THE VIKINGS RECREATED IN COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHS Nurmann, Schulze & Verhiilsdonk 4europa | iciTaRia SPECIAL 6 THE VIKINGS RECREATED IN COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHS BRITTA NURMANN, CARL SCHULZE & TORSTEN VERHULSDONK ©] aH THE CROWOOD PRESS1997 Carle Schule & Torsten Verhionk "ip by The Cowon Ps id Designed by Tony SWEkSTS Graphics Printed by Graieas Revnidas SA, Madd All rights reserved. No pat ofthis publication may be reproduced or transmited {any Torm orby any means eleceonic or ‘mechanical, incloding photocopy, recoding, ‘rin any information storage and eteval stem, without the peor writen permission ofthe publishes ACCP catalogue record for tis book is avaiable from the British Library Authors’ acknowledgements ‘We would like to record out prattue to al the re-enactots and living history societies Who Supported ws, by word and deed. during the preparation ofthis book. ad al those who Kenly stood sll whe we tok ot pictues. ‘We cannot name these many individuals here, but they know who they are, Special thanks are due to Frank Wiedemann, who provided us ‘ith ackground material and answered many ‘questions: to Miss Melanie Dons Ter supplying ‘ational photographic material; and to Simone and for Lawton of sen ef Tie ratte 18 Anne Clove, Brightlingsea, Essex LOT OLS, UK. makers of early medieval oquipment for museums and re-enactment ‘wo Kindly let us reproduce some of thir achive pictures, CONTENTS: Pretace Introduction Chronology “The Common Warrior Ealged Weapons “The Viking Hersir Armour & Helmets “The Varangian Guard Bows & Bowmen Rus: The Vikings inthe East, Viking Bate Tactics ‘Viking Mercenaries Ships & Seafaring Clothing & Jewellery ‘The Viking Woman Daily Lite Traders & Craftsmen Rumestones| The Normans Norman CavalryPreface 1a do we know aetally know about the Vikings? W T bsivcen Shane 11h comune ey lied throughout Europe, to parts of North America and to the Mile East astride, warriors and colonists. Thy were feared as enemies y every people they encountered. Yer we have much les reliable inform toe aout ths group of Scandinavian peoples than we do tbout nore atciont cules sich a Imperial Row Eventing known to modern man about the Vikings is Iced om throe types of souces”actacologal finds seritendesriptons which as rule were not recorded By the Vikings themecives; and the Nowdic saga ~ onginally ‘oral ditions, usually weten dose fre frst time inthe Tho 1th sentris From sich major excavations as Haithabo, Moosgard, Birk, Roslda, Lindholm Hoeje, Gokstid, SkaldleYook and Ojernundu we have abupdaet material vmaias ‘hich, when compared withthe writen evidence, cst ight ‘on many aspects orViking culture, but which equally pose ‘ow quesios. Mistaken iterpreatios, and glories. ‘on a some specifi aspacs ofthe Viking ea, have planted inthe public mind an unbalanced picture ofthese peoples ‘hic ail odo them jostce Tn this book we ty to introduce readers to Viking cultre by means of photographs taken al enactment displays mounted by Viking "ving history” sects 1 crete a more inmate and human impression than they may gin from “dex archaeological finds, We hope to corel a leas 9 some extent, the most ingrained a th mistaken ideas about these vigorous, creative peoples. and to give readers some insight ino tbe period of European istry then the Scandinavian nations were dominant “These re-enators go to considerable pins o achieve igh levels of authenticity, taking into account all sources. of information. The hobby of "ving history” des ot simply tmean the eat reconstruction of Kaan archasloga finds, bt toes to bring a whole era Back to life, Each te factor erates a charater,uking into scout al alae Knowledge. and relevant finds; e or she reconsiicts slothing and equipment hich may not have bee found by Srchacologist sn easly ht Form, but Which ae typi For the period. Old cats have bounfeived (especial Whore ‘ecorative elements are concerned). an new pieces have been made in styles which have been dead for many ‘Ths #5 a challenging ask. For insance, the problems begin with the difficulty of obtaining the comet Iypes of Fabre for mang cling this most be autheneally spun invo yam, dyed, and woven ino cath, Resenactors often seek to work a closely a8 possible with museums and ‘chacolognts but this 6 Hot easy ~ Hing history emus ‘sts are rarely granted access to then which gather dust inthe reserve collections of scholely insta “Alhough necessary for uilding iterent snd acceptance of the bobby, the public shows a which o-enator crste fthentic Mfe present their own problems. Whee 2 early perfect impression of, sy, craftsman might be Possible fenowgh rouble wee take, convincing pes on of Viking age skirmish will lays fil esas othe (Above) Frm the 8 1 the ah cet all Europe tem Scorover wh ist avagsd lage resin stent, Yer ‘heVikings werent mete a ine ofexpling nroducive tomcat “Toay European retains lve again tse public performances a ony ese Inge Viking arr bt so ofeig an ins to frye, a ad ade, tote these tiled teafrrs of hein were Sho explores te ad ots hing ew homes necessary safety precautions. There are aso few ron Strutions ot Viki age ships, for obvious reasons of cost, Aad ogists Despite these problems the Viking reenactment move: seat pts on numerous events all ever Northern Eweope very Sear, and sucecds in casting it spell over howsans fofspectatrs, These are not merely lighthearted costumed pageants: they play an important part im comeing fstaken bistoricalsmprsstns, putculaaly” amon the Young, and sometimes 1 even happens thatthe recreation “and protcal use of piees of period equipment can answer ‘estions forthe histoans "The authors wish good luck to all he re-nactrs whom swe met during the assembly of masa fr this Book: we made many fiends among them. We also hope thatthe Tuture may bring improved co-peration beeen ving Tistory reenscors and histodans sad archaoalogsts, who ‘have seat dal o offer one anubersn their mutual serch, forknowledesIntroduction thing ke riding or prac) and viking? meant 3 rider Thasgh tay this word i Used 36 genoa torn Toe the Nontie peoples ofthe ht I Ith centri, wae wed ttoce arly i the erly thedieval pend ‘Thet allow Europeans sed to speak rather of"Norsemen” mea fom Normandy was founded by Scandinavian colonists) The povples of eastern Europe Sa the Balas used he Certs Rae” and "Vanuagane forthe Norse invades, tars, lois and mercenaries ‘Why dd these Scandinavian peoples leave their homes from the late century onwards, to plunder the cos fi itr estuaries of Europe, and eventually to ste far foway as many din England, Ireland, France and Rusia? The mae reson ators to have been overppul thom, leading fo. severe shortage of land capable of Sostining thei farming communities. Even io the vallays ‘ofthese often mountainous and forested region thes tras ot paruulaly fete. This ered ofhardsip aod Want coibeded wits Scandinavian masey of seta ‘hip outlasing that ofall ether European nations: <0 i Wis inevtuble that many Sought to improve elt by ‘aiding he icher Chistian lands tothe South, 'A st hese were smmer raid, hetween sedtime and aves, sporadic snd Hated is,” Laer spending word of their success increased thet numbers, and Frequency ax raiders bore home silver, slave, fam sock, td every ater Kindo booty In eter to dominate the I the old Norse tongue the word viking meant some targeted areas more thoroughly they wok 10 wining there in stockaded coastal cape. Liter ill many were tracted bythe fertile and il-guarded lands they raided they began to fetch over hse families and goods to ste pormancnly. Norwopians aad Danes sought ev lands Soar the North Sex and the North Adan the Swede wandered down the rest river info the huge. Slavic ‘ilderess of today’s Russia "the sh Is were grey influenced by dhe Vikings. ‘Only 72 years passed batweun te fist receded aid 8 Lindisfarne by Norwegian Vikings in 798, andthe founding ofthe Danelaw an sea of pertanent Viking fetment which cluded moet of the northern and ‘islrn third of England. Although the Anglo-Saxons ‘conquered the Dantlaw under King Edward the Elder ia the years wp to 924, Viking setts sl ome to England Fr example it took the Suxont another 30 yee to ke bck York. resonqueed by King Eared only in 988. In Teland, to, though the Vikings were defeated in 902, ‘many oftly' is cies are Viking foundations ‘By the mid 1th entry, both sn England and Wold many of he longstted Vikings had converted fom tie gan sion to Christanty and asthe centres pasted {hey merged the blood, so remaans of he lnguage, ‘ith the erie inant. Tn today’s Rusia, and the Carolingian Empire which then embraced much of France, the Low Counties and western ‘Germany, the Viking ster also mined withthe origin populations. ‘Vikings who had conver to Christianity their new omelinds retumed to Scandinavia with cssonares ‘These offen began ther effort to convert the population by concentrating on the Ical kings = and offen they ‘occa, Some of theatres aa ie icy sapersuading their peoples to convert to the new faith in {heir tur: others ted too abruptly and forcibly. (Oar ‘Tryggvason’ brutal missionary campaign in bis Kingdom of Nomway cost him his life at the Bale of Sold, where his Meet was defeated by an aliance of followers othe old ods) Unlike Denmark and parts of todays southem Sweden, which formed a Kingdom early inthe Sit century. Norway ‘eas forty united by Harald Finehait and Wi called Kingdom only trom 900 awards. Vikings who ted Holds oi seid in estan, and formed a damocracy under the so-called alling, «gathering of all free me. (Cout the Great ("Canute") who followed is father Sein Forkbeard on the throne of Norway in TOL, was king of England, Norway and Denmark Coin fds sho that the ‘Swed people may alas have regarded ths mightiest of the Viking bings as leader: but his kingdom broke wp soon ‘fer bi death in 1035, Their wi, shallow-deaught ships allowed the Vikings to cover long distances both on the high seas and up isjor Fers. "AS the nivgational skilsof the Seandinavian “afarers wore superior to those of te comtempares they often appeared without warning, mounting spice lttks staight from the edge ofthe Water. Vikings sailed whole lets up all the major vers of Europe: amo the ‘ites they plundered were Pars, Aachen, Mainz, Tier and Cologne ‘Thousands ofmiles 1 the south and east, fees of Norse ‘marauders tertorised the coasts ofthe Mediterranean. the Black Seo, even the Caspian Viking traders reached Byzantium ~ the "Great Cit" on the coast of modern “Tskey, whic had inerted toch of the power of ruined Rome by way ofthe mighty rivers through Russia, often (ar fet) Apar ro pan king the et of Ere, Vikings eel aed cach sie from aad on eh Touring village tthe sever Das Stagle fora cen atest nyse ‘trea te ew Chistian ‘lish ae lo free (ett) Ate Carag td Norman cours othe ‘Sey medieval period faleny was x Gomon osu, nd mec ste {hat te Vikings Anew Sie ost Sexdiavane 2 day stag oie frobaby no widespread efor the me pospeons (Atbre) Beis the hngstip and the Danish ae the ood shed td telekan syet ft ‘Vikings ahh 0 wed by ney every European ‘ess Thi Viking igh be coy Say ete pty Sexndinvian ding fet ding Jon Europe In for example, te Vikings cl encemped ‘nthe sland of eto ne {ears owing that te ‘he Seine cod ot each 1 and ened Paeaguing their ships over porages between one sver and nother In time many Vikings cnfisted to carve the Fyrantin emperors ts mersenares. and this Varangan Gand gained site reputition throvghout Europe and the Nea East. "Viking setlent aso sesutad in the founding ofthe dtchy of Normandy, when in 11 the West Frankish king ‘sve lan o 4 Viking army Ted by Roll "the Ganger™ The Franks Tater tied more shan ‘once to drve oot the [Norsemen bu hey and their descendants quickly became too powerful to he brought wo hel by the Peach tone ‘The Normans in their tr erosed the Channel to defeat the Anglo-Saxons in’ 1066, and their Dake Willy the Basia wor the tile of King Willan T of Eland, “he Conroe" But even this grim soldier-monarch was not Immine to atack: in 1067 Witham, the descendant of Viking who hid taken land instead of dane geld praection money), had 10 poy danegeld himself wo King, Svein Estdson ‘of Denmark. This was, howeve, the Tas ‘coef stmt to plunder England “Tins Normans, ne of the harder snd most voracious peoples in Europe history. epeead ther baronies to many ‘ommers ofthe continent, The conversion of Seatinavia ‘Christianity diminished the stvites ofthe Viking rts, slave traders and raiders. Europe now looked east to the Holy Land: and the years 10969 saw the Fist Crisade, ‘with soldiers from Denmark, Norway and Sweden fighting tinder the banner ofthe Cross slongsile those of thet European ations (Lett) Contrary te today tat ey ge wipe ‘iene ese ‘ocky Regi Anglo, robs represen re Typ appearance The Bie Fy er being he sis for parle wha srchcsogits {tn dtuce rom Vikng ani (Are) The woth appear oniningly soggt the ‘came retin oe Enrpe fn the ely Mile Aga The Sendiavian Feapls refered themes Norweians ete ing ‘ing aboad = eer tan op{abore common ght ll per Esp den th i Mile Ages the ship secneamebesh Lind tee Vine ni ey risterpenns) oe ‘vi ii his sin ‘hak andhomedhetnee ieping rom hi dogo stip ‘Snow known te ac eight a sing thn rider = inde Plunderes ofc area ome ne asa on hearng {ales trp aod wk waders. i,k myo por to Dre somber Be spear wih rpc a sition19 192 os ns 9 800-900 Chronology Fist known Viking landing in England: ‘offical sent by Anglo-Saxon King Beotvic to question small landing party is Killed Anglo-Soxon King Offa starts to organize the setence of Kent against Viking, [Norweian Vikings destoy island monastery ‘fLindistame off NE English coat i fist. recorded rid Vikings raid Rati island and Ish mainland ‘Viking ais the mouth of the Laie, France. Viking ras throughout century lead t0 estuctiont all Ango-Ssxon kingdoms except Wessex.) (806868 Swodsh Vikings under Ruik sete around 10 [Lae Ladoga, N Russia, and tke over Novgorod.) King Gottk of Denmark destuys Stav tending contre at Reic and meves traders his nearby new foundation, aithabu, Danish Vikings stack Carolingian province of Fiesia Norwegian Vikings, by now established inthe islands off N Seotand ai deep into Ie ‘Continaous Viking rads coasts of southern England and of France) ‘Annual suds on Dorestad in Fis. King Egert of Wessex defeats Danish Vikings, bt ether landings rage Isle of Sheppey in “Thames estuary ‘Vikings spend Winter in Ireland for frst ime ‘Viking fort established on bunks ofthe Liey ‘on ste of modern Dublin: Vikings oot Rowen, France. ‘Vikings plunder Queatvie,Pance: sail up Loi, atack Nass, and winter in Feance for fis time ‘Viking ships sil up tbe Garonne, France; and also take Seville, Spain, but driven out {mmodiatly by Moces. B48 120. Danish ships sil up Seine, tack Pass: 0-851 as rankish King Charles the Bald buys their retreat for 7.000 pounds of sve =the fst ddanegld of 13 payments by 926. Hamburg (Germany, destroyed by Vikings. ‘Viking amy wisters in England for Get, st Thanet; defeated by King Ethelwul of ‘esses, which becomes heart of Anglo-Saxon ‘Swedish Vikings demand danegeld trom 855/856 887 159-862 65 860867 a70 s70.930 a sm 78 8.985 S788 wo 992-896 900 citizens of Novgorod Vikings winter on Isle of Sheppey. Thames estuary. Danes oot Pars, ‘Swedish Vikings found Kiey, ‘Viking et loots cies on Mediterranean ‘Vikings attack Byzantium without succes [Norwegian Vikings discover Ieland. Cologne, Germany, tote by Vikings Viking rad on Xantea, Germany. Danish “Great Army" lands in England in such of permanent conquest, ad by 870 has conquored large ares i north and east - "the Dane Kent pays fest danegld Salomon, Duke of Britany defeats Franks at Brisathe with aid of Viking morenare. Harald Fiehaie unites Norway and becomes sole king; King Edmund of East Anglin Aetesed and Killed by Danes. ‘Settement of sland Danish Vikings defeated by Anglo-Saxons nde Ett 1 and Alfed of Wessex at ‘Ashdown, Sea battle of Hato between Harald Finer and a union of month and west Norwegian leaders; Danes take Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia. Afterealy setback, Alfeed of Wesox defeats Danes under Guthrum at Edington, ‘Viking eds on Aachen, Worms, Motz, Bonn and Cologne tes the Wise unites Novgorod and Kiev ‘Viking raid co Tie Danish attacks in Ken repulsed by Alfred, who retakes London: Danes forced to accept Peace of Wedmore, fixing southern border af the Danlaw; Alfred the Great becomes king ‘of Saxon England, Paris bsioge for 11 months by 40,00 Vikings, 700 sips Vikings pad to fight Burgundian reels by Frankish King Charles the Fa Viking army defeated by East Franks in Relginn, King Aified defeats Danish "Great Anny’ from Europe and forces survivors to fleet Dane of France: Saxon successes against Viking ships in ea fils Danes and Orkatian Norwegians under Rolso the Ganger aid and ater sete between the Loire and Seine, France Trish cive the Norwegians out of Dublin. 907 Oleg. lens letdown Dniepe to Black So, s10912 ou ou si7919 ou 937 950 om ‘lashes wth Byzantine Fores, ‘Vikings sil the Caspian Sea as pirates, otf the Gangeraramed Normandy a8 feof Frankish King Charles the Simple. Testy ‘tween Byzantium andthe Rus is the fst writen eference te Viking mercenaries i the Byzantine army ~ by 988 the numberof tase "Waranians" would increase t0 © 6,8, Rolfof Normandy takes name Rollo oo conversion to Chsaniy ‘Norwegians recapture Dublin; Vikings fom Irland capture Danish conte of York Savon King Edward the Elder reconguers such ofthe Danclaw after 20-year ‘ampaig, ‘Gena King Henry the Fowlor defeats Danish King Chauba at Hiab Rate of Brunanbuch - Olaf Gushfithsson leads Vikings fom Ilan and Norwegian pats ofthe Dane to defeat in 8 days Tiphing spans Saxons and Viking rmereemrie under King Athestan, ‘York remains temporarily an independent Viking kingdom. King Haakon the Good testo conver Nowa to Chistanty Ealeed dives Eric Bloodaxe, last Viking ing. ou oVoek England once again under Anglo-Saxon rule ‘ald Bluetooth becomes king of Denmark. Harald Bietooh re-estabishes Danish control over Norway: embraces Cristiani ‘an hetattercoavers Denmark ‘German Emperor Oto TT captures the anewer, fortification on the Frankish Danish border, Harald Bletooth reconguers (980-1014 Renewed Viking raids on England: King 6982-985 [ered I "ie Advised” suters epested efets despite massive danegeld payments ‘91, he mounts srocious massacre of Englisk-bom Danes) Bate of Tar - strbaued Norwegians eteated by Ish, and thereafter have 1 pay tribute, i the Red explores Gretna in 6985, he Teadscolonisng expedition of ome 995.1000 1000 1013 wos roisi016 1028 135-1083, (1047-1066 s0s7.1074 1030 1066 1067 107 108s 25 ships. Bjari Herolsson fas make landfall in Gresaland and reaches North “America instead Bate of Maldon Wessex troops under Ealdorman Byhrtoth defeated by Viking amy under Ol Tryggvason and Thorkst the Grew tae Tyggvaston reigns asking of Norway vail detested and Killa in ea bate of Svoldr by Danes and Swedes Follosng Bjarni Holsson’ tales, Leif Ericson and his brother Thorwals explore ‘Vinland” on NE American coast Danish King Svein Forkbeard recognised bythe Danelaw. lsh under King Bean Boru daft ‘Norwegian Vikings at decisive hate of ‘Clonar. Cau the Great, son of Svein Forkeard, defeat il the nobility of England at battle of Ashingdn, 1016, sablishes shrclived Anglo-Nondic Kingdom, (tat Haralson (S1.Olat) wins tone of Nowa (la Haraksson diven cut of Norway, std Auld 1030 at bate of Sts Aer death of Cout the Great, Hardacaut (4035-1042) tscomes king of England & DDenmask and Magnus the Good (1038-1047) king of Norway. 1082 ‘Magnus euntes Denmark nd Norway: 1045, defeats Slavs at Hasina. Hzald Sigurdsson "Hardrada cians 2s sing oF Noeway: Svein sdson reigns a6 king of Denmark) Harald Hardrada destroys Hatha, Harald Hardrids invades N England: defeated an killed by Saxon King Hold Godwinson at Stanford Hedge, 25 September. William of Normandy leads ‘Simultaneous Nortan iavison ' England: Sixon army force-marches South, but King Harold is defeated nd Killed at Hastings, 14 October. ‘Svein Eston raids England, Wiliam the Conqueror pays dance leelander Golred Corvan raids Isle of Man, then subject 10 Dublin Vikings, and esublishes Norwegian rl Final Viking raid on England by Danish King Cout fiThe Common Warrior nly & minority ofthe Viking warriors who formed the eat raiding parties oF the Iaararmies were wealthy enough to have expensive weapons or armour ‘The bulk ofthese forces consisted of socalled karl, probably armed nly with spear or axe anda Shield” ‘These Were Tree men, pethaps owning. ile farming Hand, "wh athe right to carry ‘eapons. ‘These men Would volute teorto joining plundering expedi- tion mounted by a wealthier local hers oe a noble Jarl of, later a rajor undertaking tad By a Kg there. wore al bond by various Kinds of alle- fhnce to a hers. To these pes nts, originally very. poor. a Sccessful aiding party cotld mean real wealth; afterdeducting a major Share for the shipowner and perhaps ethers Tor some privileged members ofthe party. any Toot ws vided equally among the cre “The individual was responsible for providing his ‘ssn equipment. nd this would rarely ‘ve included anything that was not available on his own farm. Archacologists assume that every warrior going on an expedition caried his personal belongings ins wooden ches, ‘which served him a a rowing bench Shard ship. While he was vay see would he ani is Sead with any dependent male ‘aves and ses 1 dove daly work and defend the land. and Sock ft) Mes Viigs wok! ony hss been homeo, soc ava te ora few ofits ten made up foray nl ok ofepent, howe Te Ttiags have also een ound. A cea os far wbe eth han xa rsag The 0s. Heo ‘pel or Viking oft ‘so presumably adopted i frome Sars: fe ae have tee found among Sarl go in Sava ‘el eerethe axes he ‘The hfe as ptred ete me other an fsird-ourcommon murior (ph) Norma a poor Sari wok ot sos, er ur sj wears ur faloving acoso fs tiie uti wth Tete tales Ke ih ke waging’ prot hin fom ‘Sid md tore. (et An ye tunic and wos athe complete ser ‘aed wih caving oun is pesk e Wears comb ad Some Simple atEdged Weapons Hie devastating victories which the Vikings won all over Europe seem out of proportion ith thee rather simple arsenal = eis not aay significant superiority in weapons that we shoud Took forthe secrets oftheir success The Warrior's equipment was virtually the same right across Europe in the Th-1lth centuries, and between ny two Fegions weapons sally differed ony in tals of design and. quality Chovgh some areas sm 0 Stow evidence of traditional attachment tone weapon or another). Viking Weapons were fanly Simple, snd except forthe sword most could also be Used i everyday life at home ~ an axe Tor euting ‘wood, spears and bows for bunting, and’ sng fdged rife fora mllitude ofhousahold tasks” Only the sword was developed satya etal weapon. Spears ‘Though historians and archacologists sill dispute the question ofthe predominant weapon ofthe eaaly Middle Ages, iin very likely to hve boca the spear Speasheads needed only relatively lite ison, were cheap and easy to forge and ould be supplied in [teat timbers) every oviner could shaft is own. ‘The finds of speareads in. nearly every Waris rave indicate that they were commen. They had Many uses, and Wwe should cisingish between “hferentypes. thrown, The warsior usually carried several of them asa distance weapon, ‘The account ofthe batle of Maldon in 991 tells of a Viking injured by an Anglo-Saxon javelin piercing his ringmail shirt this makes the. point that the impact oft spear thrown by a trained warrior could force open the rings of riveted mail ‘The Impact of thrusts delivered with hand-held spears mst have been even greater. "Controlled Single- or two-handed, they could not only be used {orthrust with the point bur also to cut with the ede ofthe spearhead, 10 deliver blows with the shaft, and to block enemy blows. The so-called. "winged spearheads, thought 10 have been a Carolingian invention, feature to sideways projections from the socket of he spearhead; these cauld be used to hook behind shield rims and pull the shiekl away, bur also to hook the body of the opponent. (The reason For the original design ‘has probably that the projections also prevented the speathead penetrating so deeply the body ofan snimal of & foe that i Was i cal to pall oat) ‘Spear shafis varied in length between about 150m and. 300em (SH-10f1), with 20cm-60em (Sin-24in) heads. The shaft was usually made from ash and had a diameter of about 2 Sem (one inch). The socketed heads came in a wide variety of shapes: long. and narrow, short, leaf-bladed, flat, round, of With ngular eross-section, Many recovered examples fre made from pattern-welded ion, often decorated ‘with silver wire inlays; bat a8 most Finds ate From ich Light spears or javelins we‘scary oo aly spears nce ‘ees was crying which cod bs le pte crying the jvelins st Althowgh the bse ‘peareas areal hep reap i by m0 means Tae oly y poor men thar or er 3 iy thea» fy dora ‘anne (et This batt pit taken during a eeactnent ‘how a Tele Swen ‘eapons ws gh mar ‘ates and part oly tho othe eee ran “The dora ofthe silt {hy she the moment of ope tiwst. Whetbr hy ane seats wee eagle ‘aul Te fot Une ‘rion thane nse ‘ul st oer thr eas (tet) Nunes sparen of dierent pes snd ‘ccc sce Sandi geafatr ste wly tug pong wing ae ot scien i en a pe Stchanged tought he whe Ving ene‘warriors graves, this does not necessarily mean that {peurheads were normally decorated, When held Single-handed the spear was most likely wielded foverarm for a downwards thrust this allowed stabs to the head and body, and from this position i could also be thrown without changing erp. Axes. At the beginning of the Viking era both the normal Wwoodeutters ae and the small “bearded” axe were commonly used, “Axes would be kept as tools in ‘every Nomic houschold, so they would be available to even the poorest fee'born warrior: but they soon ‘developed into. symbol of the terror the Vikings Spread! among their enemies. They had 60em-0em HIN) halts and cutting edges Tem-LSem Sins- ns) kong. The fransisca, smal towing axe prod- ably developed by the Franks, was also used by ‘Anglo-Satons and Vikings alike “The laler years saw the invention of the notorious so-alled "Banish axe” - long or broad axe speciti- tally a batle weapon, perhaps developed in sesponse to the more widespread use of ingmail armour. On 4 120em-180em (4-6) halt was mounted a large, heavy blade with a crescent-shaped edge” about 22em-ASem (Sins-18ins) long. -Swung by a strong ‘man, it could easily bring down a rider or smash (bore Ft) The "Danish Right Supe wie er econ cnly ace” ting ogo, Vins Enrpe een frit ‘earnor wearing ene and Byram, whee the Pad! gateson ies nad Varaglan Gut was fener shed ah i ‘Sebewen” Tis warioe — Gomraleis gating to Sonal eariesaswond rouble, a opponents from sellers thrust it ae gh he ‘oor is siperor around and wl mot pl Soma fa spangenin aways Th pit reminds elmet and ama shit ver state ane was ae oly Swoon fn fa er dleng Hows bat ‘So for booking ad pug Sad he ps tt lade for (tam Exantesof aches, ste Scag the gent "Dass (alle red ro se (ene btm ih) ges Weleda ade made ftom mie se. The other Tour ar examples a "ended ses seggor nh eet, fhe ete fan present fhe Vikings ho todd ‘ewe tern Eaope ‘sa popular weaponShields, It also allowed thrusts with the axchead and, like the winged spearhead, it could be hooked behind 4 shield and pulled to break an opposing “shield Saxes he sx was another item in everyday use which was also suitable as a Weapon, and was probably carried by warriors ofall ranks, The Coppergats excavations in York turned up 300 saxes: and though this was an Anglo-Saxon find, York was long a Viking cere. AS indicated by the name. the origin ofthe sax ies with the Saxons, andthe Vikings most probably adopted it from these peoples who were at offen their neigh- bouts as thetr enemies ‘The sax i a single-eged Knife of length which can range from about 7-5cm fo 75cm (3-30 inches). We fan distinguish between two groups: short ones with a Tengih-of 38m (14ins) oF ess and long ones of between S0cm and 75cm (20-30 inches). Originally the shorter kaives were probably everyday domestic tools, carried fo war for’camp use but also ready 10 hand if fallen enemy had to be finished off. The long sixes were developed specifically as weapons, ht they” could equally be used for more peacet ul chores, in the manner of machete. Some long saxes (ed with swordtype handles sere found in the Ish ‘Viking burials of Kilminbam-slandbridge ‘Sax blades were straight and single-edged the back ‘of the blade often broad and the blade tus quite Jneavy; it was tapered tothe tip, which was sharpened to allow thrusting. The rate” Scandinavian Finds Teature'a slightly downwards-tumed edge. ‘The six was caried in a scabbard of folded leather, which right be decorated with copper, bronze or silver if the wealth ofthe owner allowed. Ar with spearheads, axes and swords, some finds show silver inlayed deco. Swords The sword was the most expensive weapon a warrior ‘might carry, and hills and erossguards were often Highly decorated with patterned copper or silver and ill inlays to show off the rank and wealth of the ‘owner. The sword was aot merely a practical tal, but in this warrior culture was sometimes believed have mystic properties - individual swords were famed, aod. abled smiths were believed to have access to magie powers. In the sal part ofthe town Of Haithaba which has been excavated to date the femains of 40 swords of all qualities hive already been found, “Te Viking sword had a double-edged blade about ‘Bem-S2em Bins 32ins) Tong’ and perhaps” Sem (Gins) wide. “The hilt"added another" 7Sem-10sm {Gins-4ins), giving an overall length of just under one meter, which seems to have increased towards the nd of the Viking era. A short crossguard protected the hand: and atthe end of the hilt a heavy pommel acted as a Balancing ‘counterweight forthe blade, Without which the swonl - Weighing up 10 2kg (4.3Ibs)- would have been dificult to contol At the beginning of the Viking age patlera-welded blades: were thought 10 be the best this was the complex technique of welding and forging together rods of pure iron and of carbonised ion, Le. steel att Recomrctinsof Engl eld and Dower tree Seannvin- tener ‘Te eample Gnd I) Singh 8 ng ‘hetungrunsing upto‘The result is a hard but nevertheless exible blade Which shows a heautiful surface pattern after itis Polished. Some blade finds have’ a pattern-welded ore combined with harder steel edges. One 10h century English reference puts the cost ofa sword of Superb quality at 15 male slaves o 120 oxen Th the Sth century the European sword market was taken over by Frankish smiths (although King Charles the Hald tried to ban the export of these ‘sratogic Weapons” Irom his territories). The Franks. had discovered that they could achieve better results bby using phosphorised steel; this did require specialist knowledge in forging, but was quicker than Pattern-welding, ‘The Scandinavian smiths, who had hot yet mastered this new technigue, imported unin ished blades from the Franks and completed and hiked them to the Viking taste. Blades of Frankish frigin have been found. in Denmark, Nowway, ‘Sweden, the Baltic states, England and Ireland The scabbards were made from wood covered with leather and were usually lined with oiled material to protect the s0ord from rusting they usually had Bical chape to protect the tp, and sometimes metal reinforcement at the mouth, They were initially slung from a belt which ran over the shoulder, held place hy the waist belt; later in our period they were Dften hing directly from the waist helt ‘Vikings swords were Used singl-handed, combined ‘with a shield or sax inthe other hand. When deliv tring a blow care had to be taken ‘not to strike ‘irety onto the opponent's sword, s the steel - high ‘quality bythe standards of thee ag, but rather bite by ours - would break easly. (Above Heh) The lng (Wig) Tis warae eames ated "Danian with ts wi sword aod shld Bt als ‘secede became wile- Cain ane hs bel The Spraatbe el eke 108 Arabian cme be Whishwas between is aed” Ssananan nar iing TDiekng here oe eer- a ang pnt in ach ceric nctampe Sas eh nh akerguiy tel Lite) Sara an ane anor fe Vikingsends acs weenie Note he shot concrete gl i th ay ‘vowed ad Kg lt Tomer eg othe al Harlin ne anmed chon onthe bs Uelater te Nov gos of ‘Sg mb ong ase mt ‘Sage colIn outher Sweden ahiboogh he gal lee was mae England in toad 1000 AD. Sarat, Tome igh ie seen ala ily SstAbo) The thee rc ‘acted uc ish Sone of te mat common le sere ite be Splendid Hate sd find rte tweoce Woden iis The ight band ‘rtp ete afb ome, wth ser iy and ‘veri Ths supe ot Spr w Hata an uc ore highly devoted {et & nai potoe oats Rn) Aloogh may Seem totells diferent sy, Phin few wares coal ‘Mer cena ‘eer woud dg ie ae ‘fa sandy the quay of the lade, ot te mou of ‘toon. BEThe Viking Hersir(Lat) The fac that eons Sewell ths we fell ee found ni eaches he thigh nd gees ley xy fe Te fastened the taper ck hy eter sing fen oe rings No‘e | hed ft mals ‘oman exh ing i Tike sth four tee Fox thesake of time aod Five fred ed bat so prid examples otis Togal eeu is warrior could bea hers, erm identifying I ‘wealthy farmer owning his own Tand and having the sas of local leader or chief of clan, At the beginning of the Viking age the herr were the organisers and leaders of raiding parties and sete- tment, but their infvence decreased with the late century, when effective national monarehi ‘Scandinavia. Thereafter the bese became s Toc repee= sentative of al power, "The belifs of our herr seem to be at the border between paganism and Christianity; he wears a combined symbol of the cross and” Thors hammer Around his neck, decorated. with a wolf's head ~ this Amulet originated in Iceland and is dated to the 10 entury, when Teeland converted to. Chistanity. The painting on his shiel pictures scene deseribed in the Prnue dia by Snore Stuluseon: two wolves hase the ‘un and moon across the skies, and thus cause alter ‘ating day and night. Hthe wolves should one day catch ‘heir quary they will devour them, and Ragnarok will ‘come the en of the world, according to the Nordic ‘pagan religion, Then the fillen heroes will leave Valhalla forride to their last battle a the side of the gk of ‘Asgard, fighting against the giants; and the death ofthe ‘gods will ring the World We know to an end Perhaps our hersir has even heen baptised, though this ih w a Viking, Sometimes 10 spove trade With th ian peoples; sometimes they would secept it only Torthe sake ofthe presents handed out to new believers; Sometimes the ew Tath was embraced in prudent ‘obedience toa king, Even if the convert sltended ‘church while on dryland, he often continued to set Fice to is old gods when sailing the sexs, did not necessarily mea n they wo reese a Chi ~ ‘ht The “gg” Hower cl purpose ba as pel Aevorte Ter cet fvidenc for tease nearly Roman sniiay rope) Under his al oer is uid eater erin or sonics st = ae, sal arven hy en) Leuber bot ke (Slow) Ou esr eis at these ere stned with iy ad two paces toga made rom wood for small cvs. Hi oem Some ations! ps feet hss cg flere ie to he andthe sor ks asopy of leaherslew ge ase of afin from Hedemarten Steaingfor teter grip. The (Peesen type 3). bes nl for his ot leather "are" which ‘amples tebe ound nny ses: hgh eg could Te tldd to ge ter Proteston init, i ‘evolved inArmour and Helmets hose among the Vikings and their enemies I ‘who could. afford to do. so wore several different types of armour. This was a highly Acsirable possession, since the wounds of edged ‘weapons could quickly prove deadly in an uakygienic ‘age ignorant of medicine, A eu just a centimetre deep could easily lead to tetanus of blood poisoning, and penetration wounds which caried dirty clothing Ora dbris ito the by Wer tally verb to infection ‘Some readers may assume that the ringmall shirt, (brynja or hringserks) was the typical Viking armour. [As already stated, is cost in Taet made i€ a rarity in the 8th-10th centuries, but it was certainly used to Some extent. Contemporary depictions and the rare archacological finds confirm that atthe beginning of the Viking age in the Sth century mail reached to the crotch and had short sleeves - eg. the Gjermundba find from Norway. in which 85 fragments of a 9th- century corclet were discovered During the 1lth century - when the equipment of the fighting men of most northern European peoples became more similar ~ mail sits grew longer. The Bayeux Tapestry shows Norman and. Anglo-Saxon warriors of 1068 with mostly a kace length mail coat fo hauberk, divided at both Teoot and back from the lower edge to the erotch to allow it to be sworn on horseback. In ths final period ofthe Viking age a tional pieces were also added to the original, simple ‘T-shaped mail corselet:coifs or mail hoods covered the head, ax! Nentals - rectangular Maps were fastened across the face with laces or hooks 10 protect the area not covered by & helmet, Depending on the size of the rings = which were probably never the same from any two blacksmiths = fand on the length of the corsele, a single mail shirt {ould contain anything from 20,000 to 60,000 rings Tt tats rom a aa pl and Es wee ide om en wi. Te Wi gh thy appear ino aes ted an open To oust mall hn, four ef he chow sings wee Soke io one eye om, hihi thn oud Thee props ferns co ten be troop oper wi aed ope ig. ase Continng inal resins Tit wig fan Th entry Hoee-egti ongeeed ngall haber Sc appronimatly ie GOs). and could ake Thos fear mkt Ts expats why ol wey Wars cul aed tobuy ane we nay gusta The pce migh fe compari fo at oa fy at a Wis dificult to say how rte they relly were 24 howcters Mal sca selon one foe bared ave ben won elo the ows, Tomake eae for ‘hier sti se ft Sen atthe ams = sae ‘Hibetacnfteniy and etection. (Aone This ware ine tay ial pte A is dagged for decoration Sie kid af poste ‘lang tke hs ped fumbeson mas normally with its owners: if properly protected from rust and skilfully repaired when “necessary it would last almost indefinitely, and most likely these valuable items were handed down over the generations. They were Tar too precious to be simply lst, of t0 be left ‘on the battlefield in an age when plundering the dead ‘was commonplace. In the later medieval period, When we know mail 1 have been common, Batlle field grave finds are still most unusual, and more formal Christian burials no longer included “grave goods”, Below ringmail the warrior would wear a fgambeson, a tunic- like piece of clothing made from Two layers of wool, leather or linen stuffed with an interlining of fleece, animal hair or some similar material. The layers were then sewn together by ‘quilting. Us purpose was to spread the impact of blows, 1 prevent crush injuries and to stop broken ingaail from being forood inte the Mesh, IE ¢ was made from leather i was in itself a good protection ‘Against cuts, and was often Worn instead of mail ‘Another type of armour which should be mentionedis lamellar, which was uncommon in western Europe and had its roots in the Middle East.” But as the Vikings reached Byzantium on thei raiding and trading voyages, and afe even thought to have visited dad, they are Hikely to have known this type of armour, Lamellar consists of small steel scales. = lamellae - with holes punched through at the edges, allowing them to be overlapped and laced together into corselets, Lamellae of different shapes and sizes have been found atthe site of Birks, a trading, ety in central Sweden. Although tests show that these were trade goods and had not been made up into armours, ‘what would be the sense in importing them over & long distance ifthere were no use for them? ’A final type of protection which may have been used were vambraces (arm pieces) and greaves made from steel splints, about T6mm (Sin) wide and of varying length, mounted on leather strapping and worn on the lower legs and/or arms. The ancestors of the (gh ver is mat i Freeing pe bd Te the ene coos bee shag fam nnd Shapes. The contemporary Sr io ad elnet of tate en esngl eof Orbe i ena Vikings are also thought to have hada similar type of body armour, as suggested by interpretation ofthe 6th-7th century Valsgarde find in Uppland, Sweden, Helmets ‘There is only one wellpreserved find of a helmet that is undoubtedly of Viking origin - that found at Gjerrmundbu, dated to. the late Rh century. The helmet consists of a brow band to which two curved strips are fixed to make a dome, one running from the front tothe back and the other from ear to ea at their junction isa small spike. The stipe form Frame for four concave triangular plates which fil in the skull ofthe helmet. The face is partially covered by a “Visor” shaped like the frame of spectacles or ‘toggles, decorated with inlaid eyebrows, and a mal feckguard was originally attached to the back andsides, All pants of the helmet were riveted together ‘Although this is. unique survival, documented inds of visor pieces ata number of other Scandinavian sites confirm its widespread use, It appears 19 be a simplified development of & much ‘more elaborate helmet construction of the Vendel faze, 100-200 years previoasly. A number ofthese lavishly decorated pre-Viking age helmets were found at Valsgarde, also showing. both spectacle shaped visors and attached ring, these were ‘mate from many small decorated metal ples held together by metal bands forming a hemisphere, From about 900 use of another type of helmet bbocame widespread throughout Europe the spangen helm, 9 unlike the Gjeemundbs felmet but with & ‘more pointed dome, a straight nasal bar in front to protect the face, and infill plates of ste, hardened Teather, or evea horn. Runestone carvings show that this type of helmet was wom by many Vikings Following not long after the spangentelm came the development ofa similar conical helmet heaten from ‘single piece of set; good examples are the Olmlitz find and the "Wenceslas" helmet now in Prague. Bath have a nasal hat, although the Wenceslas helmet has is rely decorated, eross-shaped nasal riveted t0 the skal ather than drawn down from it in one Piece. Apart from the helmet types described fultitude of varieties and combinations maybe nagined, One Find features only the four iriangulae (ett) Tose wo cou ot Sif mal ig ear Snbwonden iguiner show ‘ing woolen fb (Below) Tis eanbeson is oo hn ieplates, riveted dreetly together without any frame. "The interior ofthe helmets cannot be reconstructed exactly from archaeological evidence, bot it is likely that a Teather band or lining piove was riveted to the inside to which a chin strap or thongs Were attached, ‘Many warriors would also have worn padded! caps ¢o give a comfortable fit and extra protection against blows. Although a helmet was a lot cheaper than a ‘mail corsclet itis likely that only the richer sort ‘owned one during the earlier period. Others had to protect their heads with caps of thick leather or fur, ‘which are often pictured on runestones Pre-Viking age helmets had been richly decorated, but withthe helmet becoming more common in Ih ‘century Europe decoration appears less offen; even those belonging to the wealthy usually had incised decoration only on the skull straps, brow bande, ‘eyebrows or spectacles, and nasals. (There is refer” ence, however, to the painting of "war marks" herkumbl = on belmets, presumably some form of ‘Wentifyingsign) Finally, but importantly, we should emphasise that - Hollywood notwithstanding - Vikings did not wear hors ‘on their helmets. This common error results partly from mistaken dating by early antiquaries of Finds from other northern European cultures; and parlly from vatious crude depictions of warrior Figures who are dedicated to Odin. This is usually marked by a raven - Odin’ ied -on the helmet, with the wings forming a circle tothe left and right sides ‘often decorated, these can easily be mistaken for hms, especialy as the raven’ head often cannot be distinguished in profile (low) Ths eemactor ‘pe wih sng lower ‘lean iamed wih wordt Fagen of similar cork were fund teeth ith he (Gland ele ring (att) Ta making ofingai ings sate wit rowing the The wie wa then wound mound rod fomerina soi separate int singe ings ested homing athe fs, ‘ith few banner ows on The uni ter ings athe hs anne Mt and ener lapping hole being pnsbed hgh thes so hat they ‘ould tere ve. ame was aout 50, Scie (er ae ‘ero made separately and Fed the or bat were sy.(Ato Ths wconstction sms the ony "eaely wel peseri ele of wagon {Bly Viking origin sad eae = tht ou Seman etry al eco and ssl peo he jin fhe two bas forming te sul fue, Tse ‘ow tad sd the il erate snd Thc elnet probaly belong toa Viking leader no was bud nthe Leh entry ‘opti roar and sword (Ph Srey Din oT Cras) ng) The oii fis "Ven a ett ws found t Vis in Swede, ated wth oer approxima 100200 Yeas lore the Viking ape, tc -7h entries Ceiua sais wth 108 tise, ere with Bare "yc This reser in decoration and oe flaps coasaction ta the Tae pe rts pater ied i ge pees ‘ior ges caring sted and seu and ‘esring cots nd eis, and heme wth hrm! = but ths later ae probably meat 1s dit the wings of Os ravens Hin Toked mo a wre uaiag tough ops a the ee ofthe ime the make the (Gjetmundby elms puncte Bes ats the ‘lg for this pupose Pho courtesy 28 Dave offime Cat) (ompostey Tis re-enter ear «mal coi wer i ‘comncton of te "St Were bene found i Prague. as ame from ng pve ihn ‘conspired 0 Th erty The decrtion on he msl ypess a he feame gates a Nowe salt(elon) This pcre sms 2 tinge of ice types wom a ute ohoat ihe Viki ‘ge Le reconstructed. ter the Weasel, ots nota hl desert the oa. (Cente af Spangctel consrction wah geteev dl By the Vang Bi) = eonracton of he Giermundbu met Lenten te belived have ben ft tedval bln tenable the eat some foro ating etn een neeenry fr como nin pss opt"The Varangian Guard 1 Vikings fought not only as freelance plum I derers and as the retainers of kings or heal leaders, but also as paid mercenaries. A well Ikfown example of this was the famous Varangian Guard of Byzantium. Although Scandinavian merce aries ae recorded in Byzantium earlier, the Guard ive was raised in 988 by the Emperor Basil I, who received 6,000 warriors from Vladimir of Kiev” The {quality of Scandinavian fighting men was already well Known in southern Europe. Earlier sources tll of 400 men taking part in’ Byzantine expedition to (Let) In Byzem be (Gerd were femora aed Dish eis (gh) i sae Seapets “Ts spangenten has avery ts fate make ‘ert igi cholera he Verepios sly we yen mou aly in 935; of at least 600 fighting with Byzantine troops on Crete in 949, and of others serving in 985 gains the Arabs in the battle of Hadath, From 988 the Varangian Guard formed a hard core unit of the Byzantine army, protecting the emperor, to. whom they swore allegiance. This may be the ‘gin of the term Varangian, perhaps coming from the word var mcaning a group of men who had ssvomn allegiance. In Byzantium the Varangian Guard were known a the “ake-bearing barbarians” of the ‘guard of axe-bearers". Even today the ‘names of‘many Scandinavians who served inthe guard survive In the Lith century Byzantine oops in Greece were Jed by a guardsman named Ragnvald; and from 1035 o 1044 Harald Hardrada, who Tater became king of Norway, served in the guard and commanded S00 "The guardsmen were extremely well pad, and the income of Harald Hardrada is said to have given him the greatest personal fortune ever owned by. northern European at thal date, On campaign the YVarangian Guard also had the privilege of being the first to plunder 4 conquered city. It i also said that they were allowed to perform a ritual “raid” on the femiperor’s chambers at his aceession «though there are other references to drunken guardsmen making Serious attacks “on Michael VIE and. on another ‘The clothing ofthe Varangians was of northern style hut invlueneed by Slavic and “Byzantine fashions Sources often emphasise the great two-handed their Varangians Scandinavian denking habits Mee toughness and their eight. They are sod to have provided thei on Swords. bu the bulk of thei equipment woul have heen issued rom Byzantine armouries. The guardsmen ‘were usually heavily armoured, wearing boil ringmail and lamellar semours (aera) Becwse of he ‘el the ml src of the Byramine amy were ‘aly rely shor wth ‘howe sees They By bh Byzantine tops and irate ae mae fom se ‘eat athe top and atom tween mone ad fora beter tthe maker as edt diferent tds of a. Lam) The amass ae of the sme splint contcton fs asiag up the ouside eter soverd wnsen Sad othe et hi wth the wast et passing ver 16 Keep itayThe sal eter posh he et of the scebbaté might type cab apuret sais ‘athe bea! an ha kiBows and Bowmen aft) Original he bow as 2 Seapon for ntng an i Ss proably to be found i Tow pte re i pia fore Viking pei. Mae ftom «single stag wooden from several layer) ss & Daaped soso wih te fat ide poiing Toe fiom, apd is tpeed a the seareasinplcap, woolen Tonic and oer ey ap paigs and leer shoes wth hel forbs ke, pooch ant ‘how acer illest ‘tha osteo ports, be ofthe Ving ae tere dele istrmcat cling cell inonsace tnd handling expo to Ain clang peas sy male ne poping Toru, wih rows sk othe gouod forint we, Nie tir simple thing ud seuowmen were the “uillry" of the ary Bit se os ctl oat tie puro argc of bout 200 ees. Like os Erin and wag weapons te ow had ele tot etane in daly was weapon for hing Banitcoutdcquty Deus nar, Bows were made ftyew: ao ln an ranged rom aout 1 02m (22 6st) ntcagh A fond cramp of Viking Sow was found dang the xcaetony a rab Ws ofjens L9tsm at) Tongs and haa "aw ‘ei oF 108g ol sm bows made of in wets found a atihbu- Appr sce bows oda velnforcngwraping ne, le cen ‘Sie ofan THe fink at Hathab also iced rows. The shafts wer apparel Pom km (7 Sie 1 Sis) intngh ad Sm mn (0st 030m) I am Git aleay cared the teeter etchings ‘css an aro’ igh sm rom nt ode op et frp fuming al pea we varity fon ro wheads have fon found all ovr Europ, as ferent in Chap ns the Intended we recs,” Among man Str tapes hee aeons tow head which oul pits and ter wt ads vided 0 lay slug of baring Wow or eb atarnable imac wc ey Ses, rec Seppe bomen an thew Novwegon ad Sues avs Apart from his bow the Viking archer probably carried only a knife or sax, and for sake of easy move- ment he was unarmoured. Although a bow was not the cheapest of weapons, there is written evidence suggesting that howmen’ were usually 00 poor to afford sword, helmet and armour. But the sagas also speak of great heroes who preferted the bow to any ther weapon. The tale of the bale of Svélde ‘mentions one Einar Tambarskelve, who stood beside King Olaf ‘Trygevasson. After he had narrowly missed Eric Haakonsson, a leader ofthe enemy, his how was broken by an arrow hit. Olaf asked him what had burst with such a noise: he replied, "Ik was ‘Sir, that sprang from your hands” ‘The archers’ place in northern European battles of the early Middle Ages seems usually to have been directly behind the ranks of swordsmen and axemen, and they seem to have shot atthe enemy “indirecty ie. ata high angle to fall into the enemy mass. The battle of Hastings is « good example oftheir impor tance: here the Norman bovwmen finally broke up the Saxon defensive formation, which had defied cavalry attacks, by dropping arrows into it from above. (lt ‘may be significant that ofthe arrow strikes depicted the Bayeux Tapestry about one in four are head wounds.) We also know from other references that before close combat began the bownen of both ST "ES eh Hanh I He| he i We |(eion) These te anon heave cet tings 6 take the sa Theuper two iss toma hem ‘tc opal nt fe ‘ond witout dng farther ung, The ower one he eal of aro wih {orale ton whch wosld be ‘tainly before ost attackers and defenders often shot at the enemy to thin thom out oF goad them into unwisely breaking formation ‘Archers cartied their amows in quivers which (in contradiction of so many "Robin Hood” fantasies) ‘were slung at the waist and not across the hack this allows much quicker reloading. It was not luncommon to thrust the arrows under the belt without 2 quiver, or even to stick them into the ground ready to hand. Arrows were often picked up land shot back during a battle Just as, sy, reading and writing are today automat ically mastered by virtually everybody, we can assume that during the early Middle Ages most people were familiar withthe use of bos and arrow and practised it from an early age by hunting. (ery Arhacotogisl cleat to pect sngail and fidence sugges atthe thin ween seer forge neil deaw a Viking iting the aro to he ting ow was arond ets) the ache as the tw "eam wight compan he Hg a the teat ofr medial Sang= wing ad ees is tows and one which hers Be the oss uly mga the ao a sort oling dv ois tang etctaing powcr slt- he sed ipa hsm, (elon) An arate ote ping. Although te fsiosing socket head waste tanged—_Dfarows was thought e ede foged ate pce ith paste fra writ. opis eich vardivee nb fat somone ate ‘hcenolthe shat Bodh he been done hy the wore of ade and he fetching ofthe hac. Tar som tows were dnb secured, end sh a riorRus - The Vikings in the East king traders, mainly from Sweden, reached \ J eysanom ia the Batic Sethe Seva, Like Logs, the Volkov, and. Lake men: from there the ships had to be dragged or rolled on loge ver a portage to be launched again on the Lovat sailing on down the Dniepr and finally into the Black ‘Sea. The Vikings even reached the Caspian Sea and Baghdad by travelling via Stavaja Ladoga and Novgorod t6 reach the Volga ‘The eastwards-questing Vikings started fo sete slong these trading routes, and quickly conquered the local populations. Kiev, for example, orginally 3 Slavic foundation, was red hy Vikings rom 888, fand every year traders assembled there Before ‘making the journey to Byzantium together. fy ena ‘er ih eter se He ‘epi wld Rosin ord as ce ay so tee es ‘rene a he aida, Hes ate Soca eis (Above) Tes igh oot finer wh eh oes hound Lado nd (Let ah he the one Msated erewee woe prone hey old even be kod pss sal The Rus «a8 the Slavs called the Vikings - under- took those fog, arduous river voyages not only for tain sn ty fw a car em Suh and east on radng expedions, The Viking Setar oe ay beat ciety tae Sine the Tih century. bt their Ts major attacks were tecorded in 852, when Swedish. army smanded high danegei rom the inka of Serge "ho fae rim Nigar te Vikings elle Bynum also started at fom Kieu in about 900, and more allowed in 907, 4 and oul BY this period the Vikings were sreay mixing with the foal Sav population and assimlang 10 thet 43calle, The name Rus lived on, a8 i des today in "Russi"; itmay be dered from the Swedish name Risagen, an aren ear Stackholm, or equally from the Scandinavian word for soming” often necessary cm the caste rivers AS they did in eter areas of ‘Sement, the easter Vikings often coped Toc ‘ways and fashions dress. Ite probable tha the Wide “Turkish iousers which lowly” became Sommon in Scandinavia ive their origin ia the ester setements. But the Vikings also Tet their marks in Risa uchaologss have found Viking meters near’ Smokey Kiet, Grendowa and Novgorod, "he Vikings who traveled ast - socalled “uaders withthe seed” = often collected thie trade 2008 “long the way by looing and taking Sli as pri ners, 1 exchange for sive, spice and Si AP from slives they offered honey. was, weapons and fore, An inense trade i sho proved by fhe many items of obviously easter erigin that have been found in Scandinavia = among them 4 snl Buda statue, and a mosque-shaed basin. ths om Ving wth ier were fond wtih my ve come fom ther ap ane rom he ev he peonle with he wowsers made Mra 10 spas sl Sct one ns Ive figs and ere ‘Sloe withthe wast bok ‘owe fr aceding age fount fae ole Tete ons is pir fated wh bor gasViking Battle Tactics rate Et ees al stenoses SSksiy ‘generations various Anglo-Saxon leaders tied to Fecapture this so-called. Danclaw, with varying fortines. These alfempts often Ted to open eld bulls, like Brunanburt in 937 and Maldon in 991 Where the Vikings proved that they were equal 10 pitched batles on dy land. Brunanburh i of special fnterest hecause it sit Vikings ight on both sides: an ‘Anglo-Saxon army with support from Danish merce. naties met Norwegian rebel lords from Teeland and the eastem Dancla. Field battles in northern and western Burope were mainly fought on foot in the early Middle Ages: the battlefield use of mounted troops was rare before the ith century, although the Pranks did have some ‘good quality cavaly. (Such troops were an important ‘lement of Byzantine armies in southern and eastern Europe throughout our period.) The Vikings them- selves saw the horse aya means of transport and communication, They were defeated by, eg. the Fraks at Saucourt in S81, and the Byzantines at Slisuia in 972 because of the superiority of the ‘opposing cavalry. There is no rule without its excep- tions, however: in 888 the Vikings themselves ‘deployed horsemen at Monfaucon in France, and in 968 at the hatle of Solcoitin Ireland there is written evidence of Viking cavalry Sometimes the time and place ofa battle were actu- ally seed beforehand, ad the limits ofthe agreed buttlefield marked by hazel branch fencing. To leave this field of to break the arrangement was thought Aishonourable, as was the pillaging of the enemy's Tands once’ the challenge had been accepted (Let) The sid wa wae ‘sei yu and Unvecing td he ators emotes, wich Nigh hie ss colours esngle ‘Ring te at ten Jello lack we, en(nun Waror tt ‘howler shoulders hey tou, The pr teal bt ere see along Aidt wi the gap. this it formations Woke up, ial igingone este {deen tamed it rt ‘fore buatle was joined; the Anglo-Saxons some- times made use’ of this custom to. win time 10 assemble their forces, as at Brunanburh ‘The shield wall ‘The main batle formation was the "shield wall” or sWjaldborg. ‘The warriors stood side by side and held their shies rim fo rim, or even overlapping, ‘overlapping the shields "does not allow Tor wide Swings With sword of axe, so the front rank Were perhaps limited to thrusting or parrying the oppo- ents" spears. Behind the shicid-bearers stood Spearmen and warriors with long axes, to strike and thrust over the shoulders of thei front rank; the terrain could be decisive, the side holding the higher round having an advantage. Depending onthe size Sf the army there might be several shield walls one behind the other ‘There is evidence to suggest that javelinthrowers and bowmen were deployed both Before and. after the armies made contact, to create weak spots inthe ‘opposing shield wall. Then the front ranks would tinh together, the warrios thrusting and hacking at tach other until one side managed to break through. Inthe course ofthis mele it seems probable thatthe aps between the shields opened up somewhat as inviduals traded axe and sword blows. Weak spots igh e attacked with a peciawodge shaped formation Knows as stynfyiking, in which two ‘warriors formed the point, three the second row, five ‘third ro, and so on; the Warriors atthe ouiside Cauried overlapping shields and the spearmen inside thrust over them as they forced their way forward, the integrity of shield wall wae decisively broken itwas not unusual forthe Tosing force to dissolve into chaos, [Now was the moment when the leader had to ‘how his ability and force of character by rallying and regrouping his warriors. or by bringing in reinforce ments which he had withheld up to then. The early medieval Viking army inclided thre types of fighting men: the individual freedom man who was obliged to do service when summoned: the wealthier hersie who fosed allegiance 10a jar (r later to King), and who brought with him other armed men from his lands: and the leader's swom bodyguard of retainers, whom hhe maintained permanently at his own expense, The main target in hattle was the leader ofthe opposing fnmy; ibe was Killed the common Warrior was ‘considered frce of his duty, and normally these men - ‘who were hardly tained - were quickly cut down if they ‘didnot fee the field. "However, honour demanded that the leader's swom egemes fight on ‘around him until they to Fell, Sea fights ‘The sca battles ofthe Vikings were fought according to the same principles as battles on land. Each side oped most of their ships together side by side to make a platform on which to form a shield wall, The attackers tried to storm this platform, as ein the baitles of Hatrtjord in 872, Swlde in 1000 and Nisea in 1062. Ship after ship was taken and then detached from the formation to drift away. Both flets used to [Keep some ships outside the formation to manoedver 47these were used to attack the enemy’ by going along side and boarding, in a hailstorm of arrows, stones find spears. from both sides. If the defenders icoeeded in killing the aflacking rowers, oF Hf the bars of the attacking ship were broken, the attack ‘often. fled through inability. to manoeuver, However the elements of a real naval batle of the Classical age = outmanoeuvering, ramming, forcing the opponent to sail against the wind, or the use of catapults = were unknown among the Vikings. Most battles took place in quiet coastal waters or river mouths, where there was ho space for Such tates. Viking armies ‘The size of Viking armies varied enormously {growing steadily between the late sin and 11th Centuries, An Anglo-Saxon manuscript of the pre ‘Viking age calle group of 35 or more warriors an army" and we can assume thatthe frst Viking raids were performed by such small Bands, Even liter battle descriptions rarely mention the number of men; the size of Viking force was usually given in ‘hips, and the number of crew members on a ship ould vary according 10 the number of ars. The ‘quoted strengths for the siege of Paris in 886 = 40,000 men and 700 ships - give an average of just under 60 oars per ship: but crew sizes must have ‘aried (and- anyway. all figures from early sources should be treated” as “impressionist” rather. than mathematically exe) "The eat) raids Were usually led by a local leader, ‘with the aim of capturing land at home or valuable Thooty and slaves abroad. His erews were recruited from men of the same family of clan and perhaps some neighbours, all of them bringing their ovn equipment, and hoping for eventual reward in the form of shared plunder, Often they were both Warrioes and traders, selling at ane place what they Jad looted from anosher. They usually had an agreed leader, but important decisions were often discussed (anor) The Vikings som {ake fortified postion: bt tere antl. We ew that Viking aries tok ‘es ie Yok Pate and ona wheter thes flo te tells or seeded ter segs The sammon ‘reals and else Sn ceaya stall grup of ups tackon a poorly fede vag Imam aay ing remeber ht ew of ie Hover, eunber incre TH 0 England 106, The hick proportion af ond andre gee beneamong the whole group. Some might be as young as 1S or even. 12 years when they fist went &viking every boy leamied strength, destenty and. swiftness from an early age by hunting, and the fighting skills taught by his father were practised with his friends, ‘ting dy 0 Ldn mice be hes pecion ar sapped toe ack, a o'r comping ee fhe hon tn On he ng et eth fe Mae react woe aly un cep spe te hn ‘The uniting of Norwegian and Danish territories into kingdoms changed the structure of amies,, For national defence "the. Seandinavian Kingdoms adopted the so-called leding or levy: a conscription system whereby every free man owning land had to provide men, equipment, ships and weapons, the hhumbers depending on the sizeof his holding. Later the Teding was replaced by a tax from which profes- sional soldiers were paid. The king led his forces and ‘was guarded. by the hird, his. personal body uard, every man of which had sworn allegiance to hin Een given a necessary scepticism over quoted Figures, genuinely large armies Were not uncommon inthe later Viking age. The Norsemen are supposed to have Tost at Teast 000 men at Saucourt in 881 ‘The amy led by King Harald Hadrada to defeat at Stamford. Bridge in 1066 had allegedly crossed in between 240 and 300 ships. OlafTrygavasson raided Maldon in 991 with a fleet of 93 ships, to make money 10 finance his attempt on the’ Norwesian 49throne. Here the army was made up from groups of hersir owing allegiance to a jatl who, in his tua, coved allegiance to the king ‘On occasion some kings - eg. Harald Bluctooth would provide a proportion “of their troops. with ‘weapons and even armour, The raising of mercenary leoops was another factor; a good example is the my of Thorkel the Great, serving only themselves il the man who paid bes. Fortifications ‘There are some known Viking age fortifications, like the "wall castles” (defensive enclosures) at Fyekat, Aggersborg, Trelleborg and Nonnebakken, and of fourse the Danewerk, ‘This great earthwork in Southern Jutland ~ 2m high by Tam wide (6.511 by 30M), and revetted with timber ~ conected natural Dbstacles with each other to provide protection ‘against the Shivs and German raiders, ‘The first parts ofthis system had been built by 737, and the last Work is dated to 968. In the overall length of 30km (18.6 miles) there was only one gate, through which run the road lo Viborg."Haithabu, one’ the most important trading cities ofthe age, was inthe Vicinity ‘ofthe Danewerk. But even the Danewerk could not prevent the Germans under Emperor OW Teo Songucring the greater part of southern Denmark ‘974 (they were driven out again in 983) ‘The four Viking fortresses named above were all builtin the second half of the 10th century and are all similar in construction, only the size varying Each features a circular wal and ditch, and two main roads cutting. the interior inio quarters. At ‘Teelleborg, Fyrkat and Nonnebakken there were 16 presumably dd not ast ates. The etal bons oul ‘oshide would have be uh) “Deter vs, O Lad Norsemen. Tis Vikings aks oft aeld were {50 tate thor igh ad (at Before nesting in Sicrmcét weaken he fovtae Deptonson Serio ae and ear Sov ite sha large Jonghouses in. four symmetrical groups; Aggersborg has twice the diameter ofthe olhers and lee times as many buildings, Outside the main walls there were addtional enclosures and buildings, the arrangement varying from site fo site. Although a miliary use cannot be ignored, the main purpose ‘ofthese Fortified sites seems to have been the rote tion of the local population, snd equally to provide Suitable accomodation for the Danish kings repre- Seniatives. They might also have been used to house [soups of warriors assembled for taining or for & ‘campaign, however,{anov)The to bate ies mein eh Stow shh proptionofspess. Dig is ey sage ofa ule marr med send oe ate ould do hte wae tn fy oft ee peat Sean ted create gaps inthe caer shed gh) The stan hist in i wal sow ‘aly her constuction rm nda pak done dd te ride eal hog a ine tee eitrly ape eee inp lathe ‘hip ind wre pated plain lick o yellow: the and ble on white and Gotan pte stones sb ‘may wih al way nes Oss (et above ey wee sacks tharos ight ‘pth Viings Cold ake ‘Ser hind the sie, Strange tem a os fo meh cis in bth land nen gated some oul the heals ofthe gop omer were poet in this 2s The pot th Shaper ow he Boa Canty field dssViking Mercenaries esritions of brotherhoods of mercenaries Vitnge-ag ~ who lived together under special es of Sonduct. These experienced ghers dx not Seek to take land on their own account, but hired themseves out Tor pid miliary serve. One ofthe most famous of these broherioods ‘were the Somsviknge tag or Ymsvikngs, who were probably cstblishel in the forified camp and hatbour of omsburg = today's Wollin, tte mouth ofthe Oder in Wendland ~ in the 980s by the exiled. Harald Bluetooth of Denmark. Led by one Jarl Siva, Scanian noble, they quickly inspired the admiration cfminstes, and they afe mentioned in accounts of Viking ba According to Inter sagas, a Jomsviking had to be between It and 50 yeas of age and stronger than the sNerage. warior, "When ving at Jomsburg the imembere ofthe brotherhood were especed to keep the peace among themselves, submitting any serious dispute for judgement by the commander. They were not leave for more than three days without permis Sons women were not allowed inside fomeburg, and noJomsviking was allowed to tke 4 woman oF child prisoner. All Toot was divided equally between the Brotherhood, and members were expeted to avenge cach others deaths. "They were not show any sighs offearin battle, and were only permite to reeat if ‘obviously outnumbered (Sivald i described asa prident” man). Violation of Use laws meant ‘mediate expulsion ‘The Jomsvikings were the subject of thir own saga, which war writen down in celand in about 1200 They are also mentioned in ther saga: that of King -Tygavasson stats that hing them was ques tion of prestige (although they seem to hve been on the losing ide dn numberof impertant bates) The brotherhood was fading away by about 1010, and the remnant was destroyed by King Mapas of Norway in 1085 I th and 10th century Scandinavia there aceShips and Seafaring he Vikings were outstanding. shipbuilder, I navigators and sailors. In other European counties seafaring generally meant skirting along the coasts; but the Vikings made direct cross: ings ofthe North Sea and Baltic, and ventured far fut seross the North Alantic. Today any sailor ean ‘heck his position to within # few metres thanks {0 (GPS; our Toth century great-grandfathers could con themselves around the globe with sextant and chronometer; but it seems miraculous 0 us that a Viking captain, baving some afthe world’s roughest seas without instruments oF chars, ever reached bis destination, Yet Viking navigation was reliable fenough for regular ‘crossings to. Teeland and Greenland, providing the new colonies with all the supplies upon which they depended for survival Sometimes, inevitably, a captain would miss is landfall - ike ‘BjarniHerjlssoa, whose supply voyage to Greenland in about 985 went astray, ‘carrying him on to North America. He probably Sighted the coast of Newfoundland; he di not land, but made his way back to Greenland. Some years later Leif Ericsson, inspired by Bjarni's story, led an ter dhougbout Europe in teach Alou ie eon ‘isang bows to advantage the bigh prow and ow sh 17 kot Cp $x) ap ke the could ik i yo (Rig Te te ‘con ya sng elmmun There vas sorching te beach was ctr shows this procedure [ewe tellin poston by 4 leather sap ening toh al with each ow op ra vera th oe expeltonto try to sett this promising new country of Vinland Frustatingly, we donot know how the Vikings navi- gated the high sea, but the most likely guess is that they sailed on a fixed latitude until they reached ‘cst and then turned north or south. In the areas ‘where the Vikings sled the North Star can always be seen, an 1 keep the Tatitude they only had to make sure that it stayed at the same height above the horizon, The distance covered could be roughly ileulated from elapsed time and estimated speed ‘These assumptions are based om the fat that in the sagas ships usually lose their way in bad weather, i. ‘when the NorthStar was hidden for long periods, the direction of the wind changed quickly. or stong ‘winds carried the ship along faster than estimated, ‘Viking ship finds ven olay Viking ships fascinate ws bythe elegant tines as much as by their epi voyages. Hardly any book on the subject appears without a feontal view of the vessel found a Gokstad in 1880 (this was neither Ezfa trader nor a warship, but probably a kind of yacht for leader's barge). The Gokstad ship, studied in ‘comparison with the Osebers ship (which was used in a 9th century burial), and. the finds in the Roskldefjond at” Skuldelov (where several 1th century vestels were scuttled as block-ships), enables us to trace the development of Viking shipbuilding ‘The general characteristics had already evolved in pre-Viking times, as the Anglo-Saxon ship burials at Sutton Hoo prove: but the Vikings perfected the design ‘The sagas mention a variety of names for different types of ships; it difficult to: match names to cat iovies, but the main division was between cargo vessels and warships, The building method was ie tical for both classes, but the dimensions show that they Were meant for different functions A warship was built to he swift and manoeuverable, to carry many men, and to move quickly even ‘without sails I did not have to be completely ocean worthy; raids were made in summer, and there was time to wait for good weather if open sea had to be crossed, The speed was achieved by a 7:1 miio of length to width, manocuverailty by a curved kee! ‘which allowed it to turn around is contal axis. To {qvarantee high speed without sails there was room for many rowers on a straight deck running along the full length, There were probobly so many crewmen ‘that the oars could be manned day and night ‘Trading shipe were Bul to give plenty of room for ‘argo, to be manceuvered by a small ce, and to 156. cope with bad weather. They were more beam. with (tet The recat onflmes by any depictions Suby rtacoogs Te ot Sarmers ofthe sl rope 0 the dsk allowing be gle ofthe yard Viking the wind shea, bet 4 length-toswidt ratio of only 4:1, higher sides, and fn open bold in the middle with deck planking and ‘ars at bow and stern only. They were meant to be riven mainly by sais it must have been tedious to row them swith such a small crew. The 163m long (63.5) Skuldelev Ia completely seaworthy trading ship - was manned by about a dozen sailors, whereas the 18m (S9f1) warship Skuldelev 2 had a crew of about thy. Construction [No matter what the ship's function, the construction techniques were the same; and the most stking feature is thatthe planking was built directly onto the eel, stmt and ster pests withthe inner ribs added conly later. “The process began with stom and stern posts cut from one eeteunk and a Keel cut from a second = always of oak, even when suitable oak trees became fearce and other parts of the ship were built from pine, ash, birch, alder or willow." The planks were then fited along the keel row after row, each over- pping the one below (ie. clinker-building). Iron he Tams the Life, nd eoks ot ih (Righty Daring hi reat Europe te Vins fen pee ‘ella eat Rin, be Sie the Lae,‘ered option or mse oes sen decored with caring {iinet pe ie siprighe wes a ‘Seatcmiling groves io tuils were used in Scandinavia; inthe eastern sete ‘nents shipbuilders used wooden pegs into which & wedge was hammered. Each row of planks was ceaulked, in Scandinavia with tarred tow o rope, in Rossin with mons and ta. The planks were relatively thin; onthe bigger ships they measured about 25mm (in below and 43mm (J.Tins) atthe waterline, and small skiff found with the Goksad ship have mm (06in) planks. Viking ships were nevertheless strong ‘enough to transport horses ‘When the hull was finished the inner construction was added, Fist sibs were fited crosswise to the ‘eel but connected only to the hull this gave the structure great flexibility to "work" with "the waves, but at a price =a Viking ship was never really. watertight, and the crew were always having to bale her out, Daring the early period the ribs were tied to the planks through exten= Sons left om the planks When they were cut) tsing spruce root; later the nbs sere mailed 10 the planks. ‘Above the ribs hor zontal crsstimbers were fited, connected vert cally and horizontally to the ull with L-shiped 57(Above Today we canbadly fein i ee, tow ck anni log te sk ethane ore han hal ofthe sip wa Pieces of wood tied or, later, mailed in place. A econd, and on the largest ships a third layer of hot Zonta timbers could be attached. To these the deck planking was fied; the deck had no direct connec: ion tothe ull, again for flexibility ‘The mast was fixed 0 the keel by means ofthe "keel rig a big L-shaped oak block whose vertical piece Supported the base of the mast at the front; and a strong horizontal strut, the "mast fish", Compaison ‘of archacological finds shows steady development: ‘eg. the Keel pig ofthe Oscherg ship was too small nd showed signs of repr, while later ships hve bigger keel pigs and even dispense with the mast fish ‘Treetrunks were spit and wedged apart radially to make planks, Where possible curved and angled parts were cut from naturally shaped timber, along the grain; the heel pig. and other L-shaped pieces could be ext from a ection of trunk at the junction ‘ofa large branch, The most important tools were the axe and adze, and it is fascinating t0 see how the fost exact work was caried out with these simple blades = there is no evidence of sawn timbers, Sailing Is dificult to reconstruct the iggng ofViking ships hecause we only have finds of hus. Today's reeon- structions are based on contemporary depictions such a coins andthe Bayeux Tapestry. ‘The mast was probably no longer than could easily be stowed inside the ship. Taking down the mast was quite common, and the construction of the Kel pig allowed it 10 be i ackwatds, thus Timiting the Hength ofthe mast to about half the fength ofthe ship. ‘Some surviving pictures show shrouds and stays ropes which support the mast t the sides, front and ‘ear - but the Fixing of these ropes cannot be recon: Sucted. The rectangular sil was Fixed atthe top 10 ‘horizontal spar or yard, the lower edge sometimes tring manipulated with another pote called. the beitiass when sailing close to the wind: it was (Let The allow daught oft cos allowed at ‘eed Wiig sn oh Sindy haces on saeco Sly i iT ules emningaganrwacontrolled with ropes running from the tps of the yardarms. Despite the simple rigging sailing against the wind was apparently possible, though if time allowed the captain usually waited for a more favourable wind, In 1893 a Norwegian captain crossed the Atlantic from Bergen to Newfoundland in a reconstruction of the Gokstad ship, proving that Viking ships really ‘were seaworthy. His reports ofthe erssing show bis astonishment at the sailing qualities ofthe ship, and record top speeds of 11 knols, ie. about 20kn/h. He also praised the steering, Viking ships had a rudder Fitted to the right side of the stern; this makes the Ship tend to the let, but the Viking Shipwrights gave the rudder a profile similar to an aircraft wing, this both correcting this bias and also preventing pressure building up on the rudder - even in heavy seas it could be manned by only one helmsman, set tect tag fe np! Ove cowrrapal fous cto tte cman {Sige (ett) The Gost stip a ‘aap pes oar and ‘vo aso wih th Si ected yd for Ibiy always taken down a These beautiful Viking ships were the result of centuries of experience in shipbuilding and seaman ship and were cle superior in most respects to the wallowing, barrl-hulled “cogs” that "sucoceded them. It was their small cargo capacity which led to their replacement during the later Middle Ages by larger but infinitely less graceful vessel60 Clothing and Jewellery Materials and methods busie material ofViking clothing was woot I ich or poor, everyone wore woolen cloth but the quality varied between different groups in society. Imported cloth was wom ta Aisplay wealthy Friesian and Anglo-Saxon weaves were particularly desirable. Bright colours might also fuggest wealth, as some were usually achieved by difficult dying techniques wsing expensive, imported raw materials ~ e.g. indigo and purple. The mass of poorer folk had fo be content with cloth which could be woven at home and coloured with the extracts of local plants (hough these were varied and versatile see below), and igh wear the hangrock ‘rao veo oF esas festering th Hoa tnd beck pel be apo Ioctunes:atcente ba Sutin ft ofthe shor fae cael nd The base Jwer gs o te tue gh tral tong ns wood ‘atreat wigan inser, Wore pute, ch thse sg tng, ‘he lnm “reson fro Sn gi ‘i pigs ler eackng Tallow Eades. Some ofthe sheep kept in Viking times did not have to be sheared, as they los their woo! through natural ‘moulting; but whether it had to be sheared of only picked Up, all the wool had to he cleaned first ofall This was done carefully so thatthe natural oil was not removed = Wool retaining its natral Tanoline is feasier to com and spin and is more Weatherproof ‘After cleaning the wool was combed to align the fibres and prepare it for spinning, I fine yarn was rnoeded to make tightly woven cloth the shor fibres were removed by combing, leaving only the stiffer Upper hairs fora thick felled cloth the shorter fbes ‘would also be spun into the yar, "The process of spinning twist the fibres to make an endless yarn. From the invention of spinning pethaps 12,000 yeats ago until the invention ofthe Spinning wheel in the 13h century, there was only ‘one tool fo this: the hand spindle. The simplest type consisted of stick: by the Viking age the spindle had acquired a weight filed to one end to make it twist To spin yarn, some fibres ae pulled from a mass of fleece twisted togetber to form a starting thread and Fixed to the end of the spindle. The spindle is lowered towards the ground, rotating on the end of the lengthening yarn which is ereated by its twisting motion as more wool is fed on tit through the hands, When the spindle reaches the ground the spinner pauses, winds the new yarn onto in a spook, Fixes the last of this tothe top ofthe spindle ain, and repeats the process. The lighter the spindle, the thinner the yarn; but the spindle will ot unas long as aheavy one and has to be restarted more often. A heavier spindle rons longer, but the weight makes it ‘more likely thatthe yarn will break. Ite Fibres are very short the technique described cannot be used: the spindle has to be rested in a bowl, or simply turned by rolling it over the thigh ‘When the yarn had been spun - a tedious and "unpopular job ~ithad to he woven int cloth, Most Viking cloth was woven on vertical weighted looms simple frames that lean agsinst & wall, Some of the warp of vertical threads ate ted to the top of the frame and tightened with weights; others are fixed to 4 horizontal bar by which they can be pulled to the front. Through the resulting gaps berween the to groups of warp threads, the we or crosswise yarn is threaded, crossing over and under differing numbers of warp threads, and then pushed tight against the edge ofthe already woven section,“The appearance and durability ofthe cloth depend ‘om ow many warp threads the weft crosses before it passes under a warp thread. Viking cloth was mainly ‘Woven to give a compromise between durability and softness, not unlike moder denim; this allows broad variety of weaving patterns, eg. shomboids or perringbone” patterns - the latter a Viking favourite ‘The warp was usually woven tighter than the weft, ‘The invention of the so-called horizontal loom, Which allowed the groups of warp threads to be ‘moved by a pedal action, brought a four-fold inerease in productivity; and the discovery at the Haithabu site of a shaft rll, apart of this type of lom, proves that this invention took place dusing the Viking age However, it is questionable whether this new device reached the remoter areas of Viking settlement; even at Haithabu ~ a relatively cosmopolitan centre of intemational trade ~ a single shaft roll find is accom- panied by large numbers of weights from the old pattern loom. After weaving the cloth was often *flled”; the Vikings favoured a finish similar to modern loden, This procedure its the nap to make the cloth hairy” and gives better protection against rain, and some finds at Haithabu show cloth Tulled to sich a degree that t almost looks like fur. The Vikings also made woven "Take far" -roggvarfeldr, a shagay weave incorporating tufts ofunspun woo: this was sed for oaks and other gatments as wel as for trimming the edges of clothing COten the cloth or its raw materials were dyed, (Lett) Por women ike nm workers othe venloersantng ives wold probably wear Sly ote simple uni and often hd notes Se pos I at he ea pieces of cloth around thei Feet, Owning a tings cative wens he ae ao dts (igh) a cones ts woman wears ely sre ce nde tea ‘ears ataeaprosito' completly ‘ties Greckpeplonalso uign to Balad ‘the te aon worm ee She hse Fine "uns" Woes ih tal hans 2 Sel mt Nahr ich seems to ant to bela 5 tally the apron sting. sometimes with plants which could be picked locally, sometimes with materials imported at great cos. ‘The variety of colours that can be achieved without ‘modern chemical dyes is surprising, and itis quite ristaken 10 assume that vegetable dyes necessrily produce dull shades. Such “natural” colours are not limited to greens and browns, but include bright yellows, reds and blues. Brighly coloured clothes ‘were worn by whoever could afford them. On the whole, Viking clothing was more sophisticated and made to higher standards than might be expected from looking at the simple tools with which it was made, The finest examples of preserved fabrics fount more than S0 threads to the centimetee, and the variety that could be achieved by different ‘weaves, treatments and colouring is impressive. “Apart fom wool the Vikings also used linen to some ‘extent; but as this is woven from a plant fibre, it had to compete for scarce Tertle land with the plants needed Tor food, whereas sheep would live in areas that could not be cultivated, To grow linen meant that you had more land than you needed to feed your family, so it was a sign of wealth, Moreover, linen is less warm and thus less versatile than wool; & man ‘who could afford only afew pieces of clothing would rot have chosen linen, It ean be spun to a very fine thread and gives thin cloth, so it was often used for underwear; a special weaving technique gave it a pleated look which made it outline the figure. Silk was a prized material throughout Europe daring the Viking age - avery expensive luxury which 6pa Pe owe en fhe pe nba the cane moved op tn bth rameby spy eating the ‘se ofthe aly eth salle rset in el water ihe same an Ingres(aboe All be asin his tet were ed with mate ine that were Ne inten se ve the le our ested inodrm ee sou the (Beton Some typical ex ‘Sealy sowing he shot ‘pean ete ngs cols which ol Ye ingredients Combinations sion ag 8 ‘one ses nd only plc change of destin is mark byveria symmetrical ais Man Dens) ‘sen This woman ic Mock bls by 9 Iinkingubcenovenbid. degrees heer dis Nate the squreblewih2 ton aid bythe pte. fete im each comer a hom The paterns of ble-nones the weer heat in Iya ae spe doe othe the et sep wil be © "ahr repent, uta ne had to he imported over great distances from Asia ‘Only the very wealthy could afford silk, which was in any case to vulnerable for everyday use in the robust “aly lifes of even the richest Vikings. It was most ‘often used for decorative braiding and embroidery: a Hhithaba fink of a half-finished piece of tablet weaving is believed by archacologsts to have origi rally included golden welts and silken warps, Cotton was worn in the contemporary Byzantine Empire, and had reached southern Spain with the Moors, but there is no evidence for its use in Scandinavian clothing Specialist techniques ‘The Vikings knew two textile techniques which are ‘worth special mention, as they are nearly forgotten today, Since the early Iron Age, tablet weaving was used to make decorative braiding. In this technique the warp does not run over a hae but theough holes in the comers of small square tablets made from wood or Ione. Rotating these tablets twists the wap ino @ ‘yarn: many ofthese tablets lid side by side will give many yarns Tying side by side, which are held together by a welt cunning through. The finished 63from near thon nd ‘nly possesion. He ds nt ‘en Snes tn bis clothes ae Sean of taders pred in ‘sok this bower aig if, 0 cnt Be stn! pt eo Same braid will show the colour of the uppermost thread if threads of different colours are used in the same tablet, patterns can he made. While most examples show repeating geometrical or wavy’ shapes, quite ‘complex patterns ean be produced ifthe direction in Which the tablets are rotated ie changed at planned intervals - lowers, figures, even Viking ships. Knitting and crocheting were unknown (0 the ‘Vikings, but to make cloth which had to be elastic = eg, for stockings - they used a technique called naal- binding. A long thread is lai into loops witha thick needle which is threaded through the last row of loops, ving a result not unlike knitted work. Even large garments such ax cloaks could be made in this fashion, but are thought to have been uncommon, Clothing “The basic garment for both men and women in the {64 early Middle Ages was the tune, a simple shirt-shape ‘ut straight and with added sleeves. To give more Width at the lower edge gussets might be incorpo rated, sometimes of a contrasting colour, The ‘woman's tunic was ankle length, sometimes long- oF half- sleeved, sometimes sleeveless, It ws typically worn with « long overgarment made from rectan gular lengths of material front and back, joined by raps and brooches atthe shoulders (ented for the purposes ofthis text as an "apron-skin", for lack ‘of any more descriptive English term). ‘The man’s tunic reached the knee, and was worn ‘over trousers, Trousers seem to have been cut in various shapes full-length, straight and lose: tighter Fiting in the manner of later medieval hose: knee- length, with separate, cross-gartered leggings below: and ~ forthe relatively wealthy, given the amount of vaterial needed ~ in the baggy Rus syle. These farments, made from woollen cloth and normally Tooke enough for easy movement, were often the only clothing a Viking owned apart from a simple woollen lak, and a belt to which small possessions might be slung. hen cot ate Sea isl the ight wri te oh wed her served otha jewellery and ‘eey, ct Sie pets el from he wnt iy ‘evel yes fag ‘tan undrtnie,atune and tm apromski canteenSigns of relative wealth might include an undertunie of pleated linen, and oater garments tailored t0 & tighier fit. The Wealthy Viking woman might combine alinenundertani wih 2 tight apron-skirt and a coat like oater tune. Her husband might wear an ovter tunic ut to fit at the chest, thigh length cloak with overlapping font, and trousers confined by putes Tike eg wrappings below the knee For protection against bad weather there were cloaks and tunes of fall Wool, or cows ~ hoods wih capes Covering the aeck an upper chest. Some special winter clothing. was doubled, and sometimes even had ailing of down, 'AS mentioned shove, a wie variety ofcoloured dyes were ased, the wealthier srt diplaying imported Fabrics or expensive colors, the poorer seating homespun cither undyed or coloured with realy available agents (@2. 2 Haithabu find dyed dark brown with walnut, which aso had & disinfecting property). Viking clothing was often decorated atthe lower edges either with applied braiding or with embroidery, and outer clathing was often trimmed ‘wth Tue the degre of decoration, too, was an id toe of wealth The sane was tre ofthe se and material ofthe brooches and pins used to fasten the garments. A fich Viking wore cloak brooches of gold orale at Shoulder or hip, and his wie fixed her apromskin With & pair of sickly decorated trowehes linked by chains or beads; but a poor man would carve a bution from wood or hors. ‘The design and material of the belt its huckle and any metal strap end also depended upon the owner's resources. “The typical Viking shoe was an ankle-bigh “urn soe" fastened with laces the sic, and usally ‘made from goatkin, Higher bots were also worn, Some with ake eps fastened by toggles. Fotwear ‘was semetimes decorated with embroidery. Jewellery Jewellery was a flourishing trade. Pieces made by silversmiths and. goldsmiths, bronze castes, one carvers and glass bead makers were used for display, fa a store of wealth and as currency. Viking age Scandinavia had few coins; payment was often by barter, and if no exchange of goods could be agreed then payment could be made with an appropriate amount of precious metal - especially the necklaces and bracelets typical ofthe period, ether whole or cut into smaller pieces. There was ciealy no hesitation fahout curting up such "works of art": so many Viking hoards contain parts of larger artefacts which have been broken up that archaeologisis use the specific term "backsiver’ Although some oft was made to be broken up and relted down, Viking jewellery shows a high standard of craftsmanship, eimploying nearly all techniques that are still nse today. The pieces were cast or iammered from a flat piece, the surfaces decorated with engraving filigree work or nell inlay - the only ‘unknown technigue seems to have been enamelling. Many bronze and silver artefacts were gilded. ‘Through their widespread trading the Vikings had contact with many other cultures, and such intlu- fences are evident in ther jewellery. The Celtic motif of entwined beasts was imported from Ireland, but the Vikings substituted their heloved dragons for the human and. dog figures of most Irish originals. Frankish influence can be sen i the trefoil brooches sade mainly in Denmark: in Gotland Slavie forms were copied ‘Apart from thei functions as decoration and means fof exchange, many pieces obviously had everyday uses. Pins, clasps and brocches were needed to keep garments together, the most striking being the large orteise" brooches with which Viking. women fastened their apron-skiets. These were always in ‘matehing pairs, often linked by chains of gla beads (eto) ite’ tts tromev an lok athe ‘Shes fi gewing ong Icpuretmatbe nea. The embroidery ate sles66 (gn Tas fe wae depo gods sows how ino iy we ‘had witout for ein Tock she sl, ys an foe made than ies reas (tet) A slston oreo ch ae and cont hton bet bcs ant stop Between Norway ad he sh ‘The luge baclee cerpo- Viking ek fen ha ot fing sign we” oly Deke and spend ‘Trefoil brooches were used by women to fasten a short, shaw-like cape; cloaks were fastened with a simple pin, a big ring pin, oF a silver or bronze brooch, ‘Another pice of jewellery in everyday use was the amulet, meant (© protect the bearer and bring him good luck, The most famous contemporary charm is the "Thors hammer’, made from a variety of mato- Fils and in many sles = in bronze, silver or gold, andlor combined with a chain = and apact from the wellknown abstract form there are also miniature copies of real hammers. Other types of amulets are also known. Christian Vikings wore crosses: smal Amber leg found at Haithabs is thought to be a good Tuck charm and there are finds of amber axeheads ‘and coiled snakes from Scandinavia, Ireland andthe Danelaw. fll Felicia ote, which be had ike bette es se fl ‘even lah The Vite Them ist Rating woo! Mos ikl fells wee as fiesta soapy wer snd temo oy the ose eating thm ms sal purine ou(tat) Tes ences Wowie Viking dose ether severing he eck ast pts tay cents A UgoThe Viking Woman Piece ae See Scien oe SESE ci tee et ey Epica boy Screen are su ape mua aa fone Fe Art iat icy in cap cn te le ett & above Hh The “ote” trae amber ‘Gptcingfe Ving woe ugh ore mages Seti nrty_—_ eh ‘Bidewcesthesampeaied ual Pd of is Stew ase hangerck, pede ves Ses ching tank Sci xn, ad TEncocathe termi The ooshes Senses ae inc crcn corde wien Te delingesl pee. fine Teta ou beast he hago and prot cere i et) Anon Mid womce ed ice wot ing he ky ordre ‘el gets ere ‘Shown hc om one “The womans ited eytesongr ochre the ber pena Vii pek Te ‘cay le a ‘ht i sn wer mcaDaily Life among the Vikings Slaves and Free Men ng society was divided int wo groups: fee, and \ J ast Teevlon ore trl oy Convene) to oi lad which gave thm 2 vein te hing assembly. ‘These sighs were deaied to slaves: a slave was the propery of his master, who could il fim witost punishment slong a he opelyamited On the oat hand, the muster was responsible forthe sluve's malate ‘ance. A Scandinavian ofthe Viking age col be a sate By"binn, or could. descend into sivery” Contemporary ftthore tll of Vikings who lost home’ and heath By fumbling. and ished thoi oodom as the hist stake. A ‘roman could ako fose er fee stats If she relations wha save (eon) For the pore cass eta may ly bv been sl Frnt. Hanger as ‘Nconsn hestba srvct ‘tee commen, tnd ee in Dolsnrecccrent a fice the sed Novels. Igo times here mete ‘domes ome sp, is abt ad ores el is, atc ad ss: it the oats could be ged Spec ant Ried oes cken fad gs gate both et and Ans een discovered aso ‘poutine fo fab et (above) A Viking it wa Fay ony ben the fae took ton ie kes a led ity fs name Sometimes fas who call nt 2 tewborn chi woul shandon ‘teas ot actualy Fone byw et as tolerate oly tbe hd was ‘tome or hal ot eben scope it th fay Ti Ahoger of sch weatmeat: is ‘woes talon rouble ‘orate bislthes an Yo finds eck Tae ‘oman henilth or winple Shows Anglo ane recaps fami Ue ne Basch? Although a slave was not normaly allowed tarry weapons there Were excepons to this al: ia far Was Sacked the slaves often fought ia us. defence at thir ‘masters sie, ‘Sometimes staves wee given a share ofthe harvest of te Tand they worked, and could buy thei fresdom sooner or ltr Even iey i, however, they ‘were huly beter off thas Before i terms of het daly lives: without any land or capital they ano choice bu to hire oat as labourers, doing ie same work as before. Only slaves whe wore given a pace of land a giate sun of ‘ony om being set ree By their masters had areal chance Stimpeoving thee bt "There o information op how often aves were st fee cor bought thir freedom, hut happened atleast often “ough fr thre tobe Lvs governing the procedure. The NNonsegian Frosting I rien dom in the 18h entry but probably regulariing earlier custom, sates thatthe Former sive must prepare & feast for his formeraso: the maser dd not come the seats ofhonour wore Tet empky Te fred sive and hie fam ome allegiance tenis former mater for several genertons, bat eld Poy "The pice fora lave was cleaated by age and strength anda, fora female slat, by god looks. A boy este fate 2 prown man of good heath snd eng, 2 pound “The sts ofa free Viking depended en sever hings. A landowner was Tegarded as superoe to a landless tan sing ater thn prt ren hid of es infer clan” Reins wer por lant tothe Vangs: having the gt connections sted thom fap iat of ict =the clan we obliged 4 and by ie members. Fortnes and land were usally inherited ty family members so tht thy id ot Fae the thon is elatives ad he ah 1o make the Fst ba Women's rights As alread) mentioned, masiges wer question of family obey, aanged a can level and fixed by contact her {han being solely a private decison for eie ad goa, ‘was ony the Christan period thatthe Vikings accepted thatthe bride sul he ae for her consent: eve ‘haracterstggest tat forcing + betrthal gaint ‘woman's fixed chjction might be. peious tusness. ‘Ong the bedeproom simply paid apie To the father fnbortance: and Sal the sum was given dely tothe Irae by the bidegrooat This may Mave boon theese thy sghers reed a fasr sire of thelr father Inertancs thn sons since thet potion was pty sete The fact tht marages wer arranged shold not he ake to'mean thatthe Viking woman eas wibout righ, the ‘ia il of tong ad ferese women. Ths hates (Atore ight) Inside oe sap, Int Viking hase tualycuaywifemand the fc in he al oom wahiogonsrchan we ceo aly Said ang tom tpl shor evence oscar Novetbeconamuctionst roan bong wed athe Reh Young ys stad saye le ams athens trainin ang ‘mitts al ey histidine weapons ode ok fin Ving bok hikers owt eal) = oape {Melodeo wihrwot, Sng 12 ali bye ‘Nee when st nes a al nog efor iy.was the unquestioned rier ofthe howsehol, andthe Keys {oral locks which she carried wath her were the symbol a Saher from tee pareats,hustands, or sons if thse died ‘ithout wife or shld A widow wae fre to decide ‘whether she wanted to remarry er tay independent “The Landoamabon,a saps uf he setamen! of Ieland, tells the story of Aud. whose husband died, She then partied ofr daughters to husbands onthe Orineys and Fes, and st ofan a expedion with 20 Tree Vikings 0 etl in Teeland. She soem to have beon historical person around whom many Tales were er invented: but taking her fate its her own bands, and respected To i Homesteads Most of the Scandinavian population gained thse lve hood by farming. and die io the shortage of good land their ceadings were wily seated que far apart Stch arm consisted oft nan building sheltering ch nan find beast combining the house apd tho byee had the ‘Siang that a winter the anna presence would belp etd pode coed Se dete hl cp ad the freios metals nected tho he sl ot woe Frank te Ourpcuce as by Mewes en stows seve wooden Bol, soe the Ung ge, robaty ‘pom ol wood and bor fst it ne fovry cut wooden hs, ial ir cop oud pan ae The Foo Tih ei avete oto 4 ora apon and the fe was inh gm" ca es ‘Viings pet thine Ge ago fou a aha Sawing. tone he fers traps psi an em wy le Bo. {hs way-itas ern dha olson might be (it inet) The stating are et) Board eon te gna ore theron th ie” ue ssi ae by Somnath ig nb “Trondheim and he Foreshat the builiing. In ado to the main building thre ‘were afen smaller howset for labourers, sheds and work hop: thous might be parally dg ina the ground so tha leer material was pesded Yo Bul them "The contraction ffthe main building depended oo the available resoures ftthe area Imber wa pleat lel then the buses tere log cabin, Tres were sparse, amework of eams Board games ‘The Vikings enjoyed ames and. were famblers One ru of wbleop {a games, played on bonnie of Reewees x7 ad T9x19 squares, seem t have been ‘ery popular with fl cases Many fave been found. of quis from the simplest fo the ‘ost precious and one poo refers to the world a5 “Ohuin® tal board‘The eles do ot survive completely tot re-emicors hive devised reconstnstion hich "The allcher. stating atthe edges, wes to beak the

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