more convenitnt lo solve Ihem using
Ihe law of conservalion oJ energy.
Assuming Ihat lhe energy imparled lo a s)'sttm in Jislurbing it
lrom its 51able ata\t el equilibrium ;5 equal lo Ihe sum of kinflic
and pol{'l1tial emries el 1m- load and elaslic s)'alem and is constanl
101' naturil! vibralions. "'1' get lhe following ~ualion;
U+T_COClSt
(29.29)
This e<ualion shows tha! vibration ia llCl:ompanied by continuous
Iranslormalion 01 one 1)'pE' of energy into anolher .....thoul any 1055.
Wheil Ihe elaslic aystem ocruplf5 OIle 01 Ihe extrtrtll:" posiUoos, \\'hm
Ihe veloeity of vibrations i.s zero and consequenlly the kinelic encrgy
ls uro IT=O). IlIf poterltial energy of lhe load 3nd syslem is mui
mum. U=U~... On the other hand, when Ihe s)'slem i.s in equiIibrium, U-O and T_T~...

D!lMmic Aclion

01

IPorr IX

F01m

It shOllld be noled Ihat the principIe applied in deriving equalion

(29.29) is applicable onl)' lo sysltms with a single degree af lrredoro,
because lhe law 01 c:on.servation 01 mtrgy does nol take inlo account
lhe heat translt!", II.tlich occurs in s)'stems with I big number al derrees o freedom. Hen'. lhe problem 01 "ibralion 01 systems with
~ Ihan one dtgrtt 01 frecdom Is reduc:ed lo lhe fundamental probtero discussed in 171, and lite e.tn approximately determine only
"'" <frinc.ipal) freqUt'nC.')' 01 lhe
natura vibraUons.
ld lJ$ discuss a few uamples en
/
applicaUon al equation (29.29).
B. As lhe fint v:ample 9.'e shall
stud)' Ihe "ibrations 01 load Q suspended from an end of a prisma!.
"
ic bar 01' lenth 1, eToss-seclional
uea A and spocific ....-eight l' (Fig.

,,

,.iI
+,
l'

'---r'--'-,
q,
,
.------<

416). 11 Ihe suspen~ load is dls

turbed (rom lhe stale of equilibrium and leH lo itself, il starls per-

forroiog
longitudinal vibrations
about Ihe posillon 01 equilibriurn,
Le! us wrile down u:pressions [or U
FI. 416
and T ror Ihe vibrating load-bar
syslem.
Polential energy 01 Ihe syslem changes by U-U,-U, w.r.l. the
polential energy in equilibrium; here U. Is lhe potential energy 01
the syslem at the nitial momenl (in equilibrium) and VI is lhe potenlial enerey al instanl t.
Let u.s denole Ihe poienlial energy 01 load Q al Ihe nHial moment
by V Q : polenlial energy of lhe bar al Ihe s,ame momen! is equal lo
Q~., where Al, is lhe stali<: deformalion oi lhe bar due lo load Q.

...

""'"

_---~

U. - U Q

Od/,
~

At inslanl t \llnen the load has IO\\-ertd by a distance :c and Ihe bar
has rKeived addiiional deformation :c. I~ polenlial merey of the
load decreases by Qx. ....'bereas Ihe farte of elastic: resislance and slatic
delormalioo el the. bar increase by A~~"- times. Consequently,
I
/1/.+..A/,+..V,-UQ-Qx+2Q---r;-4I,~
QfJ.1

Qx'

QiI

=VQ-Qx+T+Qx+~=V.+2tr,I.

'" '"
00'

Furcts

of ,.""tla. SI,usef dio, /0

Vjb,allClll$

Q~
V_U,_U._jEJ
,

(29.30)

Kinematic enef'gy 01 the 5}'slem the sum 01 (he kinetic Mergy

T, of the load and T.ol the bu. K.inelic tntry of the load is T,,,,,
-~(:c')" While cakulaling the kinelic energy or he !><Ir, \l,~ must
bear in mind that al instan! t the load and consequently the lo\\:er
lace of Ihe bar are moving wilh veloc:ity x', whereas lhe veJocily 01
Ihe upper lace of he bar is tero. The velocilie:s of inlermedlale

secUon! will be wllhin [hese t'NO extremal valu".

Let us assume Ihat displacement of bar section.~ w.r.1. he lixed
end follow5 lhe same law 8S In slatic le115ion. I.e. 1I Is directly proportional lo he distante 01 the secUon Irom the raed end. Thu!
(Fg. 416), jf the lower race geb displaced bY)l, hen lhe secUan al a

distance,lrom the fixed end musl gel displaced by

t.

x-}.

and the

velocily el Ihis seclion wi11 be x'

The klnetic energy 01 an e1emenl
al length d; cut al a dlst.nce t frolll the Iillied tnd IIo'i11 be dT1 _

~ X.(})".
}(iMlic: energy or lhe \l/hole bar will be lhe
over \he bat's length:

SUD!

of quantiliel dT,

~
.-r71 (!)....
7 -;-3

fl'A d!x"

Thus, Ihe kinetic energy 01 the bar is equal to (he kinetic enery
01 I concentrated load 01 mass
Le, it is equal lo the kin~tic
energy of a load whose mass is '/, 01 he bar and whkh moves wilh
lhe same ve10dty as the bar. The tolal kinellc energy oi the load-bar
system is:
T T +T _ x"(Q+~)

W,

-""!i'

Subsututing T and U (29.30) in equatiOll (29.29) and dilferentialing

\he last with resped lo t, we gel

1.
(Q +l'Al).(' + ~ X>03..!. (Q +~).('
+..!Lx=O
, 3 1 ,
...
AlQ

M'

H~t 61, is Ihe stalic deformalion duc lo load Q+~. The diffe-r
Mlial eqLlalion oblalntd aboye by laking into COIlSidl'l'alion lhe
lIlass of Ihe vibraling bar dilJers 'ram eqUlltiOll (29,23) only in Ihe
faclor befen x aOO both equallons bec:ome idenllca! once the lllU5
or !he bu is igrJ<Jl"td. Thtrefore, tite correclion due to mass 01 bar,
whkh mus( ~ introduced in the cakulalions 01 the preceding seetion.

,----1

..........._

.....

--_ - - -

1--1---1
!

filo

~17

co1151515 in d<-{ermining 'tati<: dclorffililions. requ;ffd ror cakulalUtg

the rreq~nc)' of natural vlhrations. nol lor load Q bu! fOl" a load Q
phl$ onethird al Ihe weight of he bar. Thus. Ihe weight o( the vi
brating bar reduces (he Irequency 01 naturlll vibrillr.n;' and lncrl'ases
lhclr periodo The quantily ~I is called Ihe rcdllctd mass o{ file bar.
C. ,\s the SCCQml t.\ample we shall stud)' a simply suppoded bealn,
loa\kd by Force Q al Ihe middll.' of iLs span (Fig. 417).
ll.'l us denote Ihe maximum slalil: denedion 01 the beam due lo
load Q by
and Ihe variable defledlon el Ihe midl1le
secUon due lO vibrations b)' l. Lel us assume Ihal the addilional de
lIeclion 01 the btam due fa vibralions varies along ils lenglh in Ihe
sanlt' m~Rnl.'f.llS due lo I~ stalk load Q; Ihe varialion oc<:urs according
lo Ihe lollowing equaUon (see 85):

1-3!D,
y=

QP 31'.l-4st

, (31"

4~eJ--p--;'

~-

04")
x

(29.31)

Thus. If Il'ilh respect lo the pasition of slalic equillbrium 1 is 1M

addllional di.~pl~lnenl 01 the U1iddle section due to vibralions.
Ihen lhe disptacl'll\efit of 1hE' section .lit distnce x frolll he ltil

supporl 1l"11I be

The vehxlly 01 vibralion 01 the mire al gravity ullhis secliGn will be

~(31'X-4X')

Foras o, IMrlltJ. SlrtW$ dJ1t

CII. 291

MS

Vwralion!

The klnetic energy 01 an etement 01 length dx 01 lhe beam will bt

dT _
d,,; " (J/o,,;

yA

2i'"" 1

1 -

1"

4"')'

and the kinelic energy 01 (he \\'hole beam wil1 be

'" (31Ix_4X')'d:c=!Z'lAI

T =2 YA z"J.

2[

z"

~2g

1',

(29.32)

Kinetic energy of load Q is:

Q g"
T 1 - '2g'

Since polential

,j

M'dt

U = -EJ' ano

01 bending is calculaled by {he formula

en~gy

",

M=EJili"

we gel

As the middle seclion gels displaced by

equililJriulll, ~= -~lX. Thcrdore
U=

"(d'Y)'d
T

;:;

z from the pasition of slatic

'" (24U)'d
7

x- 2"
T.

24eJ.

X =---a 1

Substituti!1g lhe value-, of U and T=7,+T, in equalion (29.29)

and di~eret1tiating il \\'ilh respect lo /, we get

'+48EJ(
--r-

,JI
. QT3'5 'lAI

) 1=1'+'11 1 =

11 is eviden! rom Ihe above cxpression ha! the beam should be

consiclered weightless and ~ =0.486 of its weight should be added
!o Q to aetaunt lor its mas! while delcrmining Ihe frequeney and
perlod 01 nalural vibralions~ ihe quantily ~7 is ealled the reduced mass 01 Ihe beam.
ut us poi ni oul thal illhe delleded bcam be approxi1l1111ely considcrl'C.I as corresponding lo Ih(' sine cun'e y=f sin
thell the re-

T'

duced mass ""in be not ~

lo he actual valuc.

1';1

bul ~ y;1 , whidl is suffidently clase

[p/lrl IX

Dynamle AcllOll o/ FOf(:U

The red~d mass lhus delermioed has been oblained on the assumption Ihat the mass ollhe beam is small as compared lo Q, because we
have negle<:ted the elfecl o/ mass of lhe beam 00 its deflection. Equa
tion (29.31) 01 Ihe deflecled beam axis corresponds to a situation
when il is looded by a single C(lncenlraled lorce acting at Ihe middle
of ils span.
D. Let us now consider Ihe other extreme case, wh~n he mass o/ Ihe
beam is very large in comparison with Q or when Ihe vibraling beam
is loaded by a conlinuous unilormly dislributed rorce 01 n[ensity q
(which ineludes Ihe weighl of Ihe beam). The equation 01 the defleded
beam is as lollows (see 86):
q
IW
y= - Z4EJ (l'x-2lx' +x')= - 5/' (l'x-2lx' x')

wnere f is the defle<:tion al the middle 01 Ihe spao.

The kinetic energy of an element of Jength dx al a distance x (rom
Ihe lelt suppor! may be expressed Ihrough velocily z' 01 Ihe middJe
section by Ihe [olJowing formula:

dT_q2~Z" (~)'(l'x-2(x"+x')'
Tolal kinelic energy 01 the beam is:

=1; z"(~

rJ

(f'x-2lx'+x)'dx ....

~ z"~~

Potenlial energy 01 Ihe beam is:

,
,
r
("')dx
_
EJ r [~. ( '_1 1]' dx _ son ~
2~;TrI
2~ .spx
x
-]25 1"

U ~ EJ

Substiluting these e;o;pressions for U and T in equation (29.29) and

dilferentialing i[ wilh resped to 1, we gel:

,"+ ("48EJg) ,--O

~ ql

(J

The reduced mass of the beam in Ihis case is:

~.i!.. ... 0.492 i!.

w,
,
Thus, the equalion o/ Ihe deflecled beam axis dces not have mueh
effecl on Ihe period 01 natural vibralions, as long as the general nature 01 detlection does not change.

Q.29J

Foun

of

IflUtl4. SUeun

~ /Q

,,,

Vib,..t,""

Ha sirDply supported beam del\eds 1I1ong a curve Ihat hu no points

of dlscontinuity,.then 1I~ curve may be. wumed lo be a sine curve

01 haU wave lenglh y_/ sin~. and Ihe reduced mus of Ihe beam

may be considered equal lo O.~I.

Thus. while delermining Ihe liul rrequency 01 nalural vibrations
01 a syslem 01 dislr;buled mus. lhe syslem may be wumed lo be
\\'eightless and ils redl.lCed mass added lo the mass of Ihe concentraled

lA:

--t-----

.; I

1--, --t
1

' .

'--=FC"g. ~l?

lorte acUng on lhe system: Ihe "redudion" method holds well even
in such cases 01 loading wlien Q=O.
Eumple. A non-unilorm bar of \enth I carrying load Q at ene end
(Pi. 418) rolales wilh angular veior:ily III aboul an axis lo wlilcn lts
otilet" end is filtd. Tbe distance bel....'ee't lhe centre of gravity 01 load
Q and the axis of rotaUoo i.s r. Find a relalion between the CJ'QSSsecUonal area A. and distante x of Ihe sedion from the rree end If
stre5ses in all lhe sedioos are equal to 10-1. SpJl\c weighl of the
material is l.
Each point of lhe bar wHh abscissa xexperiences centripe!al aeeel
erallon ()I(I-x). Thererorc. lo lleterminc lhe stresses aH elements
01 lhe bar mus! be loaded by lorces 01 inertia acting awa)' Irom fhe
centre and equal to the ll'I3S5 oi e1emenl mulliplied by (,)1(1 - x).
An elemenl of lenglh dx cut by Iwo IIdjacenl seclions with absc.issas
!C and x+dx IInd crosssectkJnal areas "'.. and A ..+dA... i.s acted upon

~ ~~v:~~ of

inertia A..: - (1 - x)w. v.'here g is lhe

llC'C~eration

The sjze of the sections should change jn sueh a way that this force
of inerlja give rise lo stress 101 on lhe uea dA .. (see analysis 01 uniform slrength bars under leosion and compression, 25). We oblaln
lhe lollowing differentiaJ equalion lor A..:

faldA.. - A~tr
Aller .separaling Ihe variables and

(/-.-:)w

int~raUng.

r-frar(l-X)dx. or InA..

\\'e gel

-lr:. (Ix- f)+C

(Parl IX

Conslan! e C<ln be deleflnined Irom Ihe boundary oondilion al x=-O:

A..=A. (eJ'lmsection.1 &relI or (he end races 01 l~ bar). This aTea
depvds upon the force of inertia d 100ld Q, whk,:b slrl'ldleS Ihe end
lace eleJu!fll:

A =

Qt..

,IoJ

Substiluting In A.=C in Ihe l'Xpres.sion ror

InA .. -

2if~ (21-x)+

In A,.

or

A~, 'iI,"l'

gel

A~._A,exp r~(21-X)'f]
CHAPTE~

lO

Stresses Under Impact Loading

173. Fundamental Concepts
I mpacl lilkes place wh,,," Ihe velocity 01 1M ell'nlf!lJt under oonsid
eralion DI" of I.'lements adjoining it ct\ngts io a very shorl period
of time.
In plling, iI. heavy Iod latls 00 lhe upper lace al the pHe froUl a
cetlaio lH'ight and drives il ioto lhe soil: Ihe drop weighl comes lo a
stop iOSlaotaneousl), causing impact. A simIlar phf'l\Ome1OlI lakts
place during rorging; bolh lhe fOl'ged parl and lile hunmer t.ead
aperiertce impacl as lile la!ll'r comes lo a sudden slop 'A'hen ii hilS
lhe parl to be rorged. Ouring impacl high prtSWrts are cruled be:.
l'A'een Ihe collidini bodies. The velocity of lhe 'alJinE bod)' chanes
over 11 short period aod in parlicular cases falls lo lero as il carnes
lo a slop. Tllis meallS that ti){! hammer head is subje<:led lo a lar~l'
acceteralioo from lile forging in a (jireclion opposite to lhal iu
1Il0vement, Le. lIJe hatnmer head experiences reaclion P D which is
equ,l to the prodU1:1 o/ its mass and the accell'falion.
Denoting this acceleration by a, lIle can lI.'rite reaclion PI>_~a,
where Q is lhe weighl of the falling body. lo accordan' with Ihe la"'
d equality al action and reaction a force alie same magnitude a,ts
on Ihe fging in the opposile diredion (Fil. 419). These forces ivt"
rise lo slresses in bolh bodies. Thus, lhe forgirt( l!Xperiencts slre.sses
as il \wre beirli acted upon by the rorce of inertiaoi Ihe hamnltr
heai.l; lhese 51resses ma)' bP calculated b)' coosiderlng 164) Ihe force
oi inedia P" as.l sl.llic load ading on lhe slrueluTe. Thr- chiel" etil
fkuHy is how lo compute lhi~ r~. We do not kno'o\' lhe duration al
illlpacl. Le. tlle lime during which lhe ve10cily ralls lo tero. There
lorl', ao:eleralion a and con~uenlly for- Po remai" unknown.
Hence, allhoufh computation 01 Slre5Sei undl'l" illlpa<:! loadine: is a

pntic:ular par! 01 the ~neral problem of taking ioto account Jon:es of

inertia ( I~). a di1ftrt'Ol melhoo basel! on lhe I,w of tomervation
of ~ has lo be employed lO nlculate P". stresses Ind deforlnation.
During impact lhen!! is a wdden iransformalion of ane Iype of
mergy lnto allOlher: kinelie toef'gy 01 lile looving body is trarniormed
1010 potenlial tl'X'rgy of ddormalion. By nprwin Ihis encrgy as .lI
funclioo of force P" (stress or delor
malion ( 98). we can det~mne
theS<! qUllnHlies.
EnlI~ering

problems aTe gener-

ally salvell by Ihe theoryof elastic

impacto which (Hakes use 01 lhe
rollowing main assumplions:
(1) lhe kinelic en('rgy or lile
slriking body completel)' ('hanges
ioto potential l'fK'TlI.Y of delorlllalion of lhe body which is hit; we
ignore lhe enern tha! is spffll ro
rltforming the striking body and
lhe base on which lhe hit body is

plllCfil.

.1o.1
[jJ

of sl~
volu~ 01 the

(7) ~ dislributiOl1

and stralos over Ihe

hit body remains Ult $3me as under static loading: h~e 'a't' ignore the
chanie in distribullOl1 al slresses and slraios al lhe point of colJisioo
and also Ihr stresses and straios arising from hif1.lrequency vibra
tiom which appe.ar in Ihe whole \'olume 01 lhe botly due lo impael.
The first assumption usually leads 10 a higher ulely factor ~ng
specified. as (he hit body is assumed lo be in ""OI'ie condilons Ihan
il really is; he second assumpton es nol add lo lhe sa[ely faclor
lor (he more stressed parls of the hit body.

174. lkneral Melhod 01 Delermining Stresm

Under Impact Loading
A. Imagine Ihal a rigid body A of \\'eighl Q wha.e delormalion mal;
be nt'gleded falls lrom a cerlan heighl H and hils anolher body
whlch mis on an elaslic syslt'm e (Fig. 420). As a partkular case \\'t'
Tna)' ronsider a load lallin 011 lhe lace of a prislnalic bar, lhe olher
end al whic.h is rigidl)' lixed (longitudinal illlpact) or a load alling
on , simply supported bealo (bending impacl).
Elaslic :system e undergoes de(ormalion durin a Vl'fY short periad
of lim!'. Lel liS denote by .sD lhe displ~mml of body B (whose 0'\\'Jl
dtfOl'mation ma)' be negltcled) in thl' diredion 01 impacto In the
particular cases t'TIumerated lIbove displacemml 6 p rep~ts axial

IPllrl IX

elonaation 4i D in Ihe use el longitudinal impact and dellecUon

{D d lhe section of impad in bending impa<:t. As a resull of lhe impact, s)'stem t:lperitne:6 stresses PD (OD or 'fIJo depending upoo the

type 01 defonnaIiOfl).

Msuming that kintlk encrgy T of 1M lalling body is c:omplettly

lransJormtd inlo potenlial enl're:>'
01 deformation, Upo of the syslem,
we ma)' wrile
T-U o
(JO.!)

By the lime 01 complelion 01 de(armalion lhe faJling body covers

a distante H+6 o; therelore lis ki.
nelic energ)' can be expressed In
lerms of the \\'ork W D done by H:
T-W D=Q(H+IlD l (30.21

Lel lIS now cakulale U Do lf lhe

deforlllation is statle, potentiaJ en
ergy U. is numrrically ~uallo hall
lhe produc::t of lhe acting force and
rorresponding deformation ( 98):

fi. 420

U.="'fQ15.

(JO.3)

SI.tic dtformation 6, of lile seclion of impact ma)' be cakulattd

by Hooke's law and in general is "'Tillen as
Q

6'-7'

Ol

Q-"'i

Hm (see 111) e is a proporlionality laclor (somrlimts also known

as rlgidilY or the system): tI depends upon lhl.' propl.'rties 01 material,
shape and siz.e 01 he body, Iype 01 delormation and localion of Ihe
s@ction under impacl. Thus. In simple lension or eompression 6....
-41,= ~~ andc=
In bending of a simply supporled beam loaded
81 the middle or lis span by a concenlraled foree Q. sialic ddor
,
QP
48EJ
matlon6....t..... _ifEj and c=--;-: ele.
Thus, locmula (3),3) may be rewrillfil as lollows:

gp.;

u,-+ Q6._';-6:

This Imula is base<! en 1\\'0 assumplions: (a) Hooke's Ja\\' musl

be applicable, and (b) lorce Q, slress P. and correspondlllg deforma
lIan 6. musl muse gradu.lly from tero lo linile value.

'"

CA. JO)

Experimenls on deltrminalion o{ the modulus 01 rlas.licily in

blf~ subeded lo vibr.tions wilhin lhe elaslic timils show Ih.t
Hookr's a\\l remains valid and lhe lllOdulus o( elaslidly remains unaffe<:ttd by lM dynamic nalure ofloading. Of the nalure 01 increut
of slres.ses il musl be said lhal although lhe inctease is last il is nol
lnslanlaneous e\'en in lhe case 01 impacl loading: 6 0 increases grado
u.lIy durlng a very short period 01 lime rom uro to a finile valut',
and Ihe increase in streMe5 PD runs paralJel \\Iith lhe inatase in delormalion.
Reaction ol' syslem e to lhe laHin weight Q (Iel us call it P,,)
appears as a resull ol' Ihe development 01 deformation 6 0 . It in
creases wittl 6 0 from :rero to a linite rnaximum value and, stress
Po does nol exceed the llmil 01 proportiollll.lily, is reJaled lo it by
Hooke's law:

\l.i1ere e is the same proportiona1ily constant, \\Ihic.h relains the same

meaning under impad loading also.
Tl1us, bolh conditiOlls ne<:essary foe fhe valldily of formula (~.3)
are .... tlsfied by impact lcading loo. ConsequenUy, il may be oonsid
m!d Ihat Ihe lamuJa for U o undel" impacl loadin must be lhe same
as obl,ined by loading syslem e with , static force al inertia P Do Le,

UO-TP~0=';'6h"",~61l

(30.4)

{M:re, as befoce, we consider c=Q/6J_ Substiluling the values of T

and UD in equation (JO,I), we get

Q(H+6 D )=-}bh

(30,5)

6h-26,6 D -2H6.=O

(30.6)

"
whereFrom

60 -6, V 6:+ZH6,
or, keeping Ihe KISilive sien belore tiJe square roo! lo delermine Ihe
muimum deformalion in the diredion 01 impacto ...:e oblain

60 -6, (1 +

v' 1+:r,. )-K,/l,

(30.7)

SiTn aecording to Hooke's la\\l stres.ses are propational to deformlllon,

'"

Djn~ml~

Aclfort ef

F(),~

[Pnr/ IX

"d
(30.9)

It is ('videnl [rom ihese formulas (hat imparl sira in, stress and lorce
depend upon static deiormation, Le. upon the rigidity aod longitudinal dimensions 01 Ihe body under impacto This statement \Vil! be
proved bclow wilh Ihe ht>lp 01 individual examples. Constan!

KD = 1 +

+-;r:Y --,,;,
1

(JO. 10)

In this case represenls {he dynamic coelficienl. Substiluting H in

formula (30.10) by ~, where u is lhe velocity 01 lhe body under impae! al lhe begirming 01 impact, \Ve gel
1(D=I+

Besides, sinee
ZiI

Y -o'
I+ g ,

QH

(JO.II)

T.

o;- -=---Q6 = U;
;:

where T.=QH is Ihe energy ofihe body under roract allhe beginning
01 illlpa<.:\, Ihe expresson lor Ihe dynamk coc fideo! may also be

writhm as rolllm'$:
/(D=

-V

+ ~:

(30.12)

8. JI in formulas (30.7) and (30.8) \\'1' pul H=O, Le. if wr apply force
Q instantaneously, tiTen 6,,=-26, and PD=2p.: I force Q is applied
suddenly. liTen Ihe. ddormlllion and slress are two tImes the delor
malion and slress dIJe lo a slalically applled load 01 lhe same mago
ilude.
On the other hand, f hejghl H (or velocily v) from whieh Ihe load
la1ls is large as compared lo
Ihen I mar be negleded as C011lpared
10 zo~ in Ihe radicand in formulas (30.7) to (30.11). Thl' l'xprl'SSions

/l.,

for 6D and Po mal' be wrillen as rollows:

/lp_/l,(I+Y~:),

po,..p,(I+Y-;)

(3 0.13)

Y!:

ratio , is very large, then the first term in (he pllrellthl'SCS may
also be neglce(rd and (he expressions are wri!trn 1\S (ollo\\'s:

"0=6,

Ym

6; .

Po=P. 1/w
'1;"7

(30.14)

<>. ...,

Sfrts6tS Unikr IlIlplICt

lile drnamic coefflcient in this case is:

/(D=

vwr.. ti.;;

(~.15)

11 should be noted lhat unil)' in lhe radieand be ignored il ~:>IO

flhe error el lhe approximale formula Yo'iI1 001 uceotd S!'.), bul uniiy
in the ladicand un be neglected only lor VefY high "alues al Ihe
lalio 2::. rer examplt', in ordtl' lo ensuTe lilal the error of approJ[imate formulas f-l).14) and (30.15) does nol uceed 10' lhe ratio ~
musl be reater than 110.
Formulas fJ-/(n6. and PD-KnP. in which 1( is expressed in
11.'fJ\1S or ~,(30.12), mI)' also be used lo.. solving Ihe problem on
collism between bodies movin ""ilh 3 CU"lain velad!)'. lar dele!'
mining Ihe stres.ses in lhe cylinder of an intemal combuslion eogioe

due \0 a sharp inc:rea.se in gas prt'SSUfE' on account 01 igniUon

or fuel,

ele. On this basis lhese formulas may be considertd as general formulas lor impact anal)'!is.
Generalizing what has been said aboYe. we can suggesl Ihe r01l0w
ng melhod 01 delermning stresstS under impact. Applying Ihe 101'.'
of cOI\Si,.'l'vation of energy, we mus! (1) calculale kinelic mergy T
or the body under impacl; (2) calculate polenlial energy UD of lhe
bodies experiencing impact, when lhey are loada! by Ihe inerUal
[orces (Ihe potenlial energy IDaY ~ epreswd through stress (a Do Tn)
in a prticular section, through delornJallon (elongalion. deRec.tion)
or ihrough the IOf~ 01 inerlia P" al the body under impacl; and 13)
tquale U lJ and T and (rom Ihis C<IU.lion determine eilher the
dynamic strtss direcll)', or first determine deformalion and the!n
applying Hooke's law find stress or force PJ and fioally calculale lhe!
correspoodlng dynomic slress .nd deforrnation,
Tite melhod oUllined above is based 00 Ihe assumplion Ihat Ihe
kinelic energy o Ihe bod)' undC!f impad b fully transformC!d inlo
polenli.1 enet'gy 01 dlormallon al Ih.. elastic s)"stem. This assumption
is not very accurate. Kinetic enel'i)' al lhe lalling body is p.rtially
transrormed into heat and parti.lly iota lhe energy spent 00 ioellSlic
deformatiOll o[ he louodalion 00 v.hich. Ihe elaslic s)'stem r~ts.
In addition, if impacl occut's al a hlgh velocity, then Ihe! defarmalioo of the body sulfering Ihis impncl does nol get enough time
to spread over Ihe whole body, and local slresses 01 considerable
magnitude, which sometimes exceed ht yield stress 01 the malerial,
appear in lhe region 01 impact. For example, il a steel beam is hit by
alead hammer. Ihen a !rge portion 01 the kinelic ('fl('fgy is Irans
lorm~ inlo the enery of local deformation. A similar phenornenon

may lXCtlf!Ven at low velocily 01 impad if lhe body sulfuing impec:t

is vuy rigid Ot heavy.

AH lhe siluali0n5 discussed above pertain lo a high valoe al ?#. .
It ttl&y be staled Ihat lhe method d analysis describe<! abo\"e is a-pplicable unUI ~ does not exCffd a cerlain l/aloe. Accurak in'lesHgalions conlirm Ihat lhe error does not exc:eed 10%

ji

~";;;IOO.

b":

NO\\',since Ihis ratio ean be upressed in terms of

(seto earlier
discussion) il may be slated Ihal lhe above method is applicable
untlllhe energ}' 01 impad does nol become more Ihan 100 times Ihe
polenllal energy of deformation due lo statie loading of the elastie
syslem sulfering impaet by a force equal to Ihe weillht of the impaeling
batly. Consideration ollhe mass 01 the body under mpad (see 178)
Ill!JpS in somewhat increasing Ihe limils ol applicabilily olthis method
in 5uch cases when the impacling body has a big mass.
A more accurale Iheory al impad is given in the Iheory or elasticlty.

115. Conct'ete Ca.- of ~lcrmining Slnsses

..00 CorKIuclln Slrength (1)eeb Under Impad
A. The formulas derive<! in 174 show Ihat qualilalive change:s may
occur due lo a quantitallve chlnge in the ~Iod of Ihe f~ acling
on a body.
Lel U$ study some simple cases ol deformalion unde.- impact Ioadin.
In (hls study we !hall delermine the dynalllic coefficienl u-ith the help
of formulas {JO. 10) and {JO.12J and Ihe approll"imate larmula (30.15).
We !hall determine 6D PD and Po by the following relations:

6,-K06,.
In

th~

Po-KoP.,

PD ... KoQ

case of an ada! [ensile or eompreMlve lmpact (Fig. 421),

Q/

6,=J.I'~n

p,-OO'-T'

~Al

QII

ll.ljEA

U,-nA-U-----rr--

Dynamic coefficienl K D may be cakulated fmm one al he followin

expressions:

y I+i;--=l + -(1 +W
",'
-1 + / 1+ "OE
oiAI "'" J + V 1+ MlA

KD-I+

Havin calculated J(o we can easify determine

0"0

(30.16)

and Ppand 4i".

$trtWS

Ch. 301

Und~r

fmpaa Loodinll

The approximate lormula for determining stres.ses in this case is

as follows:

KD =

1 .. /

a; r

2T.,E

--:::i'f'

(30.17)

It should be noled Ihat under slatlc as wdl as dynamie loading

Ihe stresses in Ine eOOlpressed bar depend upon Ihe eompressive force
and the crosssectional area of lhe bar.
If load Q is applied statieally to Ihe bar, then the force Iransmilted
lo lhe bar is equal to Q and does nol depend upon ils malerial and
sire. In Ihe case 01 impaet loading Pl), whieh gives rise lo slresses in
tllC bar, depends upon Ihe aeeelera
tion witn whieh the bod)' sulfering
impact tesists the impaeling body,
Le. P D depends upon the time
durlng whieh the velocilY 01 Ihe
impacting body changes. Thls pe1':r:"
riod deperltls upon Ihe ax(al dynam
M,
ic deiormation M o and upon Ihe
pliabllily_ 01 Ihe bar malerial. The
grealer the pliabililY, Le. lhe sOla l
ler Ihe modulus of elasticily f. and
Ihe grelier the bar lenglh 1, Ihe
longer is the duration 01 impact and
the smaller are aceeleralion and
force Po.
Tnus, il stress dish ibulion (s
Fl~. 421
unilorm in al1 the sections of Ihe
bar, dynamic slresses decrease with the increase in crossseclional
area and pliabillty (Le. increase in lengt.h lmd decrease in modulus
01 elastieity E). Only due to thi! reason springs placed betllleen im
pl'lcting bodies are able lo damp Ihe impaet. The lormulas derived
earlier express lhe same idea. For example, formula (30.17) wilh
certain approximation expresses the idea Ihal in longiludinal impad
Ihe slresses depend nol upon lhe cross-sectional area, bul upon the
volUl11e or the bar.
Ha\'ing determined Ihe dynamic stress from formulas (JO.8) and
(30.16) or (30.[7), we can now wrile the slrength condition as follows:
(30.18)

where lovl is the permisslhle normal stress under impact, which lor
a ductile material is equal to [oDI=1';' The salety facior kv may
be considered equal to the primary salely factor k. under slalic load
ing (Le. 1.51.6; 16), because tlle dynamic nature 01 loading has

[Parl IX,

Ilready been accountl!d for In formulM (,)).16) Ind (,'l).Ii). Howe\'er.

their derl
keeping in mind lht nol loo aecurale Iheortlical ba.sis
vahons. a .sJightl)' highef value, up lo 2, of IIIt' safet)' fatlor is hn
ployed. In addilion, I better male!"ial is genenll)' lJ..!.ed in such cases
(Inote uniform malft'ial hving beUer plaslic properlies).
B. In bending. slatk deformalion ~ . which ~resenl.s stalic dl!llec
jion f. of lhe beam in lhe ~lion al
impact, dtpends upon lhio I)'pe
loading 100 c:onstuinls.
Thus. in a simply supporle beam
Df span I experiencing impact al
lis middle rrom a weighl Q. alling
from he.fht H (Fig. 422(a)), we.
gl,.'l:

or

or

,"

Q/'
6,-f, ... -46U

P,

'"'

-u

....

_ Q/

4W

Ql....
QIP
. --r-<A"ll:}

In a anlilever u~rimcng impKl al lis free ('I1d mm a Iallinc

\\-eighl Q (Flg.422(b)

b. ""f....

'"'

OP
-m.

O'

p._a.... ""7

Ql, ...,
0'/'
U ,--y-- (il,)

suostitutinlZ lhe values or 6.={.... Ind U. in tht e>:pression lar K D ,

lIle fir$t determine K/) aud Ihen Ihrough il the d.nalllic s(resses 3nd
deformation. For exanlp1e, 01>_. far a 3imp!)' supporled bl'am can
be calculaled by lhe lollowin formula:
00

O'
.'A '"" KtP = -:r

(1 'V' +---:r!iJt.tJ)
T'

(30,19)

Slrentlh condiHon 1~.I8) I:'IIY. in Ihis cm, be v.'rilh.o as

(JO 20)

'57
In cast 01 impacl on a simply SUPJlOfted beanl (Fi~. 422 (a)) thf
appro.~imate formulas (oc c:a1culaling a" ..,. and fD"'~ are as 10110\10'$:

fn ... =KoI.... -f, J/~:

-=..d

QI' , j H6T.1.J
,/T;i""
4iUV~=VW7

Ql Y 9T,l!.J
"o ,-KrP =Wqrr-

(30.21)

.. /6T.EJ
=o

y --n- (JO.22)

Identkal uprasiorl'i fer ID .... ilnd 00"'" can be obtail1C'd In ca5e

01 impact O" a cantilever (Fig. 422(b)). Keeping in mind Ihat

J_i'A,

W __J _

'

....

~ ... ('~ .. )'+

",le

can rnodiry formula 130.22) as ioI1O\\'$:

,_, .. /6'fr
00."""-,- V --;41

(3tI.23)

From lhe approximale formula (30.23) H is obvious lhat lhe dynalllic

slresses in bending depend upon Ihe modulus o eluticlty ollhe beam
material, voJume of the be,,", st\ape ol cross settlon (ratio
amI (he type 01 loading and constraints (in lhis padicular example,

'7")

Ihe radkand contaim T.: in beams loaded and tonstrained in a

diffcrent mannl!f the nUI11~iCiIl constan! befare T. wil1 be dilFerenl).
Thus, in a rectangular beam of height / and width b, {he dynamic
slress 1I.ill be lhe same irrespedi\"e of \\'helher Ihe bum is plaeed on
Ule lhin or nal race and iu magnilude is laccordin lo (he approxi
male formula):

btcause in bolh cases

'''"'_
i

1/

bh"

ffiii

l/liT =1''3
12bJl

11 should be fccalled lhat under a similar slatic load Ihe maximum

slrl3S in a bt2m place({ on ils nal faee is} limes mOfe lhan he stress

...

IP~'I

IX

In a beam pllced on iis n.rrow lace. Obviously, Ihe above stall'ment

is lroe 001)' il lhe impact OCCutS wilhin lhe elaslic: llmils.
!he resisiance of beams lo impact loading .Iso depends upon Iheir
section modulus and rigidUy. The grealer the pliability (deformabilil)') 01 a beam. lhe greater is Ihe kinelic el1erg~' of impad whlCh il
can .bsorb al Ihe !o3me permb.sble stress. \\u:imum deflection otcurs in a bearn in v,'hich he maximum slreu is Ihe.lame in aH seclions.
Le. in bealftS of unilorm strength. Soch beams are capabk of with
standing grtuer delleclion thlR uniform bUII15 h.lIVing the .s.ame

permissiblc stress; Ihis me;lRS lha! uniform slrel12lh beams can abo
sorb gnal~ amounl of impact energy. Precisel)' 'or Ihis reason, springs
IR' made in lhe shape of unilarm strenth be.lIIS.
C. Ll't us now sludy lltt problem of delermining stressts under a
l\\'islin:: imp.cl. If I rolating shaH is sudd!nly slopped by applying
hr.ka al one of ils ends and Ihe olher end is aclM upon by orce T.
ni lhe nywh~1 which twisu the shalt. lhen slresses in such a shaft
can ~ dell.'l'mined by Ihe mel1Jod explained above. The shaft is l..... is
led by two fOl' cooples (the lorce of inerlia 01 Ihe ftywh~l and
lhe Irklional force ol the brakes) each of momen! M.
In this uample

,,'

6,=<r,

u_

-ar:'
,
M'I

P,'" t, mI> -"'W:"

.--;g-;-

,1,,..,11';'
EJ,

lf,<IJ p
21

Therefore
(30.24)

'"'

PD-TD ... ~-KDt..... =1:.....

VrI;:
/ -r;7f.U,
ll;'"
... 2 VIK
-(30.25)

Keeping in mind that kinelic tnef(y T, 01 the 1I)'\\ileel is:

T.=-!t

IJJ

.....'here J. is lhe mamenl al inertia of Ihe ftY""heel, and

velocity, \\~ may I!.'rile

III

ils anlfUlar
(30.26)

..
It should be note<! lhal even under twisling impad the maximum

dynamic stresses depend upan the modulus or e1asliclty and

or (he shart.

volu~

178. Impatl Slresses In a Non-unllorm Bar

It was explained in 175 that lhe volume 01 lhe bar should be

increased lo reduce he str!S$eS due lo longitudinal impad. However,
Ihis is trueonly when Ihe cros.ssectional area 01 {he bar does nol mange

long i1s lenglh-the slresses are equal in all sections. The situat:on
will be cntirely djll'erenl iI varklus
porlions al the bar have dilferent
.ms af cn:lS5 seelion (Fi. 423).
We know (formulas (30.16) Of

r,

Tr
I

'r,

(30.17)) Ihat dynamic stress in lon-

.;

[Iudioa! impact depends upan he

crO$S-sedional area of he bar as

weH as ils pliabilily (delormabil.

Iy). The maximum slresses in a

neeked bar (FIg.423(0)) must. lar

ttample. be ddermined lor lbe mi
nlmuro cross-seeliona\ area (al the
neck) taking Into coosideration lhe
compres.sibility of Ihe bar, "","ich

1
1
:

,,
,,
,
,,

,>

Id

,,

depemb upon lhe delormation of

Fi,. 423
lhe whole bar aud not ooly Ihe
neck portion.
Slresses in Ihis case may be broughl down in lwo ways. Firstly,
by increasing lhe crossseclional area of Ihe neck portion (i! Ihis i.!
permissible from design consideralions) by using a bar of diameler
d, (Fig. 423(b); in doing so \\le ncrease fhe cross-sec:tional area and
lo a smaller exlent decrease lhe oompressibiliiy of fhe bar. Thm bi
s1ighl increase in lhe force of inerlia, bul lhe Cf05Ssectional area
of lhe neck portion incre.ases by a higher degree, lhus resulting in
an overall reduclion in slress_
HINo"eVer, Ihls (firsl) method <:annot generally be .pplied because
the design of slruclures demands that the neck be rel.ined. In such
cases the $lrtngth oI the bar i5 increased by reduclng Hs CfOSS-sec
tional area in lhe thick portion, lhu! increasing ils pliability. H
we reduce the diameler of Ihe whole bar lo d, (Fig. 423 (e)), we aulomatic.ally Increase its oompressibilily .nd consequenily decrease
the dynamic force P D as W!1I as lhe dyn.mic stress. Thus, a reduction
in Ihe magnitude of slresses may he achieved by t....,o melhods, bolh
01 which make lhe slre:sse:s uniform: by increasing tlle vClJume wilh
the addition 01 material al the nec:k oc by dec:re.asing fhe volume
wilh reduclion in crosssectional area 01 the lhick portillfl.

IPlI'! IX

These ronclusklns un be easily ehecked analy1ically. Lef UlI delermine Ihe maximum dynamic slri!SS in each of the Ihree bars shown in
Fig, 423 lo), lb). and te). c.ausn.l in ell('h case by a longiludinal impacl
of merey T.=QH. ForUJe bar shown in Fi. 423(0) let A, be 1tM.>
croM-seclional area 01 the thick portian and As Ihe cross-seclional
A
,
area of lhe neck; let ,,: =q and
p. We shaJl cakulate 1M stres
Ipprolimale formulas (X1.I4) Ind (;Jll7). According lo
lormu a (JO.14) Ihe maximum drnamic stress in Ihe bar shown in
Fic:. 423 (o) is:

T. -

'" '1'

PD-o.- a ,

J~
V "Ii; =a. .VlE!:
tU,

A/,>c

:~'.

ylE!:
--::r.-;-

+ QI~'A:II) .. F~: (p+q(l-p))

we find Ihat
0,_

.V/r:;;="~.QC:=::
.
A~
= V
Ip+q(l-pll

2T0l
A,I,q[p+q(1

(30.27)
p)]

Stresses in Ihe uniforro bars sho\\11 in Fig. 423(b) and le) may be
calculated Irom formula (30.17):
0.-

F'ii';E
Y A;'T,"""

/ rr;E

o.", y

1401;

/ ZT .e

A,ql,

(30 28

.)

Sirx:e (p+q(l-p)l<q<I, we lind hat a.>a.>a~. For instante,

if i--O.8 and 4;.=0.1, t~n q-O.64 and p-O.I; afler computin
we l/el a.-1.52Gb and 0.-O.820.-I.25ab . Tbus a neck \\'hich r~
duces the dlallleter by 20% over one-lenlh 01 lhe tolal lenglh or Ihe

b<!r resulls in a 50% increase in stresses; iI lhe bar is malle or a unifO/'lD seclion correspondilli to Ihe minjmum diameter, the stresses
redUCf! by 20'.
Althouc:h UJese calculalions have been done on t1Je basis or appro~
imale formulas. lhe relalion established belwem 0., abo and a~
is qulle clase lo lhe relalion \\ilicll we would hne obtained b)' usin,:
Ihe Iccurllle formula (30.8) fQf a nol Vtty low ",lue of impact tntt&)'

r._

In. Practical Conc:lusions from lhe

~lyed

R,eslllts

The reMJlts of Ihe preceding compulalions all.' 01 great practical

importance. First or all lhey show \hat lhe nature 01 resislanc:e 01
bars considerebly dill"er froro Iheir rnistance to slatic deiormalion.

'"

Ch. 301
Und~r

static compression, lhickness al a portian or lh~ bar does no.

affecl lhe slresses in se-cUons or tlle r~maining portian: und~r llI1llacl
il increasl'S lhese stresses. Reduction or cross-se<:lional area over a
smalJ lenglh resulls in a sharp inerease in slrcsses lhroughoul Ihe bar.

1<)

111
Fie_ 424

lhe ~nd\'avour shol1ld be lo redllet' lhe slresses by increasing lhe

pliabilily 01 Ihe bar by iner",a~l11g its length, addmg a shockabsorb~r,
using anolher material of lower moduh.ls al elasticily <lnd using a
uniform crosssecfional ar.:a aiong Ihe bar lenglh. Generally, lhe
most eITective way is \0 reduce lhe bar lo a uniform diameter equal to
lhe mlnlmum.
Therefare, while designlng bars worklng under Impaet loading,
iI is essentiaJ lo llave a unform secUO" all along Ihe bar ltngth;

~m
.~)

(1:.'

Pic. 425

greater thickn('SS or sorne porlions ls permissible over a small lenglh,

but ne<::king is highly undesirable even ayer a very small lcngth. If
a surficiently slrong bar canno! be designed under su<:h conditions,
lhen iI is essential eilher lo increase Ihe length 01 the bar or to inrreast
lis cross-se<:tional llrea uniformly.
As an example lel us sludy a bolt lransmitting lensile impac~
from one parf of the slrueture lo anolher. The design shown in Fig.
424 (a) has poor imparl rl'Sislanc~, because Ih~ lhreaded lenglh 01
the bolt having smaller diameter aets as a neck. lhe grealer parl 01
lhe impael ~nergy is absorbed by lhe threadcd portion or {he bolt.
lhe chancrs"of ailore are high.
In a properly deslgned boll the mpact energy should be absorbed
more or less unilormly by the whole ball; Ihis ,an be aehiev~d by
makin,; Ihe bolt diarneler uniform ayer lhe whoJe (or almosl !he whole)
19_'JIO

DJ/~mc

cticn 01 ForQl!f

[porl fX

lenglh and l'qual lo Ihe mJnimum dlameter of Ihe lhread. For thls

~'e .may. eHher machlne Ibe boll shank (Flg. 424 (11)) or drJll a hole

III 1I (flg.424(c)).
~s an example of increasing impact resislance 01 bolts by increasing
lhelr le~glh we may sludy the design shown in Fig. 42.')(a) and (11).
!be cylmder cOver o~ a boring 1001 is sometimes subjected lo slrong
Impad from Ihe borlOg too!. Smal1 bolts seeuring lhe cover to Ihe
cy1inder accordng to Fig. 425 (a) fail easily. FaiJure can be prevente<!
by inereasing their lenglh as shown in Fig. 425(11).
178. Tire Effed of Mass 01 lhe Elaslfr. Syslem
on Impacl
Le! liS sllldy how fhe mass al Ihe body subjedl'd jo impact af!l"('ts
Ihl' Impact slresSl's. As an I'xampll' we shall consltler impad in bend
lng (Fig. 42Z). Welghl Q dl'<lps on beam AB and at Ihe momenl of
impacl has a \'clocity v... -VZgH. al lhe sorne Inslan! Ihe bcam has
a "cloeily Vb-O (h Is stalionary). On accounl of impacl all elemenls
01 1111.' bcam will acquire a cerlain \'elo<:ity (dilferenl for each elemenl)
in a shorl lime while Ihe weighl will correspontlingly slow down.
Al lhe poinl 01 Impad the weighl and the b<'am material in Imme
diale vicinity have idenlica1 veloclli!'S equa1 lo v.... /t\t:>dium vl'locll)'
v.. may be rOl.md rolO Carnol'~ lheorem:
Q

O+aQ. v",

(30.29)

Here Q and ,\i,~ are Ihe weight and mass 01 Ihe striking body, Q.
and .'11. are Iheweigbl and massollhe body subjecled lo Impact (beam),
and I"J. is Ihe 1I1ass reduction coerliciellt (Iess Ihan unily) which has
to be inlroduced to accOl.llll for Ihe lacl Ihal nol aH parls of Ihe bod)'
su!It'ring Impad move alter impact wHh {ht' same velocily, v... (see,
lar example, Fig. 422). For lenslon llnd compre.ssion I"J.""+: ir Ihe
beam is slIbjected lo bending as shown in Fig. 422{a), th<'IlI"J.=1713S,::,;:

;:;+

etc.' It is evidenllrom (30.29) lhal vm<v.. =V2gH; Ihe grea

ler mass M. 01 Ihe- body sulfering ropact 111<' less is v.. as compare<!
lo V,~. Kinetic energy Ihal remaios In the beam-w<,ight s)'slem aller

o"tail~d d~{j\'atlon of lile ~~presslon fa coer~ci~nl a for th~ bMm shown in

L'jg. ~n(<I) i$ Il"~n in 231 ol N. M. B~IYle'l, Slrtllglh 01 M17/rtials, I\'iuk., Ed,

Iloill

71~

(In R.ussl,n).

(30.30)

l.e. l+~ llmes less lhan lhe kinetic energy of the weight ir Ihe la l
ltr slrikes a weightless bUm. Hente, if Ihe mass 01 the botIy sulTer
ng 1Illpa<:t is taken inloconsideralion.lhe dynamic c~rricienl should
be (alculated nol by formulas (:JUO), (JO.II) and (~.I2). bu! by Ihe
formula

VI + U.~+ll)
-1 +y +t: 6,;f+ ll l

Ko-I+

_1

+ VI + 6"~:~l
(30.31)

l.e. ir Ihe maM 01 the body sufferlng Impnct is laken i"lo aerount,
ihe design stresses due lo mpacl are reduced.
As a" ex.mple of anal)'sis el a complkaletl struclure \Joder 1m
p'tl, lel U$ sludy Ihe impatl load Q al lhe middJe 01 a beao. whlCh

Al

/:--,

JUUr

1
~l

.'

is conslralned by .. fixed hinged supporl al end A a"tI aoolht'f hined

support al poiJl 8 mounted al the mlddle of tbe soflll be.m (Fig. -126).
The finl ~am has span 1" momenl 01 inerlia J,
modulus 01
elasticity E, aOO lhe respedlve quantilles lar he sond beam are
l J,. and E. The mnimum dynamic $tresses OCUlr in lhe ouler librfS

."d

01 the middle sections 01 the beams (fir$! il$ well 3$ second). Our alm
is \0 determine !he$e streSSe5.
\Ve shall 501ve this problem by multiplying the s!atic stresst5 due
lo load Q in the lirst (A8) Ilnd SKond (CO) beams wllh Ihe dynamic
roefficient

OO'

Parl IX

TIIe: stalic c.lldkdioo of lhe fint beam in Ih~ seclion el impacl is

dtlt'fmined by lhe deformaHon 01 lhe whole slruclure and is ~ual
lo 1.~I,+-f .. whert', 15 lhe rnalimum slatic denlioo 01 tht' finl
beam dlli' lo fOf~ Q. and 1. is lhe rorrtsponding deReclion o he
$'Ond btam dUl" lo lol'Ct' ~. Smc",
Q/t'
f.-~
'l."e

,,'

and

gel

f = -m;Q/: + "T'2E7;
QI~ .. ----;rr;Ot,
XD-I

l' + TI;
J,

( T,"
")']

IJ6LJ,1l

1+

(ll! 11+

J 1 (.
..!. )'

"lT,

1,

The maximum slresses In the lirsl nd stCOnd beams arl"

.,

vQ/,

Ou,=-"rP"-"D"iir.
, ,

aod

vQI,

o..... -"tP. -"D8ijii'7,

As lhe potl'nlial ~ergies due lo impacl KCumullt~ by lhe finl

bealn (UD). Ihe sond hum (Un) lod bolh btanlScombin~ (U D -

-U",+[jo.=T.J are proportiooafresplIvely lo U,. U,. and U,

(lhe square el lhe dynllmic coeHicient serves ~ lhe cOnstan! or pro
porlionahl), wt'gel

'"
UD

,,'

u",

""

-,u/,
/

=r;--"7T;- -~,-------'J I ,
'f _..!!.
f.
7 Q /'+TQ/
'+-v t
Vv ,

/1,

ul!

~-r:--~- I

"4 Qf
I

1Ql,+.QI.

..

2",

"+2"

_l.,
l.

,.)
(b)

Dell~lion l. rrpresenls Ihe lolal pliabilitg of the wltDle sJ.rucfure at

lh, r:int of imp~l. dtnl.'<:I\ons l., and 1.. represenl fraclions of the
1018 pllabilily which depffld upon lhe deformation 01 Ihe 6rsl and
5eCXl/ld bearns ~aratt!ly. It follows from formulas (a) and (b) Ihal

uo,=r"i~

and

UD._r,

',7

lhus. dlslnbulion of impacl eoergy belween lhe beams is dirf't'lly

proporUonal to lheir plillbililY as a fraclion of lhe lofal pliability

C'-'01

SI,.,;su

utr&,

fmpacl Jildin

al the poio! 01 Impact. If he dimenslons of the beams are selected

in such a wa)' ha! f.,=f." hen
Had there been
a rigid support in place 01 lhe second beam, Ihe tolal impact energy
\VOl/Id have been absorbed by lhe firs\ beam; lhe second beam helps
in damping Ihe lmpact on Ihe first.
lhe Silffie ell"ed would have been observed if instearl ef rigid supports we had 'Jsed v<.'ry p[iable supporls marle af rubber spacei's or
helical springs for constrainng lhe beam ends.

UP,=UD.-'r.

179. Impacl Testing lor Failure

11 was pointt.'d out earller thal dynarnic aelion 01 force is distin
guished nol jusI by lhe fael thal stresses (withn elastic limils) under
dynamic looding 3fe difieren! irom stresses under static loading~

::k'~ffinHa

IDU~E
Q

5811..<'"

Flg. 427

lhe material ilseU reacls to dynamie loading in a different way Ihan

'to a load which inereas~ gradually. This is espedally notieeable in
impad looding.
Experiments on failure of specimens under lmpact loading show
that the tenslon lest diagram in this case is complelely different Irom
lhe lension lest diagram under static loading. Figure 427 shows lhe
tension test diagrams for mild steel under slalic and d)'namie loarls:
the curve oC Impad loading is distinguished by a sharp im::rease in
lhe yield slress and by a displaeement 01 lhe maximum load 10wards
lhe 1('1i. This shows lhat the velocity 01 impad also aireeis the me
ehanieal propertles 01 lhe maleria1. There are cases when materials
having elleellent plasUe properties under static loading behave as
brittle materlals under dynamlc loading. Therelore. materials for
clements subjecled lo dynamic loading are seltded alltr ronducting
an impact lest. In impad lest sptcimens 01 the mahrial are subjtd,d
to i mpad lailure under lension, but more olten under bending. and
the energy requiretl lor brcaking the specimens ads as a pointer to
the properles 01 the material. Impact test under bending is mest
commonly employed_
For delalls SE'e N. M. Bel~aev. /..tJlJoralo'lI Ex,w,irrvmls an Slrtnlllll al Mol,"
,ial. Ooolekhizdal, 1951 (In Russ;an), 69.
17_3310

[PlUt IX

If T is the energy sent 0fI brukin the .spechnen and A is lh"

cross-seclional atea d 1M sJ)f'Cilllf'fl in Ihe sedlon or raHure. t!Jefl
lhe impaet slrength th" speclmen matenal is obtaned by divldill&
T by A;
T

a-rkgf'OJ/em'
To tevea! lhe properl1es of the sp~illlell material during an Impacl
test, (he speci~n is glven a particular shape-a eul is madf' in lhe
~tion 01 impael. Cut, of various sh:aptS shown In Flg. 428 Can be
made; !he one shown In Fig. 428(b) i.s generally used al presenl.

The idea bdJind making lhe cut is lo subjecl lhe specimen materil lo dynamk loading under the masl unfavourable circunutances.
Tlle cut en:ales considerable weakenlng of lhe secUons In lhe midj[e
of Ih... span, eausing a sharp Inerease in bending sttesses over a smal!
Io:nglh al the specimen.
We have already K'6I ( 176) the strong ellect which any kxal weak
enlng 01 the seclioo can have en the s!rases. AIlllOSt all the energy
01 impact isabsorbed by a small volume of material around th" Il.eake~ secUon, causlng a sharp incre3Sl! in lhe dynamic slrf'SSf'S. In
adduiol1, lhe mi abo gives rbe 10 a local Increase d streMeS al lis
b.. ~, whicb are simillr In nalure lo loc:al stres.ses al lbe edges d
hales l 15).
Figure 429 sOOws dislributlon of slresses in lhe sed ion of a belm
~llkened by a cut. Curve u shows lhe dlagram or sl~ 0, in a seco
tion wllhoul a cut; curve b shows lhe dislribulion 01 norma! strl.'sses
In lh!.! $L"Ction wilh a cul withoul laking inlo attounj lhe local slres
ses, rJnalJy, turve e -.hows Ihe complete pielure oC variatlon 01 normal
stl't'SSl'S o, unckr bending.
We see thal jusI lOe decrease in Ihe heigttl or lhe .section increaSt'S
lht $tresses 2.25 tilUd; Ihe local slresses are a'$O lakl!1l mto ae

count, the codicient of stress oonc5ltratior. oomprises 5.22 w.r.t.

the pUMt beam and 2.32 w.r.!. the bealll 01 reduce<J height.
Generally, 11M' \oc.al stresses result in lhe working el the male-ial
In lhree-dimermonal sue:ssoed sta te: Ihese condillol15 are not C'(ln.
dutlve lo dl'vtlopOtnt el plaslic dt'lormalion, .nd lhe male-ial laib
15 d II \1m\' briltle.
Thus, in th... example under COl\.Sldentlon, In .ddition lo normal
slrl'Me5 al in secti0n5. perpendicular lo lh\! splmm AXIS Ihere lIet
tenslle slres.ses o, in s.lion~ parallt'1 10 Ihe axis. lile dlStribulkm

r;,
~

"
~

-. --

,., ""

NI}

/Il() 1.,/"1

",A
''\

\\.

'u,

,JI
Filo al

curve IOf ~ straws ls .bo $hoIm In F. '129. Beside, inside lhe

spteimen ac!5 Iilt' third principal stress, o" also lenslle. Thu.s, the
material near the base 01 the cul is sub}eclt'd lo thlftdi mensional
tension, under which plastlc ddormation b Vtfy diffieult. 11 Ihe
yield stress 01 lhe material under lension, o" and siresses o, and o.
are less Ihan Oh 10l'" uample 0.20" the beginnlng 01 ylelding in a
tt."te-dimensional stresKd stale is determined by lhe Ihird thtofy
01 strength according lo the followin equallon:
0,-0. -o"
or 0"(-0.20, -0.80, _0".
Hence, the mall!rial al the base 01 the cut can lmdergo plastlc
deformation on1y lar values al al grealer lhan o , nmely al o, equaJ
to 1.250. Due lo $uch restrlctioru to plastlc ;felormlltion the mal\"
rial may slart behaving Iike a brlttle material. lh!s rurtht-f aggravaks
the e6"ect el impacl Ioadin.
Thus, lhe eul helps In a clear c1asslllcallon belwterl mllleflals
whlch are mOl1' sensilive lo advel'Se actkm 01 Impact and lho:st- .....hieh
are ItsS sensili~. H~ tlle various typer. 01 cuts show 11 vatying dt-tr~
el elfect: lor example. a sharp cut ft"Ihances the adverst efecl al impacl more Ihan a round cut. Thetefore. tmpact slrenglh 01 various
maltfials ean be compare<! only il tlle spteimens are alike.
The: dr3'll,'back el speclmens shown in Flg. 428 ~ lhat lhe base 01
lhe CUI lal15 in Ihe stretched tol1e, where ailuTe starls. Obviously,
Ihe strength of such a spec.lmen depends upon lO\! qualit)' 01 thecul;

19"

'"

[Ptlrf IX

on lhe other hand. Iht cut makes I impossible lo lest spttlmell$

which mus! ~Iain Ihe contours of the actual part (this is solJl('limes
of greal impOl'laoce).
TIle specimen (Fig.430) prepared in Ihe Slrenlh Testing
loryof lhe Leningrad lnstltule of Railway Engineers is free 01 these

ubor,-

drawbacks.

Whtn thk spimen

!aiis, the cul devdops paralJeI lo

the direcUon or impacl. Also, in
this specimen almosl aJl Ihe energ}'
of impact 1, cont:lYltrllt~ in Ihe
weakened z.one, bul the- failure ls

more close lo lhe real Olle.

TlleTe is a sharp differenct' be

Iween such broken spl'Clme-ns 01 ductile and britlJe materials: consiM,.

able ptastk delormalion milY be
observ~

in lhe strelched lone rOl"

materials having lo\\' sensi\ivi\Y lo

impacl. HO\l,~ver, lailllTe of brilUe

materials OC'Curs almos! wilhoul

an permanenl dl"formlllion.

180. EIIKI of VariOlls faclors on Ihe Resulb

of Impact TesOn!!
As a rule impad lesling is carried oul al room lemperlllul'\' on al
leasllour identical sPfCirnms. This reslridion on lhe- minimum numo
ber of spKimens lo be lesled is nocessary to keep a check on random
errors 01 manulacluring and lesting, which mll}' somelirnes se1'iously
aftecl Ihe impacl Slrenlh 01 Ihe specimen.
As IIn f'J{3mpJ~, Tab e 21 shows values 01 rmpacl strength 101" II
numbl"r 01 malerlals al room lemperalure; Ihe tesis were conduded
on Ihe Iype of specllllen shown in Flg. 428(/1).
11 can be easily noliced Ihal impaet slrcngth is gre-atly alfl'ded
by a number of factors. namely shape 01 Ihe specimen, vl'tocily of
impacl and most ti all lemperature d the specimen.
lmpacl slrenglh 01 specirnens o Ihe surte material (aUs as lhe lern
{Ieralure. o lesting is reductd. In sorne maleriai.s (mild sleel) Ihe fati
lS ver}' sharp; in hardened and alloy sleels (chrome-nkkel) the lall
is comparatinl)' smooth. In Fig.431 curves D. b, e sllow the varia
lion of impacl strenglh; lhe curves "WI' obtained at lhe Strenglh
Teslin labof3lory al the l~ingrad Instilute 01. Railway Engineers
(L1RE).
Befare testing, lhe specimen is broughl lo !he required 11"1l1Jk'fll
ture in a irough y,l1lch can be healed by placing on an electric healer
IInd cooled ...,ilh th!' hl'lp of liquid air. Curves a. b, e sJloll;n in Fig. 431

Slrtsal Uttder /1IIptJd

l.Dc>dltlf
hb~'ll

.......
Cubon
<O.I~

"~d.

(urben wDlenlJ

o.l~O.:lO

0.200.30
0.30-0.40
0.400.r.o
O-f,O-O.OO
06(10.70
> 0.7

AJlor

...58

28'"

85-95

l!tel:

0.<

N. 2.053.0, o 0.5-0.$
Ch.ome.nldol
molIs.bcltrlU.lIl
NI
1:1:
e 0.2$-0.
2.5-8.5,0 O.S.l .2, Mo o.3.0.6

".

>"

7<) . . ,

~leell

_ _f .

>"
>'"
>"
>"
>'0
>8
>8

"00

Nktel Slcel: e 0.20. NI 3.0

anom~nld~1

~.45

".SO
SO60
6(170

--- ..

Hu, ,.... _""

>"
".1\1

365(1
45-65
5575
7<)."

8095
9O.lllS

> ""
>'"

>"
>'"
>"
>"
>
>.
>3

"

>7

75,90

7<)."

24,18

13

~-10ll

20.18

>'"

makt 11 ciar lhal 11 reductlon in lemperature ma)' cause a sharp

reduclion in impad strenglh and Ihus ca~ brlttle fracture 01 parls
oi struclure. Tbis phenomenon has been oflen observed in practice;
cold brlttleness al rans, rims and ol~ eteltlents used in railway
ransport has 0111'" been Ihe ca~ 01 11 number 01 problems.
A very importanl point in this contexl is Ihat For quile a few ma
terlals (Flg. 431. curve al lhe transHion Irom ptaslk failure, havlne
high impact slrength, lo brittle Failure takes plac:e In a smalllemperature intervalo For Instance. I malerlal havlng iood impact strength
at room or nearly room temperalure may experlence britth: !aHure
even w1th a smafl reductlon in lemperature. Then>fore, resullS oIlhe
usual impact tests It room lemperalurt <:annot be consldered sulficiMli
lor ,ssessing the resisumce of material lo dynamic loading; iI is nec
t$SlITY lo obta!n a more complete plclure of impacl strength as a
luncllon oi lemperalure (Fig. 431, curves a, b, e).
Tht more lo lhe lt $ ti", "crltical" inlernl of fall-ofl 01 impacl
slrenlh, UIt' lower is lhe sensilivlly of the lIlIlerill to lemperalure
changes under dynalllic loading and Ihe grt'ller is ib reliabilily.
V.rialion oi the wpe of the spimen can, to sorne utenl, be ulihud lo repl.!!ce te!ling al vaTlous tempenlture!. Experimenb show

.ro

(P~'I

IX

Ihat in "'id spuimens Ihe ~ultical temperalure nlerval shifls

lowards he rtghl. Le. lowlrds higher lemperalutes. Therefore, il
tht usual impad test al room temper.ture Ives salisfaetory re5ults,
then lesb may be conducted on ....deI" spfClmens lo check whelher
Ihe temperalure el condueting lhe uperiment , dese lo lhe critic.!
w~/-l
inlerval. If briltJe fracture oc
.,Y""

curs afln Ihis lesl, it ","11$

tha' lhe lemperatare el uptr

Uf.t tJ
menl is dOY' lo lhe critical
interva1.
_JI
Fin.lly, lt shoufd be note<!
lhat duelile peopee{les 01
1 6! ljJ
material ma)' be s~rlousJy al
~ /,6

fKted by residual slress~s.

whlch appear in the m~terlll
alter QUMclilng, rold rol!in/.l,
or rolling at 1011' temperatures
N'Sulting In slrain-hardening
1
ollhemalerial.arule,lh\'5t
'e---:<-'-c;-::i:f
,terMeS c,nno! be as.sessed
-7~~'-:l;-;. by simple tension test. Resid
-~~.'~c.
-11)
'Id
I
ti
40 t"l' tlat stres.ses generally occur in
f,c. 431
a thrt'edimensiooal strf$.Std
,llIte DI lhe material; thb may
rtliult in brilll~ lracture. Situatiorls like thlS hav~ 00m ob~ed in
manuraeturing la~ 'btalllS having thin hnif'S. In {he COUI"$e of
our experimenl.s an lobearn No. 50 failtd d~ lo bri't1~ fracture when
U 'A'as dropped on tarth on a rrosly day. Tests under stalic loadlng
and the ehemical IIld metallurgical analysi$ revealed {hat the material or the beam wu 01 goad quality. Only under dynamic loading
al differenl temperatures was oold brilileness olJserved in specimens
cul near the lIange edg~ln lhe mnimum hardened regian. Al; lor
lhe effed of chemlcal compOllllion 01 sleel on brittleness, the impacf
slrength decreues. as can be seen lrom Table 21, wllh an inerea<e in
carbon content, i.e. wllh In inerease in ultlmale strength and decrease
in plastk propertles DI stetll. Phosphorus has an extremely adverse
f'ffecl on impact strength, espocial/y alioli,' temperatUTe5. Therelore
the percenlage of phosphorus in stef'1 should be reslrided in every
possible way il lhe 51ftl i.s lo be used in lht manufacture elemenis
working undu in.pael.

"

<-

CJa. JI)

'"

OiAl'TU )1

Strength Check of Materlals

Under Variable Loadlng
181. Basfc Ideas Cooternlng the Efftct 01 Variable
Stns.ses on the Strength 01 Malerials

Thc resistance of materlals lo load!; which systemalically change

In magnltudE' or magnltude Ind sign is consldl.'fably difleren1 from
he reslstance al the ume materials to stalle and dynamic loads.
Consequently, lhe problem 01 ehecklng stlength of materials under
variable loads requires to be sludied in a special ehapler.
lt is well known thRt machlne parls subject!d lo cyelic loads sometimes la!J suddenly, withoul any noticeable pelma"en' deformalion,
al slresses whleh they re.llably wilnsland under stalie 1000dlng. The
IIllentlon of englneers WIIS finl direcled lo thls problem by I~ obser
valian that machine elements manufacture<! from materials showing
under slatle tests excellenl plaslic ptOpe:rll~long3Iion. contraclion and Impacl slrtngth-Iailed wilhout .ny noliceable pJaslic:
deformltion, as if they ~ madi' of some briltle material.
When the enginW'S llrsl slarlM sludylng lhe causes ol such faiJ
ures (lirst haH of llw: nlneleenlh cmlury). they slill dld nol haYl' I
de.r Idra aboul lhe slruclure 01 melals; II lilas assumed at thal Ume
that pJa!hc metals haye I -librous" slrueture. whereas brittle me-Ials
haye a '"<:r)"lalline" slruclure. M. lhe failure of e1emenls generally
ourred nol immediately bUI aller a cerllin, comiderably long,
period 01 operalion of Ihe machine, 11 was a5SUlIIl'd lhal under vario
.ble stresses lhe metl'l gels ~faligued~ and eharlges its stru<:lure from
llbrous to crystalline, becoming briltlt' In Ihe process.
The surfate of fracture ItseJf seemed lo support Ihls hypothesis. As
a rule, the surface had lwo dislinet lones: a smoolh, ground surfaee
(Ihe surFace in whkh the crack developed gradually) and a coarse
grained surlaee Isurlace of final lailure 01 the seclion weakened by
the crack). Figure 432 show$ Ihe surlace of failure 01 a wagon ule;
~ can see fhe ouler rlngshaped smoolh surfaee and lhe inner ooarsellrained surla~~. whkh la characterislic oi brittleoess.
Howevec al Ihe beglnnini 01 IIl!.' Iwt>nlielh century, lhe sludy oi
Ihe mkroslructure 01 metals under microscope proved 1001 lhe hy.
polhesis W&$ nol COfTect. 11 ""&$ observed tbat nwlals h.ye a crystalJine
slruclure in the ductile slale. Observations sho\l.'ed lhat when Ihe elernenl is subjecl!d lo y.riable stres.ses, no principal changes in Ihe
microslructure or In mh.niCiIl properties OCC\Jf The maleriats
of ttlf piston rods of steam enines and of Ih\' ""'lOO ules retaine(l
their slruclure irresptelive 01 how long lhty worked.
lhls prlud~ any 1.lk 01 'Tecryslalllz.alion~ from one [orm lo
anolher under Ihe acllon of variable S!res5eS.

Dy~umic

Acl101l

~I

FOfas

[Pat/ IX

ThC' [\alur~ 01 ailure under variable loading was diSl:overed al Ihe

l>egirming 01 lhis cenlury. Numerous experiments revealed thal under
the ;lction of variable stresses, a crack appeared in the' melal and
gradually pl'nclraled into its interior. Under variable deformation
lhe edges 01 lhe crack approach cach olher at Ol1e instanl ami n1'Jve
away al anothl'r; t!lis l'xplains Ihl' ground, sl1100th surlace in Ihe
rorle' nf !ailure. As Ihe lalil!UC' crack develops, lhe cros' sec1ion \\'eak
ens more and rnor~, amI finaliy
a chanee irnpacl is l'uough lo
cau5<' COlllfllctl' failure, which U(;curs \\'hen the strenglh of lhe
wl'ak('l1l'd eros. ".'cUon b('Cllm,'S
insulficiell1
lhe fatiJo!Il' crack is a sh.tr!!
cut 011 tlw surl;lce of (To;;s S,'\:lion, similar lu Illl,'cul madeon
spl'Ciml'ns uSld in impac1 teslin\!
1"h(' base 01 1tll" crack firhb
itself in a (hr.'t'-dimensiolml
slr,'ssed slate, which is conduciv('
lO 1JritllE' [ilure Ilnder illlpal'l
ISl,(, 179)_ Thi~ t'.\JlI;tins th(' pres...... elln.. 01 coac.l.C-grainrd s(ructnre
FI~ r 12
in lhe ZOlle of lai1un', cau<,'d by
brlllie Iradllre
TIIII,;, britllt- lailure Illlrler variable loarling is causcd 1101 b"l:<lIl'P
tht, Illaterlll changl's ils microstruclurc and becollles briltle, huI
bl'ClllSl' of Ihe appearance of a faligue crack in Ih.' Ihree-dimensional
stresst'd slale, which is conducive to brittle fadure without any pl.IS
tic ddormation.
The failure under variable loadlng is 01 a localized nalure and du('S
not involve Ihe material of Ihe whole slruclure. Therelore, ir a crack
is ~n lo tlevelop under varIable loading, in many cases it is nol
l1('Ccs,,1ry to ehange Ihe whole slruclure: il suffices to replace the
dallwged J.I~rl and remetly Ihe faclors which caused lhe crack.
Tlll' lheory 01 laHure discussed above Is now accepted br l'ngine..rs
IhwughUllt Ihe world. Consequenlly, lhe term "fatigue o makrial~
h.1S losl lIs physical meaning: while describing lh!;' process 01 failure
ulHll'r dYllalllic loading we musl talk not ab-oot [ailure due lo faligue
but aboul [ailure due to gradual growlh of crack.
Howc\'('r, on accounl 01 ils br<'vily and widesprearl use in l<'chnical
literatun:, Ihe term ~[algue of materials" is 51ill in vague, allhough
it HpresS\'s a differenl meaning: from now on whenever we spe,k
aooul ~fali!lue 01 material", it wili mean lailure flue to gradual litvdoplllent 01 a crack.
Our aim no\\' is to exp05<: the laclors which cause lhe crack, ntl

'"

Ch. "11

lay do\1.'O such rules lar design 01. machine e1emenls and slructures
and slrenalh check that guarantee safe workin lindel" variable Ioads.
This problem ts very illlporlant. e:specially in rnachine building.
where mosl oflen we have lo deal with c~lic sltesses It can salely
be a.uumed that approximately 90% or lbe lolal faHures 01 machine
parts OCCllr due lo developmenl 01 tbe f.ligue crack. Th~ 'olIilures
1ft ver! dangerous and ollen result in serious Iccidents. becausc lt
Is nol I Wlys posslble lo no!ice lhe developing hairlhin fatigue ~rack
in lime. Fai1ures waon and engine nle:s are chiefty c.used by these
cracks and inVlriably resuU in derailmenl, at'COmpanied by Iragic
con.sequences. Similar failures have beffl obstrv~ in .ircrafls as wt'll
IS in olher branches el maclJine building.

or

182_ Cyclie Slresses

Stresses in lhe parls of machines Ind struclure:s may ~hange eilher

dlle lo change in lhe magnitude 01 load (for instante. slresses in the
OOI1necting red and Ihe cylinder wall of an inlemal combustion en
ine change due lo change in preuure of gas mlxlure inside Ue crl
nller) or due to change in posilion of lhe par! under acUon of a con
stant load (Ior instance, if Ihe constanl weighl 01 a wagon ac!s 00
lhe axle which js rigidly conne<:lE'd with Ihe wheels. the bcnding
slresses al any point 01 the axle'g croo secUon vary a5 Ihe p01n1
chmges lb Ioc:atlon dlle lo rotation 01 the axle).
The variatlon of slresses in parts of machines or struclure:s /TUl)' be
unslable (lar example, changes in slresses actlog in a par! oi brldRl!
dlH.' to 1lI0ving trams, aulomobiles, pedeslrlans) or steady (Ior exampJe,
change In st~ acting in the connecling rod and cylinder wall of
an nlemal combustlon flIgine. rotallng wagon axle. lransrnissioo
shaft. etc.). Prom amang lhe various t)'pes 01 slud)' variable slres.ses.
cyclk: slrme:s are lhe 10051 Importanl; be:sides. t~ slresses are Ihe
IIIOSI widely investigated. A single ftpeliUon of stress (from mmi
D1um lO muimulll and back) s known ll$ the cfIC! !J/ lXJria/U;n o/
UrtsS; JI such a cyeJe is contin1JOlJS1)' repe:ated during runctionillfil uf
part, lhe slresse:s acling in Ihe pnt are calle<! cydic sJrt:Ue5. Crclic
slresses acl in wagon ules, shafls. conneding rods. lurbint b1ades
and m.n)' olhe.. p.rts
lIlachines .nd slructure:s.
Figure 433 deplcts various I)'pes 01 cyclic slresses in "stress p (a OfT)
verws time (" ooordlnales: (1) constanl sign cycle (Fig.433(a;J. in
which slresses vary on!)' in magnilude: (2) f1ucluating (uro base)
cycle (Fig. 433(d)). in which sfresses '1ary between zero and a cerllio
ma:timum v.IUl': (3) constaol stress (Fig.433(c;l); (4) altemaling
~rde (Flg.433(b). in which slre:sses chan~ lo magnilude and in
sign (all Ihe cyeJe:s flIumeraled aboye are known lIS flSyftllMtrical
cgeles); (5) sy11lnrLtricnt cycle (Flg. 433 fe, an alternaling cycle in \,!hich
Ihe upper aod I~'er 'Iimils el slress varialion have lhe same abso-

or

'"lule

Ot'namlc Acti"" o{

F~

Ylllu~. The curves which clesctlM the varlation of slresses in

lime may considerably dilfer in ap~8t1ra; variation of stres.5oK in
machine parts oftM follows the sinusoidal 1.111'_
lbe rnaximum ab30lute stress in lhe cycle 15 denoted bv D=>. (n....

, ...), while the mlnlmum

- -r -r
,

ts denoted by P.", (o..... t.1.)' The ratio

...
-
--~~-~-1-1. "',

Tt,

Oq~1

P.az,-I'rM-P"

"(.,

-'-;'r~Q

('1

('1

:r T--"-

,-,
f

-f-(l-

.;.,

,
LV_L

--.0;,-', r1

'"

Flg. ol33

of mnimum stress 10 rnllxlmum with the slgns laken lnto 'Cl:ounl 15

known as Ihe cyc/e clulIaclerisl/c, or he roefficltnl 01 asymmrlry of
eycle, ,-=P...,ft!p..... Tnl$ coefftclent vades betw~n -1 and +1:
in Flg 433 lhe coeflident al asym~try is iven lar all the cycles.
TIle hall 01 lhe!Um 01 maximum and mlnlmum slresses 01 8 c)ocle
(laking tlte!r signs inlo conslderal ion) 1$ known as the C01IStUnI axnx;
fltnl

o/ cyde. or mml'l

~ $lff!!iS:

(31.1 )
TM hall 01 lM

difflnfl~

of lIIu:imum .nd mlntmum stTeSSe$ (.Iso

laking their sigas inlo CONideralion) is known as the oo.rWbk romo

poMnt o/ cydt. or lhe OIfIplitudt of sJrtsSU in lhe q,cU:

.,....P....

p.- P... -P..

:1
... 1_'

(31.2)

Thus. any C)'tle ol strus variation may be obtainl!d bysuperimposing

a symmetrieal stres.s c~le P'..z,=-P.l.-P. on a COI1$tanl stress

P;....-P,.I.=P.
183. Strength Condition Under Variable Slruscs
EJlperimenlS show that gradualJy developin crarks IIp~ar ooly
unde! variable slres.ses, osdllaling sysltmalical1y ~Iween ('Ireme:
values.
It 15 also kno\vn Ihat a large nUmDer 01 elellll'nls 01 machines .nd
slruclures ~hibil good resisl.nce lo variable loads over a long du
ralion, provided Ihe slresses remain within certain limils. Hence.
jllst lhe facl thal lhe stresses are yarlable is not enou-h lo cause a
crack-for lhe crack to appear It is essenlial that Ihe ll1aximum yalue
the variable stresses should exceed a particular ...alue. whlch Is
known as tnduratJCt! slrtnglh, or enduranat limil. Endurance Ii mit
p, represenls lhe muimum value 01 a perlodlcally changing stress
whlCh lhe matenal can lVilhsland ior a practlcally nfinHr periad
tlrnt wilhoul fatigue crack.s appearing in it.
Tlle endurance limil lor a variable slfe$S cycle wi1t.b<- denoled by
p,. o" or 1", wilh a subscripl repre:senting Ih\' cyde characterislic:
p_. is Ihr endurance Iimil 01 an asymmetrical cycle 01 characterishc
,--1; P is Ihe endurance Ilmil al an uymmetrk.l cyde 01 charlc,
lerlst ic r O.2:. etc.
Thus, Ihe posslbilily 01 failure due lo radual developmenl al
IlItlgue crack is subjecl lo lhe lollowing hll'O condilions: (1) periodic
oscillation of lhe varh.ble stre:sses between hvo ulreme v.lues, and
(2) Ihe mulmum v.lue of lIM.- .clwl slres5es in the elemenl 01
struclure e~ceeding Ihe endurance IImit of lhe material.
The slrength condltlon [n lhis case musleprl'SS the facl that the
Qlaximnm actu.1 slress pI?,.. musl be less Ihan Ihe enduran;e linllt P.
and ensure .. cerlllin margin 01 salety:

or

or

/J,

P"'...........
whtre R, Is lhe safety [lIClor.
Al presenl Ihe enduran<:e lImlt can be delermlntil only t':\:pe1'imen
IlIlIy. It depends m.inly upon lhe (a) materIal (sleel, iron. oon-fl'l"
rous OIet.is); (b) nalure 01 defarmalion (bendln. torsion. elc.); .nd
(e) degree of asymmetry of !he cyele. Le. lhe Inlerrelalion belwffn
lhe ulreme values of (he variable stress.
A 1_ addilional factors Ilfecting lbe endurance limll lCOlT05I011,
dimensions al elemeflts) wllI ~ discussed separalely ( 156 and lan,
A! lor lhe ma.imum dynamic stres.s P...., experlll'll'nts .show lhal
conlrary lo I.ilure under slalc loading lhe Illigue cracks in briUle
as weH u ductile prisIDltic bars appc.r 1101 due to the maximum

."
design stress, P.... (lor cumple, In bending o.... =~n, bul dlJ~ lo
(he local stresses ( 15) which occur al plaees 01 devlation [ram lhe
prismatic shupe (culs, scralches. holes, Iransition lrom a thin parUoo
lo a lhlck porton, ele.)
These local stresses P, are considerably grealer Ihan lhe maxhnum
stress and may be expressed by lhe lollowlng formula:
here /:te 15 lile coeflicient 01 stress concenlratlon; lIs value depends
upon lhe nature 01 devlation rom Ihe prismatic shape.
In lhe nexl sections we wlll explain how lo delermlrle lhe ~n'
durance limil and Ihe coefficient al stress concenlration.

184. Dt:terminaljon 01 Endurance Limit

In a Symmelrlcll Cyde
01 llIuimum (nlerest ls Ihe determination of Ihe endurance limil
In a symrnelrical eyele (P .. =O). b~ause this value is minimum. Tite
endurance limil also varies depending upon lhe ty>{! 01 deformation_
bendin!!, alrial deformation (tension anri compression) and torsion.
Endurance limit in bendlng is determined on machines In which
a rounJ specinH'1l is loaded through hall bearings or as a calltllever
wilh a force ac!ing al one end or as a simply supporll'd beam acfed
upon b~ two symmelrical eqllal Sorces; Ihe specimen rotales al 2000
3000 rpm. DllrinR eaeh rotal ion the maxlmum stressed portion 01
the spl'dmen malerlal llndergoes a symmelrieal change 01 stress Irom
malrimum compressive lo an equal rnalrimum tensile, 2nd vice versa.
The number 01 cydes 01 Ihe specimen is determlned by its rpm, which
Clln be regislered by a special counting device. The eontour 01 the
specimen must be srnooth, ruling oul any possibiJily 01 oC<'urrence
01 local slresses. The experimen! for delermining Ihe endurance
limit is carried out as foJlows. A baleh 01 speclmens consstin~ 01
610 pieces is prepared from the material lo be tesled; Ihe spl'Cimel15
are numbered 1, 2, 3,
The ftrsl specimen is placed in the machine and loaded In such a
way thal a particular va[ue 01 muimum normal stress o' is oblained;
this value is generally laken 0.50.6 of the ultimale slrength 01 the
malerial. The machine is pul lnto operation, and the specimen rotales elrperiencing variable stresses oscillaling belween +0' and -i1'
unlil ullimate railure. At this mamen! a spec.illl device swilches ol!"
lhe motor, fhe machine slops and lhe counting device indicales the
number 01 cycles, N" required lo break Ihe specimen al stress (J'.
, FOI details _ N. M.. Bdyoev. 1.lJ1>Gr(llorV Ex~~n/> "" SmmglJl oj Maf,.
,I/l/>, os(ekhJzdal, 1956 (In Russi,ll).

01. JII
T~ second specimen is similarly lesled al a slreM a, less Ihan o';
lhe Ihird $pt'CiTnen is tested al st~ 0'<0, and $O oo. lile nUlJoer
01 cycles required lo break !he spectmen increases res~tively. Thus,
lf wt' go on reducing lhe lesl slress ror each successive specimen,
,,~reach a stage when lhe $p('Cimen does 001 lail ev!l1 arter vtnstaml
ing very large number or cydes. The stress cor~pondi!li 10 Ihis
slaRt is very dose lo !he aclual endurance IImit.
Ellperiments show Ihat ir a steel spec:imen does nol l.IIiI alter 10'
c)'tles, JI can praclically wjlhstalld an intinillO number of cydes
(10"-2x lOO). Theffiore, while determinillg lhe endurance limit of a

~
- 1e.--IJ rfItl

,\~1T.I(;6Ir!rl",f~,

. !,-18Jrl!-, VJ-56V-lJ. \

,,
Q

,*--widl/ _
",fl5.1.V/n

01!,- [)5f.1I.. 1

1Q

, ,
FI. 434

'r

"'-'n.,/-8"I.
I I

Fig. t3S

material, Ihe l'Jperiment is slopped jf the speciml'l1 doe 001 lait

arter ro' C)"cJes. In a number or cases the tests are slopped aller 11
smaller number or cycJes, but never briore compleling 5x 100 C)'cJes.
A similar dependl"nce does nol ellist ror non.ferrous melals. and lo
m:lke sure Ihal the specimen can rNlIy wilhsland a very laroge number oI cycles al t~ given stress lhe experinlent 15 slopped only afler
subjtcting the spe;;:imm to 2x 10" and even 5x lOO cycles. Therdore,
in Ihe case r:J l1OI1.ferrous melals lbe endurance Iimil can be spcciRed only ror a parlicular number 01 c)'tles. SlY rOl' 10' c)'des, Ihe Iilatel'"ial has one ~duralk:e limil and lar 3x 10' cycJes a differenl l"'f1durance limit.
The expel'"imenlal rffillls han lo be p~ graphkall)' in order
lo determint lhe numerical value of endurancl" limil. Figures 434
and 435 show I'NO such methods_ In 1M !irsl ItlelOOd slrcsses (J', o',
" .. are laid 011" the y-axis, and N" N., .. _ are laid off the x-axis_
The ordinate oI the horiZOlllal langenl (asymplolej to the cur~ gives
lhe enduraACe limil a!.,. In lile second method, we lay off thl" quanlit)" 1000IN along thr x-Illis" In Ihis case the enduranet: limil is dele.-miflNl as the ~glllent cut off on lile y-axis by Ihe extended curve,

Dvnaml' (elIOll o{ Fwt:&

'"

[PIII"/ IX

becallSt' In l!lis ca5l' !he orign 01 coordinales oorresponds to N_oo.

Th~

..econd melhod lS now more commollly used.

The endurance Ilmll can be slmilarly determlned un<let axial load-

in;: (ten~lon and compressionl and torsion; spt'Clal testlng machines

(Pulsators *) arl: lISl'd lor Ihls purpOSt.

An enarrnous amollnl Df t'xperimenllll dllta Is now llvailable on

de-terminalion 01 endUTllnce Jimits 01 VllriOUS malerials. A gre~ter

part 01 Ihe dperirntnlal studies pertaln lo steel, because stet'1 Is lhe
tno-;j commonl)' lISt:d material in machine building.

lhe rl.'!;u!ls 01

thl'St: expeTlmenls sllo\\l thal for alJ grades 01 slet'1 !he eodurance
Iimil is rt'llled by a deOn!te law lo Ihe ultimate lenslle strf"nglh 0".
Far rolled nd forged sleels [he b,:-ndlng endunmce limit lInder a
symmetrlcaJ cre1e comprise5 (0.40-0.60)0~: lor casI steel Iht' l'nduranct" Imil varies btlween (0.40-0,46)0~.
Thus, with sulficien( practical acruracy, we may Wrll., the 101lowUlg
relat ion lor aJl grades 01 slet"J.
~,

"" 0.40. ~ fl.o.

If Ihe specimen is subjected to a~ial loading undt'r a symmNrical

cycle (variabl", tension and compresslonj, Ihe.n lhe lXJrrtsponding
endurance mit o~, is iound lo be less than the endurance limil under
b~ndin;:: lhe ralio belween Ihe two endurance limlts may be taken
eqlllll lo 0.7, j.l.'.
0"_1 "" O.101>-,
The rt'duetion may be explained by the fael Ihat In tenslon and
compression all seetions of (he sped men experience equal stresses,
and in bendlng mulmum stresses occur only al lhe oull'r fibres (Ihe
rernalning malerial remains underloaded and thus somewhal Impedes
Ihl' l.'rnergence of fatigue eracks): besides, Ihere is alw8Ys bound lo be
sanie l'Ccentricity in Ihe Ilppliclltlon 01 axial Joalls,
Plnally. the torsional endurance IIm\t llnder a syrnmelrielll eycle
oompnse5 0.55 01 the bending endurance limit. Thus. under a s)'mml!tfleal cycle we :d the lollowlng values lor sieel:
~,

_ 0.400.

~,= 0.1~_,

_0.280.
0'_, ... O 55~, = 0.220.

)
(31 3}

ThesE.' relat inns can be emplo~,'ed lor obtllining formulas for the slrength
check.
In the case of nonk'rrous ml'tals I'."e gel a more lIexlble relallon
betwN.n endurance 11mil ami ultimale strength; the empirical for lbld.

Ch. .tll

'"

mula b
a!., "'" (O 24-0.50) o.
While usin e.lpres.~i011 (31.31, tl VIollld be borne in mind Ihal !he
endllrance Ilmit of 11 material dt'penlh upon a largl: nllmbef o, larlors
I 187)~ Ih", rel.lions given In I:Jlprl"UIOO (31.3) ....ere oblair\ed on
:spcdrnens 01 s,",1I diarnetcr (7-10 mm) having 11 pohIDed surlJM.:t'
and no sharp changcs of 5hape .Iont lhe lenglh

185. Endurance Umlt In an UMymmclrlcal Cyde

The equlpmenl required loc delermimng l:Odurance slrtnRth Ilnder
IIn un:symnltlrical cycle b much man oomplicall.'d lhan 1M t>qUlP'
menl llSe'd lar symmelrical cycle..
A spcclal spring capable 01 strelching Ilnd compress1ng Ihe :spt:elmm
Mlould be added to lhe simple Ie.ting machi~ discUSkd e;rJier, in
which the spedrnen only rolales. Quite oHm v.re have lo t"mpJo)"
t."Vel1 more complicaled machines, which are c:apable el CJ(~ting
ulal load on Ihe specimen (h:nsion, compression) under difTerent
extn:lIlt- values of Ihe variable slres.ses.
HOlI/eVd, lile now have al our dlsposal sulficlenl exp;.>rllllt"nral
dat:; to obtaln I graphicel or analylical rellllon belween Ihe endllrllncl' limil and Ihecyc1echaracleri~tlc r, I.e.~.

0"',,

L... t IlS remind Ihe reader abaIJl the nalallons used here: Pv renrl:'
S'.'llts (lit ulJlmlte strength of the material, P~ the yleld sln.:>~. p,
lhe endurance limil correspondlng lo a cyde 01 ch3!aclenstl(' r,
p_, Ihl' endurance limil in a syrnmetrical cycle, P.... aod P..,. Ihe
IlPpL'f Ilnd 10lller exlreme \'aIIJes 01 lhe tyde, P.. -P",.;P'''' the
mean stress in lhe cyele,

P.=O...,.P,.l.

the amplitude 01 osctlla

tion! ol Ihe c)'Cle, 2p. the double IImplilude of the C)'cle. aod r_
"p,,;./p_ (he charllderistic of Ihe cyele.
The value:s al P_., P.l..., P. IInd P. which rorrespond lo workln~
01 the matl!rial at lhe endurance limil will be d{'OOled by a subsc!lpl r;
P, ....
P
p, .Uh.. oluimum abSO!ute valued Pr ... or p{Il!' musl coincide wilh p,l.
Tite re:sull.s 01 upedments ror delermilll~ endUrJOL'l: 1Ir.l11 under
dtllerent cyeJes ..re coO\'enierltly represenled 10 Ihe larm of dlagrlllll.
The ,Implest InlOng these diagrlllll'> is Ihe diagram in lhe P.- and
II.-coorctinates IHay's dlagram) shown ;n F'1t "36. On Ihis diagram

Ihe "alul'S al P.. are laid off on lhe x-axis lO a cerlalO seale llnd Ihe
"afues of P. are laid 01( 00 Ihe y-axis in lhe .sIHIo! scale. Curve AOCO
has bn plotlC'd on lhe ba:sis 01 experlmenls ror dl'll'rJmning the endurance limil under dUJerent c)'des 01 variable slresses. Foc deld"-

Dynam/c Adl"", of Fora.s

IPMI IX

rnining wllh Ihe help 01 lhis diagram Ihe endurance limil p, far a
cycle having coeJfklent 01 asymmetry f lile draw Irom the cenlre of
coordlnales O a straight llne OS al 3n angle P. so that (see (31.1)
ami 131.3))

lan/l=&=
o,.

1-'

(31.4)

1+'

and ('~lend it until il inlersecls curve ABCD al polnl C; lrom this

poinl IVe lhen drop a normal CE on lhe absdssa. The sum of segmenls
CE and EO, whieh are resptdively equal lo pe(; and PmC. gives Ihe
enduranee limil
(31.5)

Thns. polnl A havlng ordinale OA =Po=P_f and absclssa Pm=O

represents lhe endurante limit under a symmetricsl cyde: r--l,
rJ,.lgf!u/

"
"

-"

"' f-l.2a.~1g.

'l/lt t

"-

/f--':' ~.lJ'qJ.'

-< /J~. 2IJ

,9os'!'!/iII!!
Fig. 437

p=n/2, whiJe potn! D having ordinale Pa=O Bnd abscissa OD=p,.=

=P ... =P~ represents the enduranee limll under stalie loadlng (r=+ 1,

p=O), which is equal to lhe ultlmate slrength of the material. 11 we

draw a slraighl Jine

or al 4S ine]jnatioo lhrough lhe cenlre of coor.

~

~t-

"
6IJ

-b/J

lO
Fig. 438

'.

dinales, poinl 8, where lhis line inlerseds eurve ABCD, represenls

lhe enduranee limil under 6uelualing (zero base) load, b('C3Use oro
dinale BF=Pas of poinl 8 Is equal lo abscissa Of=Pms. Le. from
(31.1) and (31.2) l+r= l-r, and r=O.

'"

F,gu~

437 c1epicls H3y'S diagram lor comrnOl1 10000<arbon sle.>I,

In.1 Fig. 438 shows the ume dlltgram lor rey iron h.vlng tile follOllo'Illl properties: (1...... 78 kgl/mm', 0.,=22 kgi/mm', 0.,_7.3 kgf/mm",
and 11 -46 kgf'mm" (o is lhe enduTilnce Ilnlll under ~ucluilling
cyde in compressm). This dillgram proves lila! undel' variable loadir.g
loo casi iron has a mcch hlg~ strenglh in conlpresslon lo Ihat in
Imsion.
lile endurance tim.l should ~ looked upon as a critical stress
sImilar lo ullimale strel\~lh under slalic loading, because a !1'SS

sllRhll)' greater Ihan lhe enduro

i1fl1:e slrenglh can cause ISIure

wilhin a practicall)' feasible numo

ber 01 varialions of the load.
Th~rdore, curve ABCD in Fill.
4311 represents a curve of eril
k .. t (1Irnlting) stresses lor mate-

rials Iha\ do 001 have lO yield

tOllt. H the m,krial Is ductile
amI liJe critical s1re$S ror iI un
der sl.tic loodillg is yield slress
p .Ihen il can bt' e3llily estab

,'"
,

.1

Ifshtd IromFil!.439lha! lineAGH

should be takM as lhe Ilne el crili
cal slresse5. In lhe eodun.nce 11m
il dlagram ABD (Figs. 436 and 439), iI we Cut eegmenLS OH anlJ ON
equal to yield stre.u P. on lhe;r and y-axis. respecllYl'ly. and jOtn
poln!s N and H by a slraigbl1t1JE' NH, Ihen Ihe surn of lhl' absds.sa
and ordinale Di any poin! on Ihis Hne is alwa)'$ equal to p. (IOT in
Slll~, larpoinl K.OL+LK-p"'A+P.II -OL+LH=p . as LK=LH).
Hl'oce. slraight Hne NH determines the crilicallimH o, slresses under
sllltic loading, while curve ABD dl."termille5 I! under variable loading.
In the region in which slraight Ilne NH Hes aboye curve ABO (from
Ihe axis of ordinales lo poiot G, the poinl 01 interst!on 01 these
Jine.o.) the critical liml1 01 stresses is lJelermined by curve AG. Bul
whffi' Jine NH Ies btlow curve ABO. the crilical IirnU al stresses
IS deterrnlned by Ihe ~tragh! lilll." NH. In Pigs. 436 and 439 Ihe
crllical stress Jines a~ hatched.
On .ccounl of Ihe fael tha! usually \\'1." delermine experlmenlally
Pr' P lInd P_. whill' !he endurance Iimits lor olher valul'S Di , are
generally nol delermirK'd, straighl tines AD (Fig.436) Of AH (Fig.
439) have often lo lX" acttpted as Ihe critlcal slrtsS lioes in Ihe lIbsence
Di experimental dala. The critical stress curve is somelimes replacf'd
by a slraight Jine in creer lo simplify caJculations; [el us note thal
soch an approximalion adds to he existing safety fllClot.
A fair[y largt" number 01 formulas .....ere proposed ~or estllblishing
the analytical ~la!lonship between endurance Ilmit. ultimale slrength

o/
'"
ami lile cy<:le's characleristic. Thase
DyMmJC ACItM

farOl:f.

d~servng

(Parl IX

altention are:

2q,

p, .... 1 t+('+r)q, P.
vel

p, -

r)'+4(1+ll'qt-(1
(1

+f)' q,

(31.6)
t
P.

(31.7)

nd

(31.8)

where Q'=P_l/p". CoeJficienlSIl, nd n, in lhe lasl formula have dliTer

enl l1um..rlcal values depemJing upon Ihe material. Far low-carbon
steel 11,=0 and t1,=1. and a parabolic relalionship l'xisls belween
P,a anel p,,,,. On lile olher hand, ror sleels wilh hlgh ultimate strenglh

11,-1, n,=O, nd e"presson (31.8) is represented by a strllighl line.

As already rnentioned, endura!lce 1mil P, depends nol onl)' upan
lhe material, natufe 01 delormation nd type 01 cycle, bul also upon
lhe shape 01 parl and Ihe condition 01 lis sUTlace, upon lis dimensions,
nd so on. Frool among lhe laclors listed lhe endurance limil p, is
~fTe<;tell mos! by lhe shape 01 parl and Ihe condHion al ils sllrr~ce.
As tllcse laelors are equally importanl in slalie loading also, Ihe)'
lle;erve a tletailed discussion.

186. Local Slresses

Un[orm distribution of slress~ over Ihe seclion 01 the parl under
tension or compresslon and linear varlalion of normal slresses o\,er
lhe seclion of a beam subjecled lo benlling or shearing s!resst"S along
the radius 01 sed ion of a shafl subjecled to lorsion are valid onl)'
lor uniform prismalic rods which are free 01 internal or external flaws
and damages and onl)' in sectlons tha! are sufftclently lar away (rom
lhe poinl 01 appllcatlon of load. The distrlbutionolslresses is violated al Ihe poinl of appllcation 01 load and also where Ihe part has
Iloh:s. recesws, transitions from one dimension and shape lo anolher,
inkrnal and e~dernal lIaws and damages, non'uniform slrudure 01
material, ele.
For lnslanee, in a plate (Fig. 440(a)) slrelched by Ion:"", P acling
along lis axis Ihe normal slresses In secUon mn localell sul6ciently
far fmm the point 01 appliealion 01 force are distribuled unilorillly.
In seclion m,n" where there is (1 small circular hole in lhe plate, Ihe
distribution 01 slresses will be difTerenl. Near Ihe edge 01 Ihe hale lhe
stress wil1 be consicJerably (aboul three times il Ihe hale is small)
hlgher lhan in section mn. However, Ihe hlgh slresses aet only on a
small area of seclion m,n, near the hole; in Ihe remaining area 01 the
section the slres.~es are approximalely the same as in seclion mn.
These high slressl$ are known as local stresses PI (a, or ti): Ihe source5

Slrt1llllh

Ch. JI]

CMt~

et Vrtiabl, Lcadinll

01 local slresses (holes, recesses. damages, ele.) are called facrors

(sourcu) 01 stress ooncenJralion. lhe ratio helween Ihe lnaximum
local stress P, "~lO. lo Ihe ncminal siress p~_, Le. lo Ihe stress al the
same poin! in lhe absence of stress concenlration source, is known as
th~ roellielent

vI stress

con~ntratioll.

~e:

(31.9)

Even in a uni'a~i/llly
Ihr~-dlmension/ll slressed

loaded elemenl Ihe local slresses create a

sta te. In Fig. 440 it is shown Iha! besidE'S
slresses in sections perpendicular jo the har axis addilional normal
slresses of smaller magnitude appear around Ihe hale In aplane nor
mal lo Ihc (irsl (oJ.
lhe coelfich'nt 01 stress ooncenlralion de-pends chielly upon how
last Ihe prismatic shape changes. If the tramilion Inlo a large di
ameler to a srnaller diameter takes place sharply, at righ! aneles. the

PI

lO

R1d
.,

"$

,
I

--

n,J:

H
i

""
"'r-Io
,

EU1P/i(Q1
lIf!l

7l.(I'.~

,
1

'/

M
fl~.

440

maxtmum value al a e is oblamed. If Ihe Iransilion is smoothened

by making a fillel of certain radius. lhe value of (le becomes smallcr
and may even becorne equal lo unily tFig. 44[ fa) and (b)).
Figure 440 depicts a lew e~amples 01 stress ooncenlration due lo
holt>s ami recesses in parls subjected to leosion or bl'nding.

IPul IX

The lollowing melhods ate emplo)'t'd lar deitrrninin Ihe coeIficiffil

of stress concenlralion. In I number of cases (roc example, in tension
antl bltndlng of bars wilh holes and necks) iI is possible lo c!eletnline
lhe local stresses by lhe thoory 01 elullclly. Anolh~r popular metho<!
is lhe experimental ul.'termlnllllon 01 local stresses in aplanar strcssed
transparenl model (nulde 01 glass, celluloid or bakelite) unut't polar
pt
ud lIght: lmm lhe colour 01
"i-~w

VaTlOOS p<lrtion~ ol !ht modtl \\1'

can Iind Iht- dlft('f"{'l1n- bellou,"'ll

princ,pal
poinls anfl

.dultional

,.

,,
,
1

~-f

str~

al

\llflOIl$

lhl.'n lhmugh .001(.'

tlJl'asur.. mmb ami

compulillions ddeflnine lht' Ilrincipa! stresses.

The uperimental melho<h inelude determlning loca) strt'Mes
with lhe help 01 [acqul'rcoalln~s
Of meshes (quadratic or circular of small diaml'lrtl, wh~h

are applied lo lhe Mlrf..ce of Ihe

specimen. and studying brittle

(gypsum) modds.
If Ito'e lest the ~1rt.'f1glh 01 a
materiAl (Fil. 4~ 110) and lbll on
!'Ir 441
1\\'0 specilll('ns, Ollt .,.. ilh loe..1
.
stresses ami the otht'f witholll. \Ve
lifld lhal a. of lhe fiot spt'CItl1('f1 is lw than o. al" the secl)fld speo:iml'fl
tor coursc, using lhe same moduJusol 5t'ellon 01 diSllll'krd); he ralio
of these two values al" ultiml1l", streJ1Klhs glvts us th.., rl:qulred cooAfi
clcnl of slrw cOrleefllratlon, a c.
Ho..",~vtr, lJ ll\Ol"E' I"l'liabk Ill('lhod of oblalflir::: a. Is by delermiuing
tht endurllnce lilUll ol llto'O speclmt'fls. OTll' ..... ith local stresses Iml the
ot!Jer .....ithout. The fiol spl'Cimen iv" 1O'Nf'f (00 acoounl al local
slresseo;.) endurance limil o; lIS comp'll"d lo IhlO SEcond a;, Ihe ratio

,.":

dl'tel"mifles rol'llicil'nl (t.

It Y."as nollced Ih.t lhe vaJue al" lile

sl~ ror~nlrallon coeflirit'fll dili"l'fS .....lIh the

allhough Ih~' faclor cau~lng local stresse\ was he

ml'thod employed,

same in eoch case.

lhe fint Iwo methods-onE' based O" the Iheorr of elaslkity IInd
l11t o(h",r on oplicat study-givl' IIlnl051 equal Vl ues 01 (to. This i5
ohvnus. because ifl bolh cases lhe resul!s perlain lo isolropic 10lasl ir
malerials. Abo. thlO valul'S 01 a. dtlermnl'd froln enduranct> tesis
liTe lound to be quitlO clO5t' lo Ihe valuts oblained by Ihe lirst hl,"I)

."
method~ lorsome malerials (chrome-Iiickel, high str.englh carbon
skell 8nd considerably 1!'.S5 for olho.'r materials (mlld sleel). It ,was
IOlln1 [hal Ihe coefticient 01 stress ('(Jn~ntration depends no! only
upon Iheshape 01 {he spec.imen. bul also upon ils materia!. The great
er Ihe duclilily 01 material. Ihe lower 15 ils codfldent 01 stress con
central ion. The reasons lor Ihis have a'lreactr been explained in \6;
lhe plasticily o a material creale!; a sorl 01 buffer, which to a certain
ex!enl miligates lhe elfect 01 local stresses.
Thus, we have two coefficienls 01 stress :oncentralion: Jirsl, Ihe
theoretical one, cte .. ', tak~ joto aeeounl cnly Ihe shape 01 Ihe sper
men and is maio!y delermined by aoy 01 lile first t'.VD methods;
Ihe St'Cond, lhe adual one, (1; 0 is determined by Ihe test on enduranee and \ak('5 inlo account nol only lhe shape but also the malerial
nI the speclmen.
As (his consideralioo alreets only Ihe amollnl by which Ihe local
stnesses exceed the general, i.e. Ihe quantities (a, ,-1) and au-I),
the sensHivity 01 a malerial'to local slresses may be delermined by
lhe ralio 01 'lhe two, known as (h(' 5ellSilivity factor 01 Ihe material:

(31.10)

This laclor depends upon Ihe material: it ma} he equal lo uniiy in

high grade. heallreated alloyed sle:els and may be as lo\\' as 0.5 in
Case of mild sleels. Jt is lound lhal ron is the least sensilive lo local
stresses; in Ihe case 01 Iron q is dose 10:reTO and the actual slress concenlration laclor, Q;c.... ls lmosl equal to unity. lhjs can be explained
by Ihe lact lha! Ihe ultimale slrenglh 01 iron is strongly aliede<! by
micr=pic .graphite int!usions, which are .actually nolhlng bul
sharp craeks in (he base melal. lhe effcet ollhese cracks, whkh are 11
regular lealure 01 iron, is so slrong Iha! it almosl complelely makes
lron irnmune lo Ihe ece! 01 other slress concentration laclors.
The sensitivily factor. however. depends not only upon the male'
rial bul also,upon 'lhe shape and slze 01 the parl, and q ncreases wjlh
the increase in dimensions 01 Ihe 'body.
for sleel may be delermined appro:o:imately
Scnsilivily factor
(wilhout accounting or lhe absolute dimensiom of the body) wilh
the help of Ihe curves in Fig. 442, depending upon lhe uUi mate slrenglh
oi the material (belween 40 and lOO kgl/mm') and Ihe theorelical
stress concentralion eoelficienl Q;<. j (Figs. 443 and 444). This diagram
was oblained lrom experimental data on endurance lesling 01 snlall
(diameter of 710 mm) specimens 01 various grades al sleel lor differ
enl values of Ihe Iheoretiral stress eoncenlralion coefficienL lt is
evideo! from the diagram 'Ihat 'lhe sensilivily lactar iocreases wilh
ultima!e slrength and theore!lcal stress concenlralion eoelficient.
The ncrease of eto.l beyond 1.8 ceases to have any eliecl on Ihe sen
sittvHy lactor. For a highly alloyed slee! having high ultimale strength

20 -S~IO

IPar' IX

(l:ll kgf/mm'), coefficienl q may be considered equal lo unily. and

a<.~:=a:c.'

Mtith l~ dala on Ihe sensitivity laclor lor nonlerrous melals are

available. For casi Eleclron (an alloy 01 magnesium with aluminium.

",
" " " ""

"
l/

mi

.:;,.rgl'Awz

1
1
OZ

fil!. 442

" "

D.4

tU

Fig. 443

zinc and manganese) lhis coelficienl is 0.15; in rare cases il may go

up to 0.25. The sensitivily factor is highcr lar rol1cd and slampcd
Eleclron and vari<'S belll'ecn 0.35 and 0.50. In case 01 aluminium
alloys lhe "alue; 01 this coefficienl are slI lower.
J.

"

.1

1r

,,~tI

~~

..'

i\-: 1--. 1
1\ 1-,.1

,
,a,

:...L

uMB W::ri,

"

Fig. 444

The curves in Figs. 443 and 444 sholl'ing Ihe variaUon 01 cte., a~ a
may be used lor detcrmining the theorelical stress
lunction 01
C<lncenlralion coelficienl in more cornmon situalions of slrl'SS con

Ch. 3/1

Slttnglh Chtd (o( V"rlablf IAodIIlll

centration (holes, necks, fillels) depending upon Ihe sharpness of

change in shape 01 the part under lension or eompression (Fig~.oI43)
and pure bending (Fig. 44.01). The coellicienls were delermine'a for
rectangular specirnens by Ihe optical rnelhod. In round specirnens
wilh necks and lillels Ihe corresponding values of IX~., are lound
lo be sorne\\.'hal Icss. Sorne values of ac.1 lor round specimC'ns are
given in Table 22.
Table 21
Coof6clcnl 01 SIro.. Conccnlratlon
Type 01 d.rOfmollon ond "",ru 01 ...... >""11011011

0'

t. Bendin: alld temion

1. Semicircular ne<:k on shall, ralio 01 radius 01 lIt'Ck lo dla

meter 01 shall

O.,
O.,
LO

2.0

LO

0.2

2.0
2. Fiflel, rallo 01 ,adius lo lldgh! 01 occHon ldiamelu 01
shaft)
0.0625
0.125
0.25

O.,

3. Tlan,ilion at righ! angle

~. Sharp Vshape neek
5. Whitworlh Ihread
(jo Metrie thread
7. ~Iole, the tallo 01 hole diame!<.'I lo er~<.,.... nonal dlm'n.
,ion, varlrs Irom 0.1 lo 0.33
8. Ser.tehos on surhee due lo cutlin~ 1001
ll. Torslon
l. FlII.l, the ,atie> 01 fillel radiu. lo Ule lIlinimulll .>Ilaft
dialll.t,r
0.02
0.10
0.20
2. Keywa)"s

LO

1.75

LOO
LOO

f. 10

2.0
3.0
2.0

2.'

2.0
1.21.4

..,
0.'

LO

1.{j2.0

It should be emphasizC'd Ihat the curves in Figs. .0143 and 444 and
Table 22 help determine Ihe theoretical, Le. the maximum possible.
values of the concentration codficient. Knowing the Iheorelical stress
toncentration cocflicienl, IX . " Ihe actual stress eoncentralion eodf1eient, a ...., can be compuled by the fol1owing formula:
17.......

20'

1+q(a. ,-l)

(31.11)

DI/lumie Acti"" 01 Fo?US

[Port IX

which emues Irom expression (31.10). However, 1I the sensilivity

[aclor q i~ determlned approximately Irom Ihe curves in Fig.442,
Ihen lhe aclual stress c:oncentrallon coefficienl, a,.,o' can also be
determined only approximalely. It Js therefore desirable lo delermme
a< ~ direclly by conducting endurance tesis on specilOens of required
shape. lhe stres~ eoncentralion coefficienls, ao.j and a"a, for a wlde
range 01 :;ources of stress concenlration are glven In handbooks, and
Lhe methods or Iheir delermination are a ~ubjecl 01 ~tL1dy in spedal
('aurses. +
Quile a few simple IIpproximate ernpirieal formulas Wf;'rc proposed
for determining the ileluill stress eoncentralion coeflicienl 01 sleel
versus ils ullimate sirength. When Ihe part does nol have shurp
angles, neck.-i, or keyways and has a good linished (bu! noi pollshed)
sur[ilce,

_12+0'1,,-40
a<.d .
._ -,,-,-

(31.12)

and when lhe part has shorp angles, necks, or scralches,

' 15,,-40
a . -- I .5 T ' -"-0-

(31.13)

These lormulas are valid lor sleel with ultimatc slrenglh belwcen
40 and 130 kgf/mm> and are suffidently occurale for prilctical app1i.
cal ion; o~ is expressed in kgfimm'.
While talking o[ local stresses, it is necessary to emphaslze Ihe
effecl 01 surface damages on the endurance IImi!. Experimen\s show
thallhe endurance limil of lorged parts w)(ch eto not undergo subse
quenl hui Ireatmenl is less Ihan Ihal of parls of Ihe same materillls
(n which Ihe outer layer Is lnilchlned and polished: in mild slcels Ihe
dillerenc(' may be 1520%, and in hlgh gradl! sll'els H nmr be as tllgh
as 50%.
A Sllllllar pht'nomenon is obserye-d in springs madI' Irom high grade
lloy ~leels if lhe spring wire is nol machined afler heal Ire(llment
(hardening anl! annealing). Such a surface can sometimes reduce lhe
endurancl' limil t\\'o-fold. Evcn nolches ilnd scratchcs reduce Ihe en
durance limil by 10-20%.
A very imporl;ml cause 01 considerable stress cnneenlration is th('.
Inler[{'rcnce lit belween t\\'o pllrls, for example, the Iil betwet'n (jjsc
or pullc)' hub and shall or axlc. NUlllerous cxperimenls revcal thal in
interlerence nts Ihe aclual stress concentralion coellicient mar reaeh
1.8-2. It ma}' be reduced by proper designing 01 the 111"0 pllrls ( 191).
Poor surrace linish can be Ihe sourcc 01 considcrllhle ~Iress COllCl'11Iration in machine parls mmle 01 high slrenglh sll'l'ls. For lxample

~.

fUf ualllple. S. V. Sff{,nM:ll. L:\I. T~jelb~ul11. ~nd l'< l. Prig.".Mskii.

EIlIJineff"f, Mashill>J5l""nl~, 1!)15 (1" li=i"n).

Du~omi, Stffnglh '" Mt<'1,o"iwl

...

o. J/J

lor sll'els ha"ing ultimate stren.:lh bel.....et'n 50 and 14{) kgl1ml1l'

Iltilling Idt'llOlcd by 'Vl wlthoul subsequfflt gnnumK and polishing
creates a stress col\C'ff\tralion equlvalenl lo a,=1.25-2 \htn' and
larlhe.. on the lo.....er value rriers to sl~1 having 0.=50 kgf'mll\'
....hlle the &reate!'" valul' rrien to sleel having (I.-loJO kgf,cm'. Rqh
grinding (denoledby~~)retlocesIhe stress l-oncentration coeflicienl
lo 1.11.45; fin<.' grinding and rough polislung ldenoled by ~~V')
corrt'Spond lo a.=1.()5.1.15. and only aHer fine poIl.shing (lk.'floh:d
by ~~V~) 1');,-1. Nonlerrous !lletals and alCoys are solllev..h;1
lbS scnsltl\'e to lhe elItel or surface finish on stress l'()n~ntrllljun.
The rombinw elTet't of local slresses and chemical reaclions can
resull in a sharp reduclion in the endurance limi\ of eJelllenls sub
jecteu lo corroson. Experlments rl"veal Ihat the enuurance limt
regskrs a sharp reuudon il Ihe lesls are conducled in waler or some
olher flud which clln cause corroson. HO..... l'ver. this ell"~\ is less
pronouncl'd in case 01 sillinless steel parls.
Fnallv. Ihe mcrostruclure oi sleel is anolher facloc alieetinc: lhe
local streMeS and conseqllenlly Ihe endurante linul. The metal is a
conglomera te DI cryslal grains of various sizes IInd arbitrar}' oricn
lation; Ihffclore Ihe adual stress distribulion is lo 5Qme e>;hmi non
unilotlfl eveo undtr simple lell$ion. 11Je degree of nonumlormit)' el
;treos a.!islributlon increases wilh Ihe non.unilormitr el grain sitl'.
Thtrriore. a line grained homogeneoos slruclure. obtame<! by propt1'
heat trealment helps lo increase lhe endurante limi! 01 lhe malerial.
In oonduslon. il mus! Ix> emphas.ized 00 again lhal Ihe higher
Ihl' slrmglh 01 a steellhe realer is ils sensitivil)' to 311 t)'pe:s of Culs
ana.! surface dalnages and lhe higher is Ihe qualit)' or Irnlchinmg which
il requires.
The expressions o, endurance limit and coefcient of slress coflCen
Iration dE"tved in Ihis seclon \Io:ill be u~d In subsequenl ~lions
lor laying own rules lo bt: lollowed in selecling permissble slrust'S.

187. Elf.1 01 Size 01 Part aod Othcr Faclors

on Endurance Litnil
The vaJues 01 endurll/1(;l' limil in Ihe prettding section \\--ere aH
obtained lar small specimens o, a diameler beiween 7 and 12 Illlll.
In recenl experimenlS mclurance Iimils ha\'e been dele!'"lOl/1ed on
larger specimens having dlameler beh\'een 40 and 50 mm. There are
fatigue testing machines whkh are capable DI lesling '-agen lIxlts
of diameler 150 mm ot even :nl mm,
TM expedmenls renal Iha!. firstl~. there s a large spread in da\..
il a big specilfle/1 of Ihls Slle is used lor d('lermining lhe endurance
limil bv t~ melhod gi\'en in Fig.435. Secandl)'. the enduran'
limit, though not aceuralel,. known 011 ltCCOlml of lhe largl.' sprL~d.

'"
is

Pul IX

foond lo be les.s .lInd .sometim6 much less Ihan lhe endurance Iimil
determine<! on snall specillK'fls. This dC(.r~ in endUT3ftCt IImll is
~ pronoull'd In allored 1Iee1s: the ,ifed 01 absolule dirntnsions
on .."durante limil IS less in CMe of carbon steels.
lile experitnenlally eslablished Ix! Ihal {he mdurance I1mll 01
parts is leM Ihan Ihe endurartce Iimil 01 sma1J specimens leste<! in
the laboratory Is al utroost importanc:e, particularly so, ~ause Ihis
factor is nol accounte.:1 for while determining he slrenglh rador.
Unforluna\ely, Ihe rl'duction has llnll now elulled a sound seicn
{Hie explanation; obvlousJy, il is due to a number of radars, which
include lhe fol1owlng:

(at ThC'fe ls a greater pos.sibilil)' or lhe prtsene:e Di internal salleteS

in largo! specimens {intlusions, bubbles, etc.);
lbe small~ spedmen.s are more citar In Ihis rfSptcL
(b) In lhe proct'SS 01 manufacturing, the SllrlllCts 01 spl'Cimens gel
"'''Ork hardened, llnd \1."Ofk hardtning is mort' pronouncnl in spttilTK'lI$
01 srnall 5i~; it has !>f'tn eslablishtd elfpt'l'imentaJly thal \Io'ork
hartltning resuhs in an inc:reasf' in tndllranct Ilmll.

or stress COra'ntnUon

lc:) Finally, ror Ihe!.ame value 01 muimum stress (in ouler fibrts),

Ihe- decrease o( slr('SS as we 1Il0ve lowards {he inttrior 01 tlK' body i5

more intense in case 01 small spec:imens than in large spimens,
and Iheir cr)'slal grains work under less seV(>f"e condiHons.
AlI Ihese ideas are, hawever, only 8SSumpllons. Experimenls 00
determination af adual stress concentration cOt'fficient wHh specl
mens 01 vurious si7.e5 show that inrreasing the specimen sile is lo a
ct'l"taio elftent equivalenl lo iocreasing Ihe sensilivily faclor of ils
material. These facls are of pradlcal imporlance, because lhey show
thal souKCS al slrl'55 cool'efltrnlion causing local Slres.ses are aclually
more dangerous than labocatOl'Y uperimenb 00 small spa"inlffi5
make lhem to be.
Htntt', \1.'hile checking Ihe slrenglh 01 a nllllerial, Ihe ('iIed of abo
501ul(' dimtnsions on endurance limil musl IIlwa~'s be taken inlo attouo!' Such a considcralion can be avoidt'd only iI \\.'e determine the
l'fldurance [imil on spocimcns of nalural size. This, howevrr, is not
al\\ars lOMlble Moroover, surlictent experimental dala is now avatl
able on comparatlve fatigue tests conducted 00 srnnll (diameter 710 mm) amI larRe specimens 01 the Sil me materilll. Making use 01 lhis
data aod 3sstssing thl' reducUon in eodurance Iimll due lo nl'rl'nsl!
01 absolute size by lhe scalt foctor, !;l., which represenls Ihe ratio of
endurance limil P. 01 a small specirnen to p; of a larger specimen or
lhe element ilsel!, \\"1' can approimalely calcula le the endurance
limit of lhe elell1('nl if tbe endur:lnct' limil 01 Ihe sma1ter spedmen is

known. Since

a.=p,l~

y,-~ "

"

(31 14)

S/rcnglh Check lar Vlldnblt Loadlg

CII. 311

'"

The seale lador Ct. can be determined as il hmdion 01 absolute

dimensions al Ihe specimen or elemen! by Ihe curves shown in Fig. 445.
lhe redudion 01 the endurance Iillll of lhe elemen! is expresSl1'd
through Ihe ('ndurance Hmil 01 a lo-mm diam. spe1:men ob1ained
by faligue testing. lhe value of Ct. depends no! only IIpon the absolute dimensions of Ihe element, but also upon lis material and Ihe
saucces 01 stress concenlration. In Fig. 445 curve 1 is used for defec1JI

"

I'r

"
lZ

"

KJ

t5 29

JO t(j50$01JIJ

fU{}

l5D lOO;' ..

Fjg. 44S

mining Ihe scale factor lar carhon stC'CI elemenls in absence al slress
eoneenlration, curve 2 is used lar carbon steel elemenls with mild
slress concenlration (Ct e.,,<2) and al10y sleel elemenls wilh no stress
concenlration, curve 3 is use<! lar alloy steel eiemenls wilh str~
concentration. The curves in Fig. 445 can be used foc srnoolh spec
mens only in bending and torsion, bu! can be used lar specimens
wilh stress eoneenlration in all stales al stress.
lhe produclion processes employed in manufaduring al parls (heat
treatment and chemical heat Irealment, metal cutling, rolling, drop
forging, press lits, welding 01 joints, ele.) al50 creale laetoes Iha!
innuen~ Ihe strenglh 01 ffinterials lo variable londing.
Sorne of lhese processes can lead to a reduclion 01 Ihe endurance
slrenglh: on lhe other hand, there are mclhods of surfaee Irealmenl
which improve Ihe enduranee slrength 01 material. These melhods
are: (a) work hardening of Ihe surlace layer of linished par! by burni5hing wilh roJls or by &hol pr;ening; (b) chemical heal trealmenl
of Ihe surface: nilriding, casehardening. cyaniding; (e) hardening
01 Ihe surface layer by high Irequency current linducHon hllrdening)
or by gas flameo lhe slrengthening e!Jetl 01 these processes lies in the
fad thal residual compressive slresses are set up in Ihe surlace layer:
when the lalter add up wllh Ihe alternaling stresses due lo extllrnal

'"

load.

IPar/ IX
\l,'e

gel asymmetrical stress

C)'d~

wilh

lt

compressh'f: muo

s\ress P whkh i.s less .dangeroll5 40r 1M parto

T~ elTec:t -of prodl.lClion process and surfac:e lreatmen! mar be'
taken iolo acoount (1) "'hile (klermlnlng 'the enduranct Innil on
smallla'boratory specimM5"1,,'hich 8Fesubjedw lo identical Ireatmml
~fort thcy art used lor fa1ig~ l~ts .(2) -by corrupondingly chQngin;:
lhe stress concen'tration c.oerficierrt or b)' introducing.a spteial COl'ffi
timE for produciioll pt"OCnS, K". which mar nave a valce grealer Ihan
unit)' (\\'hl'o Ihe res;slance of lhe part to variable loading decrr3~)
as w('l1 as less than unity.
In a number of ~ the condllions in which Ihe par! funclions

(lIso oonsiderably alfed ihe~ndur.ance Jim;1 01 the material. The rnost

importan! 3ft' he elTect 01 corrosion and lemperature, as well as
ureales, underloading and .overlooding or Ihe 'part during ils \\'orking.

[i the parl works in conditions lhat ,are ,comlucivc 10 corrosion (Ior

cample, ir lhe part is under water), itslfesistance lo variable loading
u~reases and Ihe fatigue curve lllotled in pN coordjnat~ docs
not have a portian which asymploHcally approaches the hocilOlltal.
In such a case Ihe tIlarl can have.onty a limiled enauranee slrenelh
c:orresponding 10 a definite numbt'l" 01 grcles, The hannlul in8tK'rJ
of COI"rosion mar be redlJCfll by work hardening. nltriding. oxidation.
chromium plaling and sorne other mtth0d5 01 surfac:e- lTealment.
At the deslgn stage Ihe efI'('('1 ol rorrosion mal' be laken into accounl
b~' I corresponding il'lCtt'a.5e in Ihe c:oeflicient 01 stress COl1Ct'I\lralion.
lhe change in enllul'il.nce Hmit 01 matt'l"ial must l!so be laken imo
consideration WhM lhe parl lunclions in condlllons wilh 'high or
low tempera"tures. 'fhe enllul'il.nc:e- limit 01 mehb \slcel, cast iron,
nonlerrous metals) sliglitly improves al lo\\' temperalures. and this
is troe for 'Smoolh spec:imens as ""eH as specimens 'having 'stress C'OO'
cenlra1ion. '!'he sall1e metals suiier a drop 'in endurance Hmit, 8"1 'firsl
gradualty and then !aster as fhe lemperalure is increaseiJ. Ir lhc
parl lundiolls lemporari'ly in condi-tions with Ilow or .h"igh "ll'mperalures, lhis can be ,taken nto account by introtlucing a special coelli
cienl.
Parts of machines and struclures 'are quite afien subjecled to shorltcrm underloading and overloading, 'Breaks in operation, untlerloatling
and overloading lor 8 relalively short pertoll oi 'lime generlllly 'have
a positlve e!f('('! on ~he endurance limi! 01 part material, Le. lhey
increase !he enduraooe 'limil; overloalling (slretching 0\'1.'( a long
periad 01 'time) redua:s lhe endurance strength. Sale overloadin
"alue lor a cerllin period or time or sale duration 01 overloading
lar a ven load are round by pltting .special curves ImO\lm as dQJrlQgt
susaptibUity C/UtIt'S, but we shlll nol elaborate on lhis here. We also
note lhe positivc inlluence of lhe so-called Mlraining: lhe parl is
made lo work during a cerbin numbtr 01 crc:les under stre.sses that
are jusi a HUle below lhe endurance Slrenglh.

eh

.111

While designing a parl lhe efTecl 01 lIs opera"ng conuillOn~ ma~

be lakm intu aclvunl by a ~pecial ~ffK:i('nl K~ .. \lhlch 01) codlicll'nl K~ lila) be grNll,'l" or les.s Ihan unil~.
The ~tJecl 01 che rr~umc~ uf 01 nriable llress qtle on lhe e1ldll'
rance IImll is Ll$Uall~ ronsidered \lhen lhe t>nduraoce I1mil is beml'l
d~ll.'l'mirlt'do ~ l'xislmg fati!uco ltslmg machml'S gl\'t>. as a rulco,
about :JlOO stress c)Ocles per minut~ EXpl"rimenlal sludie; >hoIl llul
nrialion 01 lhe num~ 01 cydes behH'fll 500 ,,"d 10 (XX) does not
have any "pprKilIble ellect on e1ldurantt slrenglh_ Thereforl', Ilhik'
designing p"rts subjecled lo variable 1000dmg lhe ~ial dynamK:
stress roe!'ficie11t KD should be ustd onl~ .... hnt lhe C)c1co frequenC)
is less than 500 or grealer lh.1n 10 (XX) alld "Iso Il-hen lhe variable
load is simultancou.sly an impacl load.

188. Practical bamples 01 Failure Undtr Variable loading.

Causes 01 EmugMel' and Dr"rlopmenl of Faligue Cr;KU
Having eslablished a1l aspecls or railure unucor variable looding.
lel us sllld} a rell- praClical cases or such railllre:s.
Fi~ure~ 01"6 anll 441 )110", Ihe bro~l'n JI.,le or l \\a;!OI1 loel1lling~'
eOlllpal1il'lI by 101'5iol1), in whieh failllre occurred dul' lo sharu chan!!l'

fmm a Ihick porlion lo a Ihin portion; insl{'ad o a lllloolh fil~t Ih('

lransilion \las sharp, II.-ilh rough nolciml 011 lht- wrlacco lcoft b~ ti",
cut\tnJ( 1001. The hlligllC crack alll)fl'arl'd al tlM.' outl'r surfact' ami
,J'H'lopetl aloni! a rmJ( lhaped path, Thl' tllah'flal or lhl' a\lf' \\a~
'lOlILSfaclor): IhlS is bofllt' out by Ihe I',llreultl} stllall llrt';l o lIIU'"
llM'nlar)' rUlllurl'o
Fii!ure 4018 lhO'A'S lhe ractuTe or a notHolalmg ",ll(" Ilhich bemls
in Ihe H'rllcal platICo The mal~tal is shaH )t~'1 .... llh an "ppro,litllale

...

iP"r/ IX

ultimale strenglh of 50 kgf mm", The crack Ip~ared and developtd

due lo sharp transition (al fght angles) from a square shape lo a
circular shape.
Figu~ 449 shO'A"'li lhe longitudinal secUon of lhe olher end of lhe
Illmt. shaft. "..hich. has )'d 001 ruptUf~: faligue crillCks oo'elopin

~.

~
~

Fig 44A

lrom lhe ouler libres IO\l!ards !hc interior are cltarly visible in lhe
region 01 loharp \ramilion.
file rolle 01 faligue cracles and the zone of ultimate failure are
bolh cJearl)' visible in Fig. 448. Par altenlioo to Ihe series of curvtd
slrips and lines on Ihe surface of lhe faligue cracks. These are lile

Fig. 1.50

,acts oi gradual dM'dopmenl el lhe cracks; Ihe lailure orcUT:!i approximall'lr along lhe OOTmal lo lhese linu. Hrnce, by stud)'ing 1'lirll"S. \\:e can aJways poinl oul Ihe origin of Ihe crack; as a Tull'. Ihis
i5 Ihe poin! where lhe source of stress concenlration is tIlOSt e!fI'Clive,

Slrcnglh Clwk for Variable l.IXlding

Ch. 3/1

59'

resulting In Ihe fatigue crack. The develollment 01 Ihe er~ck can be

explaincd by Ihe lad lhal high local slresS<"S .1PP('ar al its bao,~. lhus
helplng Ihe crack prop~J,!ate 10w.1rds the interior of Ihe materia!.

..... ",

Fig. 452

Fil!. 453

lt is inlcrcsting lo !]ole tlml faligue cracks <lid nol .1ppcur in Ihc

lIxles, Ih<' fraclure al one of whieh is ShOWll in Fig. 148. which wcre
lIIalle Irorn 51<'<'1 of lower slrenglh (a u:::::40 kgl mm') although lhe
samc shape was retainell. This can
be expl~ined by Ihe Iel Ihal lhe~
sl('('ls have differcnl sensilivily lo
local slrt"sses.
Figure 450 shows lh' laligue I
crack appearing in lh' oil hole of ~
crankshafl working under variabl'
(in opposit' dirl'Clions) 10rsiun.
The cracks make an anglc 01 45
wilh the shafl axis and are perpendicular lo the principal slr'SSes.
Figure 451 sbows lhe beginning
01 a fatigue crack on a car axle all
ihe location 01 a v('ry small
(O.Smm high) bul very sharp recess. \V' find lhat lhe I~ligue crack
starls dev<,loping simullal1wlIsly
fig. 454
al a flumber of poinls. whieh may
nol necessarily be ~II in the same
plane. Laler atl Ihese eracks mergc iulo ~ single crack
Figures 452 and 453 sho\\' 1\\"0 sl('1\1I\ <'l1gine a"les out 01 whlch the
one with smoolh transit ions workell sal isfaetorily for ~O years. where
as Ihe olher \\Iilh sl11lrp c!l:lnge servell only for one year. Tlle matc
rial of l!le second a)(lc \\las belter IlJan Ihal 01 lhc first.
Finally, Fig.454 sho\\'s 11 raliguc <:rack whieh bcgan (Iu' to inlernal
soure<'s of slresscol1cl'ntration.'\ bllhble or 11 hollo\\' indusion inlhe
ral heall b<"Came Ihe cenlre or local slre.sses. This resuicd in grallual

Pon IX

lhe fatigue tt3ck, ....-eakening the secHoo and leading

to ullimaie- failure. In lhe section al lailure Ihe racture looks like
a silver spol.
The above examples are ('f1ough lo show tlKo salient features al
I.tigue lailures.
ElptrlftlCt' shou-s that the principal faclor c:ausing la ligue laHure
is nol the pooc qualil)' 01 material (usuall)' it \Vas fouod to satisJ)'
lhE' required standard), bul lmproper machining. ",;hich gives rise
to cort!iderable local slresses. Only rarel)' deles it happen that poor
quality 01 lhe material give! ri.se lo a faligue crack, which would
not have occurred had lhe malenal b~n of standanl quality. We can
cite an eJ(ample when failure occurred due to a pointsize sharp mark
on the axle's surface.
Belore concluding Ihis section it Is necessllry to explain the phys
ical process by whlch lhe latigue crack appears aud develops.
Oisplacement of cr)'slal grains, as in slatic lensile loading, oq:1tU
IInder lhe aclion or high local stresses which are caused by onl' Clr" Ihe
olher sollrce 01 stress conctnlralion and are usually moch grealer Ihan
the yield stress. The onl)' dilJerenCE' is lhal in lension the plastic defOfmuion and displtlCe~t of crystal grains are raused by the same
stress. Therelore, Ihey alrtet the whole volume! of the specimen and
develop in a parlicular dir<'Clion; unde!" variable loading these (\toformations are concenlraled in a small volumt subjo.'t:ted lo local
~lresses nd revene their direclion at deftnile intervals. Thev, therrfore, do not havl' any appreciable elttel on the strength or lhe spel"
imen as a ...."hole. bul tM small portion t'.lpet"iencing local slre!>SeS
gradually passes lhrouih all stages 01 plasllc deformalion which Ihe
malt'rial or a simple tensile lest spimen has lo bear 0fI Ihe ~rhole.
,\t each c~'(:1ic chllOnge of loading, he pE'unanently delormed por
lion 01 malerial which falls in the zone of high local slres.ses ge-Is dis
placed in one and then the reverse dlreclion; each displacement occnrs
in aplane different Irom lhnt 01 the preceding one, bccause these
displacemenls are accompanie<! by cold hardenlng of lhe material.
Wilh Ihe ncreaile in cold hardening the rigidily of the permanently
rieforme<! portion tcnds lo lhe rigidily 01 the surrounding elnslic matcrial, taking a grl'3ler fraction 01 Ihe load upon llself. This leads lo II
llrO\\"lh 01 aetual maxihlum slresses in Ihe small voJume under conSld
t',..,tion Illlhough Ihl:' mean stress (measured. in lhe remaining por
tkJn lt."ffiains constan! This reduces Ihe load on lhe elastic lOne,
resulting in less strain over tne ""hole zone including the permanenlly
deforme<! porlion .....ithin the elastic :zone.
Hence, under variable loading 1here is a gradual increase of aclual
ma.tinmm stresses in lhe overslres.sed portion anri 11 cOlTespondin
IV3dual decrease in ils delormation. A rali(l.lf' crack dOf'S nol appear
ir lh,' attl'llualion al delOfIDlltion ceases before lhe factual stresses
reach lhe breakmg poin!; the element ",wks undel" S1resses les.s than
d~elopment or

eh .fII

'"

lheendurance limit. On IhI:! 0111 hand, il Ihe slressa noach the bruk
ng point, a crack appears. The process ;s repeated al tho.> bottom el
the crack and resulls in gradual de\'elopment el Ihe crack: lhe element
'fo'Ol'"ks under slresses ll,hich f'xceed lhe ertdurance 11Init.
In general the phy'Siul process 01 (aHure undef variable Ioading
dots nol dilJer much (rom lailtlre unde! simple lensile loading lhlS
>ncluslon is supporled by lhe latesl experimental sludies of failuft'
in bolh uses wilh the help or X rays.

189, Selection 01 Pernli&5 bit Slrrues

With Ihe help 01 diagrllms shown in figs. 436 and 439 we can determine lhe crilical stress lor any Iype or crcle. Lel us no\\' sludy Ihe
arder in which lhe pcrmissible stresses re cslllblishl?d. For the sake
or simpliclly 01 analysls we shllll
consider AD (Fig. 436) lhe critka1
stress tine lor briltle materials and
AH (fg. 439) lar ductile malerials. In order to oblain tht' pero
mjssble slress lheab.scissa a"d ordi
llale Di C\'<'ry poinl en bolh I"es
will bt reducro in accordance wilh
lile aa:epled vatues 01 lhe salety
faclors; lhe latll'f \Viii llave dilfl.'r
('nt val~ lar Ihe constant and
variable components ol U~ stress
qcte.
,\1ean slrl'SS P... may be looked
upon as a cerlain conslant slatic
~Iress. 11 is knol'.71 thal under stalic loading Ihe critical stress foc
brittle materials i~ Ihe ultimale slrenglh, whereas lor ducti1~ matedais il is Ihe rield stress. Factors like the manufadurillg process
antl operaUnc: condilions. lIimenslons of the part and its surface
ftnish, etc., have moch less an elied upon Iheullimale .slrengihand
yield stress as compared lo Ihe endurance I;mil. The effect el Ihl:'Sl"
factors can be akm I"to accooni by si ightlychanglng lhe main salety lactar, k., whith usuaI1)' accounls lor erren in determining the
properties 01 material, magnitude and Iocalion el applied load. er
rors 01 dl.'5ign, and other hiclots. No sp:iaJ provision need be made
lar stress COfICl'nlraBOl1 in case oi ductill." malerials that have a suf Sft. b" UlUIIpk, l. A. Odlne and V. S. lyalKl\'a, ,4ll\clniR:ll ,, Ftlf<pt FIII/
"'1 /JI "1,",,,1$, M.ashci!. 11162 (m ilUilIanl: G. V. lhllik (Ed,tor), F/lIip lJtId. E....
<fJuDlta t1/ .\lrUlls, lL. li63 (In R.~an); S. V. SIrmsm (Editor). P,obiftns tJ/
MrdllPlinJl FIllif~' '\\w"nnstrMTl. 1964 (in R..... an): P. G. fOl'Jl5t, FIU'~fI/
Mrtllls, Pwamou P'<:ss. OdOl"d. 196'2.

lP~rl

'"

IX

fieienlly large }'ield zone. Hence, lar ductile malerials lhe permis
,ble stress under static loading may be found as (Fig. 455)

LPH1-~

(31.15)

"'l1ertas for britlle maleriaLs (Fig. 455)

(31.16)

\\1Ie a is lhe actual SITesos conCflllralion cocflitient, 1.1 is fhe

main $I1e1y factor fo.. yield stress, and kM is lhe r:lain safelr fador
ror ultimale slrength.
Under a s)'mmelrical cycle
loading Ihe critical slte5S is lhe endurance limil, which as a rule is less Ihan lhe yleld stress 01 material.
For a symllll'lrical cyele fhe permissible strtss Ip_,J is found by
dividing lhe endurance limi! p_. by he slrength ooellicient. k,.
whieh besides the maln sa[dy faelor k. neludes Ihe cot'flicicnl 01
actual stress concenlralion a. the seale eoefliciEilt ~. and, il nec
essary. cQefficienls Kp and K~ . (coellicients 01 produclion pr0ct'5S
and operaling oonditions). Ir lhe variatlon of loads 15 nol smooth
but is accompanied by sharp impacts. then we must siso use a dynume ootffident K,, which Hes belween one snd 111'0. Hence lor britlle
as well as dudile materials,

or

[p }=P-l".....E..;,L

(31.17)

[p - J'-~...k~
- k,p. .7.,K

(3J.18)

- 1

-;

It,p..

.a,

The stress diagram plolted in p.,p,. coordinal('5 (Fig, 455) shows

he crHkal stress line ,4D(Aff) and sale (pt'fmissible) line A,D,;
the lasl has been plohed lor values Ip+ll-0D, and Ip_,1-DA 1 determined 'rom formulas (31.15) and (31.17). For linding lhe permissible stress Ip,1 for an arbitrary variable crcle having lhe cocllicient
o asymmelry ~ual [o r. I\'e musl draw through t~ origin oi coor
dioates D a slraighl Uoe DM making an angle ~ (tan ~=:~:)
with the abseissa until H inlmects Jine A,D, lA ,H,). The sum of the
absc:im p,.(M) and ordinale p.(M) of poinl M represents lIJe permissible stress Ip,l:
[p,j-p... (M)-p.(M)+p.(M)
(31.19)
11 lollows from similar triangles DAtD, and NMD, lhal
OD,

OA,

im;""'tm

'"

Ch.. Jll

'"
wherefrom

P. (M) [P ...]

+PIlO (M) [p_,J =

Sinee

[p~

,1 [P. ,]

,-, P... (M)

p.(MJ-2

'-'[p,J
=-,-

.+' (MI
p.IM) = -,-P.u

l+'[p]
=-,-,

(31.20)

md

iI ffiSUes frOlR (31.20) tha!

:21"+.1 Ip_,l
[p]
, -I+')'-.J+(I rllp+11

(31.21)

TIle slrength oondiUon may be wrttlen as

P... '" [P,]

(31.22)

This general method 01 delerminin pcrmissible slresses may be

elabora!td as follo\\-,;:
Gi~n (a) type of deformation. (b) rato ol P... lo P. (e) shape
ol !he parl: Id) mech/lnical propertles 01 lhe material (o.). Find the
permissible stress Ip,l.
Solution:
(1) Calculate

p.-P""1~
(2) Find

and

_P.... P",ln
P. 2

.....

,-~

(3) DetermirK' the mdurance limlt under a s)'mmdrkal qcle f

the given lype of deformation:

P_I =~,<t.
(4)
upon
(5)
(6)

FroID he curves in Figs. 443 and 444 determine t. depending

the conliguratiOll ol !he par!.
Find q from lhe ClU"ve in Fig. 442.
Catculate Ihe actu:l1 eoeflicienl 01 s{ress concentralion
a. t "'" I

+ (a.. ,-I) ti

...

DIJII",,/c AcliQn

o/

Ftnm

IPnrt IX

The actual stress roncenlratiol1 c~fOdcnl may also be calculaled

(rom Ihe loIlo\1dng formulas ( 186)0:
lX~ .

_I. 2

0'-40
+ 02. l'iO"

or

.(1'.-40
0:. _ '5+'
.
'~---jii'"""

ir

Ihe lechooloe1' ef II1iIchining Ihe part i5 known.

(7) Determine scale faclor a. From lhe curve in Fit 445, dependin:
upon lhe lile 01 tM parto
(8) Determine perlDissible stress in a syulmetrical cyde:

[p -,1<= *0'1-
--'-"-"'_
(9) Find lhe yield stress N"~,.a .
(10) Determine (he pennissible stress under slatic loading

[P.J-~
(11) Determine lhe required permissiblt> slrm
_
2[p.,1Ip_d

[p]
r -(1

r/tp-.,I+(J+rjlp_d

This lI1elhod el delermining permisslblll stresses i5 nol ver}' accu

rale on aceaun! of Ihe rnodifications introdueed in fhe diagrams and
lllso uue lo <ln insurJi'cienCly accurale accountlng for lhl' stress con
cenlralioo factars. If desired. more a(eurale breaking slress diagrams
may ~ usW in ....<hich Ihe dotled lne.~ shown in Figs. 436, and 439
are no! drawn The an:urale method or anal)'sis lila)' gve much higher
vallles 01 ptrmissible ~Iro:ss rOl" eycles having characleristics approxi
malely toquallo zero ir the endurance timit b c1~ ro the yield stress;
in all other silualions lhe resulls obtained lrom Ihe approximale and
accurale dlagrams al1' nol mucl\ dilfer('nl.

190. Strenglh Check Un&r Variable S!m!tS

and Compound Stresscd Stale

The above rtlt'thods fOl" cflecking 1M strenlh of materizls unOO

variable str~ were disrossfod in conncdion with the simplesl types
01 dt>lormation: tension. rompression. lorsion and bt'nding. 1111'
question that now arises is: How to apply Ih~ mtolhods in ca~ of
oompound stressed stale-?
FroUl a practical poml 01 view lhe masl impo:lant situalion is
thal 01 rornhinfd bendiog and lorsion. As explained earlier in 125.
slrtngth rlle<:k has lo be carried out rOl" an tolement orlhe mal'eria~ in
a biaial stresset1 slate; four or its laces are acted upon by shearing

.,

01.tll

slrcsstS

T-i and t\\"o by normal sl~O'=~. \l'M~ w="'

Is

lhe seclion modulus d lhe round shaFt.

for a strength check.under stalk 100tllng ....'e emplo)'ed Ihe fol lowing
1\\'0 conditions: condilion fA) .....hen' lhe l!leory 01 muimum shearing
streMe \\'as apptied, and (B) when tlle theor.y 01 distorlion enugy
was applied':
(A) 1

0'+ 41'"" [a]

(B) ~(o'+3t'''ao]

antl

&th formulas mal' be wriUen in a general form. by dividing tbem

b)' (al:

'"'
oc in lhe general form
.../

~.

'
JI fri'i'+W~
1

where hl-IIl when the theo~y 01 ma.mum shearing stressts is

applied. and l-~ when the distortion energy lheory is applied.

Thos. the slIength check by both thlits llIay bt> tepresenlcd by a

COlllloon equalioll
(31.23)
5ince the latigue crack is rallSf.'d by lhe same physiral pr0cess6
ol l!eformalion of lhe material \\ilith result in lallure und('f sllltic
loading, equation (31.23) nlal' also be. empfoyed for clWcking Ihe
strength 01 materials under variable loading. Stresses a and' 1 may
be broken inlu the components 1)'"" a~ ami T",. l~:

Here 101 and Irl represent lhe permissible slresst$ under bendinR
IInd orsion. I~l ami h:1. res.p:tivell', oblained lr"OUl Ihe sirnplilietl
Ip.I./p.1 diagram (Fig. 455) by laking inlo ronsideration lhe
stres,s concenlrallon roefcienl 01 lne plIrUcular Iype d dtionnation
and lhe cyde rharacleri5Ilt.', ~ or ~.
(I. .~

I . .~

",2

Dgnam/c ilclilJJl of

For~.

[Pon IX

191. Practlcal Measures tor Preventing

Fatigue Fallure

Tlle resulls derived in {he pre<:eding sections enable us to find

means, whkh ensllre suflicienl strenglh af machine parls and slrucIUTes under variable stresses.
These measures may be divided Inlo [wo calegarles. On one h.md,
\Ve musl be able lo manufacture clernents of machines llnd slrucluTl.'s
from malerials which have Ihe grealest resisiance lo variable str~5es.
We have Sl'en tha! in Ihis respect lhe requirements of lhe material
lcad lo lhe following wa poio!s: lir,l, il is desirable lo use a metal
which has a high ultima!e strcngth and sullicient dudi!ity, b~ausc
tllis is compatible w11h high endurance Umil: second. lhe metal mlls!
be free 01 aH inlernal factors of slrl'.$ COllcentration (tois rt'qllirement
c~n be {lIlfilled by a material 01 unform line-grained struclure wilh
oul Ilny residual stresses (e.g. after quenching) or dsruption of un
lormity in the forl\! of cracks, gas bubbles, nonmelal1ic inrtllsions,
ele.).

lhese requirements explain why imporlan! parls subjecled lo

olten manufaclured rom alloycd steels (chrome
nickel, dlromevanadium) having high ultimate strenglh ~nd
finegrained struclure free 01 inlernal stresses, which is imparled by
proper heal Irealment (hardening wilh subsequent annealing).
However. such sleels are sometillles round lo have microscopic
crads (especially in chromenickel steels), which are known as f/akes.
These lIakes, jusI like inclusioJls, may shurply reduce Ihe emlllranre
limit 01 steel in spite of Hs having high ultimale slrength.
The sa:ond calegory of measu'.s ensuring sufficient slrength under
variable loading consists in careful design 01 Ihe ouler prolile and
proper finishing of Ihe eXlerna! surfacc al Ihe elemeni. lIJe chiel
aim of the designer and technologisl should be lo reduce as lar as
possible the coefficient of stre,s concenlralion caused by sharp chan
ges of Ihe profile and defedive machining. R.eduction of local slresses
can be achieved chiefly Ihrough srnooth transitions 01 profiles. grooves,
cuts ami fillels. 11 is inadmissible lo provide unsmoolhed transilions,
although lhe radius of the fillel curve lIIay be very smal!. Whenever
possible the radius should be l3tge enough lo alieet no1iccably Ihe
reduction in local slresses. The proper radii /IIay be selecled with
the help of Figs. 443 and 444. It should be noled Ihal sornetimcs jusI
a small increaseof lhe radius can rid the elemenl [roOl danger o[ fail
ure.
We know of lhe failure 01 a large nllmber 01 crankshalts or airerart
engines in Ihe Royal Air Force. Tliese lailures occurred at lhe fillet
near lhe mOllnling sea! of lhe properter; !he ailllres slopped when lhe
fillel r.ldius was increasell by jusi 1/8 in.~3 mm.
This can be explained as lollows. Al slresses c10se lo the endurance
v~riabte lo~ding ~re so

OOJ

Imil lhe curve depicling lhe rl'lation bl'tween blUkine: stres.s and
number 01 crcles is alDOSl horizonlallFig. 434). Therefcn. i lhe actual stress e"en slightly uCfftis lhe mdurante Iimit, I,ilure is inevitable, because a ma}orily of the parls undergo cydie changes whic:h

ut large enougb [or lhe fatigue crack lo

ap~ar.

lb)

(~

Fill

~56

On the othcr hand, the ,.ligue crack dotS 001 ap~ar il ....'t make
lhe actual stress jusi a liUle las Ihan he enduran' limil by reducing
1".1' coefflcient of stTeM t'Ol"ICtf\tralion. The sharper he ch.'mge af profile, the reate.. lhe dilftrenCe betv.ftn he rigidily of adjacenl por.
Iions and the sharper he change 01 slress, lhe grealer is the coefficient or stress OOl'lCffItralion. Therefore {he Ioc:a] Slresscs can befl'tluced nol 0111, by maklng lhe transilions sllloolher, bul also by
tlecreaslng the dllference between the rigidities of adjacent porliom
01 lhe element in the seclioos where stress concmlration is unavoid
ble. These con.slderalions have recently led lo {he concepl 01 cripplblg ell/s. For example, when a gear or fulley Is moullted 00 a shart
Il.'!th nlrrrerence lil, considerable loca slresses Ilppear in Ihe shllF\
material (Fig.456(a)).
The coelliclenl al stress concenlralion far normal stresst'S under
bending in a section perpendicular lo Ihe shalt axis varies belween
1.8 and 2. Figure 456 (a) Iso shows !he vllrilllion 01 normal slresses
in t~ ouler fibres 01 Ihe shaft. on whith th<' pulley IS moonted wilh
an inlerlerefll:e lit. The struses wert' d~termirK'd by oplical melhod.
11 is evident lrom the diagraDl that I1Iefe is a sharp local increase
in slresses, espcdally in lIJe compressed zone near lIJe hub wge.
The 10Cll1 sl~ dC'CrGSC and become lIIOn!; unifm1y distribulM
if a cut is made in lhe hub nCM lhe oontacling surfaao lo smoolh
down lhe sharp change in rigidily al Ihe edge (Flg.456(b. The
I:Odlicknl of stress concentralion falls lrom 2 lo 1.4:
as shown in
Fil. 457, lhr han diameler at the sea! is increascd in addition lo

ir.

(pQ" IX

Ihe cut already ""de, Ihe coefficient of slrN concenlration nlJlY be

redOCM lo 1.0-1.05. The local stres.ses may .similarly be reduced b}'
bos.sing the thicker part near Ihe sedion 01 sbarp IrallSition (al rlght
angles) (Fig. 458(0) .and lb).
In all U~ examples lht aim of changing lhe proMe is lo smoolh
ltic change ol stre.ss in lhe stion 01 lransition.
The resislanee 01 malerlals lo \'ariable loading ,Jepends as rnuch
upon lhe surlaee Iinish as upon the smoolhness 01 lransitions in lhe

OJOJ
W

(r1

F- 457

Fie, 458

prolile. Any .!iClalches 01" culs lelt by Ihe cultlng 1001 can play an mporlan! role in subsequtnl l.ailure 01 tite part. We knO'\\' 01 th<o fllilur.:
of I lrgt number of pistoN 01 sttam engine cylindn's. whm tapt'rM
hub.s \\'efe litled 0lI lhe wom I.pcred ends 01 lhe plungers lo incrcast

r:r

'.

-F""i;:-__Lr~l!f't

ll'_

Ol_p - . J

1..

6
1 P,.

' '" --_-',

'1'

'l'_L-=~~f-;:

-~P,

l P.

~I- - ' - . --~,,

their thickne5$. Before fitting the hub thr \l-om out surfate al the
plunger was subjec:led lo coarse iurning \l'thoul anr sub.wqUf!flt
finishing. The Iilligue craeks appeared under lhe hubo bqlnniilg
from (he .!lOtUU' 01 stress ooncentratioo in lhe form of a .scralch Itrl
b)' ihe cuUing 1001. Therf'iore, fine finishing. nkkel plating arlu
v.rnisbing, ji lhe p.rl \\'Otks in a oorroding medjum, IIre nol super-

""

Ch. 321

ftuous luxuries but i1bsoJu\e nec~itil$ lor sale lunclioning 01 a majority 01 parls subjetled lo variable loatling.
JI shouhl be nol<>d lhal Ihe quesUons 01 proper seleciion 01 male
rinl and mies regarding proper dC'Sgn 01 pllrts cannol be sludied in
isolalion from olle anolher. lile better Ihe malerial. Ihe higher 15
its ultimale slr...ngth ntl l!Ic higher Ihe qualilY 01 machinng which
il requires. ti we use a t05tJy aHoyed sleel and do not pay sulficienl
altention lo Ihe reduction of local slresses, \Ve ruo lhe risk 01 bringing
lo nou~hl lhe advanlages thal accrue Irom lhe use 01 high qualily
slee!. 1he sensltivily laclor of such a sleel is much higller Ihan Ihal
01 ll1ild sleel. lhis was explained in 18&.
FiguTl'S 459 llnd 460 sho\l,' Ihe p"'p,,, diagrams lar mild nd high
grade alloyecl sleels. On thcse diagrams tines A,',18 correspond tu
I,lilure due lo devclOpllll.'nt 01 a {aligue crack, and lines GN f(>pr~nt
[ilure due lo plaslc ddortnalion \\'hen Ihe stresses exceed Ihe vieh.!
d~.

Lines AMN, which are shaded on Ihe diagrams, represeni lhe curves
01 breaking slrcsses (in Ihe wider se-nse 01 lhe word), It is obviou~
Ihat Ihe "hanees or lailure dlle lo developnlent 01 faligue crack are
rar grealer in case 01 alloyrd steel Ihan in mild stee!. lhe chances
01 reduct'on 01 local slresses due lo plastic delormation are considero
bly 11'55 in Ihe firsl case as compared lo Ihe second. lhis lo a large
('xlenl \!xplains Ihl' higher sensilivily or alloyed sleels lo slress con
centration.
Sumnling 11, v..-e may concludc tha! Ihe hlghcr Ihe grade 01 stccl
Ihe higher is lhe qualily 01 linishing whil.'h il reqllires so Ihal alJ ils
properties may be fully explolled.
C:HAPTE~

12

Fundamentals 01 Creep Analysis

192. Effect 01 High Templ.'ralures On Mechanlcal
Pmperlie.'l of Metals
On aecounl o[ Ihe fasl lIevelopmenl 01 machine building, increas
inglr vital lmportanee is being aHaehed lo strenglh anaiysis 01 ma
chine parts working lar long periods at high temperatures. 5uch
pllrts lnclude discs anll blades 01 slealll and gas lurbines, pipes arl(l
olher elemenls 01 steam generalors, variolls parls 01 internal combu5Iion engin('S, jel cngines, chemical plants, ele.
lhe behaviour 01 lhe materials 01 such parts Is alfecled by {he
absolute temperature as \\'e11 as lhe duralion lor which Ihe parls
\\'ork al lhe hlgh lemperatur~.
lhe propertics al mel3ls change considerably al high lelllpt'ralures;
therclore the known properlies 01 strenglh and dllctililr a\ normal

IP",( IX

(room) lemperlllure cannot serv~ far Ih~ anal)'sis el elelTK'nts el lhe

ume m!'!als \\king at high lempt'falum.
As lhe lempcralu' incruses, lhere i.s al 6rst a gradual rt<!oclion
01 lhe modulus of elasliclty and !he limil of propotlionillity; be)'ond
a parlicular lemperalure flor urboo sleels afln' JOO.35ifC. lar alloytd
sleets !rom J5O.4OCfC, lar nonlerrous metal! (rom 5().15O"C) this
rtduclion goes on gelting sleeper. Thus, rOl' example, lhe modulus
of elaslicily al a cornmorll)' used sleel is approximat~ly 25-30% less
at 600"C and 50'" less al 8OO"C 1I5 oompamllo ils value al room temperalure. The redllction al lhe modulus 01 elaslicily and limil of

l,!!

11.;:;

)l

U:f\X

1500Q 0.5 50

100

'.

_a'

,
,

""" "
.-

"

10

..:J

XKJO Qtm

I
I

tJ

,,

,ca

""

I
I
I

I
I
I
I

I
I

I
I
I

I
I
I
I
I

,~

T,'t

'JO

'"

~:;:;

!;1J

OC,

': C

rjl/. 461

proporlionality is !Ven mOle pronounced in ca~ of nonferrous melals.

0
.nd ultimal!!" slrenglh, a~, of carboo sleels in
crease al lirsl wHh he inrrease in temperalure and become maximum
al a lemperalure of aboul 2OO.25O"C, lhe maximum vallle is 16-20'"
greatrr Ihan a. and o, 1I room lemPfiature. JI lhe leoperatute is
furtoo irttteased, lhe yield s~ lalls sharply: al fIXfC lhe yield
slress el slee! is only 40" ellts va!ue al room lemperalure. In case
of nonlerrous metals and I~ir aJlays lile incruse el lemperalure
is accompanied by a conlinlJOUS decrease 01 }'ie!d stress. Wilh locrease
in lempcrature t~ endurance limit varies in a manner which is l1'lOI'l!
Of les.s similar la lhe \'ariation el ultimale slrength.

TIM! yield stress.

,
1

607

Ch. JJI

The plastic properties (lolal relath'e 1'lon:aUon aOO reductioo 01

c:rousectional are.l at lhe molDl'nt 01 lailure) sulier a slighl selb.ck
as the temperature is inc:re&Sf"C! lrom 20 lo 2OO-25O"C: with a furthtf
incre~ in tempetature lhe plastic: properlM!s, as a rule. again beli!in
lo improvr. However, the plaslic propli~ 01' austenilic: c:hromenickel slccls, bronz:e, brass and nickel are ad ...ersely aI1'ec:led by high
lemperalur1'5. On lhe olhl'r hand, lhe plastic properties of aluminium
and magneliiurn improvl'.
The curves in Fig. 461 show Ihe variation o strl.'flglh and plaslic
as lhe tl!ll1pt'1"alure is raiSl!d to
properlies of mild sl('('1 (O.15~.

soo"C.

e,

193. Creep and Altereltecl

The varialion 01 slrenglh and plllstic propertics with lhe inerease
in lemperalure is 01 vIlal imporlallC:t' in the dl'sign 01 rlelllenls of
m~c:hines and slruc!urcs. HO\\'ever, Ihe mosl iQlporlanl faclor alleC'ling
lhe beha\'iour 01 melals al high temr:eralures is crup.
Creep signies a OOfltinuously Imay be vt1'Y slc\\) increasing delormalion under conslanl fotn'S (or str~) and high lemperalure.
In I nurnber 01 melals lt'ad. brass, brollZl", alumlnium and I If'\\
other I1OOlerrous meiab and allors) c:reep may OC(:ur even al room
lemperature.
The higher file lemperaturC', Ihe raster is lhe growlh or derormation
due lo creep. Sometimes a gradual. COfllinuously increasing deor
mation O'eI" a suffic:ie1llly long period of lime al hih lemperalures
may !load lo laHure of an rlen:enl, even lhough Ihe stresses induced
in il are less than nol only IIw ultimate slrtnglh bul also IhC' propor
linnalily limi! al roolll lemperature.
For 'Xample, Ihe diametcr of a steam pipe working al high temper_
alure amI pressure increases conlinuously; finally il may f3d duC' lo
ruplure 01 lts walls (this sometirnrs aclually happC'ns). The crcep
discs and blades of stean turbines may resuH in overlapping
Ihe gap between Ihe blades and Ih~ lurbinehousing, leading lo breakage 01 lhe blades.
Creep of metals is ao irreversible (permanenl) deformalion, which
may be sludied as slaw yiclding. In a number o{ c:ases (espt'Cially
in a compound siresse<!. $Ialr) plaslic dtformllion due lo creep results not only in a c:hange in s{r('SS bul atoo thC'ir redislrbution over
the volume of lhe elemen1. 1e change in s\tess is prominent
..hen Ihere is a resrrainl to total deioTlnalion of the body due lo
cerlain specirtc: featutes 01 ils \],-orking. In such cases, lbe elastic:
ddormalion experienced by Ihe body durn loading decreases wth
passage or time: ihis ruulls in lhe beginning of plaslic delormation,
whkh subsequerltly conlinues lo grov... It is acrompanied by a reduc:
tion of slre$SCS in lhe element. Such a reductlOll or slresses due (o

or

or

'"

IParl IX

gradual ncrease 01 plulic defotmalion ,,1 Ihe cos! of elaslic is known

as a/Jer-elttcl.
Due lo- aHu-flfKI a mild interierence lit between two parts may

Joosen so much as 10- impedc the normal functioning 01 the slrudl.lfe.

For uample, me l00sening of thc Ilange bolls of a gas p;pe Of lhe: high
pressure qlind~ 01 a. steam turbine may ultima!ely lOad lo leakage
al gas or slearn i~ (he bolls are nol tlgbtened periodic.aHy; the loosening
of ni bet.....een Ihe lurbine disc and lhe shaft m3Y Icad lo cJearnnce
between lhe Iwo resulting i1'li lhe coming off ol hr disco
As already slaled, Cfe<-p. may occur in sorne nonfefrous metals amI
thelT al10ys cven al room lempcralufc. 110\\'cver, in sleel, iron and
8 numb~ of nonferrous l11elals and tl1eir alloys cr~p begins only
I\'hen lhey areheatedabove 11 cer\ain, uniqul' lar each melal, temper-

alure (cacbon steels amI iron above 30035<tC. alloyelJ slrels .hove
350-400"C, Jighl allo)'s ahove. 5O-~50"C. ele.). Cree" is nol ob~r'''cd
in U:e.se metals il Ihc)' are healed bt'lo..... the spe<:i6etl lem~ralure$.
Btslde:s. even at temperalutes equaJ lo or higher than the specllied.
creep does 001 begin as Ion( as lh~ slresses renlllin less than II parlic
ular. specific rer tach metal. ",alue. Aiter-ef(ed begillS al lIpproxi
mOltel)' Ihe same values of lemperaiure and slress as cre;;op.
Creep is espedally ptominent m Hlelllls. However. it occurs m a
numbef of olher matenals also. Fot txa-mple.. a~ room ter.1perature.
cr"\J can be. observed In various pl4stks (Cf'lIulold. bakelile.. pol)'""ni chloride plastil;. ele.). concrele nd cemenl nlOflar. In re.inlom..d
concre.h:: slruclures, creep. with tlle p~ 01 Un.e, luds lo redis
ltibuhon of, slresses bdween COIlCf("Ie- and re.inlc:Jlmenl; lhe alter
gets slighy oves:loaded whereas the- stresses in concrete decrease.
HO\Uever. the cn:ep 01 concrete ami tbl' ensuing .edislribuj,iQfl of
slre:s.ses naYe' alrnosl no ell'C'Cl on Ihe lood carrying capadly af Ihe
rl'mforced roncrele slruelure. Cr.eep al room le.mPt!flllure a'lso. oceurs
in timber under eompression. an ~~iall,y unue~ bending.
Experimenta'l slutly or lhe phenomenon 01 creep began qUite re
cenlly (in 1910). These studies aroused widespr~4d nterest in the
enly lwenties, when the firsl imporlant re.suLb were published.
Cteep I~ting presenl.s a nllm~r of djflicuHies even in simple ten
sioo. These tests can be: Condllcted onl)' 00 a .sp:ial apparalu.s COl'
pable 01 mainlaining a constanl load and lemperature and ml'a.surin
lhe .sp;imens deformalion. The crttp tesis mu.sl ~ conueled wilh
a higb dtgRe of. accuracy if rehable resulls are- dcsil'ed. the duratiorl
01 the tesis shoold no' diller much from lhe servlCe life of Ihe eh:rnent.
and thil invohe.s le.slirll: over ten.s 01 Ihousands 01 hour.s.. Al! hese
faclOl'!i make creep testin a complicare<!, Iime<onsuruing am! ~t1y
allalf. Qr 3OIlnt of all these- diUiculties Ihe phffiomenon o{ cn'eP
has unlil now nol been studied experimenl:llly SlJliicientl)' ....1"11 even
lor .smple lensile loading.
Te:sling f(N" creep is .slitl mote oornllhcated and eUlIIbefsome in oom

..

Cl. J21

pound slressed state. The majority of lhese ttslS ,wer~ .conduded on

Ihinwalletl pipl$ subjecll'd to a combimUoo .01 inlernal pressurl'.
tonion and (ension. However, lhe nuOlber ,uF 5uch tests conduc.ted
until no\\' 1S "'l'r~' sOlat!.
Scimlists have nol bt:en sueces.sFul in .working oul shorl -tesis on
creep. Tile IUson lS lhat Iht' sliplIlatetl duralion of lesling is a nec
t:5.SiIrr and importanl condilion fO!' oblainlng reliable rcslllls ..'hich
liJa)" be ~ lor creep allalysis antl design. 1he rcsulls 011he ac~l
erated tesis can. as yel. 5ef\;e only .lar an approximale .qualitative
cstllnale of the etlcd 01 high \emperatures on Ihe behaviour 01 rnetals.
194. Creep and Afler-eiTect Curves
A. It ""las menlioned aboye Ihat experimenlll sludy or acep. which
forms t~ basis 01 de$ign of e1tmenis 01 mathines and struclures

'Iluking at high temperalures, la generally carried out on apedmens

aubjected lo simple tensioo. In <.'fl!'('f) tesling ;the temperature ancl
ensile 'force acling on the specimen must remain constant o\'er the
duralion of 'the les!.
The elongaUon of the spec.imell is measured al 'r~uI8r intervals
01 lime: From {he readings we plol a curve fio the .coordina1e aystem
relath'e elonj:lllion p versus time f. and the cu""e is kOOWJl as lhe
atrp clUtJ' Q{ 1M mdf,riol. The .shaped"'1:~.c:UFVe ~ds upan IIw:
material, slress anrl '1~mperature al whil:h the test ls c:onduclN.
A t}'Pical creep curv~ for m~t8ls is shown n'fie. 462 (curv~ OA-BCD).

. i....

"

h, ,
"
L'
6

F'I:' 462

\Vhen the spedlllen hule<! lo a'particular temperalure T 15 looded.

deforlJlation increases Fasl in Ihe beginnlng (depending upon the
apeed 01 ]oadlnel fromuro'lo a certaln value OA, (il la assumed (ha!
loadlng of tht' spl.'Cimen la slopped at a siage <whlch corresponds to
poinl A on lhe creep curve).
it~

'"This i.s

(P"'I IX
foll~

by gradual increa-w in d~rormalion of lhe loaded

an (he material bea:ins to creep. The growth of creep delormalion is depicted by curve ABCD; tbe ordinales 01 poinu on this
tUTVe (far l'13mple. lhe ordlnaie 01 point JO represent he sI/m 01 elll5-

speciltlell,

tic slr.in t~=OA. and crttp strain

e.=A,K,;

t=t~+t.

rile rale 01 ertep deformalion al any poinl 01 the curve 15 determined

by lhe slope wllich Ibe tangen! lo {he curve al Ihe poi"1 makes "",ilh
the abscissa, Le.

"

v ..,_lancr;

Tite whole proccss 01 cret'p may be dividE'd inlo hree successive

slages. In the first slage. represenled by seglllent AB on {he c~p
curve, lhe delonnalion takes place with a nonuniform, continuously
uecreasillg speeu: Ihis is lhe rone of flon'ljni/wm, or wJs/abll', crcep.
Ikpending Uj)OO Ihe material, stress and temperalure, the durallon
01 {he ftrsl stage varies from a tew hours lo a feYo' hundred and even

(in exceptional cases) a Itw thoosand hours.

The nalure o( cmop in Ihe finl and second stages is aD"tctl!'d nlO6t1y
by Ihe following 1110'0 adon; (1) increase oI slrenlh ol the material
dIJe lo sIra in hardening. wtlkh eun as a consequence of increase
in residual (peI"manent) dtfonnation. and l2) relOOval of slrain hud
ening or decrease 01 strenglh due lo hi~h lemperature. ~p can be
sludltl as an interaction of lhese t\\'o laclors. whieh are chiefiy re
sponsible in causing ~pul1'~ creep. This picture or creep mil)' be como
plicated. espeeiall~' durlng Ihe su~quenl stages. by various inlemal
{for exafllllle, mkroslructure change and phase thangl'll of the metal)
ami exlernal (Ior eJl:/Imple. tOrTosion) factors.
\Vhen Ihe slrengthenmg effect of strain hllrdening is balance<! by
lhe weakening efreel 01 long eXJlOSure lo high lemperature:s. the d~
creaS<' of creep rale ccases and Ihe seoond stage (segment 8C) bl'gins,
Ihis is Ihe slage 01 uniform, or slable, crup, in v:hich creep oceurs
Wllh a minimum unilOfm veteeily.
This velocily remains constant until a neck beins lo form on tlle
specimt'll (poinl Con the creep curve). H I~ load on the spo:eimen
remains cOll$lant, lhen the local reduction of lhe er05..'lst'Ctional
aru of Ihe spedmcn in lhe lhird slage (segmtnl CD 011 lhe creep
curve) is aet"Ompanied by an i!)Crease of slresses. whieh in Iheir luro
resuH in a higher c~ rateo This leads to ultimate faHure el tlle
specimen (point D on lhe eteoep curve).
The shape of he creep CUfW' ma}' change considefabl)' ji lhe "mpe:ralure or stress is changed. Figure 463 shows crt'ep curves al con
stant temperalure. T. but dilJerenl fixed values of ~treo;.ses al {o,<o.<
<o.<o.<aJ. The tteoep cur\'es at fiJl:l'd slress a but different Iixed

C1l. J21

'"

values 01 temperalure TI (T,<1"r<T~T.<TJ are Identic:al to Ihe

aboye curves.
Al low values of slress (O'~O',) creep milY be completeJy absent,
i.e. lor lhe loade.! specimen Ihe ll'[ diagram may be represellted by a
straight Une passing Ihrough poinl Al and pllrallel lo Ihe 3bscissa.
At a somewhal higher value of slress (o ...a.) Ihere wHl be a short
,

O,
D.

'.~"'~._-"

O,
1

,
Fill_~

period of unslable creep, whkh will stop when the rale 01 creep becomes zero. Al a stiH higher value 01 stress (0=0.) Ihe velocity of
creep will nol be ero bul will be so small that ailure due lo creep
will occur afler a very long period, whkh lar exceeds 111(' service
lile 01 Ihe element.
Al stress o-o, ,,"'e get Ih(' creep curve shown in Fig.462. If the
slress or lemperalure is furlher In<:reased. lhe creep curves Iso underoes a lurlher change: creep progresse:s at a lasler rale, and lhe
straight line portion of lhe curve-Ihe tone 01 stable creep--oes
on geUing shorter liII 11 reduces lo a point (curve 5 in Fig. 463), I.e.
lhe zone 01 unslable creep directly changes inlo lhe tone of filuTe.
In Ihis case lhe zoill! of stable creep is represented by an infll!c:tion
poinl on curve! ABCD, point B.. which coincides wilh poinl el_
The nature al ailure dile lo creep depemJs mainly upon lhe proper
Ies of lhe malerial at lhe given lemperalure. Carbon sleels al lel11p~'
atufes less litan 55ifC, copper, lead Hilel same olher ighl alloys
generally leil arter large plastic t1efonnatioil and na-k fOl'malion.
$pl.'cial hl.'al resl~lant steel$ h3\'ing good CrL'l'p $!renglh fail alter
comparaUvely $mall deform:ltlon, IhI! failu~ is brlttle in nalure
and usually bcgins al lhe local ion 01 stress concenlralion.

'"

D!lm1.l'l1c

A'ti~"

01 Forres

[Pllr/ IX

B. As alrelldv stated, a!tcreITed 1s tbe gradual r('ducHon 01 slresse'i

in a IO:loJecl e\cllll'nt \\'hos~ total Ut'IOTllwtion is cOrL~lunt and eqll~l
lo the eJaslk defofnmtion in Ihe loadcII slate. Thc redudon af slrfSSt'S
l;Jkes. place duo:! lo gradual de\:rease 01 dastic deloTuwlion and an
eCllivalent ncrease: in

formula:

pJ~stlc

de!ormalion <lcconJjng to the followiug

l;=~ . +e~=t:~_consl

(32.1)

ThC' aftcreffec! curve is shown in Fig. 464. Thc j)rocess uf aftl'r

ell.....:! m3\' bl' dividcd into \1'"0 slages: in 1I1t' nrst stagt' (seglll\'nl AB
on Ihe a(ta-elTect curve) the stresse; lll'fease vl'ry fllsl, arH( Ihis is
3ccolHpanied by II sharply d('CTcasing after-eliecl Tale; in he second
sruge (scgment BCon he curve) Ihe redllclion al slresses is considcrabl}' $Iower :lntl is acromJlanied by slowly dt'<:rl'aslog llfter-elTt't:t
rate.
l){:pending upon he material. inilial slress and tcmlleralure, lhl.'
duratioll of lhe firsl slage varies (ron! several lens of hours loa few
huodrcd hours. The ph)"sical proc!'!>S
, A
accompaoying nller-eifecl in the firsl
nnd second stages has not yel !let.lJ
slll(lied io sullkient deLails. There
ar~ sti!1 very fe\\' good experimental
sct-ups for studyio,l! aftcr-{'iTect, antl
this rnakes il dilfleult lo compare
Ihe resulls of experin1t'nls 00 aflerefree! wlh lhose on creep. lo majority 01 Ihe machines which have
beeo used unlil now lor invesligaliog aiter-eifecl it has been impossipure aller-eifecl.
"L
--" bleltlo isachieve
generally assumed
thal
growlh or p!astic deformalion in
Flg. 464
after-efrect is similar lo ils growlh in
creep and therefore Ihe rale 01 alter
eifecl may be calculated Irom lhe creep velocily. fr Ihis assurnplion
were Irue, there would be no need for sludying ailereffecl.separalely_
'owever, lhere is anollll.'r view which holds fhat creep rate caonot
be taken as Ihe Tale 01 after.elfecl, because Ihese processe.s 3re bll~i
eally differ('n!. the mechanism 01 origln and growfh of prasUc delormation in alter-elfecl is somewhal differen! from that in crC(!p.
In aitereffecl {he reduction of stressc.' in lhe eremen! i~ eaused by
the growlh of plastie deformaUon allhe rosl 01 ela~tie delormalion,
and lhe lenglh 01 Ihe eremenl remalns const:l1lt. In cr~p the gro\\'lh
01 plasLie deforrnalion is exc1usively due lo e-Iongalion 01 Ihe elemen\.
The tolal deformation in rreep i5 con~iderably grea!er than in afterelft'<:l; Ihis is an important diifcrence, becau$t' lhe magnilude of

----e

'13
dtformation al higher lempmltures mi)" considerably alJtd creep.
giving rise lo aflef-i'lfed, diftusioll and other proce5StS \\'hich call
lltroogly inihlt'nCe tlw r~islaoct' of a maltfial lo plll!tit dtformalion.

C. In stud)'in creep a very impOC'tanl

~quirem('f11

is to

~Iabllsh

functicnill depentlence betwet'n lhe malo quanUl1cs whieh dem.'

lhe ~reep curve (stress (a). lell\peralure /1). and time (1) and creep
d!.'Formation (e or sJ

OC'

cretp velocily

(~""tlr)'

VariOll5 lnvesligators proposed a nu.noo 01 formulas correlatlng

lhe above quanlllies. TIle majori\y of these formulas were oblaintd

empirically. and 001)' a le'l<' of them additionallr look into actOUnt

lhe physical nalure of lhe process 01 creep. Therefore, none o ihese

, e

rT ----------- I f

f ~ftIl

l! \-----------r
ti

I.,.~ __f3,

_J01

lun <!Mu,-M~

t,

i'<
I!

.:

Fil_ .f65

formulas is able lo justily lhe experimental resuHs over a wide range

01 ~trl'SS, lemperature ~ntilime vllriation. In a rnajority o( the cast'S,
anal~'sis based on these iormula~ concurs well with thr eJlperimenlal
tiata only over isolated porlions 01 he creep curve, lnainl)' in tll('
tone of stable creep.
Since t'XPfiimenlal slud)' 01 unstable creep is much more diflicult
tllan thal of slable cret'), lhe wne of unslablr creep 011 lhe creep curve
has not been investigated suf6ciently. Thereiore, in actual (Jetl'
anal)'sis, the zone of unstable creep is oltm neglectl'd by extendlng
linl' Be (FiJ{. 46..'1) HUII inlersecls he vertical nis al poinl B" anti
Ihe lolal tieiormalion tlue lo creep (for tJr;ample, ex) is calculaled by
Ihe lollo\\'ing approximate formula:

6,...- e.+
=-I!:j

e~ ~ t:,+1!:~=-8,

+t ,v,

+1, lana
(32.2)

Slable creep has been experimenlall}' sludied lo a much grealer

ulen!. From among the various relaliom rOl'" Crftp rale, pl'OpOSl'{f
by difterent re:search workl'l's, the following haye beffi found to givc

Part IX

'"lhe bes! results compalible wilh e.:q)t'f"imcnlal uata:

(l)v~_fw'

(Z)lI<_aSiuhf

(32.3)

In lhese rormullH! k, n. a. alld b are ('er1ain COll5lants whkh depend

upon !he properUes al Ihe maltrial ;lnd the tesling Itmperalure. TIle
second relalion is more compatible with eJ:perimental results Ihan
lhe linl, bul it considerably oomplicates computatlons. Besides, the
dala available 00 k and n el he in! relalion is much more Ihan the
dala available 0Il c~liclents a and b of the second relation. There-

fore, Ihe lir:>l relation is more commonly used in creep Ilnalysis.

Coelfitlcnls in Formull (32.3)
<.hf.I<:.1 """pO>l'~ ~ ~
~.

TI'PO'''

,,<ti

NI

C::l.bon .tl'i:l

0.15 O.SO 0.23

Ca.boo stl'(!l

0.43 0.68 0.20

Molybdmum sled

0.13 0.49 O.2S 0.52

Chron"molyMenum
slcel

0.11

O.~5

O.~:!

O.SIl

'.08

o.,om~lIlOlybtl<:llu"l

o."

0.49

O."

(1.$2

I .'"

Chfl.fllC'-lIicltl stC'd
t18-8)

O."

0.50 0.61

Steel611

0.52

O.B2 0.57 13.&1 15.2 2.01

SI....l NI>

0.19

0.72 0.11.1

.~I

11.75

1.11

.."
'-',

0.77

Tabl" 23contains data on tite values of coeFficients Ji a"tI

steds, tested lar crl'tp al varioos tl'mperatures :md

'"

11
$t~.

for sorne

195. Fundamentals el Crttp Design

A. It i.s obvioll5 Ihat al high tempt'fatures t~ mosl !uilable ol"lefating
condllions for a parl uc those which COITnpond to tllt> Iirsl ar ~d
c~ curve of fig. 463 whm creep defOl"malion ~ no! appear al
allor disappears soon afler lhe part is loadl'd. Howt'ver. lhe- corresponding slresscs a, equal lo lile creep imil llnd slrC!Ms a. 3rt' USutI)'
SO small in ma~i1ud(' Ihat il lhey wert' lo bi.> acceplcd as lhe upper
strl'ss limil, Ihis \\'ould lt'ad lo an unjustilied incrt>ase in Ihe dinlt'n
T~bl~

\'.1 .... 01

U,
1=01 ......'

l.",~.'.t"~

.'>

AnnnUlIt; tl"c

Annullne &14"C

J\nne.liru: 8ol4"C

Annulln: 8U"C
Hardt-nint 1093"C

Hlldl'rlll1t

117~"c

Norm.1I1l1110ll 8.'iO"C

.~

.'"'",
....'",
m

..'"'"'",
'"
''''
'"
427

'"'"..,

..""..
'"
'"
"6

l;~

4.

q1 ... ')

Annc.Jlill': 844"C

~ori'.:lnl.

In ',",nf.

"'l .... , . . .

'23

l410-mO

"".""

110-251)

:11-90
1(lf,O. 1&90
211)-g)

1W).1llO
910_l4l0
:;('o.HIGO
210.420
00-120
970014(0
460~0

28Q....'O

....,."
3.IU

2."

6.0
3.'
, .7

,.'"
4.r.o
3."

3.10
8.35

.. "

0.41 xlO-1lI
O.S9XIO- u

'.3
,.,
'.7

1500-2500
:?ol).5(lO

O.2xIO- U
O.I4Xlo-"
0.12xI0-1.2xI0-'
0.6xI0- 1O
O.23xlO-"
0.2><.10- 12

3.'

8M-I340
51;0.1000
3508)
110.2m

10-1500

O.U')o,IO~"

2.9

6."

......

O.17XIO"
O.12xIO-l>
O.2t.xl()-U

1I.5Sx 10-"
0.14><'10-"
O.IOxlll-"
O.ITx]()-"
O.I{Sx!O-"
O.lnixIO-"
O.3f.Sx 10-"
0.2IXIO-"
0.J7xlO-
O.14Xlo-O.2IxI0-"
0.65><.10- 10
O.29xlO- IO

r..90

140280
1410.2110
;no. 1060

ro.'"

.(,... ;qlJ~,-'1

3.25

3."
2.95

3.16

...

."

DI/_le Ad/m 01 ForPG

IPjI,t IX

sions ol machine p.rls. Th~el(ll:e. a -srnall ,creep deform:rlJon j generallr permilted in m.chine parts (third (urve in Fig. 463). HO\1r1!.v.er,
iI js ~essary {h,t Ihe tolal slrain _ in lhe part equ<l1 lo Ihe sum

olstra.n due to ]od.

'l'

Ind strain dile lo crtqI, e... (Fig: 465) should

no! during lhe "",hole sefVIC'e life ol lhe parlo Ir. exceed a given PET'
missible strain (tI '9:hich depends upon the funclion of lhe parlo lts

operaling cooditions elt. 'for instante. lhe .permissible sluin kl

1 {he pipeso( sleam supe.ohe&lers is 0.02. lor sleam pipes iI lis 0.003,
while lar sle.amturbine cylinders its vlllue is 0.001.
Hcnce, for uni.axialloading the design equation is;
e.... ""~I+~&~[e.]

(32.4)

Il follo\Vs Irom Fig. 465 thllt

t,+S,"""t,+'"d
where
t ..

_f" t.ana=- t/lr"" t;1~

(32.5)
13:2.6)

is ihe uniform (slable) creep slrain c.Iuring lhe !leTVtc(' liIe t, of lhe
par!. Vsing formulas (32.5) and (32.6). equalion (3:2.4) may be modilied 85 follows:
(32.7)
e,+f,Jm-"'(e]
wherefrom
(1

'" )--;lItl-~'rf-

Siras

{,tl-t

(32.8)

l }'/-

(1=~

i5 $Ometimes caUed lhe virtual crup limil 1& permis..ible tO/(ll t:ri'tp
and is denolt'd by O". Thus. the desie:n equation lor wrmissible creep slrain 1mB)' be lI'rilten as

Slra!I,

0 ..... 0

_llpl-l,\I/-

....... )-;;-

(32.9)

If Ihe elastic and .unslable creep slrains al the elernent are ne:li.
gible as compared to Ihe dable creepstrain. then creep atl3lysl$
ma)' be based on !he maxlmum permissibJe slable {minimum) cteep
rale..Obviously. Ihe ptrmissible creep rate shoold be determined
from the condilion lhal creep deformaUon iocreasing wilh Ihis con
stan! rllt' shoold nol exceed, during lhe ....llole M'Tvice lile el lhe elemenl. a ceriain ptrmissible value 01 deformalion whk:h does not
disrupl the normal functioning
lhe slructure or machint'. The
corresponding maximum stress. which does nol h'e rise lo a tteep
rate greater ihan the Pffmissible al lhe particular lemperature,
may be cansidered as Ihe limitin stress. OHm Ibis stress is relerred

or

."
01

to as Ih~ crHp limil

prrmissibt~ 1)1' un.ifarm

tJre fTIQ[t:rial from ronsitkration of /fU! mnimum

rate 01 deformation (0'....). EvidenU}' o,.. ilI "

[W\Clion of lemperlllue and the mlnimum permlstilble creep rale.

Tlblt 24

Cre"", Vtlodly

I TUfbirx discs wHh li~bl 111

2 Boll~ lIan:e; ."d ('l'lilldotr$ uf ~lt~lQ lurbillf5
3 Sltam pipn, _11kd joI1111 01 boilt'l" pirt!t
4 Pipe; 01 '!('Im wpa-tlUltfS

10-'
la-O
\n-'

10- 0 .10-'

As an eJlarnple. Table 24 :]ve:; (he appro)[imllte permJssible vatues

011111' minimum rell1tivecreep rate, luel. lar a lew parts 01 ~team bollers
and iurbines.
In crecp analysls basel! on mnimum creep Tale, Ihe lundamentlli
equlllion 01 uni-a.tial str~d stal!' oi Ihe material Ola) be \l.Tillen

as

10110\\"5:

(3'2.10)

.ince

From equallan (32.10) we gel:

[(J J=0<.= {!2.I}'

k
"

(32.11 )

The strenglh condHion in terms 01 siresses may be written as fol-

10Il0'5:

(I:lO;[(Jl={~}

I/a

(32.12)

B. It is implicit that in creep analysis from considerations 01 permiMible delormation and permissible creep rate il is not enough lo

ensure thal the creep deformalion does not exceed a permissible value
al 11 partIcular temperalure during the whole service lile al lhe elemen\. Jt s also essential lo provide a cerlain safely faclor againsl
Ihe oc<:urrence 01 such a failufC. Hence, poinls 1(,K. and K1 (Fig. 466)
en creep curves 1, 2. and 3 corresponding lo abscissas (/lh t ro and 1,
and ordinales Id" Id and Id, musl Be on lhe segmenls correspondlllg
to lhe lirst and serond slaees 01 creep.
21 -UII

PaN JX

'"This must always be checked analylically and lherelore requlra

special invesligation. A3. aIread)' explainfil. creep anal}"sis Itom roTIsideraUons 01 prrmissible deformalion and permissible creep tate may
be replact'd b)' an analysis bascd 011 p..:rmissrhle slresscs. Ihe Cfet'p
limils Ora oc 0'..... Howe'ler, it s essential lo check beforehan(\ lhat
a, (o,. oc 0"',) lIoes nol exceed a perrnissible "al Uf. whic:h s a certain
!tacUon or lhe ul\lnate slrenglh al lhe given lemperature.
!,tJ

"' .. ~<

"'"

1000
lIJO/)

JIJfJ

",

~J<.r

f.!l"

1----:: r--- "".

!XI

f!XI

"-

r--

r--

-".

"-

",

'"

Fla:. 4&7

11 is known lhal al high lemperalures lhe ullimate slrt'rlglh 01

ma!eriDIs isgre<llly dependent upon lhe duratiOll
tt'Sli~ a compar~tively slllnll inufaSEi in durallon fllay cause conslJecabJe reductlon
in lhe ultimalc strength. Al a ceclaio tl!mpl'raturl! (above 8OO"{: lor
mi Id stl'dS) Ihe sr.ecimen JmIY even !ail lJO(h"r <1 load whieh Induc("'l
stceMeS Illal ~re t!5 han lhe 1mil of proporlionalil~ al room lem
peralurt, proyjded Ihe s~jmell is subjeclcd lo I!lis load for lt suFticitnlly long lime. Thereiort', tll pTt'Sen1 lhe slrength of a l:aalerial
al high temperalures is characleriz.ed I10t by Ihe ultimale slrenglh,
delerrnirwd from shorl-Ierm lests, bul br Ihe 1000gterm Urttlflh (o.,).
The Iong-Ierm stn'Jlilh al a parlkular I(,/f\peralu~ ch/lcaclerizcs the
stress whieh will cause failure onl)' afler:l specified periodo The curvcs
in Fig. 467 sho\\' lhe varial-ion 01 longlerm strenglh 01 chronte-mol}"bdl'num sleel (0.1% e, 1.55% Si, 4.88% Ce, 0.51% Mol as a funetion 01 lime al various temperatures.
A few scien\ists lre of lhe opio ion Ihal the nonuniFormily of stress
dislribulion al lhe localions of stress concenlcation s sll100lhened
ducing cr~p and Iherefore strl":!.S coocenlra!iQrl nero nol be !llken mio
aecount in creep designo It is relevanl lo poin! out tllal machine
parb \1Iorki!1: al high lemperalurcs art", 3S a rule, m.anuJaclure<f from

or

'lO
spedal heatresistant stetels, wllich have poor tendency to creep; genero
ally SlICh parts (ail art~ undergolng 5m31l dtfornlalion and the lai!
ure i5 britlle in natufe. Consfiuently, in a majority of practical
cases slJlOOl~ing of lllt stresses d()('$ not occur and it is es:sential
lO accounl fOl" stress tonrentralion in creep d!sign.
Thf:refore. whlle delerm1ning Ihe long-term slrenglh 01 heat resistanl sleels. the possibility el stress coocrolratlon should be laken
iolo 8ccounl, Le. lhe uperh:ll!nls lor d("lermining o.. should be
condueled on spedmens 01 corresponding shar.
lf Ihe elemenls al machines are subjecte lo Ihe simu1taneous
liclian 01 fatigue and creep. Ihen lhe longlerm strmglh should be
tletermined from fatigue lesl al Ihe appropriale lemperature. Thus,
lhe following importan! cases may
bE' disllnguished while calculaling
Ihe strcngth 01 elements of ma- "",.[GOI)
chines and slruclures worklng under
high !e01peralures.
II Ihe lemperalure Is nol high
~ouh to cause creep ( 193), Ihe
crilical slate is determlned by lhe
yield slrt5S or ultima!e strength
of lhe malerial al !he iven tempero
ature, oblained by lbe usual lests.
The slrength condiHon is:

lJ";';;[lJ]""!;

(32.13)

"

Ir creep is possible al the given

Fi.468
temper31ure (s 193), then the
flr~t Ihing to do is lo establlsh which 01 lhe ~missible slresses is
ma;dmu01 lO!" the lolal servk:e [ife t" 01 the elemenl: Ihe permissible
slrc:ss Frorn conslderalions of tol..1 creep delormation (a...) oc mlnimum
creep rale (o.,,), or lhe permissible stress lrorn consideratlot\S 01
longterm strength la.ll-at, where k l [$ Ihe longterm sarety

fador. ",,"hien mar be consid~ed approximately equal lo {he usual

salety factor k (Fig. 468).
Jf 101""0. (a",a...><!o.jl, wne A in Fig. 468, the cret'p design
should be carried oul ac:cording lo formulas (32.4), (32.9), (32.10)
or 132.12). If, en the o(her hand, 10J=0.> 10.,1. tone B in Fig. 468,
then creep design should be based on the fmula

a~[0]=~7

(32.14)

n tbe elemenls experil!Tlee after-eifed, then care should be taken

that lhe [n(errerence lit belwet'n them does not lcosen beyond a pero
2\'

D!1flOml~

(Port IX

Acftoll 01 Fof'0t8

!jissible limi!: retluced slress O, due lo after-elfect shouid nol be less

than a certain minilllum value which ensures Ihe required interference
belln'en Ihe- elemenls:
lJ t;;;;' 0llllD
Frorn Us condition "'"c can specify periods a!ler which the joints
SllOUld bt' relighlened lo the required interf01'rence by special melhods
(fur instance, by tightening the flange bolls of gas or steam pipes).
In contlusion il should be pointed out that lhis secl ion dealt mainl~ wilh the melhods 01 creep analrss in simple sHuations (uniaxial
stressed slale), whlch can be uliJized for building up Ihe analysis al
more complelC cases. The melhods of crl'('p analysis in cOlllpound
slre>sed slale are Ihe subjecl of sludy in spedal monographs.
196. Examples on Creep Design

hample lo Determine Ihe frequency of Iightening nange bolls

oF a ~tcam pipe lo preve-ntleakage of sleam, !he "itial puH 01 p"",
=3lfiJ kRf on each bolt cannot be reduced by more ihan 40%. The
l('mpC'ralure al which Ihe bolls work is T=425'C. Th.. cross.seetio~al
1.Ir~; (JI e-~ch boll is A=3 cm'; the bolls are madI' al rnild sleel havmg
modulus of elaslcil}' E r =I.17XIOOkgf'clll (al T=425"C); Ihe
slJLle creep rale lor Ih<" malerial may !Ji! delermined [rom Ihe lar mula
~< ~klJ. and at

k_2_26x 1O-.. ~
k,n.hr

T_425'C,

and

1~=6

5011'e- lhe problem on Ihe assllmplion {hal lhe flang~ o[ Ihe sleam
pipe ore ab$Olulelv incompressible; Ihe zone 01 unslable creep may
be ncgleded.
.
Solutiurl-. H the lIanges oi lhe sle~m pipe arl.' absolutety incompres
sibil', Ihen the lotal dcforrnation of Ihe boH elongaled during Ighl
ening by 61. Illusl rcmalll constant. During creep Ihe elastic deformation 01 Ihe boll i1/. will graduallychange inlo-plaslic deformation
1.\/,,; Ihis willlead lo thereduction of slresses in lhe- boll. The following
condilion musl be salisficd
J./~+ di/,,,, l.""const
el

+ e"=Er+e,,=e.=Er
G

G.

where o. is Ihe initial lighteninl!" stress in !he bol!' o Is the slress in

Ihe boll al the instanl of fHure t, and Er is lhe elastill' lllouuJus
~, 1<11" ex~mlllc, l. M. (,,,,JIMI'W. TlllXlr~ ,, Crl!<.'p, fltmnli, 1%0 n" Rus
M.li""', I1pi'Ii.'J ,:"wII"f rt,,.<iiWII,,"d Cm.'I. o\bslti'lStr'>Clllc, 1975
RU$S'"Il).

.~','n); N. N.

('11

e...",

62'

of jh~ material al lhe given lemperalure T. Upon dilIerenlialing the

above equalion IIo'.r.L t, \\."e obtain
Ido

4"

Ido

Ido.

r;.i +41 =Z; +o.. '"" er;

N~etl

O
SO>

ing unst.1bJe crrep and 1ubsliluting ko" rar 1/<. we gel lIJe lollll'lll-

ing dllJerentlal equa\ion:

'"
"
;;;--E.,kdl
'"
Upon infl'gTaling lhis equalion
oblain
,1)"O_I-E,JrJ+C
;+Erktt'-O

\\.'e

(.)

(It

whcre

e 1$ he constan! oi

integration. Sinee a-a, al /=0.

C---+:'
-=
; I)Q:-'
Sllbs!iluUng this value 01

in l'qunl1oll (a), we gel the lollowing

formula corrl!lating (} and t:

O' "" -

------".'--,...
1

11+(.. -I)E~-III~

Subslitllting lhe numeric:al values iven in Ihis problrm, \\'e gel

3000

""3
"--

a_<

:.,_ =

1000
IJ+2X1D~.llj/

[1 I (6_1)I.nXJll"X2.2GXIO_n(~)'_I,]'-1

or[-+(I~).
The v.lues of I COITesponding lo dil(erenl valua of a are given in
Table 25, colurnn A. If lhe slrtsSe5 in IIJto bols are no! lo decrease
by QKlre ihan 40". UJen Ihe bolts musl be Iight~ aflf'r ever)" 5930
hours oc approximately afler 8.5 rnoolhs.
This solulion 01 (he allere:t1e:d in bolts is approximall'. Due: to
pliability vi Ihe sleam pipe- lIanges the slresses in bolts will redilee
al a Rllleh fastl.'f rale. Howevrr, ji lhe: pliabiJily of lhe lIanges istak('fl
inlo :ICCOIJllI, lhe solu!ion becomes quite complicalcd Wilhout con
sidering Ihis aspl'd in detall Wl' j:!ivc here he fi".!~ resulb {see Table 25,

D!lNlml~

'"

Ad/oll.

01 orca

[PDrt IX

column 8) obtained for lhe case when Ihe elas!ic deformation or the
llanges 15 t~ ,-3X IO-'P h and t~ir creep rale is v. 1 =5x 1O~"p:
(....flete P, kf is lhe pulJ on each bolt al instanl t).
Table 25
V.I.... ol f

'-'

lICl/all'1

,O<

.",

,<7o

100

24;5

..

''''

...

''-'

.."'"'" "".. ...."...... .....

~"

"

31100

Hence, ; ....-e follow [be resulls el lhe more aceUTale 5Qlution, rttightenlng should be carre<! out nol al an inlervill or 5930 hours
bul at an nlerval of 5000 hours or about every 7 mooths. This period

will be stillless jf we ronsider lhe lOoe oJ unstable crN'p during creep

designo
hample 2. A round 24-mrn diameter shaFt working at

T=54O"C.

iR twisled by a constan! torque MI-ro kgf. m. The shaft is made or

alloyed sleel having shearing modulu5 Q=-6x 10' kgflcm* (al T'"
-54<tC). Tlle stable creep tate may be calculated from h!' formula
v.""kt~, al T-54ifc k=2.5x 10-" cm""'(kgl".hr) and ll""-S.
Find Ihe shearing 5lress dislribulion in the 5haft's cross seclion
and also ils angle of twid alter IODO hours 01 \1:orklng under load.
SoiutiOll. Le! us assume that the hypothesls of plane sections under
Icmion remailu in lorce during creep loo (this h~'pothesis agrees
surftciently \\'ell wilh experimental dal!!). Then lwo cross sectiOIl$
al a dislance d.x wi11 remain planes and onl)' luro w.r.t. each olher
b)' an angle dlp. 5ince the radi! of lile: secllon!; do nol warp, we ma)'
use lhe usual ( 47) formula loe delermining relative shea.- al a dislance (mm the slJaft nlre:

y~.,.p~
Aftes" loadlng the 5hearing slrain begins lo increase 00 3CCOUnt

of creep 01 {he shaft's malerial, the rl'I.live angle 01 twist : also

inereases accordingly. The total shearing strain may be expre:ssed
as lhe sum 01 elastic sira in l'~ Ilnd t'1"fffI slrain y" Le. i'=Y~+l'c'
The rate al ffowth 01 lhe lola/ shearing strain may be ",rjiten as
lollows:

Funda~tlll1l.

Ch. 321

01

Cr~p

623

AnaJys

For simplincation, the relatively smal1 rate of growlh or the e1astk

deforrnation may be negleded in eomparison with Ihe large rate o[
growth oi creep delormation. The exacl solulion, with tI,:;O, is much
more difficult. Besides, neglecting lhe rolle 01 unslabJe creep and
assuming that vc=/n", we get

V;:::::V<=ktn""'(J::~1
wherelrorn

,~
where

"

(..!..k dxdl
<1'1' ) " en = d-..p"
,

!D=(i:l)"

(bl

The condition represenling tbe equalily 01 the moments of external

(torque) and interna1 forces about lhe shaft axis may be writlen as
follows:

M_ M, =

STpdA =

"

\' 2nptpdp=2o<D.\ ,,2+-;- dp

where r is Ihe shaH radius. By inlroducing Ihe notalion

we may wrile

101
and laking into account expression (a)

T=.!!.!.p

'"

We see Ihal the distribulioll 01 shearing slresses of creep ov~r Ihe

cross sed ion of the shaft is nol linear.
Subsliluling in tht' expresson lor Jp < Ihe values r= 1.2cm aod n=5,
we oblalo:
~xS+(

J P' _2X3.14X"
1 2---r- -1964
1 2U -3. 52 cm H
.3X.~+ l Xj .
X.
The sheariog stresses a\ a distance p from the shaft are:
M....!...2000(

....!...

T=:""'!"P"=_pS =568p S
/p<

3.62

."

Oytw2mk AcliOll

DI

(P~'I

Fotr:u
Tabl~

.-,

VlhlUIlI'l:

..., ,
"",

..."
...

"
qu_'l

~,

'"
'"
'"

'lO
'"
'"

Table 26 contaios vahlcs 01

qti...,

1:

26

"
0<#1/"')

.'"

'"
'" o

IX

correspondlne: to differenl values

or (l. The lable Iso conlains values oll" lrom consideration 01 pure
(atsioo or Ihe shaft calculated by the formula
M,,, 2M,e 2x2000
614
T.=J;- nr- =3.I.XI.Z' p- P

Crte) helps in <'quali:ting the sttesses OVe" lhe shaH's cross section;
lhe slre:ses al Ihe surract regbter a small decrease, whereas lhe ~lr( ...~
~ar lile axis inc~ase cOlUide-ably (Fig. 469).
le! us delKmine the anle of twist ptr unit Jengtb al lhe shait.
On he basis or (b) and (;) ..~ roay wrile

!'9 __ ~k (.!!L)'

dii1i

JU

Jnlegraling Ihis expression w.r.t. t,

.. _k

Since

~-(::). -~

\Ii~

gel:

(.&)t+C
J,c

al 1-0, we see Ihal

d~ ... [~+kt (~:r]

C-g-~~

and

dx

Integraling and putling x_l cm, we obtlin

'f,

M. +kl ( ... ).
-u,
J~

Substlluting the numet'"ical valut:S of this problelD,

~. =6XI~~:XI.z+2.5X

9.'e

get

10-" (~)" IOCIO

_0.001 02+0.01480=0.0158 radjan

'"

Ch. 311

rt can be easlly seen lha! on aeeou"t 01 creep the angle el lwisl increased almosl 16leld as compared lo the angle 01 twisll.mder pure
torsion (tirst term 01 the aboye result). Hence, lile decreast' 01 maximum shearing slress in Ihe shafl does nol mean thal its working
condilions improve due lo creep.
bample 3. A SOcm long simply supporkd beam 20 mm by 40 mm
is acled upon at lhe mlddle 01 its span by a concenlraled loree p"""

r,lp!aw z

=~lfII~~"==':lQ/};=~.:.;dfO

U+

'L.
A~

"

,
,

fig. 469

Fil. 410

=400 kgl (Fig. 470) works at T=500"C. lhe beam Is madI' 01 mild
slcel having modulus 01 elaslicity E=1.6x 10' ki(l/cm' (al T=500oq.
The slable creep rale is v,""'ka n, and al T-=5OO"C

Ncgltoding Ihe zone 01 unstable creep, find Ihe distribulion 01 normal stre.>Sl~ in the critical section and delermine Ihe maximum def1ection 01 Ihe beam after 10 000 hours 01 10adinR.
So/u/ion. While solving Ihis problem we shall neglect Ihe effed
01 shearing strl!SSes and assume Ihal Ihe hypothesis of plane sections
under bending remains valid in creep too (this assumplion agrees
quite well wilh lhe elperimenlal results). Assuming lha! Ihe deloTmation 01 lhe beam's libres 10110ws the same law in lhe slretched and
compressed rones. \\'1'. mal' express Ihe sira in 01 a fibre at a dislance y
by lhe rdalion ( 63) ~=*' where p is lhe radios of curvalure 01 the
neutral surlace 01 the beam.
In lhe loaded slate lhe ]elormalion of Ihe beam libres increases
graduall}" on accoull! of creep or Ihe beam's material; lhe radius
01 curvature 01 Ihe neutral surrace also il1creases. The lotal relntive
deformlltion of an arbilrary fibre may be represenled as Ihe sum 01
clastic an] creep strains, Le. &~~~+&<. The rate or challge 01 tot31

D,MM1c AaiM of Foua

cnep sira in may be written as

(Pul IX

di')
p

di df
dt~
V=Tt""=f+dT""V.+V~-Y
di

For simplification we neglecled, as in lile preceding secllon, Ihe rate

01 change 01 elaslic sira in. For an accurale solulion 01 lhe problelll

(assuming tlff{) consult special monographs (see foolnole on page 620).
Neglecling, in llJdition, unstable creep and assuming vc=kd", y,"C
obtain

wherclrom

(.)
where

"'- [.'.~(.'.)]'"
r'

(b)

Al di

The condition e;presslng Iht' equality ef momenls or tlle txlm\lll

and internal (<<ces aboul Ihe neutral axis may bt I\Tilten as follows;

M""'~o"ydA=2> ~ y""dA
A'/I

Introducin lhe notation

we get

Ind. if 1l"C re<:all (a),

tt should Ix! ooled lha! in creep Ihe distribulion 01 normal slresses

over the helght of Ihe StClion ls not linear.
If lhe beam has a rectangular section,
1

1,._2

S
A,/.

T,
S Y1.-~ bdy!I ,,~ dA-2
D

1
'"
:!II+I
!!.:.!2ii+1
bh-.2~

Subslituting I~ numeral values al the problem in lhe vepression

ror J w \\-e g!t

tIC).l

=3X2X4.
,.,
-.,.,,''---2X''-'T
'-'-(2X3+1}

cm'

10

_8.64

1X2

The maximurn bending momenl s;

400Xro

PI

M",u =- =-,-=&OOOkgf cm
The normal slresses in the reclangular beam may be calculaled
from the formula

The: normal slresses oompuled from lhis formula for ...arioos values
of !I are given in Table 27. For compari.son, lhe values of normal sires
S@$ under elaslic doeformalion are given in lhe ssme lable.
T,bl" 27
<1 I~~rl<"")

, (""'1

1l1..11<:
dd"",,otlOll

ro

938

""

""

'"
'"

..

"'"
no
,n

'"
'"

~~.tl""'J

, (1I1111)

I!.I.. tI.
deI_oU""

,,
o

....

'""'
,ro
330

Due lo creep Ihe slresses over Ihe beam's cross seclion level oul.
in Ihe fibres farlhesl from the neulral layer. where
as Ihe slresses near Ihe neulrlll laye.- incre.'lst' (Fig.47I). The de
crease In maximum slress is more pronollnced in Ihe reclan~ular
beam as compared lo Ihe [beam. because lhe IllllC'r is comparsllvely
thinner near Ihe neuiral ayer.
Let us determine Ihe beam's dellection. Expressing Ih!: curvaluTe
01 lIJe beam b}' Ihe approxima[e relation _~. \\'e ruay wrile

Theslr~ decrea5t'

i:{ ~ )- :;. (~). Since from (b) and (e:)

'(1)

iU ji' -

/(l)II =

ro.

k 'l'

PaTI IX

.....~

hav~

.!:.
('!) _k!!.:
ti.,' tll.
J:'
In lhe case 01

ti

simply supported beam (Fig. 472), M=(P/2)x and

(d)

where
>p"
t-J;'

R-lntegraling equation (d) w.J.l. x. v'e obllllin

('1<) =....!i...
lI+J x... +C

'., dI
;

~- ("+.~"+2)%"+Cx+D
where

e and D are conslanls 01 inlegration. Snce y=O lor all values

.l!l1
,

#1J
,

61!0
,

(JJ""~'

~
,

tlKJ
'

j l!

11_--, ,
~
~
''''-:r_
I
1. I
I
I
I

'--;--'"<-1-.1
Fil. 4i2

at x=O

".

0..311

The maximum cJelleclion occurs in he 5lion Il.. herc x=1J2;

,,)
Ri~
IrP/~'
( , ..... ---2~1,,+2)\,,+21Z'.. 101;'
lntegraling w.r.l. /,

\\'1'

II.~

get

obtain

y", .. _ -

kP"" +1

t+H

("+2J:I'M~"I:'

'iNhere H is Ihe conslanl 01 tnlegralion. Since al 1=0

".
".
--48FT

Yau -(y",u). - -481;1.

lIJe

have

11 - (y.... ),

The maximum delledion due to CrL'l'p 1113}' (hcrcfore be wrilten as

p"
y - - 48ll.
M'

IrPI.....

1" H)2'lh'JJ=.,

2x-4'

J. -j"f""'"""'i"f""'" 10.67 cm"

..d
.aox5O"

1.&Xlf'l-"'J(4OO'xSO''''

!Y.ml-d'XI.6xl()ixiu6i+ l.tW(3,2Jx2".'"
-0.0611 +0.3G3"_O.4.2Scm

10000

Under creep. Ihe mulmum load on (he [ea m should be delermined

(rom consldt'fHlion 01 permi~lbJe defoflllalion. Ji. lor instance. Ihe
lI1arimum del'lectioo 01 Ihe redangtllar heam should nol exceed l/500
ol i1s length lO.1 cm) afler 10000 hours el operalion, then lhe Dul
mum permissible load ma}' be cakulal~ (rom Ihe condllion
PI'
,p"".,
4'J;+ 1" +2):1" .... 11 J~ t ~ [fI

SubslltuUng Ihe nume-rical values.

'inP

~8XlO.67XI.6XIO'

1I,"e

ge-I

15Xl0- lI xr.oo
5X8.64IX21 IOOOOPI'.l>;O.\

P+0.2326P-x IO-!';;;; 40.96

wherefrom
PE; 40.8 kgf s::$ 40 kgf

Appendix
Rolled Steel Proflles
(GOST 8239-72. 8240-72, 8509-72)

.....

....""
....". ,
"
"
"".
'"
"',
2"

2..

."
".
33

36
00

._.-. -"",-.

,-,

'10

''''

.."

,ao
''''
'00

"

"O

73
00

lOO

<ro

'00

""""''''
.'"

,110
'"
125
125

200

..
..
..
"0

270

'"
..,
360

500
500

..

110

..".'",
"O

'"
"5
'60

110

'01
'00

.~,

'.5
<.8
'.9
5.0
5.'
5.'
5.2
5.2
5.'
5.,
5.6
5.6
'.0
6.0
'.5
'.5
7.0
7.'

9.0

10.0
JI.O

12.0

7.'
7.3
7.5

12.0

..,

10.'

,... ,

14.7
17.4

23.'

....

11.50
13.70
IS.OO
18.40
19.90

'.3

10.'
26.8

8.6

2! .00

289
30.6

".00

'.7
'.9
9.5
9.'
9.8
10.2

10.2

10.7
11.2

12.3
13.0
14.1
16.2
&.5
17.8

32.8

....

3<.8
37.5

,3.2
".5
49.9

53.'

61.9
7"
8'.1
100.0

118.0

138.0

22.70
25.00
27.30

"'JI.50
. '"

. ...
33.00

36.00
42.20

".60
51.00

".00
78.50

92."

108.(0

"lO

Ap~

Tibie I

".
'.
..,
...1

".
'"
""
"'"
""
"'"
,..
'''''
.,,,
""'
"'"
,""
'''''
"'"
"'"
"'"
"""
"8

813

,."

...
7;l1O

39.1

58.'
111.7

hhlo'''' nl_ _,

'.

'.06

'.88
~.73

lW.O
143.0
159.0

6.57
7.42
7.51

18-1.0

""
232.'

'-"

317.0
371.0

10.10
11.20
11.30

. '.31
"'...... .."
""..
m .
"'.
""'.. "'...
4<2.0
518.0

N3.0

1231.0
1589.0

"".0

-,'.
23'
"'.1
".8
81.3
al.4

89.8
IGt.O

.,ft

"

(e_")

17.9
27.9
41.9
58.6

82.6
114.0

,.,
",

'w,
6.~9

8.12

11.50
14.50
18.40

,'-"'

12.50

........ ""......
. .,
"'
"'....

14.70
16.2il
18.10

"'..

9.13

9.Z1

12.~

13.SO

19.iQ
21.80

114.0
131.0
143.0
163.0

17a.O

115.0

ISS.O
15i.0

198.0

708.0
!l19.0
1181.0
l~I.O

3UO
4l.SO

337.0

292.0

3"',
41.(..0

210.0

33!l.'
423.0

23.\0

;m .

43f>.0
419.0
516.0
667.0

....

IOC.O
1356.0
1725.0

49.90
foO,1()

oo."
71,10

1KI.1O
101.00
123.00
151.00
182.00

,,

K',
1.22'

>."

l.~S

l. 70

>'88

2.12
2.01

'.32
2.27

,'.31...
2.03

,."
,.'"
,."
'.19
2.69

'.59
3.ro

3.09
3.23
3.39
3."

_.

0Ianne1 5liN .11.. SI",I..,

,.,..

Flan,"

_.,..

,..,

-~

..,
...

.." "
,.,". " ...
,". '"
"" ..,

.
".
,.,
,". ,.. ,. ..,
,". ,.,,. "" ....,,
,.,
..,
00

10

".,"

14

140

'.0

20
20,

"27,
"
".
27
30
33

"..

m
m

..
'"
'"
270

330

'"
...

."

7.0
U

7.'
7.'
7.'

5.90

,..,

7.05

10 . .0

I~.(,O

12.~

17.00
18.10

14.20

19.5O

I~.~

'.7

".70
27."

16.JO
17.40
18.40
19.80
21.00

..,

'.7
'.0

'.3
'.0
'.7

,..

..,

'.0

,..

10.7
10.5

''OS"

7.'

lO'

8.!18

....

\0.'.10
13.30

".,"
""

'00

6.IG
7.51

,..,

_ c . l l ..

.....

~.20

13.~

30.00

"..,

ll.O

35.20
40.:-.0

27.70
:'ll.80

7.'

11.7

".SO

".SO

'.0

12.6
13.5

GI.SO

".30

10.2

JO.O

26.70
211.80

"...

52."

24.00
25.80

41.90

T,ble ,1

...'.,

...
~

1<..'1 1

.... "..
22.8

"" .0
491.0
0515.0
741.0
82J.0
1000.0
1190.0
15.."0.0
1670.0
21l0.0
'3''''

""'.,
31l.lO.0

'.
l''
1.99

9.1
15.0

'.M

34.8

3.99

,.1,.. '_1

'.

tO""1

'.59

9.00
13.'n

un

10"")

6.61

. ro

50.'

4.78

"... " ...

10.2

~.roO

29."'
".SO

4~.+'l

6.42
&.49

45.10
54.10
59.40

1).). :KI

7.2.

IO.SO

SO.OO

7 .'"

76.10

105.00

87.SO

113.00

121.00
139.00
ISl.oo
178.00
224.00
281_00

13J.00
ISl.llll
181.00
208.00
"'.00
262.00
321.00
410.00
613.00
642.00

lO.'

174.0

T.~"I.tod

77.8

,,-<

103.0
121.0
132.0
15.2.0
161.0
19'2.0
212.0
242.0
265.0

4111.0

"'.9

.'\810.0
7980.0
10820.0
1S220.0

381.0
484.0
001.6
761.0

3.16

'.00

'.07

....
8.15

'.99
9.73

9.S<
10.90
12.00
13.10
14.20
15.10

95_'"
110.011

350.00
....00

12.a!

Jl.al

(i7.SO
78.80

.-.
~.

-,

'.

(0'1

1<_1

2.7S

o.'"

3.68

....
4.1S

,.""

1.190
1.:170

'.52

l.""

11.00
13.30
13.80
1Ci.<fQ
17.00

1.700
0.""
0.870
2.010

".00
".50
24.20
25.10

,.""

2.180

'.200
'.350
2.310

JO.OO

2.550

31.1iO
37.20
31.30
4300
51.80
61.70
73.40

2.f,oo
:!.780
2.730
2.840
2.!l70
3.100
3.2.10

(.ml

1.16
1.74
l.JI
1.44

'.M
I.Ci7

87
SO

.."

'.00
2.13
2.07

'.28
2.21

,."
2.42
2.61
2.41
2.52

'.59
'68
2.75

~~

0_

S~
~

ii

~1!

~R

00

~c

~~
_L'o

o:

..
O.

00

.<
.

:;;;:8
00

~;:;

-=.,

~
<;>

-,

<

...

",

...

Table 111 (Con/.)

,!

,
(mml

Ato '"
>lI"R

(cm'l

, '"
,
..,

T.bul.kd v.lu" .bQul

" ,
3

"
,., ,. ,
" ,,
,
" ,
,
3

5
5

'.3

'.5
5
O

,.'

l<m'l

2.35
3.08

n,

3.55

'.00
U,

7.11

9.21
11.20

.. "

13.10
16.00

5.41

,.00
6.n
7.28
6.20

'.8S
8.15
9.42
10.70

.. 23

1.20

5.13
6.63
8.03

3"

'.

(cml

..,."" . "

2.65
3'"

'.29

.......

18.90
23.10
27.10

".0

...,
31.9
31.(;
<1.0

1.39

L"
J.37

."
."

"'5

Ix. m..
(Om"

,.os

ue>
~

1.... m. .

lem)

1.55
.. 55

IV. mln
\cm',

Icml

(em')

1.(7

0.29
0.78
0.79

'"
10.73

O."
O"'

.."

..90
2.30

8.13
10.50
12.70

l. 75
1.74

2.12
2.74
,.,3

L26
L30

'.08
2.73
3.37

12.40
16.60
20.90

.. ""

1.42

2.32
3.05
3.71

5.41
0.59

1.11

23.30

1.10

".20

1.52
1.57

3.44
4.25

29.90

2.45
2.H

1.25
1.25

42.90

2.43

7.81
!1.52
11.20

33.10
41.50
".00

..SS
1.74
1.18

3.90
4.81
5."

12.0
13.2
15.5
17.8
20.0

, .39
..39

51.0

."
..,.
..90

4.81
5."
0.39

91.9

"99
2.02

.."

1. 72

25.40

20.80

2.13

12.10
15.30

2.18
2.16

."

2.14

J.21

L85

2.42
2.'.17

<.03

J.5.1

2.16
2.16
2.15

9.0~

1.09
l.13
1,11

LOO

3.0,

..ro

(kg)

'"

6.35

'mor

MI<'

0.99
0.98

1.%

1.9<

1.95

0.98

r. (cm)

2.'.15

II.JO

14.60
17.80

J.9~

",",

~.

~.mln

7.26
8.75

L72

..

".60
46.0

".,
".,
59.0
76.4

2.12

'"
,."
2.71
'.SS

1.24

. " " ..
1.31
1.31

56.'
SO.,

7..'19

.,

....)

75

80

10

90

100

to... ',

7.39

A.7B
10.10

5. .5

ll.~

12.80

'.63

!U8
10.80
12.~

(,

10.60

12.30

6.5
7

2.31

2.27

52.7
57.0

2.41
2.41

65.3
73.4

2.45

" ..

94.3
106.0
lHI.O

12.80
13.80

12'2.0

.. " ...
" ".ro
19.20

131.0
147.0
J79.0

26.30

"".0
737.'
2l"".UI

J ... n1U
WO'

62.6

....
73.9

84.6

lOS.O

"..
94.0

t Il , "',.,

(''''1

,."
,...
2.91

:1.1 t
S.JI

3."
3.08

2.7.5

130.0
150.0
lba.O
1lll'>.O

3."
3.49
3."
3."

3."
3."

193.0

3.88

207.0

2.78

'.n
2.16

3.07
3.M

3."
3.00

,."

733.0

281.0

3JI.D

37S.D
416.0

J~. mln
(.... ,

16.

19.3

,..7
U.,
O." ".,

104.0
116.0

2.44

........,

~ ~.

"'o'S,

' ..
1<"')

".,
.......53.'".., ,,,,'.30...

13.90
1.5.00

115.60

""

J~

t'...,

.5

" ... '4

~,

~i

7.5

Tablt 1lI (COII/.)

1 ..... 101 1... _ 1 a.o.eo

~.1l8

3.87
:1.84

,. "

22.1

21.8

2;U
:17.0
30.3

',. mln

/."'!

1.49

1.41

l."
1.58

1.57

... ""
""
.... ..n
..., .."
1.77

00.7

(00.9
74.1

3.81

&l.'

3.H

11:2.0

99.3

1.'.18

""
",.,
",.,

1.'.16
1.95

,.

/01... 01
1~.1

"'l

........ "".3.
....
.... ".,

".0
43.8

'.,

" ,.,

oo .

,."

'.00
2.10

,..,
6.89

7."
0.0>

113.0
127.0

2.15
2.18

10.10

2.17

102.0
119.0

2.19
2.23

.."

131.0

2.27

145.0
169.0

,...
2.47
2.51

7."

8.61
9.G5

'.33

9."

219.0

,.SS

10.90
12.20

:214.0

'.68
2.71

10.10

194.0

ZlI.O

205.0

2.75

10.811
1'2.20

2.91

17.!lO

'.99

"."

333.0
4M.0

,."

~n.o

542.0

3.00

I~.IO

90.00

Tabl~

,
(cm'J

(mm)

" '"

,
8

,
...,"
,
'"
"
"" '" ..
'35

JO

..
16

15.20
17.2Q

JO

160

JO

19.7
".0
24.3
28.9
33.4
37.8

24.7
21.3
32.5
31.4

16

"

'.

'. 1<""

'.

lem)

m')

m)

176.0
198.0

3.,
3.31,

~m.o

315.0

.."
4.28

'"'"
""
'"
."
519

<ro

'"
00'

3.87

3."'

3.85
3.82

3."
3.78
4.34

'.33
4.31

... .."
m

1046
1175

oo .

''''
1419

i z m"

'"
""
'"
,,,
'"
,,,
."'"
'5l

.."

.",

4.95

/341

4.9'1

,,'"

'.89

'0;0

913

4,87
4.85

.r,Z,

~.

lc",',

37.4
43.3
49.1

"18 ,,.,

_,Iuo> '00"1 n

....z.

'\n:' oJ

...,lI.n

12.5

Tob"l.f~d

1662

20Iil
2248

lz.mn

.... "''"
4.87

ir. mln
m')

72.7
81.8

,.,'"
'35

i/l' ",in
(om)

2.19
2.18

'"

"" .0
353.0

2.49
,."
'"
2.41
0<,
""

'"

2.4G
2.45
2.44

916
1051

'"2<,'"

2.79
2.78
2.76

8"
,,.,
'"

'"
,." "'.
,."
'"
'"

3.19
3.1il
3.17
3.16
3.(4
3.13
3.12

5.41
5.46
5:43

".

fi.25
6.24

3"

6.17
6.13

1).10

."

589

...

~l ., '"

Ikll

(cm')

''""

'.82
4.78
4.75

111 (Coltt.}

''''

1494
'013
1911

2191
2472
2756

2 .9(i
3.00

11.00
13.50

3.Y,
3.40
3.45

15.5
17.3
19.1
22.7

3.5l
3.m

3.08
3.78

3."
3.90

'.30

4.as
4 ..~
4.47

'.55
4.63
4.70

".,
29.6

19.4
21.5
25.1)
24.7

".0

"A
3M
".,
43_0
47 _4

"

~!itBS8o;;;

;:;:

~tl:~~:;:~~

;;':":"':"0:":'-

~~;;g'e~:

U
.,,:..

=~:tf:'l'S~

~::t~~lS~
:::1::::;
C:~:;

~~

~~~~~- ,-~

~~

.....................

~~

Q":'"'''''''''''' '"
8@~::'~~~

~~

;=~.~.
g::t~_8
s

~~

"
":.~
~:e~
:;

""""~""<D"''''

~~

... ..................

~.~.~.'f
$ .... ;cs:",

~.

~~="'2l3~
~~-",

...

.....................

"'

............... '"

!"'~

isi!~s~z,a:

8::ie~$~~~

~.

~o

"':.."'oO>~:..

B:~~i.:2!e!f

i!~i2B!i8ili:

$:e~~~~1s

~...

i_ ..
~~=*~i

~~~r~~S:!

............ =-::>=

.~

~?'?'?'?'!"?'

~e=8:ee~

=2~aQt&:~
:""'0"':"''''<'-

S8
f:~

Oo:"

~i:::

ltiSiS

PooAl.

u.

.-"

'.
.S

3:-:
"-

':11"0

.',"

,,

!,

.,

~~

~!

""
251

-,"
.,

~t

~~8&;:;:il!::i

:"Q.
"~

~1~

;..,~

~$~i:~:;!:j

;";;':"':"'0."'0

-,

~ ,

-;:;~~

-,
"

.,

.-"

,
lo

-:>':~

'.
."

.".
_o,

"=
11
a
~

...

Name Index

Belel;'ubskli, N. fI. 283

Bellrami, F 145
Btly~ev, N. M.S. 6, 7, 8, 26, 106. H8,
188, 207. 290. 479, 499, 520,
562. 565, 576
Btnardm, N. N. 158
Bolo!in. Y. Y. 521l
Bubn(lv, l. G. 3S3

Casllgliano. A. :140
CI~pcyron. B. P. E. 33.S
Clcbsch, R. F. A. 3114
Coulomb. 01. A. 140

D~videnko", N. N. 148
D,ulhinln, S. l. 144

Engesse<. F. 490
Eulef. 1.., 480

Fridman, Ya. B. 148

FOrTe'lt, P. G. 591

Oad(llin, A. V. 440, 446

Galileo G.me; 18
Goldl.'Tlblat, 1. l. 520
Gcllovln, Kh. S. 440
Giles!. J. J. 140

Heny. H. I'!S
Huber, P. 145

lvanovl, V. S. 5'Y7

Kachanov. 1... ~,. 136. li20

Kachurin, V. K. 7
Kormlu, Th. 49(1
Kipnis, Ya. L 8. 100
Krylov, A, N. 305
Kurkln, S. A. 163
Kushtlev. N. YII. 8

Lim. G. 138, 446

Loillyonskil. L. G. 536
Lurye, A. l. 638
J\1alinln, N. N. 6ro
M~,i(lttc, f.,!, 138
Molt"'el1. J. C. 349
Mise,;. R. 145
l>lollr. O. 3<19
Ml1er-Breslau, H. F. B. 349
N~vi..-.

C. M. L. 138
NavrolskiL O. l. 1&0
Nikolacv, G, A. 163

O<!ing. 1. A. 597
Ov~hklrl, G. 163
PavlllV, A. P. 163
Pirlel, 3<19
Po~ltt, J. Y. 138
Prjgorovskll. N. J. 588
Puzyrevsldi. N. P. 305

Ranklne. \Y. J. M. 138

Soint,Venanl, B. 139. 189
Sem\Sen, S. V. 588, 597

'"

Sht~ft'III.)II.

1 Ya. 96

Sin'I"'''. A. K

Sl... )'~_. N G ISll

Sm;,tlO\'AI)..... O ,\ 5St
Tddb...".. 1 N. 568
Timos!ltnlco. S P. 5. 1M, 508

Tmea. H. 140
lhbiJ. G. V. 591

Vcrt$/I~n, A N. 34!l
,"",,,b.,,,.,. \". A. 1(.J
\'1asoY. V. Z. 188
Vol'nm. A. S. S20

1',.n, Ya.!. fU
V...Ul1, f. 4!lO

zmu...skli,

D. /. :mi

Subject Index

ahw!ule dlsplarernml 129

IIl$Qlule tlantAlJm 33
Idl"t lortt al2
alto-drtcl 608
allnating cycle 573
a,n""pheus nUltcri.l 21
III,pllr,cation iact(lf b! vlhnlions 53!1
.mrHhlcit 01 vlbrat!om 635
&I1jI., twfslinl! 169

a",lt ." shtar 129

lJl>SOlropic ..... Itrlal 37. 56
lIes of Intftla, prlnc:lpal 2S1
uil,1 c:onlpn5sIon 'O
ulal focct 29
IIlal . . - . , <Ji Intrlia 233
u.al tmslOn 11
1Il:!. ntUl,al '1ZT

blr(J. eompussillmly el 5S9

tulYed.~23

...llb lartt CUl'Vlturf 439

ptl$mlllc: 11
rigidity of 34
wllh MnaU curnturt 439
bum. cantiltv~ 213

tor>tlnuou. 366
crltlul $telion o! 200
dtltdlOll ,,1 292
f<luat<ll'1 01 dtl\eded. uls 01 293
Ikt!t1ous 314
r1vdtd 2t9
slmply supporttd 201
dallc:ally dttmlnalt 1119
slIlially 111dtlecmlnalt 199, 3S6
01 "nilonn ricldily 329
el unifonn drl!l1ftll 324. 55S

_Idf'd 290
bum Stlon. a"llle al tot.llon ol 293
bum "'FJIClrls. uxhOll 01 197

btndlng. pu!'t 22S

un'rlanar 256

ulI'\)'mmtltk: m
kndmg moml'tIl 203, J48
dl~gr~rn 01 zo.
hinl.l IlrlM 102
breakinlf ....Iy, falture bl' 101
b't.ki"g ID~d 457
brltllt !aljur~, lheory oC 138
b,itllf maltml 41, 52
hulk rnodulll5 123
butl Jol"1 159

uble. luiblt ~
anlllt"l' bum 213
eapaelly, l,fhne. 4n
c.stictl.no' lhIortm 340
C't'!lTt, It.lutal 387
d!ataeterislle eytloe 574
drde, MDIIr's 110
mommt of nrrlta 01 2.K1
Clapt')'rm's Ibt'Ottm 335
tol'llidtTlt. dlmplllf: S39

dyn.mle 624
01 dylllmk re:lpomc 60
01 IfllSth 485
01 Qptullng eonditiOll$ ~75
01 ovf:rlNodIn 476
101' produtllon pICeliS 5!l3
01 ,dlab,liIy 475
o( stras eonc:enlrallOl'l 676
rompnison 01 d,splar;tmtllls 3161
romp'-I&I'y shtarllle strtSRI 100
eornp!u rowt. IlICImtrlt 01 inerll.a 01

'"

componenl eom.bnt 01 ty<:1e 514

variable 01 eydt ;'74
tuonpoollt IlrelHd st,lt 101

OCponalt

COlIIpowtd 1oad.1nc 378

,.,

Subjtd Inda

~pr_biljty

01 bars SS9

comprelSIOll, axial Zl
=I!fltnc 392
conlpr~"'~

slress \0\
for~ 19
cwd.IJOIl. 01 jOl1l1 ~or~bon 67, 80,

cono::tnlra!N

'""

01 s\ll'lq,:lh 30
c:ondllional slres:; ~ 1
1:....:11<.1 sp<ln 186
connllnc rod
l.'lIfMfVIlklft 01 et:.. y 331
CtntancJ 01 yolulM 5tI

constonl sliln qdf' 5,3

<Ilnstanl slrcu <yde 5i3
con.ira.ul
:<fundan! 357
sIr
1115
OOI1l1nllons 10'-'11I 3li6
({lCI\""'OIIIo .... d. ;uter'lllly al 20S
C'll<c 01 _11(Al 39l:J

~'(Jl,lxl

cracl<, r.h."'" 572

~1l

607

sl.ble 610
lInolablt 610

ttHf' onn 609

CJft1' llrnil 611
crdl"d f(lfff 418
<fll,e.1 ~lll.O'l 8G
crllle.1 slatt. 01 mil"';.; 63
enrle.1 alesa H9
cW.t!IlI 01 T1veb lt
a)staUmc ~lll"" 21
"'l"Jl~UDc 1DJI1~1,l1 21
cW'vd b..r 423
C)'dc. alloMnahOf: 513
ChM3d.f1sllc 674
com~' (QflSlanl ol 514
cOIISla"l '!U' $7;,
co:mslall1 Ilr_ 673
~Ch'.hlll: :>13

meln slrlss Clr 514

c( ~t,C!IS

ZNO

b.~

nlialion 573
573

cydic sl,e$S S73

dam.l!:c IUKcpllblllty curve 593

dampln cQc:rnclcnl 539
d.ad "'~t B6
ddc::lion ol b('ll!' ~
ddormllilln 21
tl..tlf 21. 37
latu..1 36
Ion! 488
I'lutit 21. 47
10!;1 ontf!D' 01 1203
<ks'Rn to..d 476

"""'i"

momeol 406

di:JirVll. uI bond'''i momenl 201

al r~ llIOIMIIl 47'2
01 .lInrlllg 10fl:U 204
stress'llr!'o 47
dlrr"~l\tillIOl1. <uC'<:usivt 313
dlSpl,ctlnont. Im.ol .. lt 129
galtflllud 333
dist<lrtlOll. pot~I~1 morO 01'. IbtorJ

'"

di!.ITlfJtJttd forct 19
di!.trbutiOll. unllOlm 29

doobk$I,ur rivd H\3

c!ud,lt 1,lIure. lh~y or 140
C:u<:llle ~'ll(t 466
ducUI~ IRltefilJ 41
d)nlllllc cocllk:oenl ~
d)"lMmoc Io.od 20

dyn.mk Ioadio!: 521

d}'oamlc rcslJ'OUse. c~lficlent ol 60
dYl1lmk str.... 556
Cf<Itrk tml[lf8'liioo .:ll2
tttelll,;t'ly .m
~otric lemion 392
..I,,,lit,, IItrorma!iOll 21, 'J1
splfoc ...-ork 01 45
tllSlk,ty. IIm,l 01 23, 43
mOl!ulus ol 34

tkmtnllry loIu 23
elongation. absolute 33
,tl,l,ve J3
rtlot,ve residual 44
tndunnt.t Jimil 51. 62, 575
mOle' of ddocltllllOfl, lolll 126

enery Ihlry of drqth 14.5

onnlopc 142
eq..... 1 lD(lrDfJIts. mtlbod oC 471
tqlllhoo. of ddod~ axis 293
01 IMlhod <J mit.. 1 puamelon 3Oi>
of Une mOllltllls 372
equllorlll mornclll 23J
Eule1'J lormull 482
ulelnll force 19
rntlhod of 344

lactor 01 ufoly 24, 30

main 63, 64
fclor 01 I",SS cooc""lrltlon .5S3
flllllft, by breaklll( 1"Io'IY 101
dut lo lolloarlng 101. 133
fhfoub ruplun 132
bl;""t 60. 572
bl'ItUt CU: &72, 594
blllUt llmlt 61
lichli(lus beam 314
fillet wtld. loinl wilh 162
tiud hn'lfd supporl 197
fiud IUpporl 198
'ICidly 198
ftulbllty 483
ftnlblt (.Ibl. fl2
ftuuul nlrt 387
lIuctullhll c)'d. 573
loret{$J, acliv. 312
I~;II 29
cOlJ(tnlrlltd 19
crJlk:al 478
eumullUve adion 01 335
dislrbuttd 19
ulemal 19
lIItI!uxl al 3
CfIl"Il' Hud 333
01 illlenclion 19
normal 29
312
do rudlon 20

pasa"'.

.Idee 203
suP""J"lllitioo 01 83
voIume 19

lorccd vlbrati_ 535

frnnula. SailltV",,~i's 1l
ftlme 351
fr~ lonlOll 187

'"

fmerallud dbplacftMllt 333

.lltfaliztd lor" 333
l"entrllizO!d Hooll.'s la... 3J5
a-rapb-analylic mtlltod 313
h.lIcll Jprlng ISI
hino, dudll. 466
hingtd suppol"t. htd 191
movlbJ. 107

Hooi<.'. law 33
gl'l1er.llud 33S
hydf05I.lk .... d 4~

b.-t 1e-d 20
Impact ttd S65
inilia1 pau.melers, rncthod of 305
lnteer1tion.
'''e 312
inll:f\Slly 01 COIlllnltOUl Jo.ad 20Ei
lnter.."on, force of 19
1-511Oll 2llS

isotropic: I!LIilcrlll 37
JollIl. bul! 159
I.ppcd 151
nvcted 159
wclded 100
with sld. 1I11et .... eld 162
Joint ddormation, c;ondllion 01 67, SO,

"'"

bllPCd Jolnt 151

..... I dtformatioll35
bUlet. crystalllne 21
Uw, Hookt'J 83

~111ud 335
al complttnmtary lhuril'' stres.~,

canservaflon el entrlY 331

consbr.ry of YOIume :;o
of amlUlalh'e xtlon ol farQl:ll 335

SubJ:1 Inda

'"

lirtln, c"l'"dly 471

lima, of ~\asticHy Z3. 43
.nduran" 61, 62, 575
er prcportlooallly 41, 47
Iimllinc ~!at!'S. fi,sl group 474
$Ccond grOllp 474

Imn1l1g

~t,ess

drde 139

load. brcaking 457

<oo\;nuoo., inten.Uy 01 2[)6

<J,;sign 476
d)'nam>e 20
hydroslalic 455

impact 20
perma",,"l 19

<.peatoe<J varjable 20

,I,le 20
wddonly ~pp!led 20
!l'l1Iporary 19
(,lIlmalo 457
10lld area 214
I""d curve 214

local defor"'''!;'''' 48/l

\~al stress 58. 61. 157,576,582.583
long.lcrm .trenglh 618

01 M:lernal

lorc~

344

grapllanaly\lc 3lJ
of nlllal parameltrs JO.5
01 superpasllion of orces 223
Vel:fthchagin's 349
modulus. bulk 123
01 elasticlty 34

reduced 490
langential 490

Sl'l:UOO 2JIi
Mohr's drd~ 110
MoIIr', ,Iren"l'" IlIeOTY 141
moment, bendin; 2t.I3
d~;gn 400
equalorial 23J
01 secti<>l!, slali", 232
~l.lic, aboul nfulra ah 267
momenl 01 IDem, axial 233
"f d_ele NO
of "omple~ figure 245
of p... lIel~ram 240

polor 173. '150

prinripal 255
mulllple.sllear ri\'e! 154

1""", of slabilily 483

nalu~1

mQteria1.

amorphoo~

21

aniSQtropic 35. 56
brlltle 41, 52

critIca! .lale 01 63
crys!alllne 21
ducllle 41
SO!"'pic 3i

vlbrallons 535

"el arca 31
n""lral axls 227
"..,d,al lay" 227
r~llus 01 cnrvalure 01 231
of lrapelo;d 435
normal f",ee 2!l
normal slrllSll 100

sensitivity ladO}( 01 5S5

slreTIglh 01 18
muimum rlgidity. plane of 386
max;mum .haring .I,ese, thro:y 01

",

maximum ItllS,le slr!:SSCS, III_y 01

!>Ia~w.1l

'and
" "'Iollr I!leorcm 347

me"n .hes< lf cyele 574

motllod. 01 rompa,is<ln 01 di.placcmcnb
06'
01 ellu"l nwlDcnls 411

ocbhedral plane 120

oclabcdr.t .I,.arlng slrl5S 121
opel'ldlng tolldlllollS. coellicient of
."
ovl'l'loading, co.lf,cienl 01 476

pamllelogram. momeot of Inerlla 01

'"

pa!>Slve force

~12

p",manenllo.ad lO

Sub/Id 11ldu
pe<ml~\ble

pl~ne(.).

SlTo'SS :14

01 UI&\imUIll rigidity 386

octah.Iral 120
Ilrincipal 102
I'lan( of lnerlia, principal 25fl
I'la'lir delormation 21, ~7
pllabllll~

fl55

o ~trudllr(> tot.1 564

Poisson', ratIo 37
pol~r momenl QI lMrll. 173, 250
pot."tial energy 01 disiotIO!l, Itleory ol

'"

prll1cipal anS of nerlia 251

proncipal momwt of inertia 256
prindpal plllfle 102
~rll1cip~1 plane 01 ;nertla 255
pnnclpal radius 01 ill<'rtia 256
prlllCipal slr={es) 102
lr.cctory ,,1 282
.hear)['G 120
principIe 01 supt'lpOSitioll of orces 83
pr,.rn,lie bar 27
IlfodlldiQn process, coel6d~t lur S93
proollcl 01 illerlia, ul section 232, 247
proporlionalily,hmll 01 ~I, 47
purc bending 215
pure shear 127
pure uuion 187
radiu. 01 eurvalurc of neulrallay"" 231
rartius ul n~rtia '256
pri""Jp.l 256
readion, uf beam suppc>rls 197
force. ul 2tJ
rtdundant 357
rc..:iprr><:ity uf d,.placemenb, tllcorem ul

'"

redplOxily uf wurks, ttleorem 01 :147

reduced maSS 544
re~uced modulns of elaslidly 400
r.~ured moment, diagram of 472
,t<1u d stress 147
",Iucllon 01 arca, permallent felalive ~5
rCllnd"nl coostrainl 359
redundanl ,eacUan 359

645

redundan! unknown 359

relallve elongatlorl 33
,eblve refhrdl(m of area, permanenl

"

relative r~dual elQngalion ~4

relative rillidlly 36
relative shear 129
reliab,l;ty. coemdenl 01 475
releated \'anable lood Zll
rl'!>Cl'Volr. thin''''alled lO.)
r<'Sidual eloflgatiOl1, relallve H
resslance, lo rupture 134
lo shur 13~
resOllanoe 535
rigldlty, 01 bar 34
maximum, planc 01 386
relatlve 36
01 sy~tem 55Q
lorsJonal 1;7
rlgidly liud supporl 198
rvel(s), crusl!ing 01 lSol
doubtes!lear 153
mulliplc.she:lr 154
rivele<! beBm 289
riveted jo;n! 159
rod, oormectillg 525
Ihinwalled 194
rupture. lailure thrQugh 132
r.,.lslance lo 134
ltleory 0\ 138
ruplur., stum. tolal lrue !jL
ule!y, {adar of 24. 30
man lactor 01 63, &4
Slint.verlllnt's lormula 407
:.cole factor 590
",-ocUvn. of beam
critical 200
c<>re 01 396
crltical 86
produd 01 incrtla 01 232, 247
sl.tic moment ,,1 732
secVon morlulu~ 174. 236
seffiitivUy f.ctor 01 malerial 585
shur, angle 01 129

..,

SlilJ/rd lflux
pUle 117

stmlelh theory, Irs! 138

fOllrlh 146
of Mchr 141

~1'I,n

129
re,lance lO 1M
IhecI'y el 140

"""" ",

sheIc ctnlre 381

shur cm:,c linc 381

140
.u_.tblrdbluia!
102

l"l~e 6ue lo 101

IIlDdulus of tlaMkilf b
at-'inc fort'f(5) 201

shelclnc.

d~am

la(

d. 21M

~Ine

Ilre:s(.) 100
compltmml.-y 109
1lI....rmum, tbtay of 140
ocbh~r.l

1~1

prlllCipll l~
siml"ly IUpporled bum 2fJ1
!pan

92

..

splflc W<rk, 01 CIasIIC ddormllion

tol.l 46
sr"erlaol lMll 117
.prinll. (onk.l 186
hellc.1 181
st"bjlily check ~n
arable C1"~p GlO
slale(.). eQmp<llille sir!:SStd 10\
limilllli 414
stallnll)' dtlmn;n~lt bnm 100
11.t1ully In~,,""ilUllt bam 199. 356
&l~llQlIy

'lMIti..ml .... lc

ploblem

66

slallully inclelern""lIle ')"Iffil 66

sllllC lod 20
slatlC 1olId,"C 60. 521
.sUlle mOIDerll, aboul lle:Itral .." 261
01 _loa 23Z

5lu,hl.llM knn. lass ol.~mt)' 01483

allqlh, ecnchlKlll el JO
- 1 ) ' IheorJ 01 145
kInc!erm &11
01 llllterb III
ll'lllille...lU_le 30
Il:oory 01 1J6
\.ue ullumtc 51

ulllm.te 23, ~
.lrC'lJltb meSuraool! 575
In Ilns)'lIIIMlTlc o;yclc 5nl

compusslVt 101
condilional"J
cmtl 105
etll\c.al 4N
of tyclo::, mea:t Si..
e)'cllc: S73
dynunle 555
Ioc.tl 58. 61. 151. 516, 582. 583
m.ulmum lburine 140
maxlmum tcRuJo:: 1311
norm.1 100
po::rmiMiblo:: 24
principal lOS!
r~uced 141
"'pturo::, true 51
Murin, 100
oo:lIhedral 121
prlDc;Ip.a) 120
tenJlle 100
u,ulal 103
unladal 102
\'.Il~Me 575
stress cirele 111
limlting 139
ItrtSl wlCtlltr.Uon, coefkio::nl of 5i6
lacio.. 01 S8J
ur_ <Ievialor 124
11rt5S inttr.Sily 121
1\rfIMtd Ible. <ompe.to:: 101
w"'s\rlin d ~ 41
Itrl!lS unsor 111
Itre5li nrlatlm. t)~1e 01 S73
stn>clurc. lobl pl"bil,t) 01 564
$l>f;l;SIin dllfertnli.tim 313
aJO:II$I.Ive ,nleer.lien 312
$U6(lenly .ppllm 1O&d 20
SUllfl'posil,on 01 forces, mo::thod of
pr,...erple 01 8:l
... pport. lixed 198

b'n~.

!:ud 191

6.,

Subjfd Itrdex

monble 197
r;ii:ldly li)td 198
~r<l"". Ill/i"lIy of !ISO
slahully INkll/tmlnale 66

trile "I"hm: slress SI

IN" ultlmsle slrtnjllh SI
T_lIor. 243
I.."tlne ,I!tlle 169

bnecntl,l modllh. nf ri.oshdly 4Ql)

Irmp<lfU)' kDd 19
kmoik I4renlh, ullinule 30

.r=-le ~ 4:>1
uW""le SUtllfllh 23, 43
l1\Ie SI
IIIUrrull lemile slrenelh 30
1,U\luial str_ 102

tenslle .Ir$ti 100

muimun., Ihto.ofy d 13S

1~1S1On, u,~1 27
~nlrl(: 392

leot, hnrlCl 56:i

Iho:Ottm, c.uUa:It.n<l'. 340
C1apt),nn's 33.'i
of '\u"'ell
Mohr 347
of rrclpfodly of c"lJ,lKeTlfflts 341
of r~lpfodl:i 01 .. orks :>47
tll~, 01 bnttle fallun: 138
01 duclile I~ilure 140
01 ",umum lenslle sire= 138
uf l11ulmum ~hUfmg str=es 140
tll polenli.l tnerll:Y o( dl1lor\lon l46
01 fllrtllfC 138
01 sllur 140
01 strellllth lJG
lllln",;lltd rtkl'voir 103

.n"

t1"n''''~lIe''

rod 194

tll,"'ulleJ vfI$I!l ~[H

\hr~ mClan"llls. tqllBlIOll of 372

IOO'qu.. 166
tonlVll. frl't 187
pUle 187
r~,d'ly 1i7
lobl "n,blhly al stnw:lnre 564
lotal splfte "ork -16
IrljIOf)' <JI pllndp.ll stlt",e; 21i2
IUJK'lO'd. no'Ulul b)'ff of 435
trb"1I1 str..,ss 103
trile ruplure si"'", tol,1 SI

tonion,1

....,bm

d~lribullon

29

un"plsmr btnd,nc 25G

unll 100'. bendice' mumenl dile lo 343
unslable (TffJ' 610
ut"ymmelrlf btrod'l1i 379
llOSymmeltlc cycle.Irftlglh .."Juranee

"' ,,.,

ud,ble load, rCfltltc<:i 20

y,rlsble Ilrcss 6i5
Veltsl1ch.:lu's mtlhod 349
~tsSt:1. llllnualled 454
yibr,II<lIU, 8mplifrcation ladO!' 01 S39
amplltude or ~

lor<:M S35
'rllural :13:1
~olutne lorce 19
"~pll1fl~

.. ela:!lI, lk,d 1!6

"'eldfd bum 290
~'tlfld Jo;nl 159
..-orl<, al tlaslLe ddormahOll 46
loplIl:,1ic: 4li
,,~k b;,rdm'''C 590
ftfO baoe ~clf 573
Zhl/anld,'s klmoul. 2M