COBRA AUBEA 2015

Sydney, Australia
8 10 July 2015

RICS COBRA AUBEA 2015

The Construction, Building and Real Estate Research Conference
of the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors
The Australasian Universities Building Educators Association
Conference

Held in Sydney, Australia in association with AUBEA, the University

of Technology Sydney and University of Western Sydney

8 -10 July 2015

RICS 2015

ISBN: 978-1-78321-071-8

Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors

Parliament Square
London
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United Kingdom

www.rics.org/cobra

The papers in this proceeding are intended for knowledge sharing, stimulate debate, and
research findings only. This publication does not necessarily represent the views of RICS,
AUBEA, UTS or UWS.

A CRITICAL REVIEW OF CONSTRUCTION SAFETY TRAINING AND

EDUCATION RESEARCH
Roneel Prasad1, Mary Hardie2 and Yingbin Feng3
1

University of Western Sydney, School of Computing, Engineering and Mathematics, Kingswood

Campus, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith NSW 2751
2

University of Western Sydney, School of Computing, Engineering and Mathematics, Kingswood

Campus, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith NSW 2751
3

University of Western Sydney, School of Computing, Engineering and Mathematics, Kingswood

Campus, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith NSW 2751

ABSTRACT
A significant quantity of literature has been dedicated to research studies on the
prevention of workplace accidents in the construction industry. Researchers have
discovered numerous underlying theories and one of those is safety training and
education (STE). STE has been identified as a key support strategy in the prevention
of construction accidents. There are many forms of STE and a number of ways to
deliver them. However, literature on STE has shown a lack of analysis on the
effectiveness of delivery methods and its effects on transferability. Through a
systemic review of selected papers from well-known academic journals in
construction management, education and psychology, major research areas were
identified. These include factors affecting STE, delivery and evaluation methods for
STE, effects of STE on transferability, effect of safety culture on STE and the level of
cognitive engagement in the delivery of STE. Critical reviews on these areas are
conducted to investigate the trends and the state of the art in STE research. Gaps in
research and practice are discussed and future research directions are proposed. The
outcome of this paper may provide a stage for researchers, industrial practitioners and
training providers to discover the latest developments and trends in safety training and
education.
Keywords: Accidents, Construction, Education, Safety, Training.

INTRODUCTION
Construction related accidents, illnesses and injuries have a negative effect on the
construction industry and its stakeholders in a number of ways. These include the
demotivation of workers, delays in projects and the ever increasing cost of
rehabilitating injured workers (Dingsdag, et al. 2006; Lin et al. 1999; Mohamed 1999).
Over the years, the construction industry and relevant stakeholders have proposed and
implemented a number of strategies to address the issue of construction safety. One of
these strategies is the prevention of accidents and injuries through safety training and
education of construction workers. However, industry practioners and researchers
have often questioned the effectiveness of safety training and education programs
(Burke et al. 2006). This research paper sets out to update the knowledge base on
safety training and education research by providing a critical review on the current
trends in construction safety research literature.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The search for relevant literature was initially approached by conducting a broad
search of the keywords: accidents, construction, safety, training and education. These
keywords were used in conjunction with synonyms such as industry, workplace,
technology, innovation, behaviour and factors. The search criterion was limited to the
English language and literature search was limited to the period 1982 to 2014. The
literature search was confined to this period of time due to a large portion of research
in construction STE being concentrated during this period of time. The literature
search was conducted in two stages, the first being the inclusion stage and the second
being the exclusion stage. During the inclusion stage all publications that matched the
keywords and keyword combinations were referenced and complied. At this stage
approximately 96 references were identified from a range of data bases which are
provided in the table below (Table 1). During this stage it was found that the literature
on construction safety training and education was related to behavioural psychology
and educational theory. Therefore, the search criteria were expanded to include
literature from these fields in relation to construction safety training and education
which expanded the search to a total of 207 references. During the exclusion stage the
references were read and assessed using the following criteria: contribution of
knowledge on safety training and education, originality of empirical findings, and
application of theories in construction safety. This narrowed the total number of
generalizable references to 74 which included; 2 reports, 1 conference paper, 1
webpage, 6 books and sections of books and a total of 64 peer reviewed journal
articles.
Table 1: List of Databases Searched
American Society of Civil Engineers
Journal of Safety Science
Construction Management and Economics
International Journal of Project Management
Journal of Construction Engineering and Management
Journal of Occupational Accidents

Accident Analysis and Prevention

Journal of Safety Research
Journal of Applied Psychology
Journal of Safety Research
Journal of Accident Analysis & Prevention
Google Scholar, Web of Science and Scopus

DEFINITION OF TERMS
During the course of the literature review it was found that the terms construction
safety training is distinct from safety education, safety development and learning.
There terms are used throughout the literature review and to avoid confusion and
ambiguity the abovementioned terms are defined below.
Safety Training
Safety training refers to a structured system of the acquisition of skills and abilities
necessary to carry out day to day work related tasks. In General, this involves hazard
identification and control, in accordance with government and organisational
standards. Several researchers believe that the construction industry should view
safety training as a continuous and ongoing process, rather than a one off procedure
(Bahn and Barratt-Pugh, 2012; Sawacha, et al. 1999)
Safety Education
Safety education is a series of acts or processes which enables the learner to acquire
both general and industry specific knowledge. The learner is encouraged to develop
powers of reasoning, judgement and intellectual preparation. Construction safety
education is generally delivered in formal learning institutions such as colleges and

universities. When compared to safety training, safety education is based on theory

and interpretation rather than practical skills and knowledge. In addition, the learners
are taught how to interpret and apply complex legal documents such as work health
and safety legislation and regulations (Lin, et al. 2011).
Safety Development
Safety development training refers to a continuous process of training and educating
employees and staff members. These training measures are conducted to increase
individuals capabilities and value within an organisation (Jaselskis, et al. 1996). Safety
development training programs are conducted and delivered in institutions such as
technical colleges and in private training organisations (Dingsdag, et al. 2006) .
CONTEXT
In recent years, there has been an emergence of a new generation of learners, which
are more commonly known as the Net generation and are generally aged from 13 to 30
years old. These individuals have been exposed to advancements in information
technology from an early age and have been influenced in their learning style as a
result of growing up in a digital age (Tapscott 2008). Therefore, these influences on
the Net Generation has resulted in the creation of new and active learning experiences
that embrace state-of-the-art technologies. These learning platforms have
revolutionised construction STE for the future workforce and include advancements in
ICT and computer programs which include; Building Information Modelling (BIM),
Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Virtual Reality Environments (VREs) which are
discussed in greater detail below (Horne and Hamza 2006).
BIM
Building information modelling programs are being integrated into construction
education programs such as construction management, architecture and engineering.
BIM provides a virtual environment to demonstrate concepts to learners by using 3D
visualisations. Preliminary research has shown that the use of BIM visualisations can
enhance the students ability to conceptualise and understand construction safety
concepts (Clevenger, et al. 2012). Some of the areas that BIM can be used to assist in
construction safety are though designing for safety, safety planning and training and
accident investigation (Rajendran and Clarke 2011).
CAD
Computer aided design tools are becoming increasingly popular in the analysis of onsite workplace dynamics that enables a safer delivery of projects. More specifically,
4D CAD is being used in the design stages to analyse space-time conflict as a result of
on-site workplace congestion. These congestion issues can result in various clashes
such as design conflicts, safety hazards, access blockages, space obstructions and
work interruptions (Zhou, et al. 2012). In addition, the 4D CAD models can be used to
target specific hazards such as working at heights and the prevention of falls from
heights. Typically, these types of accidents account for over 50% of all recorded
accidents (SafeWork Australia 2012).
VRE
Virtual reality environments are three dimensional and computer generated
representations of a virtual world. These virtual worlds are pre-loaded or preprogrammed with settings typically found on construction sites and workplaces. The

trainees experience a virtual world in which they can move freely, view and perceive
angles and touch and reshape elements (Bhoir and Esmaeili 2015). These include
game engines; head mounted devices, data gloves (haptic feedback) and avatars. There
are several limitations to the use of VREs in construction safety training. One of these
limitations is that virtual programs are unable to identify or teach complex human
processes such as creativity and in some cases knowledge. Although, Zhou, et al.
(2012) suggest that these issues may be overcome through the application of openended, knowledge based and interactive approaches.
Benefits and Issues of ICT Based Safety Training Platforms
One of the major benefits of ICT based training platforms is that they can be directed
towards the younger demographic of workers who are comfortable in learning and
training with computer and software based safety training programs. They provide
students and trainees the opportunity to learn and train on construction safety concepts
before being exposed actual hazards and dangers in the workplace. The learner is able
to study and understand 3D visualisations, virtual walk throughs and hazard
management in a game like simulation. Therefore, enabling the learners to visualise
the workplace environment and gain the necessary safety knowledge and hazard
perception skills. In addition, the learners can build confidence and minimise the risk
of accidents and injuries when conducting actual workplace activities. However, ICT
based training platforms may prove to be a disadvantage for workers who are in the
age category of the Net generation but lack the necessary technological skills and ICT
knowledge. These workers may need to be provided with additional training in ICT
advancements before that are confident in grasping and learning from ICT based
training platforms. This process often incurs addition costs and time which may lead
to issues such as demotivation and lack of attendance or interest in ICT based training
platforms (Park and Choi 2009; Wilkins 2011). In addition, organisations and
employers may not realise the potential benefits of ICT based learning platforms if
they have a safety culture which does not support technical and innovative change
within their workplace. The following section will outline the importance of effective
safety training in the construction industry.
Effective Training
A large portion of workplace injuries and illnesses are avoidable through effective
safety training and education. Literature has revealed that construction organisations
and trainees often question the effectivness of safety training and education efforts.
For instance, organisations and employers are often dissatisfied with the content,
design and delivery of safety training programs. They believe that trainees are not
equiped with the necessary knowledge and skills to deal with safety related issues on
construction sites. On the other end of the scale, trainees often find safety training
programs as unnecessary, irrelevent and boring tasks which are often undertaken to
satisfy organisational and mandatory requirements (Bahn and Barratt-Pugh 2011). On
another note, industry stakeholders and organisations often expect some form of return
on investment (ROI), therefore, safety training programs need to be somewhat
effective. This return in investment is often in the form of increased safety awareness,
imporved safety behavours and attitudes of construction workers. This in turn enables
the organisation to conduct workplace activities with less risk of accidents or injuries
and therefore decreasing the overall cost of workplace safety issues (Goldenhar, et al.
2001). Furthermore, effective safety training and education programs are dependent on
the type of training design. The literature has revealed that many safety training

programs are designed without considering or implemneting learning or educational

theories and practices (Kraiger, et al. 1993). There are several benefits to safety
training programs which are cost-effective, well designed and conducted in the correct
timeframe. Some of these benefits include, reductions in workplace related accidents,
injuries and illnesses (Lingard 2002). Perhaps solutions can be found in the lack of
engagement in safety training efforts within the construction industry by
understanding the behaviour of humans and how they can be cognitively engaged. The
following section discusses cognitive engagement and its relationship to safety
training and education.
Cognitive Engagement
An important area of educational psychology adopted over the years into safety
training and education is cognitive engagement (Wilkins 2011). Cognitive engagement
relates to the human mind and the ability of an individual to be stimulated and remain
focused during some form of sustained training and education (Salomon, et al. 1991) .
The mental ability of a learner has an influence on the outcomes of training and
education programs, with recent studies indicating that highly engaging forms of
training and education have led to greater knowledge retention and application. Burke
et al. (2011), conducted research into training delivery methods and found that highly
engaging STE was more effective in knowledge retention and application when
compared to traditional methods. They tested three different levels of cognitive
engagement, which ranged from least, moderately and highly engaging. The training
medium for least engaging was lectures, moderately engaging was a combination of
lectures and tutorials and the highly engaging which included lectures, tutorials,
practicals and applications of newly learned knowledge and skills. When compared to
traditional methods of training and education, highly engaging methods of training
have generally resulted in increased knowledge acquisition, higher levels of safety
performance and consequently a reduction in the number of workplace related
accidents and injuries (Wallace and Vodanovich 2003).
Cognitive Biases
The literature has revealed that learner characteristics such as behaviour, motivation
and cognitive bias can have an influence on the outcomes of safety training and
education programs. In particular, cognitive biases such as self-other bias are related
to an individuals belief in the control over circumstances and events. This concept is
closely related to locus of control. There are two main types of locus of control,
internal and external. Individuals with an internal locus of control believe that
workplace safety is within their control and individuals with an external locus of
control believe that workplace safety is controlled by environmental factors, chance or
fate. These individuals believe that they have little or no control over these factors
(Christian, et al. 2009; Jones and Wuebker 1993). Similarly, the reduction of cognitive
bias such as self-other bias can have a positive impact on training and education
programs. Lingard (2002), conducted an experiment to test the effects of first-aid
training on safety motivation and behaviour. The research found that irrespective of
the type of training, there were noticeable improvements in the participants behaviour
after completing workplace first aid training. The training appeared to reduce the
participants self-other bias, therefore enabling the participants to become more aware
that the reduction of workplace safety risks were not uncontrollable. In addition, the
participants were observed to express a greater concern for workplace safety which
also resulted in a decrease in risk taking behaviour.

SUMMARY
The influential works of Baldwin and Ford (1988) and Noe and Schmitt (1986) have
provided a framework for conducting research on safety training and education. Their
work has led to the identification of factors which can be influential in determining the
success of trainees undertaking safety training and education programs. A number of
gaps in the research have been identified as a result of the literature review. Bahn and
Barratt-Pugh (2012), have raised the issue of a lack of research studies in the quality
of safety training and education delivery through registered training organisations in
Australia. During the course of the literature review, it was discovered that there is a
paucity of research studies incorporating factors such as age, gender and inexperience,
and how those factors may affect STE and workplace safety performance. For
instance, young workers are frequently injured at work with education and awareness
measures often proving to be ineffective. The literature review has also highlighted the
issues of ineffective delivery methods. Construction organisations continue to invest
vast amounts of time and resources in safety training and education measures,
irrespective of the issues evident in training programs. Future research in this area can
be improved by conducting comprehensive studies on the various safety training
delivery methods and identifying. In addition, future research on training delivery
methods can be improved by identifying the strengths and weaknesses of each method
in relation to efficiency and effectiveness. Furthermore, research studies in the area of
construction safety training and education need to consider rigorous research methods
and identification of factors based on empirical research and data. Moreover, the
construction industry and related stakeholders need to consider revised approaches and
new perspectives to deal with workplace safety issues. These approaches will not only
update the knowledge base on safety training and education, but will also reduce the
unacceptable number of industry related accidents, injuries and fatalities.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In recent years, researchers have expanded their quest in finding solutions towards
construction safety issues. A prime example of this is cognitive engagement and
cognitive training. Research has shown that highly engaging training material and
methods may help to improve the participants knowledge acquisition and retention.
Therefore, cognitively engaging learners will positively influence safety issues within
construction workplaces through increased safety performance and reduced accidents
and injuries. The directions for future research seem to be gravitating towards
investigating the role of inexperience and its relationship to STE. In addition,
developments in the field of information and communications technology, has seen the
introduction of computer-based hazard identification programs in construction STE.
Furthermore, the industry has experienced a generational shift that has resulted in the
surge of e-learning and computer-based learning strategies. The outcomes of this
paper may provide a stage for researchers, industrial practitioners and training
providers to discover the latest developments and trends, in the area of safety training
and education. The construction industry has realised the benefits of safety training
and education programs in combating the industrys poor safety performance. This
shift in thinking has come about from the realisation that there are more than just
technical factors at the root causes of accidents. Safety training and education are
complex concepts, and they both have several underlying factors. The future research
and study of these underlying factors has several advantages for the construction
industry. One of those advantages is that there will be an increased pool of

competently trained people in the construction workforce. This increase has the
potential to reduce the issues faced by the construction industry in relation to
workplace safety.
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