1. Properties of Fluids (Water unless specified) Shear Stress — key to defining a fluid: a substance that deforms continually when subjected to shear stress no matter how small ot defamation Rate formation |_vieta ‘Shear sires |Viscosity: = dynamic viscosity (proportionality constant for ‘Newtonian flui Water, Air, Oil u=07x10° *S@3s wm 8x10" @30° 9x10 @ 25° (no name for SI unit of Viscosity) Density (mass per unit volume): p=904 *8 @3 m p=996 —- @30° p=997 = @25° Kinematic Viscosity (used in 8 ="): b v=“=07x10% = @3s° ? s =0.8x10% @ 30° 0.9%10% @ 25° Specific Weight (weight per unit volume): 7=9806 X @or > use. m =9778 @ 25° =9764 @ 30° Specific Gravity of a substance: ©, = uy ©-B+ Yooncrete = 2-65, Ynercury= 13.6, Yatconoi= 0-79, Yer Vapor Pressure: Molecules escape from surface and form partial pressure in space above. At 100°C, water has a vapor pressure of 101,325 Pa which is the standard atm. pressure. At 20°C, itis 2,451 Pa (e.g. cavitation).Surface Tension (c): Work per unit area needed to maintain liquid surface. Water at ambient pressure of 1 atm and 20°C, .074 N/m, while at 100 °C, o= 0.059 N/m. Ina droplet, internal pressure is increased by surface tension. In a hemispherical free body: Th pr? =2mo or p=29/ Lo In a small cylindrical water jet, pressure is obtained by hoop tension; §— p(2r)=o+a or p= % Capillarity: Wetting fluid (e.g. 1,0) adheres to solid; non- wetting fluid (e.g. Hg) has stronger cohesion than adhesion. Rise or fall in circular glass tubes: de Coplay or dein ony fo} ¢ os ANGE a|2 AX TRAN dol doe ee has Si cr i Capillarity is important in unsaturated zone groundwater flow. Most plant roots are in this zone. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (Compressil ie. a unit volume of liquid wil subjected to a pressure change of dp, ¢.g. for water at 20°C and 1 atm, K=2.2 GPa.‘Thermodynamic Relationships Heat Content in a volume AV: — Oy = pepTAV in J (Nm) where c, = Sp. Heat at Constant Pressure; Tin K °C+273) Hdeal Gas: ¢,~c,+R3 k= cy/c, (ratio of sp. heats) where 2 is gas constant; e.g. at 26.67 °C for air, R = 287, ¢) = 1.004 and c, = 0.716 kJ/kg-K; and for water vapor, R= 462, c= 1.863 and c, = 1.403 kilkg-K Enthalpy: —h =u" + p/p where u™ (Intrinsic Energy) is energy per unit mass due to molecular activity, which depend on 7, p, and p. Perfect Gas: p = pRT (combines Charles’ and Boyle’s Laws) Atmosphere: Air: M = 29; R = 287; Sid. Atm. = 101,325 Pa T= Ty + Bz; 8 = -0.00651 K/m (Std. Atm. Lapse Rate) P= pRT =p = pR(To + 6); from p = 7h = -pg2 tp =-padz = [U/=- Wiz Examples: with 2, = 7/73 at sea level py~101,325 Pa: At30°C=303 K: pp = 1.165 kg/m? At 500 masl: p = 95,744 Pa; T = 303+ Bz = 299.7 K = 26.75°C p= 1.113 kg/m? At 1000 masl: p = 90,415 Pa; T= 303+ c= 296.5 K=23.5°C p= 1.063 kg/m’? .185 kg/m? 205 kg/m?Review of Partial Differential Equations We are used to the function of a single variable, say f =f), “function” meaning that for any given value of x, there exists one and only one value of f. And we know that 7 ()mtn Leaf) Ax “@ which is the first derivative of the function. We denote the second derivative as ef. There are, of course, higher derivatives. We also know about the chain rule. If say we have gf) where f= f(x), then (24244 (2) df dx The chain can of course be longer than that above. Whenever we have a function of two independent variables, say f= flxy), “independent” meaning x is not a function of y nor vice versa, then of of aa F be Tay on where OF oti LU8t be y)=S (x.y) x a0 Axthe “partial derivative of f with respect to x”, that is, the derivative of f while keeping y at some k constant value; similarly, x is the partial derivative of f with respect to y. We can of course extend this to functions of more than two independent variables. We can manipulate Eq. (3) in the following manner: Hof of by ak Ox Oy de We have a chain rule for partial derivatives. If f= Ady) and u=u(xy) and v= v(x), then: af ef du, af dv Of Of Ou, af av dx du dx dvdx 4 By" du dy dv ay “"O which chain is again extendable to three or more, and the functions can be of three or more variables. If we have the special case, f= x,y) where x = x(#) and y=y(), then This form is called the parametric representation of the function f, where t is the “parameter” and x and y are the “coordinates”. Unlike total differentials, partial differentials, e.g. 6 or 2x, have no meaning by themselves, nor are they operable like fractions.The higher order partial derivatives may be described in the following manner: a or ox oy (Two-dimensional Laplace equation) For subsequent applications, we can now consider the 6,0,6 =—+—+— , sl operator V=5—+5 yt Oz + Shortened verbally as “del”, which has no meaning by itself but is used merely to shorten writing of long equations. Thus, if we take the Laplacian (del-squared) of u in Gu, ou, ou Gu, Fu, ou ax dy 62 the Three-dimensional Laplace equation. three dimensions, then V?u=Review of Vector Operations Definitions: vector notation: ¥; magnitude scalars: have magnitude only, eg. mass, speed, pressure vectors: have magnitude and direction, e.g. force, velocity free vectors can be translated in space, but not rotated bound vectors are fixed in position zero vector has a length of 0, direction undefined unit vector has a length of 1 regardless of direction unit normal vector is a unit vector in the direction of the radius of an are or curved surface, “radius” being in the analytic geometry sense, i.e., fii unit tangent vector t unit normal vector ii unit base vectors i,j,k are unit vectors in the x, y, and z directions, respectively. s that perpendicular to theWe use the right-handed convention, i.e. Equality of two vectors: magnitudes and directions should be identical Negative of a vector: sume magnitude, opposite direction Addition of vectors: use the parallelogram law : C#A+B and C=A +B if and only if Aand B are colinear. Properties of vector addition: Commutative: A+B=B+A Associative: A +(B+€)=(A+B)+E Subtraction is merely the addition of the negative of a veetor. Multiplication of a vector by ascalar: — a-A length=a-A; direction same as A if ais positive.Scalar, Dot, or Inner Product: A*B=A-B-cosd ; where @ = acute angle between A and B lied by the component = magnitude of A multi of Bon A eg. Beos 8 If 6=0 then parallel vectors are being multiplied; AeA=A? =0. Properties of the Dot Product: Vector # Vector = Scalar Commutative: AeB=BeA Distributive over addition Vector, Cross, or Outer Product: AxB=A-B-sin9 ei plane defined by A hand rule AxB 6 i= unit vector normal to the and B according to the right 0, then at least one is the zero vector or = 0 (vectors are parallel)Properties of the Cross Produc! Anti-commutative: (AxiB)=-(BxA) Distributive over addition: Ax(B+€)= (A xB)+ (Ax) Vector Spaces and Linear Independence of Vectors *Two-dimensional vector space: planar universe Any vector, say ©, can be expressed = by = a_linear combination of two other non- colinear vectors, say A&B, ie, C=aA+bB. a and b can be found as long as A and B are not colinear or parallel. .”. In 2-D space, a vector can be expressed in terms of another iff both lie on the same line or are parallel, ie, they are linearly dependent. Up to 2 vectors can be linearly independent; a third will not be independent. y *Three-dimensional vector space: spatial universe z D=aA+bB+cC; a,b, andc can be found as long as A,B, and C do not all lie on the same plane. -. In 3-D space, if a vector can be expressed in terms of only two others, all three lie on the same plane, i.e., linearly dependent. Up to three vectors can be linearly independent; a fourth will be linearly dependent.Component Form of Vectors Any point in space can be defined by the position vector R=Ri+R,j+RK , a linear +) combination of unit base vectors. In familiar terms: Say we want to add two vectors R and R+P=(Ri+k,j+RK)+(PI+P]+PK) =(R,+PJi+(R, +P,)i+(R +P)K If we apply the dot product to the unit base vectors, cos ee and, RP RE+R?4R?-/P? +P? +P Applying the cross product to the unit base vectors, then ij =IR, R, PPP.FLUID STATICS Stresses on an Element of Volume (particle, it) All vectors shown on figure are on positive sense, ie., normal stresses are outward, shear stresses follow right hand rule. Bulk stress & defines pressure p p=-3 ety +0.) (pressure is defined as positive toward center). On a wedge-shaped element of volume of unit width: F, = p.6)-p,b3sind = pa, = 0 x 2 ae 88 DXF, =p, de-p,& cos - y <> Since disind=dy and éscos0=dr, then 2.5) p.5)=0 and p,6— ps7 2% Taking limit as volume>0: P.=P. =P, (pressure is the same in any direction).& = p55 Lee ye In the x and y directions, russ 0 body forces act: Elemental force vector: oF =i6F, + j6F, +koF, ee {2 + iP + Phe —kydcope ie Gradient V, “del” in the vector sense Negative gradient of p=-vp=f (vector field f) Thus, f—ky=0. I forms: @ Pio, ® in component forms: = a a => fdp=-frte pane If h = -z (depth, i.e. measured from an incompressible juid surface) b=Pressure Measurement Gage pressure is relative to local atmospheric pressure Cheese Sanda amospharie peste - Lol angers pes , slut Negatye gage pressure (suction, vacuum) Lanes hy SEP 7é0-mm He baromecer fonusre | buna 10.34-m HO Absolute Aol zo (Compete aca) —y 2 Barometers measure local atmospheric pressuré Mercury Aneroid -! he | Cc), \ cached io Csesection | ial mechanism — MH (tobe measur) P= %SGiquak => R= 760 mm Hg or 10.34 m 1,0 if P, is standard atmospheric pressure ‘The Aneroid is a sealed and evacuated bourdon gage. Pressure is gage pressure unless otherwise specified.Manometers: fluid — water, alcohol, CCl,, Hg we) w Let Pp= atm. pressure = Pot hy S= Peo P, positive gage pressure negative gage pressure maT | i ; Sort o Cy P,~ P=? (work this out on your own) Note: always read bottom of meniscus; capillary rise is negligible for tubing 15 mm or larger