Acids, bases, salts and reacting quantities

Acids
An acid dissociates to release hydrogen ions, H+(aq), into aqueous solution, along with a
negative ion which depends on the acid. Acids are either strong acids, in which case
every acid molecule splits up (dissociates) to produce hydrogen ions, or weak acids, in
which case only some of the acid molecules split up to produce hydrogen ions they are
partially dissociated.
Name
Hydrochloric acid
Nitric acid
Sulphuric acid
Phosphoric acid
Ethanoic acid

Dissociation
HCl H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
HNO3 H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
H2SO4 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
H3PO4 3H+(aq) + PO43-(aq)
CH3COOH CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)

Negative ion
Chloride, ClNitrate, NO3Sulphate, SO42Phosphate, PO43Ethanoate, CH3COO-

Notes
Strong acid, fully dissociated
Strong acid, fully dissociated
Strong acid, fully dissociated
Strong acid, fully dissociated
Weak acid, partially dissociated

The H+ ions are responsible for the characteristic reactions of acids in fact the negative
ions simply remain in solution before and after and play no part in the reactions we call
these spectator ions. Since an H+ ion is simply a proton, we call acids proton donors.
Bases
Bases accept the H+ ions from acids. We classify them as proton acceptors. Common
bases are metal oxides, metal carbonates, metal hydroxides and ammonia.
Bases which dissolve in water to release hydroxide ions, OH-, into solution are called
alkalis.
e.g. NaOH(s) + H2O(l) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
KOH(s) + H2O(l) K+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Ammonia solution is an alkali because the ammonia reacts with the water reversibly to
produce ammonium ions and hydroxide ions in solution:
NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
It is the hydroxide ions in solution which give alkalis their characteristic alkaline behaviour.
Neutralisation
When any acid is neutralised by any alkali, the H+ ions in the acid react with the OH- ions in
the alkali to form water:
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
Here the OH- ions are acting as bases, accepting the protons (H+ ions) to form water.
Proton acceptors and proton donors
Given the definitions of acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors it is possible
to see examples of acid/base reactions which are not in solution, e.g. the reaction between
hydrogen chloride and ammonia in the gaseous state:

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HCl(g) + NH3(g) NH4Cl(s)

Here the hydrogen chloride is donating a proton and acting as an acid, and the ammonia is
accepting the proton (using its lone pair) acting as a base to form ammonium ions.
Salts
Definition:

A salt is produced when the H+ ions of an acid are replaced by metal

ions, or ammonium ions (NH4+).

Salts are produced in the neutralisation reactions of acids with bases such as metal oxides,
metal carbonates, or alkalis:
i) neutralisation of acids by metal oxides
Metal oxides are typically insoluble. The observations expected would be:
The metal oxide dissolves/disappears
NO BUBBLING !
The reaction may be exothermic
General equation:
e.g.

acid + metal oxide salt + water

2HCl(aq) + MgO(s) MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

+1 -1

+2 -2

+2 -1
-1

+1 -2
+1

Adding the oxidation numbers, we can show that these are NOT redox reactions, as shown
above.
Writing the ionic equation:
Remember that in solution ions are not joined to each other but free to move around. For
the substances in solution (i.e. with (aq) state symbol) we can write the ions separately in the
equation:
2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + MgO(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)
The Cl- ions are spectator ions, there before and after the reaction having played no part.
We can therefore remove them from the equation to show just the species involved in the
reaction:
2H+(aq) + MgO(s) Mg2+(aq) + H2O(l)
This is the ionic equation, and has a subtly different meaning. The ionic equation shows
that ANY acid will react with magnesium oxide to produce magnesium ions in solution, and
water.
ii) neutralisation of acids by alkalis
Alkalis include metal hydroxides and ammonia solution (ammonium hydroxide, which we
can write as NH4OH(aq)).

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Observations:
Nothing visible, so an indicator/pH probe is used to when neutralization is complete
Reactions are exothermic
General equation:
e.g.

acid + alkali salt + water

HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

+1 +5 -2
-2
-2

+1 -2 +1

+1 +5 -2
-2
-2

+1 -2
+1

Adding oxidation numbers shows that these are NOT redox reactions.
Writing the ionic equation:
As before we can write the ions separately for anything which is in aqueous solution:
H+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + H2O(l)
In this case both the sodium ions and the nitrate ions are spectators, so we can remove
them from the equation to show just the species involved in the reaction:
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
The ionic equation we have put together in this case will be the same no matter which
acid or which alkali we use.
iii) neutralisation of acids by metal carbonates
General equation: acid + metal carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide
Observations:
Effervescence
The solid metal carbonate dissolves/disappears
e.g.

2 HCl(aq) + MgCO3(s) MgCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

+1 -1

+2 +4 -2
-2
-2

+2 -1
-1

+4 -2
-2

+1 -2
+1

These are NOT redox reactions, as adding the oxidation numbers to the equation shows.
Writing the ionic equation:
We write the ions separately for anything which is in aqueous solution. Most metal
carbonates are insoluble, but carbonates of Group 1 metals are soluble so can be
separated into ions too.
2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + MgCO3(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
The chloride ions are spectators, so the ionic equation becomes:
2H+(aq) + MgCO3(s) Mg2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

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showing that any acid reacts with a metal carbonate to produce metal ions in solution, plus
carbon dioxide and water.
Check your understanding
1.
Write balanced symbol equations for the reactions of:
i) phosphoric acid solution with potassium hydroxide solution
ii) solid zinc oxide (ZnO) with dilute hydrochloric acid
iii) ammonia solution with nitric acid solution
iv) solid copper(II) carbonate (CuCO3) with dilute sulphuric acid
2.

Write ionic equations for each of the reactions above

3.

Write a balanced symbol equation for the reaction between sodium carbonate
solution and ethanoic acid solution, and hence show that the ionic equation is
2H+(aq) + CO32-(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Acids and Metals

Salts are also produced in the reaction between acids and many of the metals in the sblock (e.g. magnesium), the p-block (e.g. aluminium) and the d-block (e.g. iron).
Observations:
Effervescence
Solid metal dissolves/disappears
Exothermic
General equation: acid + metal salt + hydrogen
e.g. Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
0

+1 +6 (-2x4)

oxidation

+2 +6 (-2x4)

reduction

These ARE REDOX reactions. The metal is oxidised from 0 to a positive oxidation number
corresponding to the charge on the metal ion, while the hydrogen ions are reduced from +1
to 0.

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Quantitative Chemistry
Having explored the reactions of acids, we can use them as the basis for studying how to
calculate amounts of reactants used and products made, and the experimental procedures
required when measuring quantities accurately.
Solutions, and making standard solutions
We measure the concentration of a solution in moles per dm3 (mol dm-3). The old term
Molar is sometimes seen on solutions a 1 Molar solution (1M) contains 1 mole of solute
per dm3 of solvent.
We can write this as:

Conversely:

Concentration (mol dm-3) = moles / volume (in dm3)

(remember that 1 dm3 = 1000 dm3= 1 litre)
Moles = concentration (mol dm-3) x volume (in dm3)
(common mistake, forgetting to convert cm3 to dm3)

Application
How many moles of HCl in 100cm3 of 0.2 mol dm-3 HCl?
moles = 0.2 x (100/1000)
= 0.02 mol
What is the concentration of a solution containing 0.3 mol NaOH in 500cm3 of the solution?
Conc = moles / volume = 0.3 / 0.5
= 0.6 mol dm-3
What is the concentration of a solution containing 5.61g potassium hydroxide in 100cm 3 of
the solution?
First convert mass to moles of KOH
Mr = 56.1 Moles = 5.61/56.1 = 0.100
Conc = moles / vol = 0.100 / 0.100 = 1.00 mol dm-3
Calculate the mass of NaOH required to produce 250cm3 of 0.100M solution?
First work out moles in the solution
moles = conc x vol
= 0.100 x 0.250 = 0.0250 moles
Now work out mass of NaCl required
Mr NaOH = 40.1
mass = moles x Mr
= 0.0250 x 40.1 = 1.00g (to 3sf)
Check your understanding
4.
Calculate the number of moles of:
i)
Sodium hydroxide in 25 cm3 of 1.5 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution
ii)
Nitric acid in 10 cm3 of 3.0 mol dm-3 nitric acid
Calculate the mass of:
iii)
Hydrogen chloride in 500 cm3 of 2 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid
iv)
Ammonia in 20 cm3 of a solution of 8M ammonia
Calculate the concentration in mol dm-3 of:
v)
A solution made by dissolving 2.92g of KOH in 400cm3 of solution

Page 5

Making a Standard Solution

A standard solution is one that has a precisely known concentration. Making a standard
solution involves dissolving a precisely-known mass of solute in a precisely-known volume
of pure water.
The procedure to make 250cm3 of a standard solution is:
1. Weigh out the required mass of solute using a balance with sufficient decimal places.
2. Transfer the solid to a beaker, washing any residual solid into the beaker with distilled
water.
3. Add sufficient distilled water to dissolve the solid, but less than 250cm 3, and stir with a
glass rod to help the solid dissolve.
4. Once the solid has dissolved, transfer the solution using a funnel into a 250cm 3
volumetric flask.
5. Wash the remaining solution from the beaker into the volumetric flask with a little
distilled water, and rinse the glass rod and funnel into the volumetric flask with distilled
water, ensuring that the total volume of the solution still does not exceed 250cm 3.
6. Use a pipette to bring the volume of the solution in the volumetric flask up to the
graduated mark, so that the bottom of the meniscus is on the mark.
7. Stopper the volumetric flask and invert a few times to thoroughly mix the solution.
N.B.

A volumetric flask is a precision piece of glassware and must never be heated.

Amount of substance
When carrying out reactions, we do all our calculations in moles. Moles are used to
measure amount of substance, and we need to understand that the numbers in front of
formulae in balanced equations (the stoichiometry) are numbers of moles.
Using masses
Solids are measured out by mass. Sometimes masses of pure liquids may be measured
out. Masses of gases are occasionally used. In all cases we convert to/from moles using:
moles = mass / Mr

and

mass = moles x Mr

Using volume and concentration

This is used for solutions only:
moles = concentration x volume (in dm3)

volume (dm3) = moles / conc.

Using volume and density

For pure liquids, the density of the liquid (units grams per cm3) is used to allow us to
measure out amounts by volume. We need to ensure the volume of liquid is measured in
the same units as the density cm3 is most convenient.
Mass = volume (in cm3) x density, therefore

moles = volume x density

Mr

and volume (cm3) = moles x Mr

density

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Using gaseous volumes

It is not very convenient to measure the mass of gases. We normally measure the amount
of a gas by volume.
Avagadros Law:

Equal volumes of all gases, measured at the same temperature and

pressure contain the same number of molecules (and hence moles).
If we know the molar gas volume at the temperature and pressure we are using, the we
can use the relationships:
moles = volume (in dm3)
molar gas volume

and volume (dm3) = moles x molar gas volume

At room temperature and pressure (denoted r.t.p.) the volume of one mole of any gas is
taken to be 24.0 dm3 (which is 24,000 cm3).
Under other conditions we need to make use of the ideal gas equation. This states that
pV = nRT

where p = pressure in Pascals

[kPa to Pa: x 103]
3
V = volume of gas in m
[cm3 to m3: x 106]
n = moles of gas
R = a constant: value is always 8.314 Jmol-1K-1
T = temperature in Kelvin [C to K: + 273]

Application
i.
What mass of magnesium would be required for 0.200 moles?
ii.
What volume of 2.00 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid would be required for 0.200 moles?
iii.
What volume of water with density 1.00 gcm-3 would be required for 0.200 moles?
iv.
What volume of hydrogen gas at r.t.p. would be required for 0.200 moles?
v.
What volume of hydrogen at -50.0C & 300kPa would be required for 0.200 moles?
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

mass = moles x Mr = 0.200 x 24.3

= 4.86 g of Mg
vol (dm3) = moles / conc. = 0.200/2.00
= 0.100 dm3 (100cm3)
vol (cm3) = (moles x Mr) / density = (0.200 x 18)/1.00 = 3.60 cm3
vol (dm3) = moles x molar gas volume = 0.200 x 24.0 = 4.80 dm3
pV = nRT so V(in m3) = nRT/p
= 0.200 x 8.314 x 223) / 300,000
= 1.24x10-3 m3
= 1.24dm3

Reacting Quantity Calculations

Since we can convert various measured quantities into moles of substance, we can use
balanced chemical equations to work out how many moles of other substances would react
or be produced, using the mole ratios of the balanced equation. We can then convert these
amounts in moles to mass, volume etc. as required.
It is important to understand the idea of being in excess. When one reactant is completely
used up, the reaction must stop even though there may be more of the other reactants
remaining. These are said to be in excess, and it will be necessary to use the moles of the

Page 7

reactant which is not in excess and balanced equation to work out how much of the
reactants that are in excess actually reacted, and how much remains when the reaction is
complete.
Application
10.0g of iron is warmed gently with 150cm3 of 1.00 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid, reacting
according to the equation: Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)

Calculate the volume of H2 produced at r.t.p. [molar gas volume = 24.0 dm3 mol-1]
What would you observe during this reaction?
Calculate the concentration of the resulting iron(II) sulphate solution
Suggest how a sample of hydrated iron(II) sulphate crystals could be obtained
Calculate the maximum mass of iron(II) sulphate, FeSO4.7H2O that could be
obtained

i)

moles Fe (Ar = 55.8) = 10.0 / 55.8 = 0.179 mol

moles H2SO4 = 1.00 x 0.150 = 0.150 mol
1:1 mole ratio, so Fe is in excess, and only 0.150 mol of the Fe will react
0.150 mol of H2 will be produced (1:1 mol ratio)
vol of H2 = 0.150 x 24.0 = 3.60 dm3

ii)

fizzing/bubbles/effervescence; some of the iron dissolves/disappears but not all;

(pale green solution formed)

iii)

1:1 mol ratio, so 0.150 mol of FeSO4 will be made, and will be dissolved in the
150cm3 volume of the solution. Conc = 0.150/0.150 = 1.00 mol dm -3

iv)

Filter to remove the remaining unreacted iron (1.63g of it will remain)

Heat the solution in an evaporating dish to remove some of the water
Allow to cool and crystals to form
Filter to remove the crystals from the remaining solution
Dry the crystals (warm oven, or between filter paper)

v)

Mr of FeSO4.7H2O is 277.9

mass of crystals = 0.150 x 277.9

= 41.7g

Check your understanding

5.
Calculate the mass of lithium required when reacting with excess HCl to produce
10.0dm3 of hydrogen gas at r.t.p.
6.

6.54g of a metal M reacts fully with excess nitric acid producing 2.40 dm3 of
hydrogen at r.t.p. Calculate the Ar of the metal, and hence identify the metal. The
equation for the reaction is M(s) + 2HNO3(aq) M(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)

7.

Magnesium oxide (MgO) was added to 10.0cm3 of 0.500 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid and
the solution warmed until no more magnesium oxide reacted. The remaining
unreacted magnesium oxide was filtered off, and the colourless solution obtained

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was allowed to crystallize. What is the maximum mass of magnesium sulphate,

MgSO4.7H2O, that could be obtained by this method?
Titrations
Titrations are one of the more common examples of reacting quantities calculations
involving concentrations. A known volume of an acid or alkali with unknown concentration
is exactly neutralised using a standard solution of an alkali or acid, using an indicator to see
when neutralisation has been achieved. Titration can be very accurate and precise if a
suitable procedure is followed to minimise sources of error.
It is normal practice to perform sufficient repeat titrations to obtain concordant results: two
results within 0.1cm3 of each other. A mean of these two results is then calculated as the
average titre, which is used in calculations.
Application
A solution of HCl of unknown concentration was titrated against 25.0cm3 of KOH solution of
concentration 0.500 mol dm-3. The average titre at the endpoint was 18.50cm3. Calculate
the concentration of the acid.
Firstly we need the equation for the reaction: HCl + KOH KCl + H2O
Moles of KOH = conc of KOH x vol of KOH (in dm3) = 0.500 x (0.0250) = 0.0125 mol
Moles of HCl = 0.0125 mol (1:1 mole ratio)
Conc of HCl = moles of HCl / vol of HCl (in dm3) = 0.0125 / 0.0185
= 0.676 mol dm-3 (to 3 sf)
Check your understanding:
8.
10.0cm3 of a solution of sodium hydroxide was neutralized by 12.5cm 3 of 0.100M
HCl. Calculate the concentration in mol dm-3 of the alkali.
9.

25.0cm3 of a 0.0500M solution of sodium hydroxide was titrated against sulphuric

acid of unknown concentration. The average titre at the endpoint was 21.00cm3 of
sulphuric acid. Calculate the concentration of the acid.

Page 9

Answers to 'Check your understanding' questions:

iv)

H3PO4(aq) + 3 KOH(aq) K3PO4(aq) + 3 H2O(l)

ZnO(s) + 2 HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
NH4OH(aq) + HNO3(aq) NH4NO3(aq) + H2O(l)
or NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) NH4NO3(aq)
CuCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

2.

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)

ZnO(s) + 2H+ (aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2O(l)
NH3(aq) + H+(aq) NH4+(aq) or
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
CuCO3(s) + 2 H+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

3.

Na2CO3(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) 2CH3COONa(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

1.

i)
ii)
iii)

2Na+(aq) + CO32-(aq) + 2CH3COO-(aq) + 2H+(aq) 2CH3COO-(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

so CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)

4.

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)

moles of NaOH = conc x vol (in dm3) = 1.5 x (25/1000)

moles of HNO3 = conc x vol(in dm3) = 3.0 x (10/1000)
moles of HCl = conc x vol = 2 x (500/1000)
mass of HCl = moles x Mr = 1 x 36.5
moles of NH3 = conc x vol = 8 x (20/1000)
mass of NH3 = moles x RFM = 0.16 x 17
moles of KOH = mass / RFM = 2.92 / (39.1 + 16 + 1)
conc = moles / vol = 0.052 / (400/1000)

= 0.0375 moles
= 0.03 moles
= 1 mole
= 36.5g
= 0.16 moles
= 2.72g
= 0.052 moles
= 0.13 mol dm-3

5.

The balanced equation is 2Li + 2HCl 2LiCl + H2

Moles of H2 = volume of H2 / molar gas volume = 10 / 24.0 = 0.4166r
Moles of Li = 2 x 0.4166r = 0.833r (2:1 mole ratio)
Mass of Li = moles of Li x Ar = 0.833r x 6.9 = 5.75g

6.

Moles of H2 = volume of H2 / molar volume = 2.4 / 24.0 = 0.1 moles

Moles of M = 0.1 since 1:1 molar ratio in equation
Ar = mass of M / moles of M = 6.54/0.1 = 65.4
The metal M has relative atomic mass 65.4 and is therefore zinc.

7.

MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Mr of MgSO4.7H2O = 246.4
Moles H2SO4 = conc x volume (in dm3 ) = 0.5 x (10/1000) = 0.005 mol
1:1 mole ratio so 0.005 mol of magnesium sulphate formed
Mass of MgSO4.7H2O = moles x Mr = 0.005 x 246.4 = 1.232g

8.

Equation is: NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O

Moles of HCl = conc of HCl x vol of HCl (in dm3) = 0.1 x (0.0125) = 0.00125
Moles of NaOH = 0.00125 (1:1 mole ratio:)
Conc of NaOH = moles of NaOH / vol of NaOH (in dm3) = 0.00125 / 0.0100
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= 0.125 mol dm-3

9.

Equation is: H2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2H2O

Moles of NaOH = conc of NaOH x vol of NaOH (in dm3)

= 0.050 x 0.0250
= 0.00125

Moles of H2SO4 = 0.00125 / 2 = 0.000625 (1:2 mole ratio)

Conc of H2SO4 = moles of H2SO4 / volume of H2SO4 (in dm3) = 0.000625 / 0.02100
= 0.0298 mol dm-3

Page 11