| | | | Reinforced ACRE i SECOND EDITION Robert Park \j William L. Gamble i il‘This book is printed on acid-free paper. © Copyright © 2000 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada. 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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Park, R. (Robert), 1933~ Reinforced concrete slabs / Robert Park, William L. Gamble. — 2nd ed. poem Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 04471-34850-3 (cloth : alk. paper) 1, Concrete slabs—Design and construction. 2, Concrete slabs— Testing. 1, Gamble, W. L. (William Leo) 1. TITLE. TA6S83.5.86P36 2000 624.1'8342—de2t 99-2898 Printed in the United States of America. 987654321CONTENTS Preface 1L._Introduction 1.1 Scope and General Remarks, 1 1.2 Types of Reinforced Concrete Slab Construction, 3 1.3 Choice of Type of Slab Floor, 10 1.4 Approaches to the Analysis and Design of Slab Systems, 11 1.4.1 Complete Behavior of Slab Systems, 12 1.4.2 Elastic Theory Analysis, 13 1.4.3 Limit Analysis, 14 1.4.4 ACI Building Code Method, 16 14.5 Design Procedures, 18 L5__Notes on Units. 18 References, 19 2.__Basis of Elastic Theory Analysis 2 2.1 Introduction, 21 2.2__Classical Plate Theory, 21 2. Lagrange’s Equation, 21 2. Equilibrium, 22 2. Moment-Deformation Relationships. 24 2.2.4 Shear-Deformation Relationships, 30 2.2.5 Boundary Conditions, 31 2.2.6 Reactions, 32 2.2.7__Poisson’s Ratio, 34 2.2.8 Moments Acting at_an Angle to the Coordinate Axes, 36 2.2.9 Method of Solution, 37 23. Elastic Models, 42 24 Finite Ditt ti 2 5 Fini is, 2.6 Approximate Methods, 49 2.7__Examples of Elastic Theory Analysis, 51 References, 57 wifi 21vi = CONTENTS 3.__Results of Elastic Theory Analysis 60 3.1__Introduction, 60 3.2. Moments in Interior Panels of Slabs, 68 3.2.1 Effects of Relative Stiffness of Supporting Beams, 68 3.2.2 Effects of Size of Supporting Column or Capital, 80 3.2.3 Pattern Loadings, 81 3.3__Moments in Edge Panels of Slabs, 101 3.3.1 Moments in the Span Parallel to the Edge of the Structure, 103 3.3.2__Moments in the Span Perpendicular to the Edge of the Structure, 107 3.4 Moments in Cc dt 3.5__ Special Cases of Loading and G 122 3.5.1 Effects of Concentrated and Line Loads on Moments. 122 3.5.2__ Effects of Loads Varying Linearly Across One Span, 130 3.5.3 Effects of Holes in Slabs, 133 References, 139 4. Background of 1971 and 1995 ACI Building Code for Reinforced Concrete Slab 144 4.1 Introduction, 144 4.2 Static Moment and Structural Safety, 148 4.2.1 Static Moment, 148 4.2.2 Structural Safety and the Static Momer 155 4.3 Equivalent Frame Method: Determination of Negative and Positive Slab Moments and Column Moments, 157 43.1 General Comments and Manual Calculation Approach. 157, 43.2 Wdealizations for Plane-Frame Computer Analysis, 174 $5 Diairution of Momenis Across Sections, 180 4.5 Direct Design Method, 45.1 Negative-Positive Diaiuton of Moments, 195 45.2 _ Requirements for Column Moments and Stiffnesses, 200 Refere 2 Copyrighted material5. General Lower Bound Limit Analysis and Design 205 6. 5.1 Introduction, _205 5.2_Governing Equations for General Lower Bound Limit Analysis, 207 5.2.1 Equilibrium Equation, 207 52.2 “Transformation of Mi Diff Axes,_209 5.2.3 Boundary Conditions, 210 . + 2 5.3__Analysis of Slabs by General Lower Bound Method, 217 54 Design of Reinforcement for Slabs in Accordance with a Predetermined Field of Moments, 223 5.4.1 General Approach, _223 5.4.2 Reinforcement Arranged at Right Angles. 224 5.5 Comment on General Lower Bound Limit Design, 230 References, 230 Design by the Strip Method and Other Equilibrium Methods _ 232 1 Introduction, _232 6.2 Simple Strip Method, 234 6.2.1 Strip Action, 234 6.2.2 Discontinuity Lines Originating from Slab Comers, 238 6.2.3 Discontinuity Lines Originating from Slab Sides, 247 6.2.4 Strong Bands, 254 6.2.5 Skewed and Triangular Slabs, 255 6.2.6 Comparison with the Yield Line Theory Ultimate Load, 256 6.2.7 Design Applications, 258 6.3__ Advanced Strip Method, 277 6.3.1 Types of Slab Element, 278 Design Applications, 285 6.3.2 i 64 nent Equilibrium Method, 287 6.4.1 Flat Plates with Columns on a Rectangular Grid, 287 6.4.2 Flat Plates with Irregular Column Layouts, 293 6.5 Comparison with Test Results, 296 References, 300 Copyrighted materialviii 1. CONTENTS Basis of Yield Line Theory 303 Introd 7.2.1 Slab Reinforcement, 303 7.2.2 Duetility of Slab Sections, 304 7.2.3 Conditions at Ultimate Load, 305 7.24 Yield Lines as Axes of Rotation, 306 735 hi . Yi Lines, 308 Ts terminati if 7.3___ Analysis by Principle of Virtual Work. 311 7.3.1 Virtual Work Equation, 311 7.3.2__Components of Internal Work Done. 314 7.3.3 Minimum-Load Principle, 314 74 Analysis b uations of Equilibrium, 321 741 uilibrium Equations, 321 7.4.2 Statical Equivalents of Shear Forces Along a Yield Li 3: 7.43 Magnitude of Nodal Forces, 323 7.44 Method of Solution by the Equilibrium Equations, 332 25__Concentrated Loads, 339 7.5.1 Types of Yield Line Patterns, 339 7.5.2 Circular Fans, 341 7.6 Superposition of Moment Strengths for Combined Loading Cases, 346 x 7.7 Comer Effects, 349 7.8 Affinity Theorem, 354 7.9 General Cases for Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Slabs, _363 29 ti h f Resi f Slabs, 363 7.9.2 Uniformly Loaded Orthotropic Rectangular Slabs with All Edges Supported, 363 7.9.3 Uniformly Loaded Orthotropic Rectangular Slabs with Three Edges Supported and One Edge Free, 366 7.9.4 Uniformly Loaded Orthotropic Rectangular Slabs with Two Adjacent Edges Supported and the Other Edges Free, 369 7.10 Composite Beam-Slab Collapse Mechanisms, 371CONTENTS = ix LL_Beamless Floors, 377 7.11.1 Folding Yield Line Pauerns, 377 7.11.2 Local Yield Line Patterns at Columns, _379 7.11.3 Unbalanced Moment Transfer at Slab-Column Connections, 384 A rs_with Exterior Beams, 388 7.11.5 Shear Strength of Slab-Column Connections, 390 7.12 Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Slabs with Openings, 390 7.13 Uniformly Loaded Circular and Ring Slabs, 399 7.13.1 Circular Slab Supported on n Columns and Subjected to Uniform Loading, 399 2.13.2 Ring Slabs. 401 03 7.15 Approximate Yield Line Patterns for Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Slabs, 407 7.15.1 Use of Approximate Yield Line Patterns, 407 7.15.2__Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Slabs with All Edges Supported, 407 7.15.3 Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Slabs with Three Edges Supported and One Edge Free,__409 7.15.4 Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Slabs with Two Adjacent Edges Supported and the Remaining Edges Free, 413 7.16 Trial-and-Error Method for Approximate Yield Line Patterns. 415 7.17 Comparison with Test Results, 424 7.17.1 Tests Conducted by the Deutscher Ausschuss fir Eisenbeton, 424 7.17.2 Tests Conducted by IRABA, 427 7.17.3 Tests Conducted at the Technical University of Berlin. 428 Building Materials and Structures, 428. 7.17.5 Tests Conducted at the University of Manchester, 430 7.17.6 Tests Conducted at the University of Canterbury, 439 7.17.7 Tests Conducted at the University ofDesign by Yield Line Theory 449 $1 Introduction. 449 8.2 Strength and Serviceability Provisions, 450 8.2.1 Design Load and Moment of Resistance, 450 8.2.2 Reinforcement Ratios, 45) 8.2.3 Reinforcement Arrangements, 452 8.2.4 Servieeability Checks, 453 8.2.5 Other Design Aspects, 454 8.3 Superposition of Loading, 455 8.4 Design of Uniformly Loaded Two-Way Slabs, 458 8.4.1 Extent of Top Steel in Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Slabs, 458 8.4.2 Minimum-Weight Design, 468 8.4.3 Design Examples, 474 8.5_ Design of Beamless Slabs. 494 8.6 Design of Supporting Beams for Uniformly Loaded Two-Way Slabs, 499 8.6.1 Approach Based on Composite Beam-Slab Collapse Mechanisms, 499 8.6.2 Approach Based on Loading Transferred to the Beams, 502 8.6.3 Other Arrangements of Beams and Columns, 509 8.6.4 Summary of Design Method for Beams, 512 References, _513 Serviceability of Slabs 515 Introduction, 515 9.2 Deflections, S15 > . 9.2.2 Computation of Deflections, 521 9.2.3. ACI Code Provisions for Deflection Control, 526 9.3 Cracking, 530 cI 3 9.3.2 Causes of Cracking, 532 9.3.3. Computation of Width of Flexural Cracks in One-Way Slabs, 533PREFACE The book emphasizes the basic behavior of reinforced concrete slabs in both the elastic range and at the ultimate load. As such, it endeavors to give readers a thorough knowledge of the fundamentals of slab behavior. Such a back- ground is essential for a complete and proper understanding of building code requirements and design procedures for slabs. The content and the treatment of the subject of reinforced. concrete slabs in this book is intended to appeal to students, teachers, and practicing members of the structural engineering profession. The book begins with a general discussion of slab analysis and design, and then treats at some depth the determination of the distribution of moments and shears using elastic theory. The equivalent frame method of the Building Code of the American Concrete Institute is explained, followed by limited coverage of the direct design method of that code. Next follows a detailed treatment of limit procedures for the ultimate load analysis and design of slabs using general lower bound theory, the strip method, and yield line the- ory. The behavior of slabs at the service load is then discussed, with emphasis on deflection and crack control. This is followed by an examination of the shear strength of slabs. Prestressed concrete slabs are discussed in an intro- ductory manner near the end of the text, the earlier chapters having dealt specifically with reinforced concrete slabs, The effects of membrane action ‘on the strength of slabs are reviewed. Finally, an introduction to the deter- mination of the fire resistance of slabs is given. The current building code of the American Concrete Institute (ACI 318- 95) is one of the most widely accepted reinforced concrete codes. It has been adopted by some countries and has strongly influenced the codes of many others. For this reason, reference is made primarily to ACI provisions, al- though other building codes are also discussed. The book is not heavily code oriented, however. The emphasis is on why certain decisions should be made rather than on how to execute them, We believe that structural engineers should be capable of rationally assessing design procedures. The book has grown from many years of experience in teaching slab theory and design, from significant involvement in slab research and design, and from association with design code committees. The chapters on yield line theory have been based on editions of seminar notes entitled Ultimate Strength Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures, Vol. 2, printed by the University xiiixiv PREFACE of Canterbury, The book is also intended to complement a previously pub- lished text, Reinforced Concrete Structures by R. Park and T. Paulay (Wiley, 1975), which does not discuss slabs. The unusual combination of authors from New Zealand and the United States arises from complementary interests in aspects of slab behavior and the significant slab research that has been con- ducted at their two universities through the years. An aspect of the book that distinguishes it from previous texts on slabs is that it attempts to give a full treatment of the background of most of the possible current approaches to reinforced concrete slab analysis and design. Previous texts have emphasized either elastic theory or the strip method or yield line theory but have not attempted to give a comprehensive treatment of all procedures, together with aspects of shear strength, serviceability, and membrane action. The authors have intentionally dealt almost entirely with reinforced concrete stabs and have given only an introduction to prestressed concrete slabs, since prestressed concrete is an extensive subject that deserves a book of its own. Also, the main consideration of the book is two-way floor systems. We hope that the book will serve as a useful text for teachers pre- paring advanced undergraduate or master’s courses. It is also hoped that many practicing engineers, and research engineers, will find the book a useful ref- erence. The main changes in the design and analysis of slab structures, and indeed in all of structural engineering, which have occurred since the first edition was published may be summed up in one word: computers. The first edition was published slightly before the desktop computer era started. When the second edition was completed, many personal computers were more powerful than the mainframe machines existing at the time of the first edition. As computer power has grown, capabilities of the finite element method of anal- ysis have greatly expanded, allowing solution of more and more complex slab problems. On a simpler jevel, the second author has made extensive use of spreadsheets for many of the routine tasks of slab design, such as selecting reinforcement for given moments, computation of stiffness and other coeffi- cients needed for the analysis process, finding the critical arrangement of yield lines, and solution of frame analysis problems by the nearly archaic method of moment distribution. Various computer approaches are suggested in the text. We would be grateful for any constructive comments or criticisms that readers may have and for notification of any errors that they will inevitably detect, We have received a great deal of assistance, constructive comment, en- couragement, and inspiration from numerous sources. Thanks are due our many colleagues at the University of Canterbury at Christchurch, at the Uni- versity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and in the profession in New Zea- land and the United States. Particular thanks to colleagues in New Zealand are due to Professor H. J. Hopkins for his encouragement; to Professor T. Paulay, Dr. A. J. Carr, and Dr. P. J. Moss for comments; and to a number ofPREFACE = XV dedicated graduate students and technicians who have been involved in test programs. Particular thanks to colleagues in the United States are due to the late Professor N. M. Newmark and Professor Emeritus C. P. Siess of the University of Illinois at Urbana~Champaign, Professor M. A. Sozen of Purdue University, and Professor B. Mohraz of Southern Methodist University for encouragement and much technical information, especially while the first edi- tion was being written. Appreciation is also expressed to Professor Emeritus R. B. Peck of the University of [Illinois for encouragement in deciding to undertake preparation of the manuscript of the first edition, and to various members of ACI-ASCE Committee 421, Reinforced Concrete Slabs, for en- couragement to prepare the second edition. Our thanks are also due to the following organizations for permission to reproduce copyrighted material: American Concrete Institute, American So- ciety of Civil Engineers, Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute. McGraw-Hill Book Co., and the University of Hlinois at Urbana-Champaign, all in the United States; Cement and Concrete Association, Building Research Station, and Thames and Hudson of the United Kingdom; Institute of Engineers of Australia: Heron of the Netherlands; Springer-Verlag of Germany; and the Canadian Standards Association. Finally, this undertaking could never have been completed without the patience and understanding of our wives, Kathie and Judy. Ropert Park WILLIAM L. GAMBLE Christchurch, New Zealand Urbana, Mlinois September 19991 Introduction 1.1. SCOPE AND GENERAL REMARKS Reinforced concrete slabs are among the most common structural elements, but despite the large number of slabs designed and built, the details of the elastic and plastic behavior of slabs are not always appreciated or properly taken into account. This occurs at least partially because of the mathematical complexities of dealing with elastic plate equations, especially for support conditions which realistically approximate those in multipanel building floor slabs. Because the theoretical analysis of slabs and plates is much less widely known and practiced than is the analysis of elements such as beams, the provisions in building codes generally provide both design criteria and meth- ods of analysis for slabs, whereas only criteria are provided for most other elements. For example, Chapter 13 of the 1995 edition of the American Con- crete Institute (ACI) Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete,‘* one of the most widely used Codes for concrete design, is devoted largely to the determination of moments in slab structures. Once the moments, shears, and torques are found, sections are proportioned to resist them using the criteria specified in other sections of the same code. Although the ACI Code approach to slab design is basically one of using elastic moment distributions, it is also possible to design slabs using plastic analyses (limit analyses) to provide the required moments. It is the intention of this book to provide some insight into both methods of design and analysis and the backgrounds to both. To this end, the book may be viewed as being made of several separate, though interrelated parts. Basic information on the elastic analysis of slabs and plates and the moment distributions found using these analyses is pro- vided in Chapters 2 and 3, The relationships between these data and the 1995 ACI Code provisions are described in Chapter 4. Chapters 5 through 8 are concerned primarily with plastic design methods. Lower bound methods are discussed in Chapters 5 and 6. Chapter 5 also includes a scheme of reinforcing to resist a general field of moments. Use of the yield line method, an upper bound solution, for analysis and design pur- poses is described in Chapters 7 and 8. Regardless of which design method is used, the resulting slab must be serviceable at the working load level, with deflections and cracking remaining within acceptable limits. These problems are discussed in Chapter 9. Slab2 INTRODUCTION design methods are concerned largely with flexure, but the shear forces may also be a limiting factor. The particular problems of shear in beamless slabs, especially when acting in combination with transfer of unbalanced moments from slab to columns, are discussed in Chapter 10. Prestressed concrete slabs are important in some geographical areas and for some uses, and the field is so broad that the choice appears either to be to say very little or to write a separate book on them. The former path has been taken in Chapter 11, which provides introductory comments and liter- ature sources for further study. Membrane action in slabs, which has been shown by some tests to result in a significant enhancement in the ultimate load of slabs, is discussed in Chapter 12. Most buildings must be designed to some level of fire resistance in addition to the various structural requirements. The fire resistance of most reinforced concrete structures is inherently fairly high, but it must be checked for each specific case. There are many aspects to this process. In many cases, heat conduction through slabs sets a minimum slab thickness which may be greater than required for structural purposes, and information on this problem is pre- sented in Chapter 13. In addition, the structural fire resistance must be ade- quate and Chapter 13 also gives basic information on this determination. There are many other concerns in the field of fire safety which typically are not within the scope of the structural engineer. This include such items as detection and alarm systems, automatic extinguishing equipment, smoke control systems, exit travel distances, and protection openings by the use of doors with suitable fire resistance and closing and latching mechanisms. The minimum requirements are typically given in the general building code, with many details governed by codes published by the National Fire Protection Association, The whole problem of slab analysis and design may be placed in better perspective through the following quotation, written by Hardy Cross'* in 1929: Perhaps it would be better not to mention slabs at all, for the principles here stated contribute only slightly to the study of continuous slabs. But these prin- ciples will, if judiciously applied, contribute something. Tools available to the average engineer in thinking about slabs are the limitations imposed by statics upon the total moments, principles of symmetry and asym- metry, and mental pictures of the deflected slab as a means of judging of the variation of the moments along any given section. The last tool, though inexact, is very powerful. The writer finds the idea of distributing fixed-end moments useful in revising his mental pictures of the deflected slab when affected by continuity with other slabs or by discontinuities. It is consoling to realize that there is considerable evidence that these pictures need not be very exact and that if the total statical limitations are met, the assumed distribution of the mo- ments need not conform precisely to results of mathematical theory.4 INTRODUCTION Figure 1.2 Flat slab. without drop panels. Figure 1.3 is a photograph of a flat plate with drop panels, The choice between the use of flat slabs and flat plates is largely a matter of the magnitude of the design loading and of the spans. The strength of the flat plate structure is often limited by the strength in punching shear at sec- tions around the columns, and they are consequently used with light loads, such as are found in residential and some office construction, and relatively short spans. The column capital and drop panel provide the shear strength Figure 1.3. Flat plate with drop panels. (Photo by W. L. Gamble.)1.2. TYPES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB CONSTRUCTION 5 necessary for larger loads and spans, and the flat slab is often the choice for heavily loaded industrial structures and for cases where large spans are nec- essary. Slabs supported on beams on all sides of each panel are generally termed two-way slabs, and a typical floor is shown in Fig. 1.4, This system is a development from beam-and-girder systems, as shown in Fig. 1.5. In a beam- and-girder system, it was quite easy to visualize the path from load point to column as being from slab to beam to girder to column, and from this visu- alization then to compute realistic moments and shears for the design of all members. This system is still used with heavy timber and steel frame con- struction, especially when the column spacing becomes large. Removal of the beams, except those on the column lines, results in the two-way slab structure. If the beam spacing is reduced to 2 to 3 ft (0.6 to 0.9 m), the one-way joist floor system is the result. One of the problems with earlier slab-and-girder construction was that the slabs were assumed to be one-way slabs, with no- bending parallel to the beams. However, since the ends of the subpanels were supported, moments parallel with the beams developed near the ends of the subpanels and negative-moment cracking often developed where the: slabs joined the girders. Since this had not been anticipated, no reinforeement was provided, and many buildings from 1930 or before will be found in which the locations of the girders can be traced by the large unrestrained cracks that opened on the tops of the slabs. The waffle slab, a variant of the solid slab, may be visualized as a set of crossing joists, set at small spacings relative to the span, which support a thin top slab. The recesses in the slab, often cast using either removable or ex- pendable forms, decrease the weight of the slab and allow the use of a large effective depth without the accompanying dead load. The large depth also leads to a stiff structure. Waffle slabs are generally used in situations de- manding spans larger than perhaps about 30 ft (10 m). Figure 1.4 Two-way slab.6 — INTRODUCTION Potential negative-~moment cracking Figure 1.5 Plan view of a beam-and-girder floor system. Waffle slabs may be designed as either flat slabs or two-way slabs, de- pending on just which recesses are omitted to give larger solid areas. Figure 1,6 shows two possible arrangements. The solid area near the column in the flat plate arrangement is comparable to a drop panel or column capital, as it provides a path for shear transfer and extra compression area in the highly Stressed negative-moment regions surrounding the columns. The solid areas where the recesses have been omitted along the column lines in the two-way slab configuration are equivalent to beams since they are areas of concentrated flexural stiffness, even though they do not extend below the general lower surface of the slab. The joists around each recess are designed as beams for the forces attrib- utable to a width of slab equal to the joist spacing, and they may easily be reinforced for shear if necessary. The larger the number of joists per span, the better is the approximation of the behavior of a solid slab, and a minimum of six to eight joists would seem necessary if the slab is to be designed as a slab rather than as a series of crossing beams. A further variation of a waffle slab is a hollow slab in which the holes are made by placing terra-cotta tiles, precast concrete boxes, or other fillers on the formwork, placing the reinforcing bars between the filler units, and cov-8 INTRODUCTION determined. A 1910 study'*'* compared the amounts of steel required for a given slab panel, having the same dead and live loads and spans, and the weight of steel required varied by a factor of 4 from lightest to heaviest. The many schemes of arranging the reinforcement that were used in early flat slab construction, as described by Taylor et al.,'° include two-way rein- forcement in which all bars are placed parallel to the column lines approxi- mately as in current practice: three-way steel; four-way schemes in which diagonal bands of bars are added to those parallel to the column lines; and the Smulski system, which used circular rings of steel, radial bars near the columns, and a few additional bars along both the column lines and panel diagonals. In light of current practice, the positive-moment reinforcement was terminated very far from the panel boundaries in all these systems. The publication of a correct solution for the total moment for which a slab panel should be designed, by Nichols'” in 1914, only added fuel to a raging controversy that persisted for many years. Nichols’s analysis provided only a total moment and in current terminology would be recognized as a limit analysis approach. The distribution of this moment to positive- and negative- moment sections, and across these sections, was left undetermined until the publication of a classic study by Westergaard and Slater'* in 1921. Nichols’s work was not widely accepted because it seemed to be so con- trary to the findings of many load tests, However, these load tests were often wrongly interpreted to indicate that the strengths of the slabs were much higher than they really were because of two factors. The measured reinforce- ment strains were often very low, and since the influence of tensile stresses in the concrete in reducing the steel stresses was not generally recognized, it was assumed that the low strains implied the existence of low bending mo- ments. However, the tensile stresses in the concrete are very important in reducing steel stresses at service load, especially when the reinforcement ra- tios are low, as is the case in most slab structures. The second factor was that most load tests had been conducted on single panels in buildings with many panels. In this: situation, the adjacent panels can be of considerable assistance in resisting the load, and the failure load per unit area for a single panel is invariably much higher than for all panels loaded.'* The flat plate was developed as a direct simplification of the flat slab. Although Taylor et al.! mentioned flat slabs without column capitals in or before 1925, the structural type in the United States is primarily a post-World War II development accompanying the construction of high-rise apartment buildings. The transition from beam-and-girder construction to the two-way slab is not well documented, but the single-panel test structure that was built and load tested in St. Louis in 1911''° is certainly one of the earlier two-way slabs. Additional structures!!!” plus laboratory specimens':'? were tested during the following decade, Moment distributions from plate theory solutions were reported by Westergaard and Slater'* and a design method for two-way1.2. TYPES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB CONSTRUCTION 9 slabs was proposed by Westergaard'"* in 1926. The ACI Code requirements were developed from this proposal and another prepared by Di Stasio and van Buren’? in 1936. Unlike the flat slab, the two-way slab became a feasible structural system only after suitable analyses had been developed. However, the system re- mained a captive of the assumptions made in the analyses. It was assumed that the beams were nondeflecting, and the beams were then designed for the Teactions the slab applied to the rigid supports. As a result of the magnitude and distribution of reactions computed, in combination with the additional restrictions imposed by the use of the working stress design method, the beams that were used in two-way slabs were either quite deep and stiff or had to be heavily reinforced in compression as well as tension. There was no intermediate ground that would allow the rational design of a slab supported ‘on shallow beams until the 1971 ACI Code''® was introduced. Slabs supported on walls rather than beams are used in bearing-wall build- ings. The walls are treated as flexurally rigid beams, and the walls may or may not resist moments transmitted from slab to wall, depending on both the wall construction and on the details of the connections. Many modem precast building systems are bearing-wall structures in which the slabs are supported by walls along most edges. The prestressed concrete flat plate is a cast-in-place structure in which most of the reinforcement is in the form of post-tensioned tendons. The tendons are placed in a grid with steel parallel to the column lines in both directions. The chief advantage of this form of construction is in crack and deflection control. The prestressing forces cause compression stresses directly opposing the tensile stresses caused by dead and live loads, and as a result the slab will be nearly crack-free at service load levels. Since cracking is delayed, the full section remains effective, and as a consequence deflections at service load levels may be considerably less than in a reinforced concrete flat plate of the same thickness and span. The absence of cracking helps keep the slab ‘watertight. In addition, the use of draped post-tensioned tendons, which cause an upward distributed loading within much of the spans, will reduce the de- flections significantly. Proper selection of the steel profile and force may lead to a floor that undergoes only very small long-term deflection changes. The compression forces in the plane of the slab that result from prestressing also enhance the shear strength of the slab. Reinforcing bars are always used in addition to the post-tensioned tendons. These bars would be placed over the columns at the very least, and often in other locations as well. The tendons may be either bonded or unbonded, although they are nearly always unbonded in North American practice. One-way floors, consisting of precast, prestressed concrete members placed side by side and spanning between beams or girders are also commonly used tor floors. The precast members are typically of double- or single-tee section or a hollow-core plank, and a cast-in-place concrete topping slab is generally1.4 APPROACHES TO THE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF SLAB SYSTEMS =I want to repeat what one has previously done successfully, and resistance to change can affect costs. However, old habits should not be allowed to dom- inate sound engineering decisions. If a flat plate or flat slab is otherwise suitable for a particular structure, it will be found that there is the additional benefit of minimizing the story height. In areas of absolute height restrictions, this may enable one to have an additional floor for approximately each 10 floors, as compared with a two- way slab with the same clear story heights. The savings in height lead to other economies for a given number of floors, since mechanical features such as elevator shafts and piping are shorter. There is less outside wall area, so wind loadings may be less severe and the building weighs less, which may bring cost reductions in foundations and other structural components. There are other cost savings when the ceiling finishes can be applied directly to the lower surfaces of the slabs. Beamless slabs will be at a disadvantage if they are used in structures that must resist large horizontal loads by frame action rather than by shear walls or other lateral bracing. The transfer of moments between columns and a slab sets up high local moments, shears, and twisting moments that may be hard to reinforce for. In this situation, the two-way slab is the more capable struc- ture because of the relative case with which its beams may be reinforced for these forces. In addition, it will provide greater lateral stiffness because of both the presence of the beams and the greater efficiency of the beam-column connections. The possible choice of a precast one-way fioor system, consisting of pres- tressed concrete members placed side by side and spanning between the beams, girders, or walls and generally covered by a cast-in-place concrete topping slab, should not be overlooked, 14 APPROACHES TO THE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN ‘OF SLAB SYSTEMS There are a number of possible approaches to the analysis and design of teinforced concrete slab systems. The various approaches available are elastic theory, limit analysis theory, and modifications to elastic theory and limit analysis theory as in the ACI Code.'' Such methods can be used to analyze a given slab system to determine either the stresses in the slabs and the supporting system or the load-carrying capacity, Alternatively, the methods can be used to determine the distribution of moments and shears to allow the reinforcing steel and conerete sections to be designed. In the following sections the complete behavior of slab systems when loaded from zero load to ultimate load is considered briefly to illustrate the behavior at the various load stages, and then elastic theory, limit analysis theory, and the ACI Code method are discussed briefly to introduce the reader to the various possible approaches to analysis and design.12 INTRODUCTION 1.4.1 Complete Behavior of Slab Systems The: bending and torsional moments, shear forces, and deflections of slab systems, with given dimensions, steel content, and material properties, at any stage of loading from zero to ultimate load, can be determined analytically using the conditions of static equilibrium and geometrical compatibility if the moment-deformation relationships of the slab elements, and the yield criteria for bending and torsional moments and shear force when the strength of slab elements is reached, are known. In such an analysis of the complete behavior of slab systems, difficulties are caused by the nonlinearity of the moment— deformation relationships of the slab elements at high levels of stress, and a step-by-step procedure with load increased increment by increment is gen- erally necessary. A possible procedure for such an analysis is described below. At low levels of load the slab elements are uncracked and the actions and deformations can be computed from elastic theory using the uncracked flex- ural rigidity of the slab elements. The slab clements are searched at each load increment to ascertain whether cracking of the concrete has taken place. When it is found that the cracking moment has been reached, the flexural rigidity of the element is recomputed on the basis of the cracked section value and the actions and deformations of the slab are recomputed, This procedure is repeated at the same load level until all the flexural rigidity values are correct. At higher load increments, when the stress one or more elements begin to enter the inelastic range, the flexural rij ies of those elements are re- duced to that corresponding to the particular point on the moment— deformation relationship of the element. This requires the computation to be repeated at the load level until the flexural rigidity of each element is correct. Eventually, with further load increments, the strength of one or more elements is reached and if the elements are sufficiently ductile, plasticity will spread through the slab system with further loading. The ultimate load is reached when deflections occur without further increase in load and hence when fur- ther load cannot be carried. It is evident that the full analysis to determine the complete behavior of a slab system at all levels of loading is lengthy and can be undertaken suc- cessfully only with the aid of a computer having large storage. For such a genera} computer program the input information necessary includes the slab system geometry, the section dimensions, steel contents, material properties, and the type of loading, The output would be the distribution of bending and torsional moments and shear force, and the deflections, at any load level up to ultimate load. Such a computer program would be a powerful analytical tool for evaluating or checking structural performance of slab systems over the full range of loading, including the behavior at service loads and ultimate load. Many finite element programs have been developed for the analysis of slabs, and these programs have become more capable as computers have become more powerful. The earlier efforts which included nonlinear effects1.4 APPROACHES TO THE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF SLAB SYSTEMS = 13 generally were for simple cases with idealized boundary conditions and were essentially research tools. Examples of such analyses are those of Bell and Elms,'"'’ Jofriet and MeNeice,''* and Hand et al.’”” Current commercial and semicommercial programs that can deal with slabs with fairly general support conditions include the following nonexhaustive list: FINITE (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign), SAP2000 and SAFE (Computers and Structures, Inc., Berkeley, California), RISA-3D (RISA Technologies, Lake Forest, California), ABAQUS (BKS, Providence, Rhode Island), and PCA-Mats (Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illi- nois), PCA-Mats is a specialized program adapted to the analysis of mat foundations and slabs on grade. Some of these programs include nonlinear effects such as cracking and yielding, and some include selection of rein- forcement. Code design procedures are usually based on elastic theory moments mod- ified in the light of some moment redistribution, which has been shown by tests to be possible without excessive cracking or deflections at service loads. Elastic theory moments without modification, and moments obtained from methods of limit analysis, form alternative design approaches that are rec- ommended by some codes of practice. 1.4.2. Elastic Theory Analysis ‘Classical elastic theory analysis applies to isotropic slabs that are sufficiently thin for shear deformations to be insignificant and sufficiently thick for in- plane forces to be unimportant. Most floor slabs fall into the range in which classical elastic theory is applicable. The distribution of moments and shears found by elastic theory is such that: 1, The equilibrium conditions are satisfied at every point in the slab. 2. The boundary conditions are complied with. 3. Stress is proportional to strain; that is, bending moments are propor- tional to curvature. ‘The governing equation is a fourth-order partial differential equation in terms of the deflection of the slab at general point (x,y) on the slab, the loading on the slab, and the flexural rigidity of the slab section. This equation is difficult to solve in many realistic cases, particularly when the effects of deformations of the supporting system are to be taken into account. However, many ana- lytical techniques have been developed to obtain solutions. In particular, the use of electronic computers and finite difference or finite element methods enables elastic theory solutions to be obtained for slab systems with any loading or boundary conditions. Standard computer programs and charts and tables are available to assist the designer. The solution gives the distributions of bending and torsional moments and shear forces throughout the slab. The1.4 APPROACHES TO THE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF SLAB SYSTEMS 15 exceed the available ultimate moments of resistance of those sections, The ultimate moments of resistance between the plastic hinges are exceeded if an incorrect collapse mechanism is postulated. For a given slab system the upper bound method gives an ultimate load that is either correct or too high, but if all the possible collapse mechanisms for the slab system are examined, the mechanism giving the lowest ultimate load is the correct one. It is evident that care must be taken to ensure that the correct collapse mechanism is used; otherwise, the ultimate load will be overestimated. The difference between the two methods can be illustrated for the simple case of the uniformly loaded one-way slab fixed at the supports shown in Fig. 1.7a, The slab has ultimate moments of resistance per unit width of m/, for the negative moment and m,, for positive moment. For a lower bound solution, the limit moment diagram of Fig. 1.7b could be chosen. This distribution of moments is a possible solution because the ultimate moments of resistance are not exceeded anywhere in the slab. As is evident from statics, the ultimate load per unit area w, calculated for the moment diagram is too low because the ultimate moments of resistance are not reached at all (three) critical sec- tions. The moment diagram needs to be modified to allow the moments at all three critical sections to reach ultimate capacity before the correct ultimate load is calculated. Alternatively, for an upper bound solution the collapse mechanism shown in Fig. 1.7c could be chosen. It is evident that the ultimate load given by this possible mechanism is incorrect and predicts a load that is too high, as can be seen from the resulting limit moment diagram of Fig. 17d, in which the ultimate positive moment of resistance is exceeded. The correct collapse mechanism and ultimate load is given when plastic hinges form at the supports and at midspan. The foregoing example of a simple slab system may appear trivial because the correct solution is evident by inspec- tion, However, the limit analysis solutions of slabs with more complex shapes and boundary conditions is more difficult, and it is not always evident whether the correct solution has been found. The most commonly used lower bound approach is Hillerborg’s strip method.'=>'* This method obtains the distribution of moments and shears by replacing the slab by systems of strips running in two directions, which share the load. Strip action is a valid lower bound procedure because if the loading is carried entirely by flexure, and therefore satisfies the requirements of statics, ssistance from torsion is necessary. Wood'** has shown that alternative lower bound solutions, including torsion, are difficult to obtain in many cases. The upper bound method for slabs is the yield line theory, which was due primarily to Johansen.'*5 Publications by Wood!?*!?? and Jones! **'?” give more recent treatments of the theory. If yield line theory is used, the designer must examine all possible collapse mechanisms to ensure that the load-carrying capacity of the slab is not overestimated. The correct collapse mechanisms in nearly all cases are well known, however, and there- fore the designer is not often faced with the uncertainty of whether further alternatives exist.16 INTRODUCTION Figure 1.7 Lower and upper bound limit analysis solutions: (a) Uniformly loaded fixed-end one-way slab; (b) Possible limit moment diagram for lower bound solution; (c) Possible collapse mechanism; (d) limit moment diagram associated with possible collapse mechanism. 14.4 ACI Building Code Method The ACI Code™! contains procedures for the design of uniformly loaded re- inforced concrete slab floors. The procedures are based on analytical studies of the distribution of moments using clastic theory and of strength using yield18 INTRODUCTION alent frame due to the design loading are found by linear elastic structural analysis and are distributed between the columns and middle strips, including the beams (if any), according to the rules used for the direct design method. It is likely that these two explicit analysis methods will be removed from the Code early in the twenty-first century, leaving statements of general prin- ciples. 1.4.5 Design Procedures ‘The required reinforcement for slab systems can be designed from the distri- bution of moments at the factored (ultimate) loads using flexural strength theory for sections, or from the distribution of moments at the service loads using the working stress (elastic theory) method for sections. The ACI Code" states that “A slab system may be designed by any pro- cedure satisfying conditions of equilibrium and geometrical compatibility if shown that the design strength at every section is at least equal to the required strength... and that all serviceability conditions, including specified limits on deflections, are met." The direct design method. and the equivalent frame method both comply with the code statement provided that defiections are checked. However, it may be necessary to seek alternative methods of design for cases of slab systems of irregular layout, or for unusual loading conditions, or for other reasons, It is evident that the distribution of moments given by clastic theory for any design case can be used to satisfy the strength and serviceability require- ments of the ACI Code. On the other hand, limit design, for example, by yield line theory or the strip method, will lead to the required strength but may be suspect from the point of view of serviceability. Thus, if limit design methods are used, checks of crack widths and deflections at service load may be necessary. However, limit design has been used widely in Europe and elsewhere. For example, it is specifically allowed by the building code of the United Kingdom'** and New Zealand'*’ and the recommendations of the CEB-FIP!~ It is likely that with more experience of slab systems in service that have been designed by limit design methods, the approach will gain more acceptance in North America and elsewhere. 1.5 NOTES ON UNITS Most of the examples where units are necessary are presented in English units, sometimes referred to as U.S. Customary Units. In many cases metric equiv- alents, in S/ units, are given immediately following the English units. That pattern that has been used is that SI units which have been codified are enclosed in square brackets: for instance, 2 VJ Ib/in? [VF /6 N/mm*]. On the other hand, metric equivalents that are simple conversions made by theREFERENCES = 19 authors are enclosed in parentheses: for instance, a bar spacing is stated as 6 in. (150 mm). The SI units have one consistent departure from the strictly correct usage. Stresses and pressures are given in units that are clearly force per unit area. Thus, a steel yield stress is cited as 420 N/mm? rather than the equivalent 420 MPa. A distributed load on a floor is given as 5 KN/m? rather than the equivalent 5 kPa. These changes have been made as an aid to the student in understanding that stress times area equals force. REFERENCES Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, ACI 318-95, and Com- mentary, ACI 318R-95, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., 1995, 371 pp. H. Cross, “Continuity as a Factor in Reinforced Concrete Design,” Proc. ACI, Vol. 25, 1929, pp. 669-708. M. A. Sozen and C, P, Siess, “Investigation of Multi-panel Reinforced Concrete Floor Slabs; Design Methods—Their Evolution and Comparison,” Proc, ACI, Vol. 60, August 1963, pp. 999-1028, A. B. MacMillan, “A Comparison of Methods of Computing the Strength of Flat Reinforced Plates,” Eng. News, Vol. 63, No. 13, March 13, 1910, pp. 364~ 367. L. F. Brayton, “Methods for the Computation of Reinforced Concrete Flat Slabs,” Eng. News, Vol. 64, No. 8, August 25, 1910, pp. 210-211. F, W. Taylor, S. E. Thompson, and E, Smulski, Concrete: Plain and Reinforced, Vol. 1, Theory and Design of Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Structures, 4th ed. Wiley, New York, 1925. J. R. Nichols, ““Statical Limitations upon the Steel Requirement in Reinforced Concrete Flat Slab Floors,” Trans. ASCE, Vol. 77, 1914, pp. 1670-1681; “Dis- cussion,” pp. 1682-1736. H. M. Westergaard and W. A. Slater, “Moments and Stresses in Slabs,” Proc. ACI, Vol. 17, 1921, pp. 415-538. J. O. Jirsa, M. A. Sozen, and C. P. Siess, “Tests of a Flat Slab Reinforced with Welded Wire Fabric,” J. Struct. Div., ASCE, Vol. 92, No. ST3, June 1966, pp. 199-224. “Test of a Concrete Floor Reinforced in Two Directions,” Proc. ACI, Vol. 8, 1912, pp. 132-157. W. A. Slater, A. Hagner, and G. P. Anthes, “Tests of a Hollow Tile and Concrete Floor Slab Reinforced in Two Directions,” Technol. Pap. Bur. Stand., Vol, 16, 1923, pp. 727-796. E. J. Larson and S. N. Petrenko, “Loading Tests of a Hollow Tile and Rein- forced Concrete Floor of Arlington Building, Washington, D.C.,” Technol. Pap. Bur. Stand., Vol. 17, 1924, pp. 405-445.20 1.13 14 11S 1.16 1.17 119 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.24 1.25 1,26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 INTRODUCTION C. Bach and O. Graf, “Versuche mit allseitig aufliegenden, quadratischen, und rechteckigen Eisenbetonplatten,” Disch. Ausschuss Eisenbeton (Berlin), Vol. 30, 1915. H. M. Westergaard, “Formulas for the Design of Rectangular Floor Slabs and the Supporting Girders,” Proc. ACI, Vol. 22, 1926, pp. 2646. J. Di Stasio and M. P. van Buren, “Slabs Supported on Four Sides,” Proc. ACI, ‘Vol. 32, January-February 1936, pp. 350-364. ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, ACL 318-71, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1971, 78 pp. J. C. Beil and D. G. Elms, “A Finite Element Approach to Post-clastic Slab Behavior,” in Cracking, Deflection and Ultimate Load of Concrete Slab Systems, ACI SP-30, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1971, pp. 325-344. J.C. Jofriet and G. M. McNeice, “Finite Element Analysis of Reinforced Con- crete Slabs,” J. Struct. Div, ASCE, Vol. 97, No. ST3, March 1971, pp. 785- 806. F. R. Hand, D. A. Pecknold, and W. C. Schnobrich, “Nonlinear Layered Anal- ysis of RC Plates and Shells,” J. Struct. Div., ASCE, Vol. 99, No. ST7, July 1973, pp. 1491-1505. S. Timoshenko and S. Woinowsky-Krieger, Theory of Plates and Shells, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1959. H, M. Westergaard, “Computation of Stresses in Bridge Slabs Due to Wheel Loads,” Public Roads, Vol. 11, No. 1, March 1930, pp. 1-23. A. Hillerborg, “Theory of Equilibrium for Reinforced Concrete Slabs,” Betong, Vol. 41, No. 4, 1956, pp. 171-182. (Translated by Building Research Station, DSIR, Garston, England, 1962.) A. Hillerborg. Dimensionering av armerade betongplattor enligt strimlemeto- den, Almqvist & Wiksell, Stockholm, 1974, 327 pp. (Strip Method of Design, translated by Cement and Concrete Association, London, 1975, 256 pp.) R. H. Wood, Plastic and Elastic Design of Slabs and Plates, Thames and Hud- son, London, 1961, 344 pp. K. W. Johansen, Bruclinieteorier, Jul. Ojellerups Forlag, Copenhagen, 1943. (Wield Line Theory, translated by Cement and Concrete Association, London, 1962, 181 pp.) L. L. Jones, Ultimate Load Analysis of Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Structures, Chatto & Windus, London, 1962, 248 pp. R. H. Wood and L. L. Jones, ¥ield-Line Analysis af Slabs, Thames and Hudson, ‘Chatto & Windus, London, 1967, 400 pp. Structural Use of Concrete, BS 8110, Part 1:1997, Code of Practice for Design and Construction, British Standards Institution, London, 1997, 121 pp. The Design of Concrete Structures, NZS 3101:1995, Standards New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand, 1995. International System of Unified Standard Codes of Practice for Structures, Vol. ll, CEB-FIP Model Code for Concrete Structures, Comité Euro-International du Béton/ Fédération Internationale du Précontrainte, Paris (English translation), April 1978, 348 pp.