Hydrocyclones Handbook No. 6 of the Mud Equipment ManualMUD EQUIPMENT MANUAL Handbook 6: Hydrocyclones IADC Manufacturer — User Conference Series on Mud Equipment Operations Writer George S. Ormsby Editors Don Gaddy Charles Grichar Sidney Heck Bob Lange Walter Liljestrand Bill Love Leon Robinson ‘Much of the material in this handbook was originally presented at the [ADC Hydrocyclone Conference in Dallas, Texas, 19-20 May 1976.Handbooks in this Mud Equipment Manual are: 1 Introduction 7 Mud Cleaners & Combination Separator 2 Mud System Arrangements 8 Centrifuges 3 Shale Shakers 9 Agitation & Addition Equipment 4 Centrifugal Pumps 10 Valves 5 Degassers 11 Disposal Systems 6 Hydrocyclones ‘The conference series as well as the writing and editing of this Manual was created by the Mud Circulation ‘Subcommittee of the [ADC Rotary Drilling Committee. The members, past and present, are listed below (alphabetized by Companies. Affiliations shown are Company affiliations at the time of committee membershi COMPANY AFFILIATE ‘AMOCO. ‘AMOCO. AMOCO Research Atlantic Pacific Marine Atlantic Pacific Marine ‘The Brandt Co. ‘The Brandt Co. Bill Cagle Derrick Co, (Vice-Chairman) Walter Liljestrand SII Drileo Fred Deily Exxon Production Research Co. Leon Robinson Exxon Production Research Co. (Chairman) Roger Day Geosource Charles Grichar Geosource Buster Adkins Goldrus Drilling Glen Oglesby Global Marine Charles Bogie Helmerich & Payne Grant Bingham Milchem Sydney Heck ODECO Ted Gilbert Pioneer Centrifuging Co. Don Gaddy Penrod Bob Lange Penrod George Ormsby ‘Stonewall Associates Bill Rehm. WACO Paul Wells WACO Bill Wilson SWACO Gordon Lawson Wilsitwel, Inc.This Hydrocyclone Handbook 6 is dedicated to those rig men at the gloved hand level who have the ambition to study, the intelligence to understand, and the conscience to apply helpful information when it is available. Too often we forget it is they who must drill the holes. G. S. O.0. I. Iv. VL. . Good Hydrocyclone Installations CONTENT OUTLIN! Page No. Introduction A. Screens, hydrocyclones, and drilling rates . B. Liquid attached to removed solids G. Recirculating solids parties... D. The keys. ‘The Basie Principles of Hydrocyclones A. Physical Appearance and geometry . B. Operating Principles......... 1. Choke bottom 2. Spray underflow discharge 3. Rope underflow discharge 4, Summary C. Desilters, desanders, size, and design Feld Operation . Initial Hydrocyclone Adjustment. - Balancing 2. Dry bottom cyclones and dry plugging 3. Choke bottom cyclones B. Operating Hydrocyclones on Unweighted Mud 1. Objective 2. Operating rules C. Operating Hydrocyclones on Weighted Muds to Reduce the Sand Content 1. Justifications 2. Limitations 3. Basic Operating Rules 4. Permanent solutions ‘Maintenance AA, Feed Head and Centrifugal Pumps and Suction and Discharge Lines B. Relations with the Manufacturer . 1. Excessive wear 2. Elastomers C, Regular Maintenance . D, Emergency Maintenance 1, Feed Plugging, partial 2. Feed Plugging, complete 3. Feed Plugging, summary 4. Underflow Plugging ‘Overload Dry Plugging 5, Penalties from plugged cones; the Rewards from good operation - 69 + 69 : 6-10 = 610 2 610 612 G14 614 G19 6-20 we G2D 2 622 = 625 A, Schematic arrangement ‘Sand trap ‘Compartment sizing Stirring Equalizing B. Centrifugal Pump Installation Rules .... : 5 ceseesee 62S C. Hydrocyclone Installation Rules... . + 628 Hydrocyclone Selection A. Desilters, the Last Stage or the Only Stage ceseeeee 628 1. Rig Pump Volume rate 2. Hole drilling volume rateB. Desanders, the First Stage If Needed . Special Problems . 1. Trashy systems 2, Intermediate weights D, Brand decision . APPENDIX A — Glossary - 7 APPENDIX B — Using Hydrocyclones for APPENDIX C —Parti ants inthe [ADC Hydrocyelone Conference. - Introduction. . 2 Pertinent Facs + 3. Operating Hints 4, Caution APPENDIX D —Trouble Shooting Check List Figure Part I— Symptoms and Problems .. Part II — Causes and Remedies. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Subject ‘A typical balanced-design hydrocyclone operating properly in “‘spray”” type under- flow solids discharge. A typical balanced-design hydrocyclone operating inefficiently with “'rope” type over- Toaded solids discharge. Various underflow adjustments of a balanced hydrocyclone ‘The characteristic underflow of choke bottom hydrocyclones. A simple centrifugal pump suction screen to reduce hydrocyclone plugging. A diagram showing the relation between head and pressure. Balanced design hydrocyclones with feed plugging problems. Hydrocyclone operating with underflow discharge plugged. Schematic diagram of a Removal System arranged for Unweighted Mud. Schematic diagram of a Removal System arranged for Weighted Mud. Sizing Single Stage Desilting Cyclones to a Drilling Rig. Sizing Two-stage Desanding and Desilting Cyclones to a Drilling Rig. clear water feeding. Page ou 613 615 616 618 621 6-23 624 626 627 630 631INTRODUCTION Though the shale shaker is still the essential first piece of equipment for removing SOLIDS* from DRILL- ING MUD, HYDROCYCLONES have become fully as important in solids removal from both UN- WEIGHTED AND WEIGHTED drilling mud sys- tems. Drilling Rate, Screens, and Hydrocyclones ‘New particles of DRILLED SOLIDS are brought to the top of the hole each circulation of the drilling fluid, They vary in size from COLLOIDAL to the largest that can be lifted and will pass through the an- nulus. Many factors affect the size of particles reaching the surface, but the two most important things controlling CUTTINGS size are closely related: the type forma- tion being drilled, and the type bit being used to drill it, Soft, unconsolidated formations usually are dis- CLAY (or colloidal), SILT, SAND, OR (more rare) GRAVEL. These formations usually are drilled fast if the solids removal equipment can adequately remove the solids drilled. Often they can not, and the removal limits the drilling rate. Firmer formations, still soft enough and not too deep for economical drilling with long tooth bits, usually can be drilled at a fairly high penetration rate. These formations usually produce cuttings mostly larger than will pass through the API SAND test screen (74 microns opening). Penetration rate of 20 feet per hour or less will yield ccuttings on the order of 90% to 100% small enough to pass through the sand test screen. This means they are nearly all silt size, with some in the clay-size range. Particles having a dimension larger than % inch are nearly always associated with either “UNDER BAL- ANCED” drilling, or hole CAVING, or both. Cavings ‘can also include fine material, The volume rate of cav- ings (or SLOUGHING) can be higher even than the fastest drilling rates. Removal of the coarsest of these particles must be done by shale shaker screens to pre- vent plugging of the downstream hydrocyclones, as well as any other equipment having nozzle openings. * Capitalized words in the text are defined in the “GLOSSARY”, Appendix “A”, in the back part of this Handbook. Soff, fast-drilling formations are found in many sur- face areas of the world. When these are being drilled, the shaker screens act primarily to protect the hydrocy- clones (whether called “CYCLONES”, “CONES”, “DESANDERS”, OR “DESILTERS”) from OVER- SIZE particles which plug the inlet or underflow open- ings. The cyclones, in these situations, often must per- form nearly all the removal. They usually are the most economical method of removing a high volume rate of fine solids. When drilling is slow, as in very hard formations, the major removal sometimes must be performed by the hydrocyclones because most of the cuttings are too fine for the screens in most situations. If drilling is slow due to the use of a long-life, small tooth bit in a soft formation, the cuttings will be at least as fine as those from a hard formation drilled at the same rate. In medium hard formations that can be drilled at rates approaching 100 feet per hour or faster, the shale shakers usually can remove most of the cuttings. Even 0, intelligent use of a good hydrocyclone installation will result in improved hole, lower drilling cost, and less maintenance work needed on the mud system. Liquid Attached to Removed Solids ‘When solids are removed from a mud, they are sur- rounded by a film of free liquid. If slt-size solids can- not bring this LIQUID FILM with them, they will not discharge from the cyclones. A liquid film is also on the solids removed by shaker screens. Only the DE- CANTING CENTRIFUGE can remove solids without a free liquid film, but even it leaves ADSORBED MOISTURE on separated solids. ‘Small solids particles have more surface area per pound (SPECIFIC AREA) than large particles. The amount of free liquid brought out of the mud with them varies with the surface area per pound of solids (particle size and shape) removed and the viscosity of the liquid-colloidal part of the mud. So the removal of fine cuttings will include more liquid mud than will the removal of an equal amount of coarse cuttings. The removal of a given volume and size of solids particles from a high viscosity liquid will include more liquid than will the removal of those same solids from a ower viscosity liquid. Recirculating Solids Particles ‘When cuttings arrive at the surface for the very first time, they are the largest they will ever be again. They should be removed immediately by screens, cyclones,centrifuges, ete. If not, they will be pumped back down the hole, either to increase the thickness of the FILTER CAKE or to return to the surface again. The second time the particle comes to the surface it will have been broken into more particles of a smaller size, and therefore will have more surface area. These smaller particles will be more difficult to remove than the original particle would have been, and if they can bbe removed they will take more liquid with them. As particles get smaller, they usually have more resistance to breaking up. ‘The “Keys” ‘The most successful solids removal with minimum mud loss requires operating the cyclones and the shaker screens at all times the hole is being circulated, ‘and keeping the viscosity of the LIQUID-CLAY PHASE as low as other requirements will permit. Become familiar with all of this Handbook 6. If you skip sections in order to get out of trouble quickly, you may find you do not understand it. In that case, g0 back and study the parts you skipped. The other Handbooks in this Series will also help you understand the fundamentals of good Mud System Operation. PRINCIPLES OF HYDROCYCLONE DESIGN AND OPERATION Hydrocyclones appear to be very simple. The changing ‘of worn parts and adjusting can be done by almost any rig hand, All this can lead people to believe that the separation is simple. This is not so. It is necessary to understand the basic principles to operate hydrocy- clones efficiently and economically. Physical Appearance and Geometry ‘The FEED CHAMBER (See Figure 6-1) of the hydrocyclone is normally cylindrical. The solids dis- ‘charge end is conical. The SOLIDS DISCHARGE (UNDERFLOW) opening is often called the “bottom”, since the cyclone is usually operated in this position. However, it makes little difference inside the cyclone which end is up. Centered in the top is the LIQ- UID DISCHARGE OPENING. Extending inward and also centered in the top of the cyclone is a VORTEX FINDER, through which the LIQUID DIS- CHARGE must OVERFLOW. ‘The FEED OPENING (INLET) is at the top end of the feed chamber and is tangent to the feed chamber wall. The feed inlet can be slightly smaller or slightly larger than the underflow opening, but the inlet and the underflow each will be much smaller than the liq- uid (overflow) opening. All dimensions, ratios, and angles of the hydrocyclone are design variables. ‘The inside area of a hydrocyclone is subjected to abrasive wear from the material it is expected to remove. It usually is lined with a rubber-like abrasion resistant ELASTIC or PLASTIC material. Some cy- clones are completely constructed of plastic; others partly so. Elastic materials wear (resist abrasion) better than almost any metals or CERAMICS, and cost much less. Operating Principles In operation, a FEED SLURRY of solids and liquid is fed through the inlet at a high velocity obtained by steady pressure or FEED HEAD as recommended by the manufacturer. (Feed head is simply a pressure at the feed header equivalent to the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of a column of feed slurry the same height as the “head” specified**.) A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP is used to obtain the desired head. The high velocity into the feed chamber creates a spinning velocity and resulting CENTRIFUGAL FORCES. The vortex finder causes the stream to spiral downward toward the underflow solids discharge. Centrifugal force and inertia cause the solids to settle outward toward the cyclone wall, in the downward spiraling stream. ‘The solids separate according to the weight and size of the particles, In the density range of solids particles in drilling fluids, size is of far more influence than the variations in density so that basically the biggest par- ticles settle first and fastest. ‘As the cone section narrows, inner layers of the downward spinning liquid turn back toward the overflow because of the increasing centrifugal forces near the center. In this ‘BALANCED DESIGN” cy- clone, as the last of the liquid moves to the center and back upward toward the overflow, the downward spiraling solids continue out the underflow, not being able to turn back because of their greater inertia and high downward velocity. Therefore, the actual solids removal at the underflow is by inertia, not by settling. ‘The underflow rate and density varies with the volume and size of solids being separated to the underflow. ** This concept is discussed more thoroughly in the TADC Centrifugal Pumps Handbook 4. @ ¢Feed—m= Inlet Undertiow Opening TOP VIEW Byron, Opening B rat Vortex Finder May Be orl etal Same Size Or Smalier) 85 Top: ays Liquid Dischai As pening (Overtfow) Feed—p Intet Vortex Finder Feed Chamber. Working (inside! Besos, inde) Cone Zone Ot Maximum Wear |=e— Solids Discharge Opening (‘Undertiow ) & cS <|a SIDE VIEW DIAGRAM SECTION A-A SPRAY DISCHARGE Figure 6-1 ATYPICAL BALANCED-DESIGN HYDROCYCLONE OPERATING PROPERLY IN “SPRAY” TYPE UNDERFLOW SOLIDS DISCHARGE.Choke Bottom In another type of hydrocyclone, which we will call “CHOKE BOTTOM”, the overflow outlet has a back-pressure. The underflow outlet must act as a choke, with a pressure drop across it. This may be by internal design, or caused by overflow header arrangement, or both. Underflow rate will be controlled only by the choke opening, regardless of whether removable solids are present. Spray Underflow Discharge (Balanced Design Only) ‘The solids spiraling down the cone are concentrated by outward settling and because of the decreasing space available as the cone narrows toward the end. If the cone is of a balanced design, and if there are not too many solids (by volume) in the downward spiraling stream, the SPRAY UNDERFLOW appears much like in Figure 6-1, except the particles are traveling so fast they sometimes give the appearance of a shower head. ‘This is the same illusion as when a falling raindrop ap- pears to the eye like a streak. The film of liquid associated will vary from as high as 90% by volume of the total underflow when only very fine solids are separated, down to approximately 50% when only very coarse sand is being removed. The inside stream moving upward toward the overflow at high velocity carries air with it by friction. ‘This air moving upward in the vortex is replaced by air ‘entering upward through the underflow opening. See Figure 6-1. Rope Underflow Discharge (Overloaded Underflow Opening) If the solids load becomes greater, as in faster drill ing, there may not be room for all of the downward moving solids to go out the underflow discharge, as shown in Figure 6-2. The solids slow down in the “dead” area near this exit, and the rate of solids removal is severely reduced. It is not possible to il- lustrate the associated underflow liquid in these diagrams. In ROPE DISCHARGE the liquid volume will be about 50% of the total, or sometimes even less. ‘These solids that cannot get out in the roping underflow will immediately be swept up the center stream and report to the overflow. These will include nearly all the smaller and lighter solids since only those with the most inertia (greatest mass) will find their way out the underflow. Some larger solids will go out the overflow! The rope underflow slurry contains very few fine solids. Therefore, there is less surface area per pound of solids in the underflow when compared to the underflow of a cone operating in spray discharge. Less surface area means less liquid film on each pound of underflow solids, so the roping underflow will weigh more, in pounds per gallon or slurry specific gravity, than the spray discharge underflow (feed be- ing the same). However, since more fine solids are lost to the overflow in rope discharge, the “liquid”? overflow from a roping cone also weighs more than the “liquid’” overflow discharge from a spraying cone. ‘The mud returned to the tanks will contain solids which would have been removed with the cyclone ‘operating in spray discharge. The overflow will not weigh more than the feed. The above discussion of types of underflow dis- charge is not complete, as the limitations of this type ‘manual do not permit it. However, failure to under- stand the above prevents good operation in a majority of installations. Understanding this much can help your removal operations 100 percent! In summary, remember: 1, Rope type discharge cannot remove solids as well as spray type discharge, even though the rope under- flow is heavier. 2. The overflow also will be heavier when the un- derflow is “roping”’. This means an unweighted mud will increase in weight faster with the cyclones in rope underflow than in spray type underflow. 3. If the cyclones are permitted to “‘rope”” in an un- weighted mud, the only remaining way to remove those solids returning to the system through the cyclone overflow is by expensive dilution (discard part of the old mud and make up new mud). This involves more loss of liquid and good colloidal material than with the cyclone in spray type underflow discharge. 4, Rope type underflow can result in very rapi ‘wear of the cyclone vortex finder, overflow parts, cone liner, and rig pump fluid end parts. It also, in unweighted muds, results in unwanted solids in the filter cake, as well as the increase in mud weight discussed above, 5. The ability of a specific hydrocyclone to remove solids from a slurry is lessened by: feed head increasing above the recommended range; increasing the over- flow slurry Funnel Viscosity or Plastic Viscosity; solids (cuttings) particle shapes changing to less spherical; decreasing solids particle size; decreasing the under- flow opening; and by overloading the cone with too many solids (% by volume) in the feed. “ rewovnsecron —>h— UNDERFLOW Luau Ano Figure 6-10 A COMPLETE REMOVAL SYSTEM ARRANGED FOR WEIGHTED “MUD CLEANER” VIBRATING SCREEN DOTTED IN FOR RETURN- MUD, SHOWING THE SCHEMATIC RELATION OF VARIOUS RE- ING TO THE SYSTEM SILT SIZE SOLIDS AND MOST OF THE LIQUID- MOVAL MACHINES TO EACH OTHER, INCLUDING AN OPTIONAL COLLOIDAL PHASE.4) directly from the removal equipment immediate- ly upstream, or b) from its own pump (to stir), or ©) from an equalizing backflow. 3. The pumps, impellers, motor speed, and horsepower must be properly sized and matched to the hydrocyclones for proper feed head. An impeller size “approximately correct””, or “‘in the ball park’* will not do, Read the IADC Handbook 4, CENTRI- FUGAL PUMPS, carefully and follow the advice of your hydrocyclone manufacturer. 4, Be sure your line sizes are correct. Too big is as ‘bad as too small. Check the [ADC Handbook 2, MUD SYSTEMS ARRANGEMENTS. 5. When requirements 3 and 4 above are met, your pump will be correct for one purpose — not for several. Use.it for that purpose. You'll save money. 6. Eliminate all manifolding possible. Manifolds ‘cause pump trouble and can result in very poor solids removal because the wrong valves are open and closed. Read and study the IADC Handbook 2, MUD SYS- TEM ARRANGEMENTS. 7. Eliminate all possible bends, tees, and other fit- tings from the lines. One suction valve to permit pump repair is necessary. One valve on the discharge to per- mit starting the pump with discharge closed is ad- visable, (Open the discharge slowly after the pump is, started.) 8. If a screen is installed on the suction, be sure to have adequate screen area. A workable rule of thumb is, 15 times the square of the pipe diameter: ‘Screen Area, Sq. Inches = (Pipe Diameter, Inches)? x (15) ‘The screen should be mounted so it can be removed, cleaned, and reinstalled by one man while the crew makes a drill pipe connection. 9. Arrangement of the pump suction and equip- ment overflow discharge locations must follow the centrifugal pump manufacturer's suggestions to avoid AIR LOCK problems, and also pumping air to the ‘main rig pump suctions. Hydrocyclone Installation Rules ‘There are also some important requirements for the hydrocyclone installation: 1, They must be installed in a spot where the under- flow can be seen easily and checked frequently. 2, It must be possible to work around the unit. A ‘man should be able to easily adjust, remove, or replace any cyclone. 3. The feed header must be higher than the highest ‘mud level in the mud pits. 4, The solids underflow trough and discharge line must have a downward slope of 1 to 6 (vertical to horizontal). 5. The overflow liquid header should end at a point below the top of the pits but just above the mud level. If carried below the mud level, the overflow header should be vented. This is to let the entrained air break out. It may be necessary to divert the downward flow to prevent it from carrying air down to the next pump suction. If so, do this carefully. 6. The overflow header should not be manifolded and in a well-designed solid removal system it will not be necessary. It also should not be reduced in size unless the manufacturer permits it. 7. If the overflow header discharge has a deep drop (more than six feet) to the pits, “‘siphoning”’ of the cyclones can occur (in operation, not with the pump off). In this case solids may not emerge from the bot- tom of some of the cones. Check with the manufac- turer on the best way to correct this problem. ‘None of these suggestions are meant to replace the manufacturer's specific instructions. Ask your ‘manufacturer for his IADC Maintenance Checklist. ‘The instructions here are basic to all hydrocyclones stallations on all drilling rigs. HYDROCYCLONE SELECTION People usually think “which brand?"” when selection is mentioned, That decision must be made, but it is only the beginning — or perhaps itis the end. Several other things are important in hydrocyclone selection, and their neglect will cause many solids removal prob- lems, A good way to approach the problem is as fol- lows: Desilters, the Last Stage or the Only Stage Step 1: Determine minimum desilter FEED CAPA- CITY required. ‘The minimum desilter hydrocyclone feed capacity required depends upon the total flow into the desilter suction compartment. This flow can be much larger than the normal rig circulation rate. This flow rate in- cludes: a, Maximum Rig Circulating Rate. , The mud gun flow upstream from desilter dis- charge compartment. cc. The degasser eductor pump flow if the suction is downstream of the hydrocyclone.. Any other flow entering into the desilter pump suction compartment, or into any compartment up- stream of the desilter suction, from a pump sucking from any compartment downstream from the desilter suction compartment. (It does not include the volume ‘of mud being processed by any removal device up- stream from the desiter if it is installed as recommend- ed in this series of handbooks.) You may save con- siderable money by referring to Handbook 2, MUD SYSTEM ARRANGEMENTS. Each desilter unit should have its own centrifugal pump! (Do not order yet. Proceed to Step 2.) ‘Step 2: Determine the underflow solids discharge ca- pacity required. Check the underflow solids discharge capacity of the desilters from Step 1 against your maximum INSTAN- TANEOUS PENETRATION RATE including hole enlargement, in gallons per minute, or cubic feet per hour, etc. Some manufacturers may have special ‘charts to make this easier. One of these charts is shown in Figure 6-11 and apply only to these specific hydrocyclones. This calculation determines whether or not these hydrocyclones can handle the solids load at the fastest rate you may cut hole (in cubic volume rate)! Ifthe cyclones found necessary in Step 1 will satisfy the solids underflow required in Step 2, no further cyclones are necessary. One or two extra cyclones are recommended to maintain backflow while one is being repaired. If the desilters for circulation rate are almost ade- quate for maximum penetration rate, it will be cheaper to make each desilter set slightly larger (more cyclones) so they can handle the penetration rate, No additional pump should be required. Desanders, the First Stage if Needed at All If a great deal more UNDERFLOW CAPACITY will be required, additional pumps will be needed. It is advisable to install desander units in a removal stage ahead of the desilters. The underflow capacity of both the desanders and the desiltes must be taken into the calculations, as shown in Figure 6-12. Choose a set of desanders to go ahead of the desilters, chosen in Step 1. Both together must handle the maximum instanta- neous penetration rate. It must be remembered that in these calculations the actual usable underflow discharge opening area of the cyclones is the critical factor. If a hydrocyclone will balance on a % inch opening, for example, a slightly larger opening can be used in heavy loading, but a one- inch opening will not be truly usable, Another con- sideration is that the desanding cyclones must be effi- cient enough, or capable of a cut fine enough, to help remove the solids overload to the desilters. An ex- perienced manufacturer can help in this. Special Problems In certain situations, factors other than penetration rate may require a set of larger cyclones ahead of the desilters: ‘Some rigs seem to work in situations, or with per- sonnel, that prevent ‘‘clean”” mud systems. Plugging of cyclones may be a constant problem. In these cases, suction screens may help but the best solution is often special large balance cyclones that cannot be plugged. These will handle anything the centrifugal pump will pump. Of course, they will also act as desanders, but cannot remove solids as fine as can well designed smaller desanders. Occasionally, a fresh water mud weight of 9.2 to 10.5 PPG is required. If desilting keeps the muds ‘weight too low, it would be better to operate with a set of desanders than to stop cycloning, or to rope the cones. CAUTION: If the mud is to be weighted up later, this might create a problem. Then it would be better to continue desilting while adding barite to bring the weight up as necessary. The Brand Decision In addition to technical considerations, the choice of manufacturer may be affected by other factors. These usually include the following: 1. Which manufacturer has personnel who can help with the selection and best fit it to the drilling opera- tions? 2. Does he have a reputation for fair play and for helping after the sale? 3. Are spare parts available and are they controlled to uniform size and properties for interchangeability and dependability? 4, Can he trouble shoot if I have a problem? (There is a difference here between eager bodies and some ex- perienced people who know and can help.)QyoTuZAO SCITOS LV BLNNIN Yad 1334 Figure SIZING PIONEER CYCLONES TO A DRILLING RIG % 10§ %_ = FULL-FLOW DESILTING, SINGLE STAGE ‘on Graph No. | (of 2) & 1 125 Se 4, 6 15, 4 acity (should ‘maximum hole pumping rate) esd cap NUMBER OF SILTMASTER® 2! a z a q 2 5 | 3 2 2 5 2 m x 30; 32st B 20 B2of vo 16h Boab eer Zz wot S 8b aoe > 6 4s 2 Esp 3 B abt Qo 25h 200: 2 3.20 150________ 589 —________ jz Q le Sip PET 1oo—______ 380 _______ 2 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 35 6-11 HOLE DIAMETER-CENTIMETERS COURTESY OF GEOSOURCE INC. Al0709SIZING PIONEER CYCLONES TO A DRILLING RIG Graph No.2 (of 2) m B FULL-FLOW DESANDING, FIRST STAGE 60 R18. FULL-FLOW DESILTING, SECOND STAGE Ie. oT Bia am & 240 Dia. z 210. z30 > SECOND STAGE 525 - & 80 FEED CAPACITY [NO. OF a nt 7.0 f (should exceed max B20 TF 4 60 | 8 ‘hole_pumping rate) gis } 950 cS 3 m 40 Ee 3 q 5 ® ‘ P10 La S R30 ar 25 225 320 Bs 5 16 Ss tal m ha 4B e go se 25+ 5 8 20+ a 15-2 8 3 & 1.0 ° "Cin the ess specto! solidy probi */n these ranges, unless special! coarse solidg problems 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 axiat, its cheoper To double Ie SILTMASTER copacty Figure 6-12 HOLE DIAMETER — CENTIMETERS ‘and use one pump than fo buy the cheaper first stage COURTESY OF GEOSOURCE INC SANDMASTER ond ad on extra pemping unit. AlO7IIAPPENDIX A TO IADC HYDROCYCLONE MANUAL HYDROCYCLONE GLOSSARY Legend — + From API BUL Dil ++ Does not agree with API BUL Dil * From API BUL 13C Does not agree with API BUL 13C From a combination of API BUL Di! and API BUL 13C ADSORBED MOISTURE ** That moisture adhering to the surface of solid par- ticles, and which cannot be removed by draining even with centrifugal force. (See Related Term: Liquid Film). AERATION + + ‘The mechanical incorporation and dispersion of air in- to a drilling-fluid system. If not selectively controlled, it can be very harmful. AIR CUTTING + + See Preferred Term: AERATION. AIR LOCK ‘A condition causing a centrifugal pump to stop pump- ing due to a ball of air (or gas) in the impeller center that will not let liquid enter and which cannot itself pass through due to the centrifugal forces and to the annular ring of water in the housing. APEX * See Preferred Term: UNDERFLOW OPENING. APEX VALVE * See Preferred Term: UNDERFLOW OPENING. API SAND ** (Gee Related Term: SAND CONTENT). Solids par- ticles that are too large to pass through a U.S. Stan- dard No. 200 Screen (74 micron openings) See API Bulletin RP 13B. BACKPRESSURE * (See Related Term: DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE). ‘The pressure opposing flow from a solids separation device, BALANCE (as a Hydrocyclone) To adjust a balanced design hydrocyclone so that it discharges only a slight drip of water at the underflow ‘opening. BALANCED DESIGN (Hydrocyclone) ‘A hydrocyclone designed so it can be operated to dis- charge solids when there are solids to separate, but will automatically minimize liquid discharge when there are no separable solids. BALANCE, MUD ++ See MUD BALANCE. BALANCE POINT (of a Hydrocyclone) ‘That adjustment at which exactly no liquid will dis- charge at the underflow opening, yet any greater open- ing at all would result in some liquid discharge. BARITE, BARYTES + + Natural barium sulfate, used for increasing the density of drilling fluids. The barite mineral occurs in many colors from white through grays, greens, and reds to black, according to the impurities. API standards re- quire a minimum of 4.2 specific gravity. BARIUM SULFATE + BaSO.. See BARITE. BARREL (A.P.L) ++ ‘A volumetric unit of measure used in the petroleum in- dustry consisting of 42 gal. U.S.A. BEACH ** ‘Area between the liquid pool and the solids discharge ports in a decanting centrifuge. A beach also exists in a “dry bottom” hydrocyclone and causes dry plugging if fine silt is being separated. BENTONITE + A plastic, colloidal clay, largely made up of the mineral sodium montmorillonite, a hydrated alumi- num silicate. For use in drilling fluids, bentonite has a yield in excess of 85 bbI/ton. The generic term “‘ben- tonite” is neither an exact mineralogical name, nor is the clay of definite mineralogical composition. BOTTOM * See Preferred Term: UNDERFLOW OPENING BOTTOM FLOODING ** The behavior of the underflow discharge from a balanced design hydrocyclone due to something wrong, Which causes it to discharge whole mud rather than separated solids. Not to be confused with flooding of sereens and centrifuges.BOUND LIQUID * (Gee Preferred Term: ADSORBED MOISTURE). BROWNIAN MOVEMENT + Continuous, irregular motion exhibited by particles suspended in a liquid or gaseous medium, usually as a collodial dispersion. CAPACITY + (See Related Terms: FEED CAPACITY: SOLIDS DISCHARGE CAPACITY). CAVING ++ (See Related Term: SLOUGHING) — Caving is a severe degree of sloughing. CENTRIFUGAL FORCE * ‘That force which tends to impel matter outward from the center of rotation. (See Related Term: G-FORCE). CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATOR * ‘A general term applicable to any device using cen- trifugal force to shorten and/or to control the settling time required to separate a heavier mass froma lighter CENTRIFUGE (+ +) * A centrifugal separator, specifically: a device rotated by an external force for the purpose of separating materials of various specific gravities and/or particle sizes or shapes from a slurry to which the rotation is imparted primarily by the rotating containing walls. (WARNING: There is a tendency in drilling mud work to call centrifugal separators “centrifuges” even when, they are not.) (CENTRIFUGAL PUMP (See Handbook 4) ‘A machine for moving fluid by spinning it using a rotating impeller in a casing with a central inlet and a ‘tangential outlet. The path of the fluid is an increasing spiral from the inlet at the center to the outlet tangent to the annulus. The pressure head develops against the inside wall of the annulus because the fluid is forced by the curved wall to move in a circular path rather than in a straight line path, (It is not by converting velocity head to pressure head.) A useful work comes from the pump when some of the spinning fluid flows out of the casing tangential outlet into the pipe system. Power from the motor is used to accelerate the fluid coming in the inlet up to the speed of the fluid in the annulus. (Some of the power is used in friction of the fluid in the casing and impeller.) (CERAMICS ‘A general term for vitrified clay products which can be very hard and heat resistant. CHOKE ‘An opening, or aperture, or orifice used to restrict a rate of flow, or discharge. CHOKE BOTTOM (Hydrocyclone) — A hydrocyclone designed so the rate of underflow discharge is determined by the size of the underflow opening (choke) regardless of whether for not solids are separated. A pressure drop occurs ‘across the choke. Sometimes this condition exists due to a poor overflow header design, or even due to poor sup, with cyclones that otherwise could be balanced, CIRCULATION + + ‘The movement of the drilling fluid through one com- plete cycle, beginning at any point. For example: through the suction pit, pumps, drill string, annulus, removal system, addition system, and back to the suc- tion pit. CIRCULATING TIME ‘The time required for one complete cycle of the mud. ‘See CIRCULATION. CIRCULATION, LOSS OF + + See “LOSS OF CIRCULATION” CIRCULATION RATE + ‘The volume flow rate of the circulating drilling fluid usually expressed in gallons or barrels per minute. CLAY ** ++ Any solids particle less than 2 microns in size (API BUL 130), There are clay particles of all known solids. Clay minerals are often confused. These are minerals with special properties. They may be of any size particle but their grain structure is in the clay size. Some are used in muds and some are drilled up. CLAY — SIZE, CLAY PARTICLES ** + + (olids Particles) — Any solids particles less than 2 microns in size. Natural clay particles are commonly (but not limited to) a hydrous silicate of alumina, formed by the decomposition of feldspar and other aluminum silicates. Clay ally i soluble in water but disperse under hydration, grind- ing, velocity effects, etc., into extremely small par- ticles. ‘COLLOIDAL (SOLIDS) Particles so small (less than 0.5 microns) that they have strong electrical charges tending to prevent their set- tling due to a phenomena called “Brownian Move- ‘ment’. These are the finest of the clay particles. (See Related Term: BROWNIAN MOVEMENT.) CONE * See Preferred Term: HYDROCYCLONE. CUT POINT * A general term for the effectiveness of a liquid-solids separation device expressed as the particle size that isremoved from the feed stream at a given percentage under specified operation conditions. (See Related ‘Term: “MEDIAN CUT”). CUTTINGS + + ‘Small pieces of formation that are the result of the chipping and/or crushing action of the bit. See SAMPLES. Field practice is to call all solids removed by the shaker screen “Cuttings”, though often most may be sloughed material. CYCLE TIME, Drilling Fluid + + The time of a cycle, or down the hole and back, is the time required for the pump to move the drilling fluid in the hole. The cycle in minutes equals the barrels of, mud in the hole divided by barrels per minute. CYCLONE + +* See Preferred Term: HYDROCYCLONE DECANTING CENTRIFUGE * ‘A continuously conveying centrifuge which removes solids drained of their free liquid. DENSITY ++ Matter measured as mass per unit of volume expressed in pounds per gallon (ppg), pounds per square inch per thousand feet of depth (psi 1000 ft.); pounds per cubie feet (ppef) and specific gravity. Density is commonly referred to as ‘“‘mud weight” DESANDER ** ‘A hydrocyclone capable of removing a very high pro- portion of the API sand (particles greater than 74 microns) from an unweighted drilling fluid. DESILTER ** A hydrocyclone capable of removing a significant por- tion of the silt size particles from an unweighted drill ing fluid. DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE STICKING + + Sticking which occurs because part of the drill string becomes embedded in the filter cake resulting in a non- uniform distribution of pressure around the cir- cumference of the pipe. DILUENT + Liquid added to dilute or thin a solution by reducing solids content. DILUTION * Decreasing the solids content of a slurry, by addition of water, oil or other fluid constituting the liquid phase. DILUTION WATER * Water used for dilution of raw mud. DRILLED SOLIDS * Formation particles (See Related Term: LOW SPE- CIFIC GRAVITY SOLIDS). DRILLING MUD, or DRILLING FLUID + See MUD. DRILLING RATE ‘The rate at which hole depth progresses expressed as lineal units per unit of time including connections, as Feet/Hour (See Related Term: PENETRATION RATE). DRY Referring to a hydrocyclone, an adjustment at the bot- tom that causes a dry beach usually resulting in severe plugging. This condition can occur only in balanced design hydrocyclones. DRY BOTTOM ** (See DRY.) Referring to a balanced design hydrocyclone with the underflow opening adjusted smaller than the balance point. DRY PLUG ** ‘The plugging of the underflow opening of a balanced design hydrocyclone caused by operating with a DRY BOTTOM. ELASTIC Having the ability to return to original shape after be- ing deformed, or bent out of shape. ELASTOMERS Any rubber, or rubber-like material that is elastic in nature at the operating condition, ENGINEER, MUD ‘See MUD ENGINEER. ENTRANCE (See Preferred Term: INLET). EQUIVALENT SPHERICAL DIAMETER OR ESD ‘The theoretical diameter of a ball that would have the same mass, or electrical resistance, of light reflection, ‘etc. as some very small irregular shaped particle under study or discussion. These ESDs are determined by set- ting velocities, electrical resistance, optical, or other methods. (See Related Term: PARTICLE SIZE.) FEED, or FEED SLURRY * ‘A mixture of solids and liquid entering a liquid-solids separation machine, including dilution liquid if used. FEED CAPACITY (of a Hydrocyclone) * ‘The rate at which a hydrocyclone will accept a slurry at the feed head specified by a manufacturer or deter- mined by test. See Related Term: SOLIDS DIS- CHARGE CAPACITY. FEED CHAMBER * That part of a device which receives the mixture of diluents, mud, and solids to be separated.FEED HEAD The height in feet or meters, of a column of hydrocyclone feed mud to create a pressure equal to the pressure, in psi or in metric units, specified or ac- tually measured with the same feed mud density, atthe cyclone feed header. FEED HEADER * (Gee Related Term: FEED MANIFOLD). A pipe, tube, or conduit to which two or more hydrocyclones are connected and from which they receive their feed slurry. FEED MANIFOLD * ‘An arrangement by which liquids, solids, or slurries from one or more sources can be fed to one or more solids separation devices. Not recommended on drill- ing fluid solids removal systems. FEED OPENING * (See Preferred Term: INLET.) FEED PRESSURE ** (See Preferred Term: INLET PRESSURE.) FILTER CAKE + The suspended solids that are deposited on porous medium during the process of filtration. Also it refers to the solids deposited on the wall of the hole, (See also FILTER CAKE THICKNESS). FILTER CAKE THICKNESS + ‘A measurement of the solids deposited on filter paper in 32nds of an inch during the standard 30-min API filter test. In certain areas the filter-cake thickness is a ‘measurement of the solids deposited on filter paper for 27% min duration (Not API). This term also refers to the cake deposited in a hole. FLOCCULATION FUNNEL VISCOSITY + See Marsh Funnel Viscosity. G-FORCE ** ‘The acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft./sec./sec., 9.8 ‘m/sec./see.). Multiplied acceleration due to cen trifugal force is usually expressed as 1G, 2G, 3G, 110006, ete. GRAIN-SIZE The size of the grains making up a stone. Silt grains make up siltstone, sand grains make up sandstone, clay grains make up shale, etc. GRAVEL Solids particles of a size just larger than sand. GUMBO ++ Any relatively sticky shale formation encountered while drilting, GUNNING THE PITS + + Mechanical agitation of the drilling fluid by means of ‘mud guns. HEAVY SOLIDS (Gee Preferred Term: HIGH SPECIFIC GRAVITY SOLIDS). HIGH SPECIFIC GRAVITY SOLIDS ** (See Related Term: LOW SPECIFIC GRAVITY SOLIDS) — Solids purchased and added to a drilling fluid specifically and solely to increase mud density. Barite is the most common, but Galena is used, and also iron oxides, both much heavier than barite. HYDROCYCLONE * A liquid-solids separation device utilizing centrifugal force for settling; obtaining the rotation of slurry and resulting centrifugal acceleration from high-velocit tangential entry of the feed into the major circular cross-section of the stationary restraining walls. HYDROCYCLONE SIZE ** ‘The maximum inside working diameter of the cone part of the hydrocyclone, INERTIA That force which makes a moving particle tend to maintain its same direction. INLET * ‘The actual opening through which the feed enters the device. INSTANTANEOUS PENETRATION RATE (See Preferred Term: PENETRATION RATE. Also See Related Term: DRILLING RATE). LAMINAR FLOW + + Fluid elements flowing along fixed streamlines which are parallel to the walls of the channel of flow. In laminar flow, the fluid moves in plates or sections with fa differential velocity across the front which varies from zero at the wall to a maximum toward the center of flow. Laminar flow is the first stage of flow in a Newtonian fluid; itis the second stage in a Bingham plastic fluid. This type of motion is also called parallel, streamline, or viscous flow. See Plug Flow. LIGHT SOLIDS ** (See Preferred Term: LOW SPECIFIC GRAVITY SOLIDS). LIQUID-CLAY PHASE (Gee Preferred Term: OVERFLOW). LIQUID DISCHARGE * (See Preferred Term: OVERFLOW). LIQUID DISCHARGE OPENING (See Preferred Term - OVERFLOW OPENING).LIQUID FILM, FREE LIQUID FILM ‘The liquid surrounding each particle discharging from the solids discharge of cyclones and screens and which ‘can be removed by a decanter. LOW SILT MUD ‘An unweighted mud that has all the sand and a high proportion of the silts removed and has a substantial content of bentonitic or other fine water-loss-reducing clays. LOW SPECIFIC GRAVITY SOLIDS ** Salts, drilled solids of every size, commercial colloids, lost circulation materials; i.e., all solids in drilling fluid, except barite or other commercial weighting materials. Salt is a low specific gravity solid. MARSH FUNNEL + ‘An instrument used in determining the Marsh funnel viscosity. The Marsh funnel is a container with a fixed orifice at the bottom so that when filled with 1,500 cc fresh water, 1 qt. (946 mi) will flow out in 26 + 0.5 see. For 1,000 cc out, the efflux time for water is 27.5 ‘£ 0.5 sec. See API RP 13B for specifications. MEDIAN CUT ** In separating solids particles from a specific liquid- solids slurry under specified conditions, the effec- tiveness of the separation device expressed as the parti- cle size that reports 50% to the overflow and 50% to the underflow. MICRON - u= MU + ‘A.unit of length equal to one millionth part of a meter, or one thousandth part of a millimeter. (25,400 microns = 1 in.) MUD + ‘A water - or oil - base drilling fluid whose properties have been altered by solids, commercial and/or native, dissolved and/or suspended. Used for circulating out cuttings and many other functions while drilling a well. Mud is the term most commonly given to drilling fluids. MUD ADDITIVE + ‘Any material added to a drilling fluid to achieve a par- ticular purpose. MUD BALANCE + ‘A beam-type balance used in determining mud density. It consists primarily of a base, graduated beam with constant-volume cup, lid, rider, knife edge and counterweight. ‘MUD BOX ‘The compartment on a shale shaker into which the mud flow line discharges, and from which the mud is either fed to the screens or is bypassed. MUD CLEANER A generic term used for screen in series with the underflow of hydrocyclones. The cyclone overflow returns to the mud system, and the underflow reports to a vibrating screen. The screen solids discharge discarded and the screen liquid throughput returns to the system. MUD CONE * (See Preferred Term: HYDROCYCLONE). MUD ENGINEER + ‘One versed in drilling fluids whose duties are to manage, carry through, and maintain the various types of oil-well mud programs. MUD FEED * Drilling fluid, with or without dilution, for introduc- tion into a liquid-solids separator. MUD STILL + + ‘An instrument used to distill oil, water, and other volatile material in a mud to make a rough determina- tion of oil, water, and total solids content in volume- percent. OIL-BASE MUD + ‘The term “oil-base mud” is applied to a special type drilling fluid where oil is the continuous phase and water the dispersed phase. Oil-base mud contains blown asphalt and usually 1 to 5 percent water emulsified into the system with caustic soda or quick lime and an organic acid, Silicate, salt, and phosphate may also be present. Oil-base muds are differentiated from invert-emulsion muds (both water-in-oil emul- sions) by the amounts of water used, method of con- trolling viscosity and thixotropic properties, wall- building materials, and fluid loss, OIL-IN-WATER EMULSION MUD * Commonly called ‘emulsion mud’. Any conventional or special water-base mud to which oil has been added. ‘The oil becomes the dispersed phase and may be emulsified into the mud either mechanically or ‘chemically. OVERFLOW * ‘The discharge stream from a centrifugal separation that contains a higher percentage of liquids than does the feed. OVERFLOW HEADER ** In hydrocyclone operation, a pipe into which two or ‘more hydrocyclones discharge their overflow. OVERFLOW MANIFOLD * ‘An arrangement by which the overflow from one or more solids separation devices, or from one or more overflow headers can be diverted to various directions. Cc }hy OVERFLOW OPENING * ‘The actual opening through which the overflow leaves the centrifugal separator. OVERLOAD * To feed separable solids to a separating device at a rate greater than its solids discharge capacity. OVERSIZE PARTICLES Solids particles physically too large to pass through the openings in a solids separator. PARTICLE + + In drilling mud work, a discrete unit of solid material that may consist of a single grain or of any number of grains stuck together. PARTICLE SIZE * Particle diameter expressed in microns. (See Related ‘Term: EQUIVALENT SPHERICAL DIAMETER). PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION * ‘The fraction or percentage of particle of various sizes or size ranges. PARTICLE SURFACE AREA ** (See Related Terms: FREE LIQUID FILM, AD- SORBED LIQUID, and SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA). Referring to the combined area of the sur- faces of solids particles in some particular grouping. PENETRATION RATE The rate at which the drill bit penetrates the forma- tion, expressed, in lineal units or cubic units, i.e., feet/minute or gallons/minute, etc. PLASTIC A general term for a large range of synthetic petroleum-based products ranging from highly elastic to hard and noted for their light weight, strength, and abrasion resistance. PLASTIC VISCOSITY + The Plastic Viscosity is a measure of the internal resistance to fluid flow attributable to the amount, type, and size of solids present in a given fluid. I is ex- pressed as the number of dynes per sq. cm of tangen- tial shearing force in excess of the Bingham yield value that will induce a unit rate of shear. This value, ex- pressed in centipoises, is proportional to the slope of the consistency curve determined in the region of laminar flow for materials obeying Bingham’s Law of Plastic Flow. When using the direct-indicating vis- cometer, the Plastic Viscosity is found by subtracting the 300-rpm reading from the 600-rpm reading. PLUG FLOW + ‘The movement of a material as a unit without shearing within the mass. Plug flow is the first type of flow ex- hibited by a plastic fluid after overcoming the initial force required to produce flow. POND * (See Preferred Term: POOL). POOL ‘The reservoir of fluid, or slurry, formed inside the wall of hydrocyclones and centrifuges and in which classifi- cation or separation of solids occurs due to the settling effect of the centrifugal force. PRIMARY SEPARATOR In solids removal from drilling fluids, a shaker screen, hydrocyclone unit, centrifuge, or other liquid-solids separation device that receives mud slurry directly from the active mud system, processed it, and returns some fraction of that slurry directly back into the ac- tive mud system. RATE OF PENETRATION + + See Penetration Rate. RAW MUD * Mud, before dilution, that is to be processed by solids removal equipment, sometimes after dil RETENTION TIME * (Centrifugal Separators) The time the mud liquid phase is actually in a separating device. RIG PUMPS (or HOLE PUMPS) The reciprocating, positive displacement, high pres- sure pumps used to circulate the hole on a drilling rig. ROPE UNDERFLOW ** (Also ROPE, also ROPE DISCHARGE) - The charac- teristic underflow of a hydrocyclone so overloaded with separable solids that not all the separated solids can crowd out the underflow opening, causing those that can exit to form a slow-moving, heavy, rope-like stream. SAND ++ (See Related Term: SAND CONTENT). SAND CONTENT + + ‘The solids particles retained on a U.S. Standard No. 200 test screen, expressed as the bulk percent by volume of the drilling fluid slurry sample. The opening in this screen is 74 microns. The retained solids may be of any mineral or chemical composition and character- istic, for example: barite, shale, mica, silica, steel, chert, ete., ete. SAND TRAP The first compartment and the only unstirred com- partment in a well-designed mud system intended as a settling compartment.SHALE ++ Stone of widely varying hardness, color, and compac- tion that is formed of clay-sized grains (less than two microns). ‘SHAKER SCREENS, SHALE SHAKER ‘Any of several mechanical devices for removing cut- tings and other large solids from the mud. Common examples are vibrating screen, rotating cylindrical screen, etc. SILT ++ Solids particles of a size between clay (less than two microns) and API Sand (greater than 74 microns). Silt- size grains may occur cemented together (siltstone) to form much larger particles that can classify as sand, cuttings, or larger. Barites that can pass the API Stan- dard will be mostly silt. SIZE DISTRIBUTION See Preferred Term: PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBU- TION. SLOUGHING + + ‘The partial or complete collapse of the walls of a hole resulting from incompetent unconsolidated forma- ions, high angle of repose, wetting along internal bed- ding planes, or swelling of competent formations from water imbibition. SLURRY * ‘A mixture and/or suspension of solid particles in one ‘or more liquids. SOLIDS * Al particles of matter in the drilling fluid, formation cuttings, barite, ete. SOLIDS CONTENT + + ‘The total amount of solids in a drilling fluid, expressed as percent by net dry volume. In muds not containing ‘commercial heavy additives, the total solids can be most accurately obtained by weighing the mud and referring to a graph of total solids U.S. mud weight constructed using 2.5 or 2.6 specific gravity for the solids phase. Salt is not a heavy additive. For weighted muds, there is no reliably accurate field instrument, but the mud retort is generally used for this purpose. (See Related Term: Mud Still). SOLIDS DISCHARGE * ‘That stream from a liquid solids separator containing ‘a higher percentage of solids than does the feed. SOLIDS DISCHARGE CAPACITY * ‘The maximum rate at which a liquid solids separator ‘can discharge solids without overloading. SPECIFIC GRAVITY + + In mud work, the weight of a specific volume of a li- drilled quid, solid, or slurry in reference to weight of an equal volume of water at a reference temperature. SPECIFIC (SURFACE) AREA ‘The effective surface area per unit of weight of some sample or grouping of particles of matter, usually ex- pressed in units of area per units of weight such as square feet per pound, or acres per pound, square meters per gram, etc. It can be a valuable indicator of the amount of liquid certain particles can attract to and retain on their surface. No test is available on ‘materials in drilling fluids. SPRAY DISCHARGE ** ‘See Preferred Term: SPRAY UNDERFLOW. SPRAY UNDERFLOW * ‘The characteristic underflow of certain hydrocyclones discharging to the atmosphere and not overloaded with separable solids. SPURT LOSS + + ‘The flux of fluids and solids which occurs in the initial stages of any filtration before pore openings are bridged and a filter cake is formed. ‘SURGE LOSS See Preferred Term: SPURT LOSS. TOP (of a Hydrocyclone) See Preferred Term: OVERFLOW. UMBRELLA DISCHARGE * See Preferred Term: SPRAY DISCHARGE UNDERBALANCED (Drilling) Drilling with less hydrostatic mud pressure in the hole than there is formation pore pressure. UNDERFLOW * (See General Term: SOLIDS DISCHARGE) The dis- charge stream from centrifugal separators that con- tains a higher percentage of solids than does the feed. UNDERFLOW CAPACITY ‘See SOLIDS DISCHARGE CAPACITY. UNDERFLOW OPENING * ‘The actual opening through which the underflow leaves the centrifugal separator. UNDERSIZE (Solids Particles) ** Particles, in a given situation, that will pass through the mesh of the screen in use. UNWEIGHTED (Mud) A slurry that has no commercial solids significantly heavier than 2.6 specific gravity added to it. VORTEX * A cylindrical or conical shaped core of air or vapor Iy- ing along the central axis of the rotating slurry inside a hydrocyclone. oeVORTEX FINDER * A hollow cyclinder extending axially into the barrel of a hydrocyclone forming an annulus into which the feed enters tangentially. The overflow exists from the separating chamber through the vortex finder, and the vortex is centered in the hydrocyclone by the hole in the vortex finder, hence the name. WALL CAKE + ‘The solid material deposited along the wall of the hole resulting from filtration of the fluid part of the mud into the formation. (See Related Term: Filter Cake). WALL STICKING ‘See Preferred Term: DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE STICKING. WATER-BASE MUD + ‘Common conventional drilling fluids. Water is the suspending medium for solids and is the continuous phase, whether or not oil is present. WEIGHT ++ In mud terminology, this refers to the density of a drilling fluid. This is normally expressed in either Ib./gal., Ib./cu. ft., psi hydrostatic pressure per 1,000 ft. of depth, or specific gravity related to water. WEIGHT MATERIAL + Any of the high specific gravity materials used to in- crease the density of drilling fluids. This material is most commonly barite but can be galena, etc. In special applications limestone is also called a weight material. WEIGHTED (MUD) A drilling fluid to which heavy (over 2.6 Specific Gravity) solids have been added to increase the slurry weight. The Specific Gravity of salt is very similar to that of most (low Specific Gravity) formation solids. WEIGHT UP To increase the weight of a drilling mud, usually by the addition of weight material. WET BALANCE ‘A reference to the underflow of a balanced-type hy- drocyclone that has been opened slightly more than ‘optimum, and therefore underflows slightly more mud than necessary. WETTING + ‘The adhesion of a liquid to the surface of a solid.APPENDIX B TO IADC HYDROCYCLONE MANUAL USING SMALL DIAMETER HYDROCYCLONES FOR VISCOSITY REDUCTION — WEIGHTED WATER BASE MUDS ONLY INTRODUCTION Muds weighted with solids such as barites have a large part of their volume taken up by those solids. So much of their liquid is adsorbed on the surface of those solids that the tolerance for clay-size (viscosity producing) solids is very low. Without mechanical sep- arators, a portion of the mud system must be dis- carded frequently. Barites, water, filtration control additives and chemicals are then added to maintain weight, volume, and properties. When liquid-solids separators, regardless of the type, are successfully used to reduce viscosity, they function by removing the liquid while returning the silt-size weight material to the system. If water, filtra- tion control additives and chemicals are added with this salvaged weight material to maintain system weight and volume, the effect on the system flow prop- erties will be similar to discarding whole mud and buy- ing all new materials to restore volume. ‘The purpose, then, of operating these 1%4"" to 3”” diameter “‘barite-salvaging hydrocyclones” on a system should be to reduce flow properties. The flow properties should govern the operation, i.e. when to start the operation and when to stop it. The economic justification for the hydrocyclones, or any other machine for the purpose, is the savings in barite cost compared to that incurred by obtaining the ‘same reduction in flow properties by dilution, i.e. by throwing mud away and rebuilding the system with new materials. PERTINENT FACTS If you have not read the preceding parts of this IADC Hydrocyclone Handbook in its entirety, study it now. The remarks to come will have little meaning otherwise. ‘The mud feeding to the barite salvage hydrocyclones ‘must be diluted to a weight between 9.0 ppg and 11.0 ppg, depending upon the brand design of hydrocy- clone and the weight of the mud system. There are two reasons for this high dilution: a. It is necessary because the amount of good weight material desirable as salvage back into the system is much higher volume percent of the mud than the cyclone can discharge out the underflow opening. The dilution must reduce the percent silt-size solids in the feed to a volume the cyclone can handle out the underflow. It is to insure the cyclone underflow is not overloaded, (or “‘roping”). Cyclones with high feed rates and small underflow openings will need dilution to 9.5 ppg, or even less. b. The SIZE DISTRIBUTION of API grind barites is such that about half the material is less than 20 microns. From 7% to 17% is less than 2 microns (clay size). The 2 to 20 micron barites are in a very stable size range and this size often contain the fewest drilled solids relative to barite. If the cyclones are not operated carefully at maximum efficiency, all of the barites up to 20 microns and even larger can be lost. Not only is this a heavy econdmic loss, loosing it does ‘not improve the mud and may in fact be very detri- mental to the filter cake. If high dilution were not necessary to reduce total {feed solids to prevent underflow overloading, dilution water would be necessary to dilute slightly to reduce viscosity to obtain tolerable separation efficiency. As it is, the dilution to reduce feed solids is usually several times that which would be needed to reduce viscosity sufficiently. If the required system weight increases above 15 ppg, using API barites, the saving possible with ““barite salvage” hydrocyclone begins to decrease. ‘Above 17 ppg the savings begin to disappear entirely and the limitations become severe. This is for two basic reasons: a. If the cones are separating efficiently, the surface area of the salvaged barites will be high enough that the free liquid film (consisting principally of water) will cause the underflow to weigh normally between 15, and 17 ppg. Salvage in a 15 ppg spray-type discharge can range up to 75 to 85M% of the feed barites with nor- mal API grinds, as a maximum. . If the underflow weight must be heavier, it can only be done by reducing the cyclone separating effi- ciency. This is done by overloading the underflow dis- charge, i.e., causing it to “‘rope’”. Usually these are <we simple adjustments to reduce each underflow opening. The smaller silt-size barites are forced into the over- flow (lost) and the reduced surface area of the under- flow discharge brings less water and increases the weight of the underflow slurry. The loss of barites will range between 50% and 80% of API feed barites when the underflow is roping and weighs 18 ppg and higher. OPERATING HINTS Study the Operating Manual furnished by the manu- facturer of the unit you are to use. The units available differ too much to permit detailed operating instruc- tions here. Beyond that, the following should be help- ful even though some of it may be contradicted in the ‘manufacturers’ Operating Manuals: 1. If the bottoms of each cone are visible, plugging can be detected more easily. The increased loss from any one individual cyclone plugged at the bottom will, range from 15 to 50 pounds of good weight material per minute, or 900 to 3000 pounds per hour depending upon the design of cyclone and the feed conditions, 2. Operate with the individual cyclone underflows in spray discharge, as long as possible. (This may re- quire removing some underflow parts from some type cyclones). The salvage efficiency will mot be “too high”. 3. Ifthe system weight is increased to the point that roping is required for the cyclone underflow to equal that weight, two alternatives are possible: ) Operate at the heaviest possible spray discharge adjustment, and add barites at all times the cyclones ‘operate to counteract the weight reducing effect on the system. This is the least expensive method and proba- bly the least harmful to the filter cake. ’) Restrict the cyclone underflow to cause rope discharge, and make constant heavy additions of barites and water at all times the cyclones operate to counteract the increased loss of weight material and volume. This salvaging of only the coarsest weight material can be dangerous to the hole, at least in some areas. 4. CAUTION: ‘The decision to use hydrocyclones rather than other devices available for clay discard in weighted water ‘base muds should not be taken lightly. The poorest reason for a choice is initial cost. The ability to suc- cessfully drill a hole in an isolated area is worth more consideration. ‘The overflow of the cyclones contains the clay to be removed. This is the purpose of the operation. Under no circumstances should any part of this overflow be returned to the cyclone feed as dilution, There are two reasons: 1, It causes a buildup of clays entering the cyclones, increasing the Plastic Viscosity of the overflow, decreasing the cyclone efficiency, and increasing the loss of good weight material to the overflow. 2. The buildup of clays in the feed will cause more clays to be in the free liquid film on the underflow solids returning to the system. This return of clays to the system defeats the purpose of the process. To off- set this, more cyclone operation is necessary to remove sufficient clays, resulting in the unnecessary loss of more weight material. 3. If sufficient fresh water cannot be used, whether due to source problems or to waste disposal problems, the hydrocyclones cannot be used. It is better to face that fact than to confuse the process and frustrate the Purpose.APPENDIX C TO [ADC HYDROCYCLONE MANUAL PARTICIPANTS IN THE IADC HYDROCYCLONE CONFERENCE, 19 - 20 May 1976, Dallas, Texas ‘The following papers and/or written comment were presented at the IADC Hydrocyclone Manufacturer- User Confrontation Meeting in Dallas. Inclusion of this listing in this manual is for information only and does not represent endorsement of a product or posi- tion, 1. “Theory of Hydrocyclones", Donald T. Tarr. 2. "Design and Operating Factors Affecting or In- fluencing the Performance of Hydrocyclones", B. B. Winn, Krebs Engineers. 3. “An Electric Instrument For Particle Sizing of Drilling Mud’’, by Shephard Kinsman, Coulter Elec- tronics, Inc. 4, “Rating the Performance of Hydrocyclones — For Cutting Debris Control”, by Drs. E. C. Fitch and G. E. Maroney, Oklahoma State University. 5. “Comments On the Method of Rating Hydrocy- clones for Drilled Solids Removal as Proposed by Dr. E. C. Fitch and Dr. G. E. Maroney”’, by George S. Ormsby. 6. “DEMCO Hydrocyclones in Drilling Mud”, Paul G. Sturdivan, DEMCO Inc., Div. of Gardner- Denver. 7. ‘“Hydrocyclones for Drilling Fluids”, by George S. Ormsby, Stonewall Associates, Inc., (with Picenco International Inc. at time of presentation). 8. “SWECO Polyurethane Desilter Cones””, by L. T. Hansen, SWECO, Inc., Oil Field Service Division. 9. ‘SWACO’s Hydrocyclones’”, by Gordon Lawson and Whit Mason, SWACO Div., Dresser Industries, Inc. 10. “Use and Care of Hydrocyclone Desanders and, Desilters In the Field”, by E. Seneka and B. Turtle, ‘Smith International Canada Ltd.APPENDIX D TO IADC HYDROCYCLONE MANUAL TROUBLE SHOOTING CHECKLIST Part I: SYMPTOMS AND PROBLEMS SYMPTOMS SI High mud loss in the shape of a smooth upside-down cone or flared skirts at all hydrocyclone underflows on the unit that are not plugged at the BOTTOM. (See $5) $2 All hydrocyclones that are not plugged at their bottom are discharging mud out the underflow in a straight-downward stream (a0 coning) with some force, and the underflow is heavier than the feed. 83 Alllof the cyclones that are not plugged at the bottom are discharging at a slow- moving stream of coarse solids straight down, s4 Some of the hydrocyclones lose light mud ‘out the bottom in a straight-down stream (a0 coning, no spray). ss High mud loss in the shape of a smooth upside-down cone (or flared skirt) at one ‘or more of the hydrocyclone bottoms; the others operating normally. 86 ‘One or more cyclones discharge nothing at the underflow; others seem O.K. s7 ‘The two cyclones at the overflow-header- discharge end of the unit have a dryer underflow than the others, and opening their underflow does not change that. ss One or more hydrocyclones will not adjust according to manufacturer's instructions; others seem O.K. 39 Nothing being removed at any of the hydrocyclone bottoms; none plugged at the underflow; feed head O.K. POSSIBLE REASONS Pa FEED HEAD to the cyclones is not up to recommended range. No Problem? (Excessive Mud Loss?) P2 Mote solids are being separated to the bottoms of the cyclones than can be dis- charged out the underflow openings. (olids overload). P3 Cycloned Mud backflows into these cyclones from the overflow header through the vortex finder. P4 Insufficient velocity entering the feed of the cyclones that are losing mud. Ps ‘These cyclones are plugged at either the inlet or the underflow. P46 Air is being sucked up into these cyclone underflows at such a high rate that only the coarsest solids can exit, Pa Some of the internal parts do not match properly, or do not have proper internal dimensions. No solids in the mud the cyclones can remove. (Solids removal insufficient?) See P-2 SEE PART I “CAUSES” by C-Numbers Below: C1, C2, C3, C-4, C5, 046, C1, C-8, C-9, C-10, C1, C-49, C-50, C-51. c12 C13, C31 See C-14 CAS, C16 C17, C18 C19 20, C-21 czSYMPTONS s-10 Cyclone bottoms plug as quickly as they can be unplugged. san Cyclones wet at bottom, but not stead feed head varying (feed pressure varying much more and faster than mud weight). sa Mad loss high at the underflow of the cyclones; spray discharge; cyclones set on or near balance; no problems with mud, or with drilling, or with the hole. S13 Life of the cyclone parts is very short, especially the lower parts, S14 Life of the cyclone parts is very short, especially so in the vortex finder and overflow parts. S15 Elastic “rubber” parts of the cyclones lose shape and/or become bubbley. S16 ‘The system weight, and/or percent solids, is increasing more rapidly than desired or required. sar The system flow properties (funnel seconds, PV, YP, Gels) are becoming too high. S18 Motor protection fuses ‘‘blow’” (heaters burn. S19 AA diesel or gas engine driving a pump is laboring (overloaded, and will have a short overhaul life). $20 Impeller life in the centrifugal pumps is less than six months. sa The feed head (or pressure) does not respond to changes in pump speed or impeller diameter. SEE PART I “CAUSES” POSSIBLE REASONS Ps Solids may be unable to cross over the “beach” if underflow openings are too small. Ps Air or gas in the mud stream entering the cyclone feed inlets. No problem? P10 Waste Disposal is prohibitive, and/or water is extremely expensive. P-ll ‘The solids being removed are wearing the liner material very rapidly. Pz Abrasive solids that should discharge out the bottoms are passing out the overflow and cutting the overflow parts. P13 Polyurethane can be severely damaged by steam or boiling water. Pls ‘Solids removal is insufficient. P-15 Fine solids are increasing in the system. P-16 Input Horsepower to the pump is higher than calculated. Pay ‘The pump Input Horsepower requirement is too high for the horsepower developed at that RPM. P-18 Cavitation in the pump. Pad Pressure changes in the feed header are not being transmitted to the Bourdon tube, or are not reaching the indicator needle. by C-Numbers Below: C13, C23 C24, C25, C-9, C-10, C-49 C26 C21, €-28, C-29, C-30 C13, 31, C-32 C33 C13, C34, C17, C31, ©-35, C-36, C-37 C38 C1, C-39, C-40, C-49 C-40, C41, C-42, C-43, C-49 C44, C5, C3, C9, C-49 C-45, C-46, C-47, C48APPENDIX D TO IADC HYDROCYCLONE MANUAL ‘TROUBLE SHOOTING CHECKLIST Part I: CAUSI PROBABLE CAUSES C1 Engine (pump) running too slow. cz Impeller to face-plate clearance is worn or not adjusted properly. cs Solids settled in suction (and discharge) line when pump ‘was used on a lower volume job. 4 Friction losses through manifolding is more than calcu- lated. cs Large object partially obstructing pump suction line, and/or valve may be partly closed. _/ co Impeller diameter too small for the job. cr Motor has wrong RPM for pump and piping, or equip- ment. cs Large object, or hardened solids settled in pump dis- charge line or feed header. cs ‘Pump suction and/or discharge line too small for volume throughput. 10 Pump Suction is equipped with a screen without enough ‘open area. cn Centrifugal Pump running backwards. & REMEDIES REMEDIES Ri Increase throttle setting until pump delivers proper head to the hydrocyclone feed header. Put a stop on the ad- justment to make it easy to operate at this throttle posi- tion — or lock the fullsspeed governor adjustment if possible, R2 Adjust clearance; replace plate or rework face if necessary and possible. RS Clean out suction; use the pump for only one job, or alternate on jobs requiring about the same volume rates. R4 Reduce manifolding to a minimum; re-pipe for single purpose pumping. RS Increase impeller size or engine speed to make up for ad- ditional friction losses. (Larger engine or motor may be required.) R6 ‘Check the suction valve. Clean out the suction line. If this ‘occurs regularly, equip the suction with a large suction screen. See manual for more details. Ra Recalculate volume rates, and friction losses, check against pump impeller and RPM curves at proper throughput rates, and install proper size impeller to closest 1/8 inch. RS ‘Change to proper RPM motor, or change impeller for a diameter to give proper head (which might require chang- ing pumps!). Ro Clean out pump discharge line. (Remove any “‘safety”” or “protective” chokes or restriction.) Use pump for only cone purpose. R10 Recheck line size against procedure in ADC Handbook 4: Centrifugal Pumps or in Handbook 2: Mud System Arrangements, (sizing by pump flanges is not sufficient). Rat Replace with a screen with an area as recommended in this [ADC Hydrocyclone Handbook 6. Rw Wiring into electric motor must be reversed; or an op- posite rotation pump, (left-hand or right-hand), must be obtained if an internal combustion engine is being used.PROBABLE CAUSES cr The hydrocyclones are of choke-bottom design; the oper- ation is normal for them. C13 Underflow openings have been adjusted too small. cad Feed inlet of these cyclones is plugged with a soft object, (cag, glove, hat liner, piece or rubber float plug, etc.). cas Feed inlet of such cyclones is partially plugged by some hard object (welding rod, cement, gravel, etc.). C16 ‘An obstruction inside the cyclone (part of a worn-out liner?) may be blocking the overflow outlet (vortex finder). car Underflow solids discharge opening may be plugged. cus ‘The feed inlet may be completely plugged and there may not be a backflow from the overflow header (due to loca- tion and rigup). cas ‘The discharge from the overflow header makes a rela- tively long vertical drop, causing a siphon effect on the end cyclones, in addition to their normal air intake dur- ing spray discharge. C20 ‘The internal parts may not be installed properly. ou The internal surfaces in contact with the drilling fluid may be severely worn. C2 Balanced-design hydrocyclones may stop discharging solids if adjusted dryer than balance, and if no coarse solids are in the mud. C23 If no coarse solids are in the mud, finer solids (silts) will not cross a dry (beach) portion of the underflow opening. They form a “‘dry-plug” instead. REMEDIES R13 Adjust the underflow opening smaller to lose a minimum of liquid, but not small enough to cause plugging. R14 Open the underflow openings to spray discharge if possi- ble. Ras Remove these cyclones from the feed header and remove the obstruction from inlet; cleaning out the feed header may be necessary. R16 Remove the obstruction from the feed inlet. It may be necessary to do this through the feed header. RAT Open the cyclone and check for large objects, or the liner in pieces. Vortex finders without steel reinforcement may collapse at high feed head. (Look for an oval shape when removed.) Check the manufacturer. Ras Loosen the underflow adjustment and/or remove the cyclone from the headers and clean it out. (See R-38 and R39.) See R-IS R19 Reduce the drop if that is practical (set the cyclone unit ower). R20 Install a vertical 1” pipe riser into the discharge end of the overflow header and extending down into the center of the diameter of the header, to reduce the siphon effect. R24 Open the cyclone and check the assembly carefully against the manufacturer's assembly instructions. R22 Open, clean, and inspect the troublesome cyclone; replace badly worn parts and adjust. R23 Check (vary) the adjustment to see if a slightly larger opening would remove undesirable solids. (if mud system weight is too high, definitely open the adjustment slight- ly) See R-14 Rw If the feed head (or pressure at a specific mud weight) is, too high, it may not be possible to get proper removal. Check the manufacturer’s recommendations against the actual feed head.PROBABLE CAUSES cu Mud flowing over a high weir or wall, or falling from a trough, carries air bubbles down and into the centrifugal pump suction. 25 A set of hydrocyclones with an overflow header having the individual cyclone overflows pointing straight into each other has a tendency to create foam (instead of bubbles), which will pass into the suction of the next pump downstream. C26 At slow drilling rates, all drilled solids are fine with high surface area, bringing a high volume of free liquid film ‘out on their surfaces as they leave the cyclone bottom. 27 ‘The feed head (pressure at a specific mud density) may be too high. C28 The cyclone liner or wear parts may not be best material for the type mud (oil mud, for example). C29 ‘Very high or low mud temperature extremes can require special materials. C30 The drilled solids in some areas can be very abrasive. cat Cyclones do not have enough underflow solids discharge ‘capacity to match drilling rate. 32 Weighted mud is being pumped through desilting cyclones. C33 ‘Very hot water, or steam, has been used to clean out, or to thaw, the hydrocyclones, or headers. cae The removal portion of the mud system is not properly ‘compartmented and arranged. REMEDIES R25 Use a spreader plate to break the downward velocity and let the bubbles break out. Keep the mud level as high as practical. R26 ‘Change the overflow header to a “‘slant” type to prevent foaming. R27 Put a degasser downstream from the foaming discharge header (not the preferred solution). R28 Check the economics of a decanting centrifuge to sal- vvage the liquid-colloidal fraction of the cyclone under- flow. See R-24 R29 Report your problem to the manufacturer and get his recommendation. See R29 R30 Keep the feed head at the minimum recommended by the manufacturer. R31 Install additional cyclones or change out for cyclones with higher solids removal capacity. R32 Drill slower (not the economic solution). R33 Abrasive barites and other material in the overflow are unavoidable. ‘See R-30, Rot The cyclones will normally drain upon shutdown if they are not plugged during operation, RBS Extremely hot water, or steam, must be kept out of urethane cyclones. R36 For extremely hot muds, check the manufacturer's recommendation. R37 Study the ADC Handbook 2 on Mud Systems Arrange- ments and correct the system.PROBABLE CAUSES C35 Large solids are plugging the desilter underflow openings. C36 ‘The separation ability of the cyclones may not be good enough. c37 Barites were added to increase mud weight. 38 If PV is not controlled, the hydrocyclone removal ef- fectiveness will decrease and mud weight will increase in a vicious cycle. C39 The equipment fed by the pump has more volume throughput capacity than planned. C40 ‘A pump discharge line has been opened and is “by- passing” mud back to the system. cat The engine selected may have been too small. ca Equipment was added to the discharge header after engine and pump selection. cas Impeller not properly sized for maximum fuel efficiency and horsepower. C44 Volume throughput through the pump is too high. cas Mud has plugged the passage to the diaphragm, of to the tube, or in the tube. C46 ‘The seal has been lost on the hydraulic oil charge on the Bourdon tube side of the diaphragm. car The indicator mechanism is broken. cas ‘The gauge is frozen. REMEDIES R38 Replace torn shaker screens and do not run 4” and 6” cyclones if the screens are being bypassed. R39 Use coarser screens that do not have to be bypassed with high solids loads. R40 Test other cyclones for comparison. R41 ‘Addition of barites will instantly increase weight and per- cent solids. R42 When desilting, fewer fine solids need to be added. R43 Thinners should be used to keep flow properties under control. R44 Remove enough equipment from the discharge line to it, All mud discharged from a centrifugal pump increases the load on the pump regardless of discharge head or pressure. R46 Recheck engine HP curves, pump curves, and equipment capacity to reduce load or select proper engine. R47 Remove the extra equipment, or add another pump, or decide not to operate simultaneously. R48 Recheck engine HP curves and fuel curves against pump curves to obtain matched impeller size. See R-47 R49 ‘Change out pump and lines for higher throughput ratings. R50 Replace the indicator and diaphragm. (Have the old one repaired if possible.) RSI Have the diaphragm recharged, resealed, and silver soldered. RS? Repair or replace the gauge. Keep it in the ‘‘dog house” ‘or other safe place, and use it omly for occasional testing. R53 ‘Thaw the gauge and keep it in the dog house until actual- ly needed for testing. ePROBABLE CAUSES ‘Ss cas ‘The pump suction line is at least partially frozen. cso ‘The pump discharge line is at least partially frozen. cst REMEDIES RSA Thaw it and take cold weather precautions normal for the area, See R54 See R-S4 ‘One (or both) of the hydrocyclone headers is at least par- tially frozen.