Running Header: A HORSES TAIL

A Horses Tail:
The Contribution of Horses to the Recreation and Leisure Experience
Toni Graham, Erin Hagerty, and Emily Massingale
RCLS 425: Evaluation in Recreation and Leisure
Dr. Emily Messina
April 23, 2015

A HORSES TAIL
A Horses Tail:
The Contribution of Horses to the Recreation and Leisure Experience
The ways in which humans respect and value horses has changed and remolded many

times throughout history. The way we are able to perceive horses and the horse industry today is
different than when the human race utilized horses for survival purposes. Horses, once
categorized to provide sustenance for the first humans, became a booming industry in the 21st
century. The equine underwent a long period as combat companions to warriors, and
entertainment assets in avenues such as, horse shows and horse races. Today, horses are
welcome companions of humans, they can even be the source of life lessons in responsibility.
Therefore, we believe equine have significantly contributed to the overall enjoyment of
recreation and leisure experience, resources should be allocated to further the availability of
horse related activities.
Earliest Domesticated
According to the American Museum of Natural History, the current species of horse we
know today began to settle in regions of Europe approximately 40,000 years ago (n.d.). This is
important to note because horses were utilized in history long before the modes they are utilized
today. It is also important to note, there existed other types of horse-like creatures even before
the ones we would recognize as a part of the horse species currently. The first horses were not
domestic. Wild horses, rarely seen today, were once the only way of life a horse knew.
Domesticating horses is said to date back to 3,000 B.C.E. (William Speed Weed, 2002). It is still
undecided who first tamed the horse or even whose idea it might have been, nonetheless;
mastering the horse was a monumental feat for the peoples of the time.

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Globalization
Being able to use horses for tasks people would normally have to do themselves was a
success in any book. Melinda Zear, archeologist at The Smithsonian Institute said, Horses
caused the first globalization, allowing cultures to grow from isolated pockets to interconnected
spheres of influence. (William Speed Weed, 2002). It is no wonder cultures expanded. With the
domestication of the horse, production, power, and durability were improved, just to name a few
aspects of life got substantially easier. To put it in perspective, Olson, an archeologist at Carnage
Museum of Natural History stated, Horses were swift of foot, could easily support one or two
human passengers, carry heavy loads, and survive on extremely poor quality vegetation or
fodder. They were our first form of rapid transit" (William Speed Weed, 2002).
Industrial
It is no wonder people began to flourish with this colossal tool now available. No form of
power could even compare at the time. In the times that followed, horses continued to be utilized
for daily tasks. As life began to become less about sustenance and more about living off the land,
horses became an enormous farming asset and even bigger mode of transportation. Since this era,
horses have made a large impact on society, contributing by massive amounts to every economy
they came into contact with. In fact, a 2005 study conducted by the American Horse Council
proved, the (horse) industry has a $102 billion impact on the U.S. economy. (American Horse
Council, n.d.)
Warhorses
To further understand the extent of the equine contribution we need to examine the use of
horses in warfare. From the first documented war horses in Eurasia, between 4,000 and 3,000

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B.C.E.,

to modern warfare of the 21st century, horses have played a vital role in mobilization

(Kelekna, 2009, p. 1). Horses have served as load bearers, troop transport, attack infantries or
cavalries, in wars around the globe. The horses were selected based on their purpose, for
example, lighter, more agile horses were chosen for speed such as pulling chariots,
reconnaissance, and light cavalries. The bigger and stronger horses were used for troop
mobilization, and heavy hauling such as cannons and other weighted weaponry. The last
documented major mounted cavalry charge was in Soviet Russia seventy-three years ago,
although smaller charges were believed to have occurred in 1970 in Zimbabwe (Greenspan,
2012). There were other uses of equine during warfare some much more severe than others.
Sacrifice and Dancing
During the Iron Age, it was not uncommon for the victors in battle to sacrifice horses of
the suppressed army to their gods of war as a thank you. The sacrifice of the live animals was
brutal and the conquerors took pleasure in supplying the final insult of battle, as Dobat, A. S.,
Price, T. D., Kveiborg, J., Ilkjear, J., & Rowley-Conway, P. (2014) state, In this way the horses
were made to take a leading part in what can be seen as a recreation of the apocalyptic scenery of
the battle, in which they had already played a crucial role (p. 202). On a lighter note, we have
the role of the famous white horses of World War II.
These horses were special dancing horses made up of white Arabian and Lipizzaner
Stallions, and Thoroughbreds, mainly from Austria. Adolph Hitler and his German Army had
accumulated over one hundred of these beautiful animals for Hitlers personal enjoyment. Near
the end of the war, General George S. Patton and Colonel Alois Podhajsky, an Olympian
horseman from Spain whom Hitler had ordered to care for the horses, played major roles in the

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massive, yet covert, liberation of the herd. Podhajsky frequently declared his deep affection for
horses, "I am bound to admit that I have always been what is commonly called 'horse-mad,'"
(Jensen, 2009. p. 59) Not only were horses held in high regard, they were highly trained, and
their health was of the utmost importance.
Equine Medicine
The first written documentation of equine medicine was found to have been written
between 430 and 354 B.C.E. by Greek historian and philosopher Xenophon, as discussed by Van
Weeren, P. R. and Crevier-Denoix, N. (2006, p. 591). Xenophons De re equestri went into great
detail regarding the proper care and training of horses, as well as, to describe what characteristics
created the perfect equine specimen. Although, Xenophon was the first to document his findings,
he was not the first to employ veterinarian medicine. The first is believed to have been
Urlugaledinna from Mesopotamia, around the same time as horses began being utilized in battle
in Eurasia. Urlugaledinna was considered an expert in healing animals (Royal College of
Veterinarian Surgeons, 2010).
From this time, history is lined with equine veterinarians: from Salihotra in India 1,800
B.C.E. to Hippocrates of Greece 400 B.C.E., whose findings influenced veterinarian medicine for
over 2,000 years, to Carlo Ruini of Italy, who, in 1596, offered the first book of horse anatomy
which acted as a precursor for veterinary science. As stated by the Royal College of Veterinarian
Surgeons (2010) the worth of a horse was placed on its usefulness in battle, Initially the
veterinary profession was centred on the horse, and this remained the focus for many years
influenced by the needs of the Army, this changed when the worth of a horse was redefined.

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Horses in Show
Todays horse shows can be traced back to practical application from our past. Both
English and Western shows have roots in history. The modern day sport of eventing is derived
from the test given to cavalry horses to test their bravery, endurance, obedience, and suitability
as chargers (United States Eventing Association, 2010). From eventing the sports of jumping and
dressage have emerged. As for western riding, ranch horses were, and still are, used to work
cattle and work around the ranch doing miscellaneous chores such as fence mending. Sports have
been developed to test the working ranch horse to include: team roping, team penning, barrel
racing, and competitive trail (Daniels, 2013).
Equine Therapy
Although a fairly modern concept, the use of horses as a form of therapy has been proven
to be successful and fun. There are three main types of therapy utilizing horses. These are:
equine assisted therapy, hippotherapy, and equine psychotherapy.
Equine Assisted Therapy
According to the Professional Association of Therapeutic Horsemanship International
(PATH), (2014), Equine Assisted Therapy (EAT) focuses on horseback riding as a form of
physical and mental therapy. However, EAT also includes activities such as therapeutic carriage
driving, interactive vaulting, equine-facilitated learning and mental health, and groundwork and
stable management. EAT focuses on using equine associated skills like brushing, grooming,
leading, steering, moving items, and basic skills while mounted as therapy (Free Rein
Therapeutic Riding, 2014).

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Hippotherapy
Unlike EAT, which can be done by non-professionals, hippotherapy utilizes Physical
Therapists, Occupational Therapists, and Speech Therapists to facilitate the therapy. As the
leading authority on hippotherapy, The American Hippotherapy Association (2010) describes the
purpose of each type of therapist. The physical therapists main role is to work on posture, core
and muscle strength and coordination. Because the horses pelvis simulates walking, it stimulates
the same muscles in the rider through positive output to mimic walking. It incorporates the multidimensional movement of the horse to achieve gait training, balance, postural/core control,
strengthening and range of motion goals. Impairments are addressed through the variability of
the horse's movement by modifying the rhythm, tempo and cadence of the horses movement.
Occupational Therapists utilize the movement of the horse to improve motor control,
coordination, balance, attention, sensory processing and performance in daily tasks. The
reciprocal multi-dimensional movement of the horse helps with the development of fine motor
skills, visual motor skills, bilateral control and cognition.
Occupational therapists also incorporate the movement of the horse to modulate the
sensory system in order to progress towards a treatment goal leading to a functional activity.
Speech Therapists use horses to accomplish traditional speech, language, cognitive, and
swallowing goals. Appropriate sensory processing strategies have been integrated into the
treatment to facilitate successful communication. People of all kinds can benefit from therapy
with horses. People with disabilities, including physical and mental, anyone in need of
counseling such as family or marriage counseling, and members of the Armed Forces, who
experience Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) or injuries sustained in the line of duty, can
all benefit greatly from equine therapy.

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Equine Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy is unique; it is only performed un-mounted, meaning not specifically on
the horse. According to the Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association (EAGALA)
(2010), the leading organization in equine psychotherapy, it targets anyone in need of counseling
or mental/psychological help by using the horse as a partner in cognitive and behavioral therapy.
Horses help the patient process thoughts and emotions psychologically and are experiential in
nature. Participants learn about themselves and others by participating in activities with the
horses, and then processing (or discussing) feelings, behaviors, and patterns. Treatment is not
focused on a set of specific movements for the horse to produce an adaptive response in the
patient. Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association (EAGALA) is the leading
organization in equine psychotherapy.
Purpose Statement
Through the advancement of human-equine relations there has been a surge of recreation
and leisure activities surrounding horses, such as: mounted orienteering, competitive trail, cattle
drives, sleigh riding, wilderness horse packing, hunting, etc. It is for this reason a research study
is applicable in order to substantiate the need for allocated resources to expand the availability of
horse related activities.
Resources
The resources utilized for this evaluation are: computer time for research and drafting,
facilitation time, copies, coffee, pencils, and materials for the presentation to include, poster
board and visual aids. For more information reference Table 1.

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What?
Model, Criteria, and Data Type
We will be utilizing the goal attainment model to conduct our evaluation process. This
model allows us to use our established objectives to substantiate our purpose. The issue is the
lack of research to demonstrate the contributory impact horses have made to the recreation and

leisure experience. Our goal is to be at the forefront of research to demonstrate the impact. Being
in this position there are no preset guidelines to follow. With the use of qualitative data we will
be able to gather information as to whether our focus group feels horses are a contributing factor
to recreation and leisure. This will determine the specific questions asked to our sample group
through our questionnaire. These questions will allow us to analyze whether our respondents
have ridden a horse, enjoyed the experience, participated in any equestrian activities, and so on.
The data collected will be utilized to determine if horses are a major contributor to recreation and
leisure and if resources should be allocated towards such activities.
Who?
Potential Audience, Group Members, and Sample
Our potential audience is horse enthusiasts, breeders, non-profit and for-profit
organizations offering equine programs, and anyone who is dependent upon the revenue
generated through horses. The contributing members of this group are: Toni Graham, a
Recreation Management major, minoring in Business Administration, and an equine admirer;
Erin Hagerty, an Interdisciplinary Studies major, minoring in Military Science, and a
Professional Equestrian; and Emily Massingale, an Outdoor Recreation major, minoring in
Anthropology, also, an equine admirer. Our sample is Eastern Washington University students

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enrolled in the Recreation and Leisure Services course 425 who are declared Recreational and
Leisure Services (RCLS) majors.
When?
Timing and Timeline
This will be a formative evaluation. The data will be collected in two phases during the
Spring Quarter of 2015. The first phase will include the focus group and the second phase will
entail the sample questionnaire. This will provide better organization of the questions required
for the questionnaire and the analysis of the data collected (Henderson & Baileschki, 2010, p.
71). The timeline will consist of the following due dates: Proposal April 23; Focus Groups

May 5 and May 6; Survey Implementation May 14; Group Presentation May 26 June 3; Final
Written Report June 3.
Where?
Sample Size, Composition, and Technique
The sample consists of forty-eight RCLS majors enrolled in RCLS 425: Evaluation in
Recreation and Leisure Services at Eastern Washington University. The sample subjects are a
convenience sampling; they are enrollees in the course and available for the project.
How?
Methods
The approach we will be utilizing in examining this topic is a mixed method approach or
triangulated method, such as qualitative focus groups and quantitative questionnaires. Qualitative

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focus groups support open-ended questions allowing the respondent to freely express their
feelings without limitations. Quantitative questionnaires will reflect the initial focus groups
thoughts, allowing us to guide the responses to achieve a more specific conclusion.
To fully comprehend the topic being examined the focus groups offer continual feedback
in order to achieve desired results. They also provide qualitative data in which to base emotional
feedback for future questionnaires. This is pertinent to the goal attainment model we are utilizing
for our evaluation. Focus groups are an isolated sample of a greater sample pool. From the focus
group we can expect to narrow the results to what is pertinent to our research. Examples of
questions for focus groups are: What are your current modes of recreation and leisure? Have you
ever ridden a horse? Do you think horses contribute to the recreation and leisure experience? If
no, explain why you feel this way. If you had one minute to convince a friend that horses are
beneficial to the experience, what would you say?
With the provided focus group feedback we will be able to design a specific
questionnaire in order to collect the required data. We will be utilizing the Likert scale and
closed ended questions in our surveys. The purpose of this is to guide the responses to more
accurately uncover our thesis. The Likert scale is intended to provide more information by
offering more leeway in responses subject to the yes/no questions. There will be roughly ten to
fifteen questions on the survey five of which will be open-ended and the remaining will
incorporate the Likert scale. The survey should take no more than seven minutes to complete.
Analysis Techniques
By utilizing the data collected from the focus groups we will be able to define the results
we intend to find with our questionnaires. The product of the two methods will then be examined

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to find parallel responses. For the qualitative data collection we will constantly compare terms,
feelings, and other consistent themes. The quantitative data will be analyzed by measuring
central tendencies and frequencies of the answers provided (Henderson & Baileschki, 2010, pg.
270-272). The intent is to mirror the data collected in the focus groups with the data retrieved
from the sample questionnaires in order to validate the need for resources to be allocated to
equine recreation and leisure activities.
Special Considerations
The special considerations for our research are minimal since we are not providing a
service, project, or initiative. Our findings will not affect the ways in which current facilities are
operated. Our research is specifically intended to prove the overarching need for, and benefits of,
horses in the recreation and leisure spectrum and also provide knowledge regarding the
contribution equine make to said spectrum. Our study does not require that we meet with any
organizations as a whole, nor do we need to consult management to conduct our evaluation.

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References
American Hippotherapy Association, Inc. (2010). What is hippotherapy? American
Hippotherapy.org. Retrieved from http://www.americanhippotherapyassociation.org/
American Museum of National History. (n.d.). The Nature of Horses. American Museum of
Natural History. Retrieved from http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/pastexhibitions/horse/the-nature-of-horses
Daniels, R. (2013). A brief history of roping from cowboys to the modern rodeo. Roping.com.
Retrieved from http://roping.com/a-brief-history-of-roping-from-cowboys-to-the-modernrodeo/
Dobat, A. S., Price, T. D., Kveiborg, J., Ilkjear, J., & Rowley-Conway, P. (2014). The four
horses of an Iron Age apocalypse: war-horses from the third-century weaponry sacrifice at
Illerup Aadal (Denmark). Antiquity, 88, pp 191-204. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00050304.
Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association, Inc. (2010). Welcome. Eagala.org.
Retrieved from http://www.eagala.org/
Free Rein Therapeutic Riding. (2014). The horse as medicine. Free Rein Therapeutic Riding.
Retrieved from http://freereinspokane.com/

Greenspan, J. (2012). The Last Major Cavalry Charge, 70 Years Ago. History. (A&E Television
Network, LLC). Retrieved from http://www.history.com/news/the-last-major-cavalrycharge-70-years-ago

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Jensen, K. (2009). 'Something beautiful.'. World War II, 24(4), 51-59. Retrieved from
https://ezproxy.library.ewu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=tru
e&db=a9h&AN=44411021&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Jones, B. V. (2010). Global veterinary medicine timeline. RCVS Knowledge with permission
from the Veterinary History Society. Retrieved from https://knowledge.rcvs.org.uk/heritageand-history/history-of-the-veterinary-profession/global-veterinary-medicine-timeline/
Kelekna, P., (2009). The Horse in Human History. New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 1
North American Riding for the Handicapped Association (NARHA). (2014). Path international.
PATH International. Retrieved from http://www.pathintl.org/
Royal College of Veterinarian Surgeons. (2010). History of the veterinary profession, RCVS
Knowledge. Retrieved from https://knowledge.rcvs.org.uk/heritage-and-history/history-ofthe-veterinary-profession/
United States Eventing Association. (2010). History of eventing. Discover Eventing.
Retrieved from http://www.discovereventing.com/?q=node/67
Van Weeren, P. R. and Crevier-Denoix, N. (2006). Equine conformation: clues to performance
and soundness?. Equine Veterinary Journal, 38: 591596. doi: 10.2746/042516406X159007
William Speed Weed, P. N. (2002, March). First to Ride. Discover Magazine. Retrieved from
http://discovermagazine.com/2002/mar/featride

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Table 1
RCLS 425 Resources
Phase 1 Proposal
Resources: Time, money, personnel

Item
Computer Time

Amount

Cost

16 hours

$0

3 hours of presenting/gathering

$0

Facilitator Time
information
Copies

150 pages

$7.50

Coffee (focus group)

10 coffees

$30

Survey Pencils

30-50 pencils

$0

Presentation Materials

1 Poster board, 2 Visual Aids

$5
Total

$42.50