Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
CBSE-i
XI
UNIT-6
PHYSICS
GRAVITATION
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
viii
Teachers manual
Learning outcomes
ix
Teaching Notes
xi
xv
Pre-requisites
xix
Weblinks/vediolinks/other references
xix
Students Manual
Introduction
10
11
13
Principle of Superposition
13
16
19
19
22
Gravitational Field
25
27
32
33
Motion of Satellite
35
40
41
42
44
45
Preface
The Curriculum initiated by Central Board of Secondary Education -International
(CBSE-i) is a progressive step in making the educational content and methodology
more sensitive and responsive to global needs. It signifies the emergence of
a fresh thought process in imparting a curriculum which would restore the
independence of the learner to pursue the learning process in harmony with the
existing personal, social and cultural ethos.
The Central Board of Secondary Education has been providing support to the
academic needs of the learners worldwide. It has about 11500 schools affiliated
to it and over 158 schools situated in more than 23 countries. The Board has
always been conscious of the varying needs of the learners and has been working
towards contextualizing certain elements of the learning process to the physical,
geographical, social and cultural environment in which they are engaged. The
CBSE-i has been visualized and developed with these requirements in view.
The nucleus of the entire process of constructing the curricular structure is the
learner. The objective of the curriculum is to nurture the independence of the
learner, given the fact that every learner is unique. The learner has to understand,
appreciate, protect and build on knowledge, values, beliefs and traditional
wisdom. Teachers need to facilitate the leaner to make the necessary modifications,
improvisations and additions wherever and whenever necessary.
The recent scientific and technological advances have thrown open the gateways
of knowledge at an astonishing pace. The speed and methods of assimilating
knowledge have put forth many challenges to the educators, forcing them to
rethink their approaches for knowledge processing by their learners. In this
context, it has become imperative for them to incorporate those skills which
will enable the young learners to become life long learners. The ability to stay
current, to upgrade skills with emerging technologies, to understand the nuances
involved in change management and the relevant life skills have to be a part of
the learning domains of the global learners. The CBSE-i curriculum has taken
cognizance of these requirements.
The CBSE-i aims to carry forward the basic strength of the Indian system
of education while promoting critical and creative thinking skills, effective
communication skills, interpersonal and collaborative skills along with information
and media skills. There is an inbuilt flexibility in the curriculum, as it provides
a foundation and an extension curriculum, in all subject areas to cater to the
different pace of learners.
The CBSE introduced the CBSE-i curriculum in schools affiliated to CBSE at
the international level in 2010 at primary and secondary level in classes I and
IX and subsequently in the session 2011-12 initiated the curriculum at Class II,
VI and class X. The current session will take the curriculum forward to classes
III, VII and XI.
An important feature of the Senior Secondary Curriculum is its emphasis on
the specialisation in different fields of study and preparing a student for higher
professional life and career at the work place. The CBSE-i, keeping in mind,
the demands of the present Global opportunities and challenges, is offering the
new curriculum in the subject of English, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Geography,
Accountancy, Business Studies, Information and Communication Technology, and
Mathematics at two levels, Mathematics-I for the students of pure sciences and
Mathematics-II for the students of Commerce and other subjects.
There are some non-evaluative components in the curriculum which would be
commented upon by the teachers and the school. The objective of this part or
the core of the curriculum is to scaffold the learning experiences and to relate
tacit knowledge with formal knowledge. This would involve trans-disciplinary
linkages that would form the core of the learning process. Perspectives, SEWA
(Social Empowerment through Work and Action), Life Skills and Research would be
the constituents of this Core. The Core skills are the most significant aspects
of a learner's holistic growth and learning curve.
The International Curriculum has been designed keeping in view the foundations
of the National Curricular Framework (NCF 2005) NCERT and the experience
gathered by the Board over the last seven decades in imparting effective learning
to millions of learners, many of whom are now global citizens.
The Board does not interpret this development as an alternative to other curricula
existing at the international level, but as an exercise in providing the much
needed Indian leadership for global education at the school level. The Curriculum
envisages pedagogy which would involve building on learning experiences
vi
inside the classroom over a period of time. The Board while addressing the
issues of empowerment and capacity building of teachers believes that all school
must budget for and ensure teachers involved with CBSE-i are continuously
updated.
I appreciate the sincere effort put in by Dr. Sadhana Parashar, Director (Training)
CBSE, Dr. Srijata Das, Education Officer, CBSE and the team of Officers involved
in the development and implementation of this material.
The CBSE-i website enables all stakeholders to participate in this initiative
through the discussion forums provided on the portal. Any further suggestions
are welcome.
Vineet Joshi
Chairman, CBSE
vii
Acknowledgements
viii
Teachers' manual
Syllabus
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, students would be able to:
k
now the long history of mankinds efforts to understand planetary
motion
differentiate between the geocentric and the heliocentric model and the
historical context under which these ideas prevailed
know about the early astronomical observations and their significance and
contribution towards the development of the law of gravitation.
state and interpret Keplers laws of planetary motion
recognize how Keplers laws originated from the analysis and interpretation
of Tycho Brahes astronomical data
realize how measurements on planetary motion were in agreement with
Keplers law of periods.
State Newtons law of Gravitation
understand the concept of central forces
define G the universal gravitational constant and know about the various
experiments proposed for the measurement of G
draw the vector diagram for the gravitational force between two masses
understand how to compute the net gravitational force due to a collection
of masses
recognize that gravitational force is one of the basic forces of nature and
it is a weak force that is always attractive in nature.
obtain Keplers laws of planetary motion from Newtons law of
Gravitation
recall the concept of acceleration and use it to obtain the expression for g
(the acceleration due to gravity) from Newtons law of Gravitation
ix
recognize that the shape of the earth affects the value of g for different
points on its surface
comprehend the meaning and significance of the popular statement
Cavendish weighed the earth
realize that the acceleration due to the pull of the earth (i.e. g) is independent
of the mass of the object experiencing this acceleration.
obtain the expression for variation of g with height h, (i.e. g(h)) above the
surface of earth, and understand the limitations of this expression.
recognize why the expression for g(h) cannot be used for negative values
of h (i.e., for points below the surface of the earth)
obtain the expression for variation of g with depth d , (i.e. g(d) below the
surface of earth
recognize that work is done, by or against, the gravitational force, when a
mass is moved from one point to another
recall the concept of potential energy and define Gravitational potential
energy
obtain the general expression for the potential energy of a mass at a height
from the surface of earth and get its usual (approximate) form for small
values of this height.
derive the formula for the gravitational potential energy associated with two
masses separated by a distance
differentiate between gravitational potential energy and gravitational
potential
know the concept of escape speed
obtain the expression for the escape speed from the law of conservation of
energy
appreciate the scientific efforts to place artificial earth satellites in orbits
around the earth and know about their different uses.
obtain the expression for the time period of an orbiting earth satellite
list different types of artificial satellites and obtain the condition under
which an artificial satellite would become a geo-stationary satellite
know the range of applications of a geo-stationary satellite.
Teaching Notes
The discovery of the concept of gravitational force, followed by the discovery of
the quantitative law that determines the magnitude of this force between any
two objects is one of the most significant discoveries in the history of Physics.
It is useful to convey to the students the way Newton used astronomical data
related to the moon to come to the conclusion that the gravitational force between
two objects must vary as inverse of the square of distance between them. The
inverse square nature of this law gives the gravitational force several interesting
properties notable among which are the (i) conservative nature of this force and
(ii) zero value of the gravitational field inside a hollow object. The teacher may
explain that the other importantinverse square force in naturethe electrical
forcealso has similar characteristics. One can therefore convey the message
that the same physical law often help us to understand a variety of apparently
diverse physical phenomenon.
It may also be explained that the inverse square law for gravitational force,
proposed by Newton, was also consistent with Keplers laws of planetary
motion. These laws were based on the painstaking and thorough astronomical
observations of the great Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe. Newtons law of
gravitation, therefore become the core of our understanding of astronomical
phenonmenon in addition to its use in understanding a variety of terrestrial
phenomenon.
The teacher may express this law in vector form and use principle of
superpositioin when the gravitational force on one object is due to a group of
two or more other objects. It may also be stressed that unlike the electrical or the
magnetic force, the gravitational force is always attractive in nature. The direction
of the force between two (point) objects has to be along the line joining the two
(point) objects. This is so because in a region of space where these two (point)
objects alone may be present, the only direction that can be uniquely defined
is the line joining these two points. It may also be pointed out that the direction
of the gravitational force on object 2 due to object 1 has to be opposite to that
of the position vector of object 2 with respect to object 1. The consistency of
this statement with the always attractive nature of the gravitational force has
to be clearly brought out and emphasised.
xi
h/g
R2
2
(R + h)
1
h
1+
R
in
1 2h
h << 1. In practice, for ordinary work,
the form gh g
only when
R
R
1
h << 1 can be taken to imply that h
100 or less.
R
xii
spherical shall does not exert any gravitational force on an object inside it, the
effective mass of the earth, that exerts a gravitational force on an object inside
its core is only the mass of that inner core of the earth for which this object is
an external object. This effective mass keeps on decreasing with increasing
depth. Hence there would be a decrease in the gravitational force and therefore,
in the acceleration due to gravity with increasing depth. The students may be
told about the difference between the quantitative formulae gd + g 1 d for the
R
decrease in g with depth and for the decrease in g with height. A graphical
representation of variation of g with (small) heights and with depth would be
an interesting exercise for the students.
While introducing the concept of gravitational potential energy, the students
need to be reminded again that we can associate a definite value with this
energy for a given position of the object, only because the gravitational force
is a conservative force. They also need to be clarified about the fact that it is
only the difference in gravitational potential energy between two points that
has a unique value. The value of the gravitational potential energy at a point
depends on the (somewhat arbitrary) choice of the zero of this potential energy.
If also needs to be emphasised that because of the always attractive nature of
the gravitational force, the gravitational potential energy is usually assigned
a negative sign the maximum value of the gravitational potential energy is
therefore zero.
The concept of gravitational potential is closely related to that of gravitational
potential energy. This is because the gravitational potential at any point, is
just the gravitational potential energy of a unit mass at that point. We can,
therefore, think of the results, associated with gravitational potential energy, as
being also applicable to gravitational potential.
While discussing the concept of the escape speed, the teacher must make it
clear how a simple application of the law of conservation of energy enables
us to calculate this speed. It is important to emphasize that the escape speed,
associated with the earth (or other astronomical objects) is a characterice of the
earth (or of the concerned astronomical object) and it does not depend upon the
mass of the object being projected.
The concept of the satellite speed and its close relation with the radius of
the satellite orbit and the source of the gravitation force ( Earth, or some
other heavenly object) needs to be clearly brought out. The concept of the geo
xiii
stationary satellite and the need for having specifically located launching
pads for such satellites, needs to be clearly explained .
A very interesting concept associated with that of satellites and their astronauts
is that of weightlessness. The students must be made to understand how an
object during its freefall can be regarded to be in a state of weightlessness. They
must be made to realise how an orbiting satellite (can the astronauts present
in it) can also be regarded to be in a state of free fall and therefore, in a state
of weightlessness. It does not mean that the earth is no longer exerting a
gravitational force on it. Rather, the object is in a state where we are not able
to see effects of this gravitational force that we refer to as weight .
An introduction to the concept of satellites needs to be followed by an introduction
to the different types of satellites and the role and application of each of these
different types. A visual depiction of the process of satellite launching and the
basic details of different types of satellites and the role and application of each
of these different types. A visual depiction of the process of satellite launching
and the basic details of different types of satellites should be of immense help
and interest to all students.
xiv
Skill
Learning Outcomes
a ppreciate the long
history of mankinds
effort to understand
planetary motion
d
ifferentiate between
geocentric and
heliocentric models and
the historical context
under which these ideas
prevailed
k
now how early
astronomical observations
were taken and how
they contributed to the
development of the law
of gravitation.
Appreciate the
contribution of India
in the development of
astronomy
xv
k
now the concept of
central forces
Important properties of
Gravitational force
Application of Newtons
law in practical situations
Determination of value
of G
Principle of
Superposition
d
raw the vector diagram
for the gravitational force
between two masses
u
nderstand how
to compute the net
gravitational forces due to
a collection of masses
r ecognize that
gravitational force is
one of the basic forces
of nature and it is a
weak force that is always
attractive in nature.
o
btain Keplers laws
of planetary motion
from Newtons law of
Gravitation
xvi
xvii
Gravitational Potential
ESCAPE SPEED
Escape Speed
differentiate between
gravitational potential
energy and gravitational
potential
Distinguish between
gravitational potential and
potential energy and the
need for the concept of
gravitational potential.
Ability to recall the
concept of escape speed
SATELLITES
Motion of satellite
(Orbital speed, Time
period of a satellite)
xviii
Pre-requisites
Recall the following concepts already learnt in previous classes
Newton's law of gravitation
Equations of motion under free fall.
Concept of potantial energy.
Circular motion
Web-links/vedios/other references
http://www.drennon.org/science/kepler.htm
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circles/u6l3c.cfm
http://www.physicsclassroom.com
http://www.schoolscienceguru.com
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Students'
manual
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6.1 Introduction
Long time back, even before man had learnt to read and write, he must have
observed the rising and setting of the sun, the phases of the moon and the shining
stars at night. He must have wondered about the cause of these phenomena.
The in-built curiosity in the mind of man must have led to centuries of thoughts
and ideas. The subject of Gravitation, in the form we study it today, is one of
the consequences of these thoughts and ideas.
Did Newton discover Gravitation?
The answer is an emphatic NO!
The force of Gravitation had always existed and its importance and significance
was realized by various philosophers and thinkers much before Newton.
However, the credit for formulating a, quantitative law, which governs the
nature of the force of gravitation,
must go to Newton.
Jupiter
Mars
Mercury
EARTH
VENUS
MOON
SUN
SATURN
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as ancient Greece.
Two observations that must have made a significant contribution to the
formulation of the geocentric model were (i) the stars, sun, and planets appear to
revolve around the Earth each day, making the Earth appear to be the center of
the overall system. (ii) The Earth does not seem to move from the perspective of
an Earth bound observer, for whom it appears as a solid, stable, and unmoving
object.
It was not until the 16th century that a new astronomical model called the
Heliocentric model was developed. In this model the Earth and planets were
imagined to revolve around a stationary Sun which was considered as the centre
of the universe. This word comes from the Greek Helios (sun) and kentron
(center). This notion, that the Earth revolves around the Sun, had been proposed
as early as the 3rd century BCE by Aristarchus of Samos, but his idea received
no support from the other ancient astronomers of that time.
JUPITER
MARS
VENUS
MERCURY
SUN
SATURN
EARTH
MOON
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Long before Kepler formulated his laws of planetary motion, the study of
planetary motion was a well developed branch of Science in India.
Aryabhata (476550?), in his magnum opus Aryabhatiya (499?) propounded a
planetary model in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and
the periods of the planets were given with respect to the Sun. He accurately
calculated many astronomical constants, such as the periods of the planets, likely
times of the occurrences of the solar and lunar eclipses, and the instantaneous
motion of the Moon. Early followers of Aryabhatas model included Varahamihira,
Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara II.
Nilakantha Somayaji (14441544?), in his Aryabhatiyabhasya, a commentary
on Aryabhatas Aryabhatiya, developed a computational system for a partially
heliocentric planetary model, in which the planets orbit the Sun, which in turn
orbits the Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe
in the late 16th century. In the Tantrasangraha (1500?), he further revised his
planetary system, which was mathematically more accurate at predicting the
heliocentric orbits of the interior planets than both the Tychonic and Copernican
models. However, the Indian astronomy, in general, fell short of proposing
models of the universe. Nilakanthas planetary system also incorporated the
Earths rotation on its axis. Most astronomers of the Kerala school of astronomy
and mathematics seem to have accepted his planetary model.
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Figure 3: Kepler
Keplers laws were deduced for planets revolving around the Sun. But, do you realize that
these laws are equally valid for artificial satellites, and also for any other body revolving
around a massive central body. What do you think is the reason?
is
characterized
by
Planet
Sun
two
focl
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dt
A2
dt
A1=A2
A1
sun
planet
dA =
1 2
r
2
dq
(Area of triangle =
1
2
rdq
base height)
dA
dt
dq
Figure 6:
= 1 r 2 dq = 1 r 2
2
dt
The magnitude of the angular momentum of the planet, about an axis passing
through the Sun, is
L = rpn
where pn is the component of its linear momentum p along the direction normal
to r
L = r(mv) = r (mwr) = mr2w
From these equations, we get
dA
dt
= L
2m
Since, the gravitational force is a central force, it acts along the line joining the
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Sun to planet i.e. parallel to r . Hence the torque, exerted by the gravitational
force, on the planet, is zero.
dA
=
dt
a constant
One simple consequence of Keplers second law is that a planet moves faster
when it is closer to Sun and slower when it is far from it. Can you think of an
explanation?
T2 r3
where T = time period of revolution of the planet and r = radius of its orbit.
Alternately, we can also write this law as
T12
T22
r13
r23
http://www.drennon.org/science/kepler.htm
Concept Probe
1. C
onsult a table of planetary data. Calculate T2/r3 for each planet. Verify that this quantity
is almost constant for all planets.
2. Y ou are given that the period of rotation of the moon around the earth is approximately
30 days and its distance from the earth is approximately 64 earth radii. Can you calculate
the height of geosynchronous satellite?
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F m1m2
m2
m1
1
r2
m1m2
r2
where m1 and m2 are the masses of the two bodies and r is the distance between
their centers.
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Note that as the masses of the bodies increase, the force between them increases.
Also, as the distance between their centres increases, the force decreases.
1
2
(c) It is a long range force. The gravitational force is effective even at large
distances.
(d) Unlike electrostatic and magnetic forces, the gravitational force is always
attractive.
The entire Universe is held together by the gravitational force. It is, therefore,
the most important force in nature. However, it is the weakest of all the
fundamental forces in nature.
Note that earlier mass was regarded only as a measure of the inertia of the body. This
led to the concept of inertial mass. Newtons law of gravitation, however, bestows mass
with another property. Mass is also a measure of the gravitational force. This leads us to
the concept of the gravitational mass of an object. However, all the precise experiments
done so far, show that both inertial and gravitational masses are equal.
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Concept Probe
1. W
hat happens to the gravitational force between two bodies if the mass of one of the
bodies is halved and the distance between them is doubled?
2. T he gravitational force acts on all bodies. Why, then does an apple fall towards earth
but the earth does not move towards the apple?
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circles/u6l3c.cfm
F = G
m1m2
r2
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Concept Probe
1. If there is a gravitational attractive force between all objects, why do we not feel ourselves
attracted towards massive structures in our surroundings?
2. W
hy is the gravitational force an important force for heavenly (or astronomical)
objects?
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r^
2
B
F = G
m1 m2
r2
If we are calculating the force on body A due to body B, then r will be the unit
vector drawn from A towards B.
It will be imperative to mention here that this vector notation is consistent with
the basic fact that the gravitational force is always an attractive force. This implies
that the gravitational force is a central force, and hence the direction of this force
has to be along the line joining the center of the two bodies.
Newtons law has been stated for two point bodies. How do we calculate the
force on a body if there are more than two bodies interacting with one other?
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The solution to this situation lies in what is called the principle of superposition.
In a group of objects, the net gravitational force, on any one of the objects, is
the vector sum of the forces due to all the other objects. The principle implies
that we first calculate the gravitational force that acts on an object due to each
of the other objects as if all other objects are absent. After doing this for all
possible pairs, the net force on the object under consideration is calculated by
the vector sum of all the forces acting on it.
F 1 = F 12 + F 13 + F 14 + F 15 + ...
Here F 1 is the net force on object 1 due to all the other objects 2, 3, 4, 5,
The Principle of superposition is based on the fact that the gravitational interaction between
two bodies is independent of the presence of other bodies in the neighborhood.
The same concept is applicable to electrostatic force which will be studied in class XII.
Illustration. Three objects of masses 5 kg, 3 kg and 3 kg are placed at the corners
due to object B is
FAB = G
mA mB
r2
It is in the direction of AB
FAB 5 109 N
FAC 5 109 N
As per the principle of superposition, the net force on the body A is the
14
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FA =
2
2
FAB
+ FAC
+ 2 FABFAC cos 60
FA =
1
(5 10 9 N )2 + (5 10 9 N )2 + 2 (5 10 9 N )2
2
= 5 3 109 N
The resultant force is directed along the bisector of the angle between the
Practice problem
Four equal masses are placed at the corners of a square of
side 2cm as shown in the figure. Another mass is placed at the
centre of the square. Find the magnitude and direction of the
net force on the body kept at the center of the square due to
all the other masses.
There are two high tides per day in oceans due to the gravitational pull of the moon on
the earth. Surprisingly, although the gravitational pull of Sun is 180 times greater than the
pull of the Moon, the effect of Sun is much less on ocean tides. Search for the possible
reason for this?
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we get
M p v2
r
v =
putting
M p 4 p2 r
T2
GMs M p
r2
2 pr
T
GMs M p
r2
4 p2
GMs
T2 =
3
r
The quantity in the parentheses is a constant that depends only on the mass
Ms of the central massive body which is the Sun in this case. It can also be the
Earth if we are talking of the motion of an artificial satellite.
\
T2 r3
This, as you have learnt above, is Keplers third law for planetary motion.
We assume that the Earth is a uniform sphere of mass M and radius R. We can
assume then that the mass of earth is concentrated at its center.
The gravitational force of Earth, on a particle of mass m, at a distance r from
the center of Earth, is given by Newtons Law as follows:
F =
GMm
r2
(i)
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F = ma
(ii)
Both the expressions (i) and (ii) are measuring the same force in two different
ways.
m
a =
GMm
r2
GM
r2
g =
GM
R2
Aristotle taught that heavy objects fall faster than light objects. Galileo argued that all
objects, irrespective of their mass, should take the same time to fall to the ground from
a given height. Do you agree with Galileo? If so, why?
Search the internet for Galileos Pisa experiment. It is said that Galileo went to the top of
the tower of Pisa and dropped bodies of various masses and showed that they all take
the same time to fall to the ground.
For points lying very close to the surface of earth, we put r = R, the radius of
the earth. We can, therefore, express acceleration due to gravity (g) as
g =
GM
R2
For earth, taking M = 6 1024 kg and R = 6400 km, we get g = 9.8 m/s2. However,
it must be noted that the value of 9.8 m/s2 is an average value and the value
of g varies on earth from one place to another because of various factors.
On a given planet, the average value of acceleration due to gravity is the
same for all objects and is independent of the mass of the object. In fact, it is
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a characteristic constant for that planet as it depends only on the mass and
radius of that planet.
Illustration. Find the value of g on a planet whose mass is half that of earth and
radius twice that of earth. Given g on earth = 9.8 m/s2.
Soltuion. In any such question, the best way is to write two equations:
Value of g on earth
gp =
Re2
GM p
Rp2
GM e
Value of g on planet
ge =
We get
R 1 1 1
= e =
=
M e Rp 2 4 8
ge
1
gp = 9.8 ms2 = 1.225 ms2
8
gp
Mp
1.2 ms2
At the time when Cavendish determined the value of G, there was lot of excitement the
world over. In fact, Cavendishs determination of G was publicized by the popular statement
Cavendish weighed the earth. Can you explain how knowing the value of G, it is possible
to calculate the mass of the Earth?
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Can you explain how variation of gravity can be caused by variation of density in the earths
interior? In fact, variation of gravity inside the earth is a tool for exploration of mineral
and other deposits inside the earth. Search for gravity measurement and exploration of
mineral deposits on the internet for more information on this topic.
Polar diameter
12,714 km
North Pole
Thus, since
Re > Rp,
we would have
South Pole
ge < gp
Equatorial diameter
12,756 km
g =
GM
R2
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g =
g
g
( R + h )2
( R + h )2
GM
R2
(i)
R2
g
=
g
g = g 1 + h
R2 1 +
R
g = g 1 2
R
This formula is valid only when the value of h is small compared to R, the radius of earth.
If this condition is not satisfied, we use equation (i) above.
Illustration 3. At what height above the surface of the earth, will the acceleration
due to gravity be 36% of its value on the surface of earth? Radius
of earth = 6400km.
Solution. Note the fact that the change in g is of about 64%. Such a large change
will not be possible at a small height. Hence it will be incorrect to use the
formula valid only for small heights.
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Unit 6 : G
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R2
g
=
g
( R + h )2
we get h =
2R
3
Solution. In this question, the height at which g is to be calculated is small compared
to R. Thus, we can use the formula valid for h < < R.
g = g 1 2
R
32
6336
g = g 1 2
= g
6400
6400
g =
99
g = 99% of value of g on the surface of earth
100
et us see what happens when the student uses the incorrect formula in a
L
given case
g = g 1 2
R
g = g 1 2
R
g = g
Unit 6 : G
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21
cbse-i
g
R2
=
g
( R + h )2
g
R2
=
g
( R + R )2
R2
g
=
g
4R2
g =
g
4
try this
At what height above the surface of the earth, will the value of g be 5% of its value on
the surface of earth? Given R = 6400 km.
g =
GM
R2
M = 4 pR3r
3
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Unit 6 : G
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g = 4 pRGr
3
cbse-i
I n terms of the formula derived above the value of g at a depth d can be expressed
as
g = 4 pG(R d)r
This is because, the point, at a depth d below the surface, is a surface point
on a sphere of radius (R d) and it is only this sphere that contributes to the
gravitational force for a particle located at this depth.
Thus,
or
d
g
= 1
R
g
d
g = g 1
Did you note that at the center of earth, i.e for d = R, the acceleration due to
gravity becomes zero.
Concept Probe
1. A
body of weight mg is taken to the centre of the earth. What would be its mass
there?
2. D
raw a graph showing variation of the value of g with distance from the centre of
earth.
Illustration 6. At what depth, below the surface of the earth, the value of g is
same as that at a height of 64 km above the surface of earth?
g = g 1 2
g = g 1 2
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23
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g 1 2
We get
or
h
R
g 1
2h = d
d = 128 km
N R cos l
l
O
Equator
GMm
R
force is directed radially in wards along the direction PO. The particle needs a centripetal
force (= mrw2 = mw2R cos l) directed along PN. We can now say that a part of the earths
gravitational force, on the particle, gets used up in providing this centripetal force. The
effective gravitational force, experienced by the particle, is, therefore, the difference of a
GMm
R
PN.
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Simple calculations, based on the parallelogram law of vector addition, lead us to the
formula
2 R2
gl = g 1
cos
R 2 4
l+ 2
g
1/2
Since Rw2 is a small quantity, we can neglect R2w4 and higher terms. Then
R2
gl = g 1
cos2 l
The effective value of g, i.e. gl is, therefore, dependent on l, the latitude of the place. gl,
clearly, has its minimum value at the equator where l = 0. As the poles (l = 90), gl = g
and this is the maximum value of g.
It is worth mentioning here that this causethe rotation of the earth about its own
axisis the main cause for the observed difference between the values of g at the poles
and at the equator.
There are some forces in nature which can act even when the interacting bodies
are not in direct contact with each other. Such forces are called action-at-adistance forces. The gravitational, electrostatic and magnetic forces are well know
examples of such forces. On the other hand, there are forces which act only when
bodies are in direct contact. Frictional, viscous and muscular forces are some
examples of such contact forces
The action-at-a-distance, or non-contact forces, forces which can act even when
the bodies are not in direct contact, are usually discussed on the basis of the
concept of their associated field. For the gravitational force, we use the concept
of the gravitational field.
Body (source)
The gravitational field, of a body is defined as the space around this body in
which its gravitational force can be experienced by other bodies.
Unit 6 : G
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F =
GMm
r2
E =
F GM
=
m
r2
GM
R2
Notice, that this expression is similar to the expression for the acceleration due
to gravity on the surface of the earth.
Acceleration due to gravity is actually a measure of the gravitational field of earth. It is
always directed towards the center of Earth. The direction to the centre of the earth is
called the vertical direction.
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Illustration 7. The distance between earth and moon is 3.8 105 km and the
mass of earth is 81 times the mass of the moon. Find the position
of a point, on the line joining the earth to moon, where the net
gravitational field, due to the two, equals zero. Given Radius of
earth = 6400 km.
Solution. As we know, the gravitational force being a central force, the gravitational
field is directed along the line joining the center of the two mass bodies.
In this case, the two bodies are the Moon and Earth.
The point, where the net gravitational field is zero, lies on this line joining
the Earth and Moon. At this point, the gravitational field of the Earth will
be equal and opposite to the gravitational field of the Moon.
s we already know, the directions of the two field being opposite to each
A
other, we need equate only the magnitudes of the two fields.
GMe
x
81 Mm
x
GMm
(r x )2
Mm
(r x )2
Hence
x = 9(r x)
We are already familiar with the concept of Potential Energy. The present topic
is an extension of the same discussion.
In general, the term Potential Energy (U) is defined as the energy associated
with an arrangement, or configuration, of a system of objects, exerting forces
on each other.
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For potential energy to exist, there must be an interaction between the particles
of the system. i.e. the particles must exert forces on each other. The concept of
potential energy can also be associated with a field.
One of the most common examples of potential energy is the Gravitational
potential energy. In this case the associated field is the gravitational field. When
a body is moved away or towards earth (or any other massive body), in the
gravitational field of the earth, the configuration of the earth body system is
being changed. To facilitate this change, some work has to be done which can
be viewed as having got converted into the gravitational potential energy of
the system.
For the earth body system, we define the gravitational potential energy, at a
given point, as the work done in bringing the body, of mass m, from infinity
to that point, in the gravitational field without any acceleration.
dx
r
Figure 15: A body of mass m is being brought from infinity to a point P at distance r from the
center of Earth
F =
GMm
x2
This is the force acting on the body due to the gravitational pull of earth. Since,
our definition says that the body must move without acceleration, we need to
think of an equal and opposite (external) force being exerted on the body.
Work done, in a small displacement dx, would be
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Unit 6 : G
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dW = F dx
cbse-i
\ The work done, by the gravitational force, in moving the body, from x =
to x = r, is
W =
W =
dW = F dx
GMm
x2
W = GMm
dx
dx
1 1
W = GMm
W = GMm
(a)
This work W can be regarded as stored in the system of bodies as the gravitational
potential energy U.
\
U = GMm
r
Gravitational potential energy, being work done, is a scalar quantity. Its S.I.
unit is joule (J)
The maximum value of gravitational potential energy is zero for the point at infinity. As
it comes closer to earth, it loses some of its potential energy and attains a lower value
of this energy.
What happens to the energy that a particle loses when it falls in a gravitational field? This
energy is radiated away. When a large number of particles fall in a very strong gravitational
field of a black hole, they radiate energy in the form of X-rays .
It is the detection of this X-ray signal that gives a clue to the presence of a black hole at
that location. For more information carryout a search on the internet for the detection
of black holes.
The negative sign in the gravitational potential energy denotes that the system
is losing some of its potential energy as it comes close to earth.
Negative sign also implies that the force responsible, for the gravitational
potential energy, is an attractive force.
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Negative sign also denotes that the system is in a bound state i.e. it cant break
apart on its own.
The gravitational potential energy is a property of the system of two particles
and not of either particle alone. However, for systems like earth body, we
often say that it is the potential energy of the body because any change, in the
potential energy of the system, almost entirely appears as the change in the
kinetic energy of the body.
Uf =
DU = Uf Ui =
DU =
GMm GMm
3R
R
2GMm
3R
30
GMm
3R
GMm
R+h
GMm
R
g =
GM
R2
GM
= gR
R
Unit 6 : G
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DU =
2
gRm
3
cbse-i
c2
When the photon is on the surface of the star, it has, in addition to its intrinsic energy h
n, a gravitational potential energy equal to
GM hn
.
R c2
At a far off point, the photon energy would be h n (n = frequency of photon when it is
very far away from the star).
Hence, by principle of energy conservation,
GM hn
. = hn
h n +
R c2
GM
Rc 2
n = n 1
or
c
GM
c
= 1 2
l
l
Rc
l = l 1
= l 1 +
GM
Rc 2
GM
Rc 2
GM
2
Rc
<< 1
GM
l l
=
l
Rc 2
This formula gives the fractional gravitational red shift, produced in a line of wavelength
l, due to the gravitational field of the star emitting this line.
The gravitational red shift is usually a very small quantity. If becomes important in objects
like the neutron stars and black holes because of their strong gravitational fields. In fact,
the observation of gravitational red shift is an indication that the source of radiation is a
very compact object having a strong gravitational field.
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W = GMm
V = W = GM
U = mV
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If you throw a ball up, it reaches a height and comes back to your hands. As
the initial speed is increased, the maximum height attained also increases. The
minimum speed with which the body is thrown so that it never comes back and
reaches a point where the earths gravitational field ceases is called the escape
speed.
We can obtain an expression, for the escape speed, as follows:
If a body of mass m, is thrown with a speed ve,
the total Initial energy of the body
Ei = K.E. + P.E.
Ei =
1
GMm
mve2 +
2
R
Let this body come to rest only after reaching the point at infinity
We then have the final energy of the body at infinity,
Ef = 0 + 0
Ei = Ef
1
GMm
mve2
=
2
R
1
GMm
mve2 =
2
R
ve =
2GM
R
The escape speed, for a planet, is thus seen to depend upon the mass and the
radius of the planet. It is independent of the mass of the body thrown. The
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equation can be used to obtain escape speed for any astronomical body provided
we substitute the mass and radius of the relevant astronomical body.
Substituting the values for mass and radius, the escape speed for earth is = 11.2
km/s
Since g =
GM
R2
, we have
GM = gR2
ve = 2gR
The escape speed v does not depend on the direction in which the object (or
projectile) is thrown, or fired. However, it is helpful if the projectile is fired in
the direction of the rotation of the planet.
Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR, located at Sriharikota, a spindle shaped island on the
East Coast of Andhra Pradesh, is the spaceport of India. This island was chosen in 1969 for
setting up of a satellite launching station. Rockets are launched eastward to take advantage
of the eastward speed due to Earths rotation.
Our universe has certain bodies called black holes. A black hole is formed when a star
dies. At the end of its life, the star collapses into a highly dense sphere of large mass.
The escape velocity on a black hole is so high that even light cannot escape from it
and thus, it appears to be black and is invisible.
Illustration 9. Earth has a mass 9 times and a radius twice that of Mars. Calculate
the escape velocity on Mars. (Given escape velocity on earth = 11.2 km/s.)
2GM
R
34
ve =
Unit 6 : G
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vm =
2GM
R
cbse-i
vm =
2GM
9
R
2
vm =
2 2GM
3
R
vm =
2
v
3 e
vm = 5.28 m/s
Concept Probe
1. Earths atmosphere does not contain lighter gases. Why?
2. Moon doesnt have an atmosphere. Why?
mv02
r
GMm
v0 =
GM
r
r2
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cbse-i
But
r = R + h
v0 =
GM
R+h
v0 =
GM
=
r
gR
ve
11.2
km/s
=
2 2
= 7.92 km/s
T = 2 pr
v0
T = 2pr
r
GM
T = 2p
( R + h )3
r3
= 2p
GM
GM
T = 2p
R3
GM
T = 2p
T = 2p
For h << R, R + h R
R3
gR 2
R
g
Substituting the relevant values, we get T 84 minutes for the near earth
satellites.
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Unit 6 : G
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Note that the time period and orbital speed for a satellite is independent of the
mass of the satellite. In fact, it depends only on the mass of the planet and the
radius of the orbit of the satellite.
Energy of a satellite
A satellite in its orbit, possesses K.E. due to its rotational motion and P.E. due
to its position with respect to the Earth.
Kinetic Energy
K.E. =
1
mv02
2
1 GMm
2 r
Potential Energy
P.E. =
GMm
r
Total Energy
E = K.E. + P.E.
E =
E =
1 GMm GMm
+
2 r
r
GMm
2r
P.E.
2
The negative sign in the total energy indicates that the satellite Earth system is a bound
system. i.e. the satellite is bound to Earth and will not leave the orbit unless energy E is
given to it.
The maximum value of the total energy is at infinity and this Max. Energy = 0
Unit 6 : G
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Types of satellites
Satellites are usually classified according to the type of orbit they are in. There
are four types of orbit associated with satellites. It is the type of orbit that
dictates a satellites use.
Sun-Synchronous orbits
Meteorological satellites are often placed in a sun-synchronous or heliosynchronous
orbit. These satellites are in polar orbits. The orbits are designed so that the
satellites orientation is fixed relative to the Sun throughout the year, allowing
very accurate weather predictions to be made. Most meteorological satellites
orbit the Earth 15 to 16 times per day.
Geosynchronous satellites
Earth-synchronous or geosynchronous satellites are placed into orbit so that
their period of rotation exactly matches the period of Earths rotation about its
axis. They take (nearly) 24 hours to make one rotation. The plane of orbit for
these satellites is generally not the equatorial plane. The satellites are placed in
highly elliptical orbits which enable them to appear to hover above one point
on the Earth for most of the day. These satellites are used for communication
and GPS (Global Positioning System) purposes.
Geostationary satellites
The majority of communications satellites are in fact geostationary satellites.
Geostationary satellites like geosynchronous satellites, take (nearly) 24 hours to
complete a rotation. However, geostationary satellites are positioned directly
over the equator and their path follows the equatorial plane of the Earth. As a
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Unit 6 : G
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result geostationary satellites dont move North or South during the day and
appear to be permanently fixed above one point on the equator of the Earth.
Most video or T.V. communications systems use geostationary satellites.
Geosynchronous and geostationary satellites are typically orbiting at 35,788 km
(22,238 miles) above the surface of the earth (42,000 km from its centre).
Modern satellites have a mass of several thousand kilograms, compared with
just 180 kilograms for the first man made satellite, the Sputnik. Modern satellites
are placed in space using launch vehicles like the Arianne Rocket or the Space
Shuttle. Once in space, most satellites obtain their power requirements from the
Sun using solar panels.
Unit 6 : G
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Post Content
Student Worksheet 1
Q.1 What will be the nature of graph of the change in the acceleration due to gravity
and depth below the surface of the earth?
Q.2 An object is taken from the surface of earth to a height equal to the radius of
the earth. What will be the change in its potential energy?
Q.3 The time period of a satellite in a circular orbit of radius R is T. What will be
the time period of another satellite in a circular orbit of radius 4R?
Q.4 How will the orbital velocity of a satellite change if it were to be brought closer
to the surface of the planet?
Q.5 What will be the time period of a pendulum in a satellite revolving around the
earth?
Q.6 A man can jump six times as high on moon as on earth. Give reason for the
same.
Q.7 If there is a force of attraction between all objects, why do we not feel ourselves
sticking to massive buildings?
Q.8 A clock, controlled by a pendulum, when taken from the planes to mountains,
slows down. Why?
Q.9 The sun is continuously attracting earth with a strong gravitational force. Why
does the earth not fall towards the sun?
Q.10 An astronaut, while revolving in a circular orbit at a height H (<<R) from the
surface of the Earth happens to release a small packet outside. Calculate the time
the packet will take to reach the earth.
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Unit 6 : G
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Post Content
Student Worksheet 2
Q.1 Calculate the force of attraction between two balls each of mass 1 kg, when their
centers are separated by 10 cm. G = 6.67 1011 Nm2/kg2.
Q.2 Three equal masses, of m kg each, are fixed at the vertices of an equilateral triangle
A m
ABC of side 1 m, as shown in the figure.
2m
G
Bm
Cm
Q.4 How far from the surface of the Earth would the
acceleration due to gravity become 8% of its value on the surface of the Earth?
Q.5 Find the value of acceleration due to gravity in a mine at a depth of 80 km from
the surface of earth. (Radius of earth = 6400 km)
Q.6 A body is projected vertically upwards from the surface of the earth so as to just
reach a height equal to the radius of the earth. Neglecting friction of air, calculate
the speed with which it was projected. Mass of earth = 6 1024 kg, Radius of
earth = 6400 km.
(7.8 km/s)
Q.7 A rocket is fired vertically from the surface of Mars with a speed of 2 km/s. If
20% of its initial kinetic energy is lost due to Martian atmospheric resistance,
how far will the rocket go from the surface of Mars before returning back. Mass
of mars = 6.4 1023 kg Radius of mars = 4000 km, G = 6.67 10-11 Nm2/kg2
Q.8 A Saturn year is 29.5 times that of Earth. How far is Saturn from earth if earth
is 1.5 108 km away from sun?
Q.9 The distance of the planet Jupiter from the sun is 5.2 times that of the earth. Find
the period of the jupiters revolution around the sun.
(11.85 years)
Unit 6 : G
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Post Content
Student Worksheet 3
Q.1 Assuming the earth to be sphere of radius R (= 6360 km), calculate its average
density.
(Given: G = 6.67 1011 Nm2 kg2 and g = 9.8 ms2).
Q.2 At what point, between the earth and the sun, would the net gravitational force
on any object, due to these two, become zero?
Given: Radius of earths orbit = 1.5 1011 m,
mass of sum = 2 1030 kg
Q.3 Show that the value of acceleration due to gravity at a point at a height nearly,
equal to 43% of the radius of the earth, becomes 50% of its value on the surface
of the earth.
Q.4 Compare the time periods of a given simple pendulum on a planet X, and the
earth. Given that the mass and radius of the planet X, both have values 3 times
those of the earth.
Q.5 Two particles, of masses m1 and m2, are placed a distance d apart. If the
net gravitational field due to these two masses becomes zero at a point p
on the line goining them, show that the gravitational potential at p equal
G
m1 + m2 2 m1m2 .
d
Q.6 A particle is imagined to fall down, from rest, to the surface of the earth from a
point that is
Calculate the ratio of the velocities of the particle, on reaching the surface of the
earth, in the two cases.
Q.7 A satellite is orbiting the earth in a close to the earth orbit. What is likely to happen
to this satellite if its speed were to suddenly increase by a factor of
2?
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Unit 6 : G
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Q.9 The most abundant gas in naturehydrogenis almost absent in the earths
atmosphere. Why?
Q.10 Would the escape speed, needed by an object to escape from the earth, change
with a change in the
Q.11 The radii of two planets are r1 and r2 and their (surface) acceleration due to
gravity, have values g1 and g2. Find the ratio of the escape speeds for these two
planets.
Q.12 The total energy, kinetic energy and potential energy, of a satellite orbiting the
earth, equal E, K and U respectively. State the relation between E, K and U.
(U = 2E = 2K)
Q.13 If a satellite, orbiting around the earth, were to suddenly lose height, how would
this affect the
14. Two points, A and B, are at distances d1 and d2 (d2 > d1) from the centre of the
earth. The difference, in the gravitational potential energy (DU) of a mass m,
when it is moved from point A to point B, without acceleration, was calculated
by
1
1
d1 d2
where M is the mass of the earth, g is the acceleration due to gravity on the
surface of the earth and G is the universal gravitational constant.
where
Unit 6 : G
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43
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Post Content
Student Worksheet 4
Q.1 The gravitational field in a region of space is given by E = (4i + 6 j ) N/kg. Show
that the work done, by the gravitatational field, when a particle is moved on the
line (6x + 2y = 10), is zero.
Q.2 A satellite, of mass 1000 kg, is supposed to orbit the earth at a height of 2000 km
above the earths surface. Find its (a) orbital speed (b) K.E. and (c) time period.
Mass of earth = 6 1024 kg.
Q.3 If earth, with mass 6 1024 kg, were to reduce to a black hole with escape speed
equal to the speed of light, find the radius of that black hole.
Q.4 A body is projected from the surface of earth with a speed equal to half the
escape speed of earth. How far above the surface of earth will it reach?
Q.5 A particle is fired vertically upwards with a speed of 15 km/s. Find the speed
with which it will travel in space. Assume only earths gravitational influence to
be acting on the particle.
Q.6 Two particles, of masses M and m, are kept a distance x apart. Find the position
of the point, if any, where the net
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Unit 6 : G
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Post Content
Student Worksheet 5
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Q.1 If the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth (of radius R) is g,
the gain in potential energy of a body, of mass m, when raised from the surface
to a height R would be
R
4
(a) mg
(e) 4 mgR
(b) mg
R
2
(c) mgR
(d) 2 mgR
(c) infinite
(d) zero
Q.3 If the ratio of the radii of the orbits of mars and earth around the Sun is 1.526,
the time period of mars (in earth years) would be (nearly)
(b) 32 years
(c) 45 years
(d) 48 years
Q.4 If a satellite of mass m is revolving around the earth at a distance r from its
centre, its total energy is
(a)
2GMm
r
(b)
GMm
r
(c)
GMm
2r
(d)
GMm
2r
Q.5 A satellite is orbiting around the earth (and close to it) with a total energy E. If
the satellites kinetic energy is made 2E,
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Q.7 The average density of a hypothetical planet is twice that of the earth. If the
acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the planet is equal to that of the
earth and if the radius of the earth is R, the radius of the planet must be
(a)
R
4
(b)
R
2
(c) 2R
(d) 4R
Q.8 For a satellite moving in an orbit around the earth, the magnitude of the ratio
of its kinetic energy to its potential energy is
46
(a)
1
2
Unit 6 : G
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(b) 2
(c)
1
2
(d) 2