Running head: The Lasting Effects of Divorce During Adolescence

The Lasting Effects of Divorce During Adolescence

Cody King
Santa Clara University

The Lasting Effects of Divorce During Adolescence

The Lasting Effects of Divorce During Adolescence

While many adolescents may want to gain independence from their parents, one might
expect that losing a parent after a divorce would bring many negative consequences. They may
not appreciate their parents at the moment, but when a once intact household breaks, a child may
then realize the luxuries that are now lost. Many adolescents tend to struggle in various aspects
of life following the divorce of their parents and numerous research studies try to explore how
these two occurrences relate to each other (e.g., Neighbors, Forehand, & Armistead, 1992;
Heifetz, Connolly, Pepler, & Craig, 2010). While many studies can find a link between these two
events, they often have trouble deciding whether or not the divorce and adolescent issues are
caused by another outside force or if the adolescent problems cause the divorce; these two
common issues are referred to as the third variable problem and the direction of effect problem.
These are two frequent issues in studies about divorce and whereas some studies try to use
various research tactics to get rid of these issues, others do not and sometimes make claims that
are not adequately supported (Emery, 1982). Although adolescents often suffer consequences
after a parental divorce that affect them in adolescence and adulthood, such as poorer academic
performance, psychological issues, and trouble with romantic relationships, factors surrounding
the divorce may have a significant impact on these problems.
Poor Academic Performance
It is common for adolescents to see a decline in their grades or eventually drop out of
school after a parental divorce, but studies have suggested that other variables such as
interparental conflict and standard of living decline may be a significant factor according to
many researchers (e.g., Huurre, Junkkari, & Aro, 2006; Neighbors et al., 1992). More
specifically, it tends to be males that see a greater decline in academic performance. When

The Lasting Effects of Divorce During Adolescence

analyzing divorce during adolescence, interparental conflict seems to play a very important role
because not only can it influence an adolescent's academic performance, it can also cause a
divorce. Unfortunately, it is rare that a family divorces when there is no conflict and that missing
untestable group hinders the validity of the conclusions. In addition to the overall decline in
performance, adolescents may be more likely drop out of high school and have a shorter
education in comparison to their peers; several factors can influence these negative academic
effects such as economic changes, increase in responsibilities, and decrease in parental
supervision and support (e.g., Richardson & McCabe, 2001; Zill, Morrison, & Coiro, 1993).
These factors imply less importance on divorce itself and that the resulting events following the
divorce make the most significant impact on the well-being of the adolescent.
Gender discrepancy. The academic performance decline seen in adolescents after a
parental divorce often affects males more than females, but there is an insignificant gender gap
for adolescents that drop out of school. (Neighbors et al., 1992; Sun & Li, 2009). Males seem to
react differently than females to conflict at home and to a lack of parental monitoring (Jurkovic,
Thirkield, & Morrell, 2001). Conflict may lead to negative behavioral expression such as
aggressiveness and impulsivity more often for boys and this can translate to poorer performance
at school. Interestingly, the academic decline can be seen before the parental divorce occurs and
this is related to the conflict that almost always occurs before a divorce (Neighbors et al.). These
results show that the divorce itself is less likely to be the main influence driving the decline of
academic performance. Whereas an adolescent may be more likely to drop out of school and not
continue their education past high school as long as their peers from non-divorced families, there
is no clear gender discrepancy (Huurre et al., 2006; Zill et al., 1993). The factors influencing
these actions are probably ones that are common for divorced families and relate less to the

The Lasting Effects of Divorce During Adolescence

individual. Single parents stemming from divorce are often less stable financially and have a
harder time keeping track of what activities in which their children are involved (Huurre et al.;
Sun & Li; Zill et al.). They most likely have to work more and the adolescent might have to start
working too. This extra responsibility can put added stress on the family and could hinder the
child academically by either negatively impacting performance or making college unattainable.
Direction of effect and third variables. The direction of effect and third variable
problems are very important to consider when discussing the impact of divorce on adolescents.
The results mentioned in the previous section were collected in an intelligent manner to try and
yield maximum validity. Huurre et al., (2006), Neighbors et al., (1992), Sun and Li, (2009), and
Zill et al., (1993) collected data multiple times over a period of a few years while also controlling
third variables such as age, gender, and socio-economic status. The research does not prove
undeniable causality, they were able to adequately support their results by accounting for
direction of effect and third variables. Actually, the direction of effect issue is exposed because
while collecting data over a long period of time, they were able to figure out that adolescent
grades started to decline before the actual divorce due to interparental conflict. On the other
hand, they controlled for a few third variables and were able to eliminate some of those issues.
Overall, the study was conducted very effectively and yielded modestly reliable results.
Psychological Adjustment During Adolescence and Adulthood
The psychological issues faced in adulthood after an adolescent experiences divorce is
influenced by factors such as gender and time of divorce (e.g., Ge, Natsuaki, & Conger, 2006;
Palosaari & Aro, 1994). Females tend to have more psychological issues following a parental
divorce during adolescence and these issues continue to increase throughout adolescence and
early adulthood (Ge et al.; Huurre et al., 2006; Oldehinkel et al., 2008). Males do have negative

The Lasting Effects of Divorce During Adolescence

effects following a divorce, but are usually behavioral or school related, not psychological. The
time during adolescence in which a parental divorce occurs is crucial according Ge et al. and
Palosaari and Aro. Divorces during early adolescencearound nine to thirteen years of ageor
before pose a higher risk of psychological issues in adolescents in comparison to their peers who
experience divorce later in adolescence because of the many stressors that adolescents
experience at this time (Jurkovic, et al., 2001).
Female adolescents and divorce timing. In general, female adolescents are more likely
to develop psychological problems after divorce in comparison to their male peers who
experience divorce (Huurre et al., 2006). But according to other results, timing plays a huge
factor in determining how significantly a divorce will affect an adolescent and one of the reasons
for the gender difference is girls have a higher sensitivity to interpersonal events (Ge et al., 2006;
Oldehinkel et al., 2008). Divorce and the many stressful events surrounding it can be particularly
stressful for a female adolescent and the psychological effects stay with them into adulthood;
especially for girls, these psychological issues often continue to worsen even after they have
entered into early adulthood (Ge et al.). It is suspected that girls who experience divorce during
the time of pubertal maturation are more vulnerable to depression in comparison to other female
peers who experience divorce at a different time; maternal depression poses another added risk
(Ge et al.). The association of parental divorce and female depressive symptoms can be
explained by other stressors surrounding the divorce such as interparental conflict, financial
instability, and school changes (e.g., Ge et al.; Jurkovic et al., 2001). It makes sense that this is
when adolescent girls would be most susceptible to depression because this is a time of
heightened stress even without considering a parental divorce. When leading up to adolescence
and at the end of adolescence, stress levels are lower and it would be understandable that a

The Lasting Effects of Divorce During Adolescence

divorce during those times poses a smaller risk to female youth. When a parental divorce occurs,
many other stressors result and this added stress can be detrimental to the mental health of a
female adolescent going through puberty (Ge et al.). A divorce often leads to a lower standard of
living, less education opportunities, and more responsibility for the adolescent (Ge et al.;
Jurkovic et al.). It is likely these stressors make adolescents more vulnerable to divorce at this
time because of the stressful events they are already experiencing.
Male adolescents and divorce timing. There are results that suggest males may face
more psychological problems that females when experiencing a divorce during adolescence and
that the effects on girls in completely independent of time (Palosaari & Aro, 1994). Divorce that
takes place during early adolescence is highlighted as being a time concurrent with other
stressful events in a young adolescent's life, but its effects with respect to gender are unclear
according to research. It is suggested that the gender differences are because boys handle
parental discord more poorly than girls (Palosaari & Aro). Therefore, researchers conclude that
interparental conflict that almost always accompanies divorce can be more detrimental to males
and the resulting psychological problems also continue to affect them in adulthood (Ge et al.,
2006; Palosaari & Aro).
Direction of effect and third variables. The results are conflicting regarding the gender
differences among adolescents experiencing divorce. In regard to the three pertinent studies
conducted by Ge et al. (2006), Huurre et al. (2006), and Palosaari and Aro (1994), all of them
used longitudinal studies to collect their results and eliminated the direction of effect issue.
However, third variables may play a role in the conflicting outcomes. The researchers controlled
for similar variables, but it is possible that one or multiple were missed for this situation. Even
though the researchers made sure to account for direction of effect and third variables, the

The Lasting Effects of Divorce During Adolescence

information is not completely reliable and may suggest either a lack of relation with gender or
that crucial third variables were missed.
Romantic Relationships in Adolescence and Adulthood
A parental divorce during adolescence may lead to increased risk and less success with
romantic relationships both during adolescence and adulthood (e.g., Heifetz, Connolly, Pepler, &
Craig, 2010; Wallerstein & Lewis, 2004). Research suggests that family conflict and pubertal
development may influence these outcomes and that divorce may have less of an impact (Heifetz
et al.; Ivanova, Mills, & Veenstra, 2011). These individuals experiencing divorce tend to date
earlier, more often, and be more susceptible to romantic influence in comparison to their peers
from intact households, but this does not include a difference in relationship quality. It is not
until adulthood when these individuals often struggle with their romantic relationships. More
specifically, they are likely to experience more conflict and more likely to divorce, although
divorce may be related to the heightened conflict (e.g., Mustonen, Huurre, Kiviruusu, Haukkala,
& Aro, 2011; Summers, Forehand, Armistead, & Tannenbaum, 1998). The issues in relationships
are often related to divorce during adolescence, but other outside forces influencing these
outcomes include parent-child relationships, family conflict, maternal depressive symptoms, and
pubertal development. Factors such as pubertal development and the transition to a new school
environment can often occur at the same time and it is likely that a divorce during this period is
more detrimental for adolescents (Ge et al., 2006; Palosaari & Aro, 1994).
Romantic relationships during adolescence. Adolescents with divorced parents often
date earlier, more often, and are more susceptible to romantic influence, but it is likely related to
factors such as family conflict and pubertal maturation instead of the divorce itself (Heifetz et al.,
2010). It is common for adolescents to withdraw from family conflict and spend more time with

The Lasting Effects of Divorce During Adolescence

peers which often lead to increased dating stages. Due to the fact that these adolescents are
younger than others at the same dating stages, they are more likely to give in to peer pressure and
partake in risky behavior. It is a similar situation for pubertal maturation, although it is caused by
a chain of events. Family conflict and pubertal maturation may both lead to increased
susceptibility to romantic influence, but studies have shown family conflict and the absence of an
adolescent's father to be related to the early onset of puberty (Heifetz et al.). When considering
the effects of divorce on adolescent relationships, family conflict and pubertal development
appear to be important factors to consider. Similarly, Ivanova et al. (2011) explains the
importance of pubertal development in relation to divorce and romantic relationships during
adolescence. Because youth go through many changes during puberty and are transitioning to a
new school environment, this is the period of an adolescent's life when they are affected the most
by a parental divorce. It is also suggested that the transition to dating is sped up as a result of
youth trying to escape from the conflict between parents at home (Oldehinkel, Ormel, Veenstra,
De Winter, & Verhulst, 2008). The sped up dating stages are most likely to occur with a parental
divorce during adolescence and it is believed to be driven by a combination of family conflict
and pubertal development. Family conflict often occurs both before and after divorce and as a
result can cause early pubertal maturation. Both early pubertal maturation and family conflict
have been linked to sped up dating stages and susceptibility to romantic influence in early
adolescence (Heifetz et al.; Ivanova et al.; Oldehinkel et al.).
Romantic relationships during adulthood. Divorce during adolescence has long-term
effects on youth that disrupt marriages in several ways that include general relationship issues,
decrease in romantic security, and higher rate of divorce (Mustonen et al., 2011; Summers et al.,
1998; Wallerstein & Lewis, 2004, Young & Ehrenberg, 2007). The results suggest that

The Lasting Effects of Divorce During Adolescence

adolescents growing up in broken homes do not have a good example for what a successful
marriage looks like and struggle with intimacy and commitment. The lasting image the
adolescent has of his or her parents is one of unresolved conflict and loss of family support. Just
as their parents failed to mend the damaged relationship, adolescents who experience divorce
grow up more likely to get divorced in comparison to their peers from intact families (Mustonen
et al.; Summers et al.; Wallerstein & Lewis). For women, the mother-daughter relationship and
self-esteem can help explain the poorer quality intimate relationships in adulthood. This is not a
direct impact, but rather a difference in development for these individuals in adolescence.
Overall for both men and women, the parent-child relationship helps explain the relation of
divorce during adolescence and the effects it has on the stability of relationships during
adulthood (Mustonen et al.; Summers et al.).
Direction of effect and third variables. Most of the findings regarding the romantic
relationships for these individuals come from well designed studies that limited direction of
effect and some third variables. While Heifetz et al., (2010) and Young et al., (2007) came to
some great conclusions, a longitudinal or cross-sectional study would have yielded more
conclusive results by eliminating some problems of direction of effect and third variables. The
remaining studies performed longitudinal studied while also controlling for some third variables,
and therefore, contained more convincing results.
Conclusion
There are many statistics that suggest a parental divorce during adolescence can be very
detrimental to the well being of a child, but other factors surrounding the divorce are important
to consider (e.g., Ge et al., 2006; Neighbors et al., 1992). There are many stressful events that
ensue during a divorce and there are equally as many during puberty for an adolescent. Both

The Lasting Effects of Divorce During Adolescence

10

contain many stressors and the added tension from a divorce puts an enormous amount of
pressure and anxiety on an adolescent. Puberty is a time of many changes during which it can be
hard for both adolescents and parents to cope. Research has found the time during early
adolescence to be the most difficult and a divorce during this period is the most significant for an
adolescent (e.g., Ge et al., Oldehinkel et al., 2008). They are more likely than their peers who
experience divorce at a different time to develop psychological problems and those issues often
continue into adulthood. When it comes to issues in school, it is generally associated with a
divorce at any time during adolescence and is found to affect males more significantly than
females (Huurre et al., 2006; Neighbors et al.). Boys are more likely than girls to exhibit
behavioral issues and that can lead to issues at school, along with poorer academic performance.
The decline in academic performance is thought to be related strongly with interparental conflict
which is very common during the time of a divorce, and can also explain the academic changes
better than divorce itself (Neighbors et al.). Moreover, it is also common for adolescents who
experience a parental divorce to struggle with romantic relationships, especially in adulthood
(e.g., Mustonen et al., 2011; Wallerstein & Lewis, 1994). Immediately following the divorce,
adolescents' dating stages are often sped up and are more susceptible to romantic influence.
Although the relationship quality is comparable to their peers, they are more likely to date
earlier, more often, and partake in risky behavior. Research suggests that pubertal maturation
plays an important role and can depend on timing, the parent-child relationship, and interparental
conflict (Heifetz et al., 2010; Ivanova et al., 2011). However, these adolescents are likely to
struggle with romantic relationships in adulthood and are more likely to divorce after
experiencing a parental divorce (Mustonen et al.; Summers et al., 1998). The parent-child
relationship seems to be strongly related to the quality of relationships in adulthood and helps

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11

explain the effects of divorce on these adolescents. In conclusion, it is important to consider the
validity of these results about divorce during adolescence. Most researchers did well in
eliminating the direction of effect problem and controlling for some third variables, but others
did not and have results that are not well supported. Nevertheless, the results offer important
effects to consider and often reveal the underlying factors that cause the lasting effects on
adolescents after a parental divorce.

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