Overview of The Aircraft Design Process V40

Overview of the Aircraft Design Process
Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos
V40 March 2010

Objective
This lecture is intended to provide an

overview of the aircraft design process
2
Content
Introduction
The Product Development Process
The Conceptual Design Phase
The Preliminary Design Phase
The Detail Design Phase and Future Trends
3
Introduction
4
Introduction
Recommended Further Reading
• D. Howe - Aircraft Conceptual Design Synthesis

• Loftin- Subsonic Aircraft: The Evolution and the Matching of
Size to Performance. NASA Referendum Publication 1060.
• D. Raymer - Aircraft Design, A Conceptual Approach.
• E. Torenbeek - Synthesis of Airplane Design.
• J. Roskam - Airplane Design Vol. (1-8).
• Askin Isikveren - Quasi-Analytical Modeling and Optimization
Techniques For Transport Aircraft Design, PhD. Thesis, 2002.
5
Introduction
Recommended Further Reading
• L.Jenkinson, P.Simpkin & D.Rhodes – Civil Jet Aircraft Design

• D.Stinton – The Design of the Aeroplane
• S.Brandt, J.Stiles & R.Whitford – Introduction to Aeronautics – A
Design Perspective
6
Introduction
Specific Industry journals

AEROSPACE DAILY
AVIATION WEEK & SPACE TECHNOLOGY
BUSINESS & COMMERCIAL AVIATION
THE WEEKLY OF BUSINESS AVIATION
AEROSPACE DAILY & DEFENSE REPORT
AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING AND AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY
AEROSPACE AMERICA
AVIATION DAILY
ENGINEERING FAILURE ANALYSIS
ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS
AVIATION SPACE AND ENVIRONMENTAL MEDICINE
IEEE AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS MAGAZINE
JOURNAL OF AIRCRAFT
PROFESSIONAL ENGINEERING …
Introduction
Designing Aircraft
Design:
• Not a clear-cut/scientific or completely rational process
– Despite efforts to formalize
– Neat flow charts of steps aren’t real life, still needed as goals
– But! Some systematic procedures available
• Creativity/imagination, but not pure inspiration
• Broad understanding of physical world
• Beware of cookbook approach:
- understand your concept
• Never stop asking questions!
8
Introduction
Good Designs
Source: Prof. Mason, Virginia Tech

9
Introduction
The Process
Source: Prof. Mason, Virginia Tech

10
Introduction
Aircraft Design is a Compromise
• It is the task of the aircraft design engineer to

balance the customer requirements with the
physical constraints, cost and time-scale, in order to
produce the most effective aircraft possible.
• Aircraft Design Requires Teamwork
• No “one” design group is more important than the
others.
• Note: All Engineering involves Compromises!
11
Introduction
Aircraft
• Aeronaves são sistemas multidisciplinares complexos
– Requerem tempo considerável para projetar e construir
(vários anos).
– Investimento considerável (custo unitário também elevado).
– Mercado extremamente competitivo.
– Requisitos extremamente exigentes de certificação do
produto.
• Incerteza no projeto e desenvolvimento conduz a:
- aeronaves que são entregues fora do prazo e do orçamento.
- aeronaves inadequadas e não-competitivas.
12
Introduction
Aeronaves São Sistemas Multidisciplinares Complexos
• Sistemas multidisciplinares são intrisincamente difíceis de

modelar e entender devido a uma única pessoa não ser capaz
de possuir conhecimento detalhado nas áreas requeridas.
• Sistemas frequentemente tornam-se muitos complexos para
que se possa reduzir a incerteza e permitir uma
previsibilidade razoável.
– Requisitos de certificação cada vez mais exigentes.
– Requisitos de desempenho e operação mais exigentes e complexos
(ex. aeronaves silenciosas e não-poluentes)
13
Introduction
Think Light, Think Simple,

Think Accessibility, Think Maintainability,
and Think Cost
14
Introduction
Kelly Johnson’s Rules
Kelly Johnson established fourteen basic

operating rules to govern his projects.
Within the Skunk Works staff, these
rules were as sacred as the
Ten Commandments.
Many sites across the internet include
these rules. The rules differ slightly from
site to site. The following compilation is
from the stuff obtained them from these
various sites and selected from the
wordings. (For example, later wordings
seem to substitute "customer" for the
military and "vendor" for contractor.).
15
Introduction
Rule Number 1
The Skunk Works' program manager must be delegated practically complete control of his
program in all aspects. He should report to a division president or higher.
Rule Number 2
Strong but small project offices must be provided both by the military and industry.
Rule No. 3
The number of people having any connection with the project must be restricted in an almost
vicious manner. Use a small number of good people (10 percent to 25 percent compared to
the so-called normal systems).
Rule No. 4
A very simple drawing and drawing release system with great flexibility for making changes
must be provided.
Rule No. 5
There must be a minimum number of reports required, but important work must be recorded
thoroughly.
16
Introduction

Rule No. 6
There must be a monthly cost review covering not only what has been spent and committed
but also projected costs to the conclusion of the program. Don't have the books ninety days
late and don't surprise the customer with sudden overruns.
Rule No. 7
The contractor must be delegated and must assume more than normal responsibility to get
good vendor bids for subcontract on the project. Commercial bid procedures are very often
better than military ones.
Rule No. 8
The inspection system as currently used by the Skunk Works, which has been approved by
both the Air Force and the Navy, meets the intent of existing military requirements and
should be used on new projects. Push more basic inspection responsibility back to the
subcontractors and vendors. Don't duplicate so much inspection.
Rule No. 9
The contractor must be delegated the authority to test his final product in flight. He can and
must test it in the initial stages. If he doesn't, he rapidly loses his competency to design other
vehicles.
17
Introduction
Rule No. 11
Funding a program must be timely so that the contractor doesn't have to keep running to the
bank to support government projects.
Rule No. 12
There must be absolute mutual trust between the military organization and the contractor
with very close liaison on a day-to-day basis. This cuts down misunderstanding and
correspondence to an absolute minimum.
Rule No. 13
Access by outsiders to the project and its personnel must be strictly controlled by
appropriate security measures.
Rule No. 14
Because only a few people will be used in engineering and most other areas, ways must be
provided to reward good performance by pay, not simply related to the number of personnel
supervised.
18
Introduction
Rule 15
Several sites suggest that there was an additional "unwritten rule" . . .
Rule No. 15
Never deal with the Navy.
19
Introduction
Kelly Johnson’s Most

Important Rule
"Be Quick, Be Quiet, And Be on Time"
20
Weight Definitions
• disposable load = payload + useable fuel (+any necessary ballast)
Where
Payload = the revenue earning load
Maximum ramp weight is that approved for ground maneuver
Maximum ramp weight = maximum take-off weight + start, taxi, and run-up fuel
Maximum landing weight = maximum weight approved for touchdown
Maximum zero fuel weight = the maximum weight approved – usable fuel
• APS weight (aircraft prepared for service), which is the same as the basic
empty weight, i.e. fully equipped operational, without crew, usable fuel or
payload (the load that generates revenue, income).
• AUW, Wo The all-up (gross) weight is the maximum weight at which flight
requirements must be met.
Maximum to take-off weight = gross (all-up) weight = MTOW

= operating empty weight + disposable load
in which operating empty weight and disposable load are built up as

follow
Operating empty weight = basic empty weight + crew
Basic empty weight = standard empty weight + optional equipment
Standard empty weight = weight of the standard aircraft (as

manufactured + unusable fuel + full operating fluids + full engine oil
Business Opportunities
Introduction
DEFENSE CIVIL
Trainers
Airliners
Surveillance
Executive
Transport
Agricultural
UAVs
Attack Helicopters
Introduction
General Aviation
• Aircraft specifically use to teach someone to fly. C-152, Piper Tomahawk, Beech
Skipper
• Use of aircraft other than business or commercial use, 24% all hours flown.
• Beech - Sundowner, Sierra, Bonanza
• Cessna - largest builder of GA 179,500 - 172 Skyhawk, 182 Skylane, 185 Skywagon,
210 Centurion

Introduction
Market Structure and Segmentation

Transport Category
Commercial Aircraft
25
Introduction
Market Structure and Segmentation

Transport Category
Executive or Business Aircraft
26
Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos Introduction
Jet Transport Aircraft
Embraer 190
Airbus A319
Boeing 767-300
27
COMMOM PLATFORMS
Airliner Derivative
EMB 145 AEW&C

ERJ 145
EMB 145 RS/AGS
EMB 145 MP/ASW
P-3 Orion
Lockheed 188 Electra II
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Derivative
Military Transport
Embraer EMB-110 variants and Derivatives
Fonte: Revista Manche, 1978

29
Introduction
EMB-110 Bandeirante
Version (Designation by FAB) EIS Role
EMB-110 (C-95) 1973 Military liaison
EMB-110A (EC-95) 1973 Aerial Laboratory (Calibration of Airport Instrumentation)
EMB-110B 1975 Aerial photography
EMB-110C 1973 Airliner (15 passengers)
Transporte Executivo
EMB-110E/J 1975
(7-8 passengers)
Regional airliner
EMB-110P 1975
(18 pax)
EMB-110S1 1976 Remote sensing
EMB-110B1 1976 Conversível Passageiros/Aerofotogrametria
EMB-110K1 (C-95A) 1977 Cargo/Paratroops transport
Regional Airliner
EMB-110P2 1977
(21 pax)
EMB-111 1977 Patrulha e Esclarecimento Marítimo
EMB-110P1 1978 Transporte de Passageiros e Carga (19 pax)

Introduction
Bandeirante
EMB-100/100A
O EMB-100 Bandeirante foi desenvolvido no Centro Técnico de

Aeronáutica (Atualmente Comando-Geral de Tecnologia Aeroespacial) a
partir de 1965 (Programa IPD-6504) por uma equipe liderada por Osires
Silva que também envolveu o francês Max Holste. Inspirado no Nord 262
desenvolvido inicialmente por Holste, o Bandeirante realizou o seu
primeiro vôo em 1968. Foi o primeiro bimotor metálico projetado e
construído no Brasil e a Embraer foi criada para produzí-lo em série. O
EMB-100 serviu de plataforma para o EMB-110C (derivado do EMB-110 da
FAB), o primeiro modelo civil que de fato foi comercializado pela Embraer.
Vale ressaltar, que o terceiro protótipo foi fabricado após a criação da
Embraer, equipado para ser um laboratório voador para pesquisas com
sensoriamento remoto.
Informações Técnicas
Unidades fabricadas: 3
Primeiro vôo: 22 de outubro de 1968
Capacidade: 2 tripulantes e 7, 9 ou 10 passageiros dependendo do
protótipo
Peso máximo de decolagem: 4500 kg
Envergadura: 15,38 m
Área da asa: 29,22 m2
Velocidade máxima de operação: 389 km/h
Motor: Pratt&Whitney PT6-A20 de 550 shp

Introduction
Bandeirante
EMB-110 A/B/C/E/F/K1/J/P/P1/P1A/P2/S1
O EMB-110 (C-95 da Força Aérea Brasileira, FAB) e o EMB-110C Bandeirante foram uma
modificação substancial do EMB-100, que havia sido desenvolvido no CTA. Trem de pouso
totalmente escamoteável, motores mais potentes, naceles dos motores redesenhadas, maior
capacidade de passageiros com a fuselagem aumentada em quase dois metros foram algumas,
entre várias outras, modificações levadas adiante pela recém criada Embraer. A Transbrasil foi o
primeiro operador civil do Bandeirante, que lhe foram entregues em abril de 1973. Foi a primeira
vez que uma cia. aérea nacional foi equipada com um produto de origem brasileira. A Embraer
continou aperfeiçoando e desenvolvendo novas versões de seu bimotor. Em 1978, obteve a
certificação do P1 e P2 no mercado norte-americano, onde o Bandeirante foi um sucesso de
vendas. Por conta de sua versatilidade e facilidade de manutenção, cerca de 500 exemplares
foram fabricados até maio de 1990, quando a produção foi encerrada. Na África do Sul, a
robustez do modelo foi mais uma vez comprovada com a conversão do Bandeirante para operar
como avião agrícola, conversão feita por operadores locais. A FAB em 2008 contava com 105
Bandeirantes, em 9 versões e duas variantes, que desempenham cinco missões distintas operando
em 14 esquadrões, além de dotar vários outros como aeronave orgânica. Além das versões mais
comuns de transporte C-95, C-95A, C-95B e C-95C, são utilizadas pela FAB duas versões para
calibragem de instrumentos, EC-95B e EC-95C, duas variantes para patrulha marítima, P-95A e P-
95B, uma versão para busca e salvamento, SC-95B, uma versão para pesquisa de chuvas, XC-95,
e, finalmente, uma de reconhecimento e levantamento aerofotográfico, designada de R-95.
Entrada em serviço: 1973 com a FAB
Término da fabricação: maio de 1990
Capacidade: 15 pax + 2 tripulantes (EMB-110C)
Peso máximo de decolagem: 5600 kg (EMB-110C)
Peso máximo de pouso: 5300 kg
Velocidade máxima de operação: 426 km/h (EMB-110C)
Motor: Turboélice Pratt&Whitney PT6 variando de 680 a 750 shp nas várias versões
Introduction
Bandeirante
EMB-110C
Em 1972 o Bandeirante foi homologado pelo Centro Técnico de Aeronáutica (Atualmente

Comando-Geral de Tecnologia Aeroespacial). O EMB-110C foi a versão derivado do EMB-
110 (C-95 da FAB) que a Embraer desenvolveu como transporte básico de linha aérea (15
passageiros podeiam ser transportados). Através de apoio a aviação de terceiro nível,
empresas nacionais como a Transbrasil, Rio–Sul , VASP e TAM vieram a adquirir o
Bandeirante. Em 26 de janeiro de 1973, a Trannsbrasil formalizou a compra de seis
Bandeirante. A Transbrasil foi também a primeira empresa aérea a receber o modelo, o
que se deu 11 de abril de 1973. Na segunda metade de setembro de 1973, foi realizado
em São José dos Campos o 1o Salão Aeroespacial Internacional, ocasião em que foi
anunciada a venda de 10 Bandeirante para a VASP. Posteriormente, os Bandeiantes da
Transbrasil foram repassados à Nordeste Linhas Aéreas e os da VASP à TAM. Cinco
exemplares foram fronecidos à Força Aérea do Uruguai. O EMB-110C(N) diferia bo EMB-
110C pela instalação de equipamentos de degelo nas asas, hélices, empenagem, entrada
de ar dos motores e pára-brisa.
Certicação: 20 de dezembro de 1972 (CTA)
Entrada em serviço: 16 de abril de 1973
Capacidade: 15 passageiros + 2 tripulantes
Envergadura: 15,3 m
Comprimento: 14,2 m
Teto de serviço: 8660 m
Bandeirante
EMB-110K1 (C-95A)
Concebido para operar com cargueiro militar, é utilizado também no

transporte de pára-quedistas. O EMB-110K1 teve a sua fuselagem alongada
em 0,85 em relação ao EMB-110 (C-95). Nesta versão, os tripulantes têm
acesso direto à cabina de comando, sem passar pela fuselagem central, já
que no lado esquerdo ao posto de pilotagem foi instalado uma porta de
tripulantes (0,63 x 1,42 m). No lado direito, há uma porta de emrgência para
os tripulantes. A fuselagem central dispõe de um volume útil de 14,7 m3. O
piso foi reforçado, podendo suportar uma carga de 488 kg/m2. A porta
principal da fuselagem foi alargada em relação ao C-95, passando a ter 1,80
m de largura por 1,42 m de altura. Ela é atuada hidraulicamente por meio de
bomba manual. Nesta porta, foi incorporada um porta menor, que se abre
para o interior da fuselagem e que serve como porta de emrgência,embora a
sua finalidade principal é a de permitir o salto de pára-quedistas. O avião
pode receber assentos laterais para a comodação de até 20 pára-quedistas.
Entrada em serviço: 1978
Capacidade: 2 tripulantes
Teto de serviço: 7.620 m
Motor: Pratt&Whitney PT6-A34d e 750 shp
Bandeirante
EMB-110P1/P1A/P2
Visualmente, o EMB-110P1 se destaca pela larga porta

de carga na traseira da aeronave e pelo diedro de 10
graus na empenagem horizontal para livrá-la da esteira
da asa e do motor. Operava tanto como versão
cargueira como de passageiros, quando admitia até 18
assentos. Foi a versão que junto com a P2 (sem diedro Above . EMB-110P1
na empenagem horizontal) foi homologada pela norte-
americana Agência Federal de Aviação (FAA, “Federal
Aviation Administration”) em 1978, o mesmo ano que o
Congresso daquele país desregulamentou o mercado de
aviação, permitindo um crescimento expressivo da
aviação regional. Assim, o Bandeirante se tornou
também um sucesso de vendas nos Estados Unidos.
Informações Técnicas (P1A)
Entrada em serviço: 1978 (P1) Above. EMB-110P2
Homologação CTA: 9 de maio de 1978
Peso máximo de decolagem: 5.670 kg
Peso máximo de pouso: 5.450 kg
Teto de serviço: 7.620 m At left . EMB-110P1
Velocidade máxima de operação: 426 km/h passenger cabin
Capacidade de combustível: 1.896 litros
Bandeirante
EMB-111 Bandeirulha
O EMB-111 é uma versão de patrulha marítima do Bandeirante.

Era dotado de um radar de busca no nariz do aparelho, faróis,
tanques de ponta de asa (os mesmos do EMB-326GB Xavante) e
de foguetes não-guiados SBAT 70/7. A Força Aérea Brasileira
recebeu um primeiro lote de 12 unidades (P-95) entre 1977 e
1979. Um segundo lote de 8 aviões de uma versão aperfeiçoada
(P-95B) foram comprados em fins de 1989. As principais
diferenças se referiam ao diedro da empenagem horizontal e a
aviônicos mais modernos. A Argentina utilizou o EMB-111
durante a Guerra das Malvinas em 1982.
Entrada em serviço: 1977 com a Força Aérea Brasileira
Peso máximo de decolagem: 7.000 kg
Peso vazio: 5150 kg
Velocidade máxima: 385 km/h
Alcance máximo: 3.250 km
Envergadura: 15,95 m
Grupo motopropulsor: Pratt&Whitney PT6-A34 de 750 shp
Operadores: Brasil, Argentina, Chile e Gabão
COMMOM PLATFORMS
Military Plane Airliner
Boeing 747-100
Boeing’s Heavy Lifter Concept
In 1963, the United States Air Force started a series of study projects on a very large "strategic" transport aircraft. Although the
C-141 Starlifter was being introduced, they felt that a much larger and more capable aircraft was needed, especially the
capability to carry "outsized" cargo that would not fit in any existing aircraft. These studies led to initial requirements for the CX-
Heavy Logistics System (CX-HLS) in March 1964 for an aircraft with a load capacity of 180,000 pounds (81,600 kg) and a
speed of Mach 0.75 (500 mph/805 km/h), and an unrefueled range of 5,000 nautical miles (9,260 km) with a payload of
115,000 pounds (52,200 kg). The payload bay had to be 17 feet (5.18 m) wide by 13.5 feet (4.11 m) high and 100 feet (30.5 m)
long with access through doors at the front and rear.
Featuring only four engines, the design also required new engine designs with greatly increased power and better fuel
economy. On 18 May 1964, airframe proposals arrived from Boeing, Douglas, General Dynamics, Lockheed and Martin
Marietta; while engine proposals were submitted by General Electric, Curtiss-Wright, and Pratt & Whitney. After a downselect,
Boeing, Douglas and Lockheed were given additional study contracts for the airframe, along with General Electric and Pratt &
Whitney for the engines.
All three of the airframe proposals shared a number of features, but one in particular would become iconic on the 747. As the
CX-HLS needed to be able to be loaded from the front, a door had to be included where the cockpit usually was. All of the
companies solved this problem by moving the cockpit to above the cargo area; Douglas had a small "pod" just forward and
above the wing, Lockheed used a long "spine" running the length of the aircraft with the wing spar passing through it, while
Boeing blended the two, with a longer pod that ran from just behind the nose to just behind the wing. In 1965 Lockheed's
aircraft design and General Electric's engine design were selected for the new C-5 Galaxy transport, which was the largest
military aircraft in the world at the time.
Introduction
Seaplanes

Introduction
Seaplanes
The Saunders-Roe Princess was a British

flying boat aircraft built by Saunders-Roe,
based in Cowes on the Isle of Wight. The
Princess was one of the largest aircraft in
existence.
By the 1950s, large, commercial flying boats
were being overshadowed by land-based
aircraft. Factors such as runway and airport
improvements added to the viability of land-
based aircraft, which did not have the weight
and drag of the boat hulls on seaplanes nor the
issues with seawater corrosion.

Introduction
World War II Night Fighters
40
Introduction
Early VTOL Aircraft
41
Modern VTOL Aircraft
U.S. Marine Corps MV-22B Osprey British Royal Navy FRS.Mk 1 Sea Harrier
Lockheed Martin F-35B Lightning II short

takeoff/vertical landing (STOVL) stealth fighter
42
Introduction
Airworthiness Regulations & Certification

Introduction
Structural Parts: Wing

The structural concept for the wing is that part of the
airplane is essentially a beam which gathers and
transmits all the loads to the central fuselage attachment
• Wing box
• Fixed leading edge
• Fixed trailing edge
• Ailerons
• Spoilers
• Flaps
• Slats
Introduction

• Wing structure consists of
– Internal structure
• Spars
• Ribs
• Stringers
– External structure
• Upper skin
• Lower skin
• Wing structure should posses

– Sufficient strength
– Stiffness
– Light weight
– Minimum manufacturing problems

Wing Box
• Front spar
• Rear spar
• Ribs
• Stringers
• Span wise beam
• Fuel tank
• Wing skins
Stringers
Introduction

Spars
• Spars are generally a beam running from root to the tip of the wing
• There are two spars
– Front spar
– Rear spar
• Multi-spar designs are used on larger wings and on military aircraft
• Spars carry the aerodynamic loads developed on a wing
• Spars consists of spar cap (flange) and web
• Spar cap carries bending loads and web carries shear loads
• Spars are generally I beams, some times C beams are also used
• All the structural parts of wing are attached to the spars
• Spars are of two types namely
– Shear web
– Truss type
Introduction
TYPES OF SPAR
c) Bent up channel
f) Integrally machined
a) Built up spar web
d) Frame truss
b) Truss type g) Integrally machined

truss
e) Sine wave web

Introduction
SPAN WISE BEAMS

• Span wise beams are members in the wing which run
from root to the tip
• Span wise beams are provided for additional support as
well as to support the fuel tank
Structural Parts: Fuselage
FUSELAGE ASSEMBLAGE
TYPES OF FUSELAGE STRUCTURE
• Box truss type
– The structural elements resemble those of
a bridge, with emphasis on using linked
triangular elements. The aerodynamic
shape is completed by additional elements
called formers and stringers and is then
covered with fabric and painted
• Monocoque
– the exterior surface of the fuselage is also
the primary structure
• Semi-monocoque
– A series of frames in the shape of the
fuselage cross sections are held in
position on a rigid fixture, or jig. These
frames are then joined with lightweight
longitudinal elements called stringers.
These are in turn covered with a skin of
sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or by
bonding with special adhesives
SEMI-MONOCOQUE FUSELAGE
Semi-monocoque fuselage structure consists of
• Longerons / stringers (Longitudinal members)
ü Longerons carries the bending load as axial load
ü Stringers also carry axial load
ü Stringers stabilize the skin
• Framing (Transverse members)
ü Provide the shape to the fuselage
ü Reduce the stringer length thus avoiding overall instability
• Skin
ü Carries the shear load from the cabin pressure, external
transverse and torsional loads
• Bulkheads
ü Bulkheads are provided at concentrated loading regions
such as wing attachments, tail attachments and landing
gear locations
SEMI-MONOCOQUE FUSELAGE
Introduction
Cutaway: British High-Wing Airliner

BAe146-200
Why a four-engined configuration was chosen for this plane?
Rear spar
Air brake
55
Front spar
Introduction
Cutaway of a Supersonic Carrier-based Fighter

Boeing F-18
• Folding Wings
• BWB
• Multispar wing structure
• Leading-edge snag
• Full movable horizontal tail
Introduction
Ugly is Most of Time not Good

Introduction
Designed by a Flight Enthusiast
58
Flight Envelope Introduction
Supersonic Airplane
The left-hand side of the figure marks
the speed at any height below which
there is insufficient lift to fly straight and
level. The dip in the curve around Mach
1 is caused by the increased drag and
a decrease in aerodynamic and
propulsive efficiency. Some airplanes
exhibit this characteristic to a marked
extent, others hardly at all. The top of
the curve marks the region where the
minimum level speed coincides with the
maximum speed that can be attained
with the particular combination of
engine and airframe. The right-hand
side of the curve represents the
propulsive limit, and the structural
limits: where higher speed, kinetic
heating and higher dynamic pressure
would require an excessively strong
and heavy airframe.

Introduction
Typical Technical Tasks in the Aircraft Development Process
Ø Business opportunities study

Ø Product specification document
Ø Evaluation of some different concepts to fulfill the
requirements
Ø Drawings
Ø Tooling and machinery for manufacturing

Ø Manufacturing plant
Ø Flight Tests planning
Ø Aircraft certification
60
Introduction
In Order to Achieve Lower Risks

– Project is divided into phases
– Scheduled reviews
– Suppliers become partners
– Advanced engineering tools like CFD and MDO
– Market studies
– Launching customer
– Manufacturing of some prototypes
– Technology certification by technology
demonstrators, laboratories, joint ventures,
cooperation efforts with he academic community
61
Introduction
Revisões de Passagem de Fase de Projeto -REFAPs
•As Revisões de Fase do Projeto devem ser conduzidas com muito

critério, tanto em relação aos participantes quanto em relação à
periodicidade. São eficientes quando há pessoas certas -
contribuição.
• Devem ser focadas e baseadas nos “deliverables” definidos na
fase de planejamento.
• Os principais objetivos dessas avaliações periódicas são:
ØDeterminar se os requisitos iniciais do projeto estão sendo
atendidos.
Ø Determinar se os objetivos originais ainda são válidos.
ØDeterminar se há condição totais ou parciais para passar à Fase
seguinte.
Ø Tomar as ações corretivas para reconduzir o projeto ao seu rumo
original. 62
Revisões de Passagem de Fase de Projeto -REFAPs (2)
• Entre as REFAPs há três que se destacam:

Ø Conceptual Design Review
Ø Preliminar Design Review
Ø Critical Design Review
• Elas são marcos do: congelamento da configuração do

produto; da definição do produto; e da liberação à
fabricação, respectivamente.
• Há muitas outras Revisões intermediárias que acontecem

segundo às necessidades de cada produto. Também, são
repetidas para diversas partes diferentes do avião.
63
Introduction
Aircraft Design Phases

• Há algumas divisões clássicas para as Fases de projeto. Por
exemplo, a EMBRAER trabalha com 5 etapas (Embraer
170/190).
vNão aparece nas fases apresentadas pela Embraer, porém ela existe
com outra denominação.
+10 anos
Suporte
Técnico
Feasibility Conceptual Preliminary Projeto

design design Production Phase Out
study
(Initial Definition) (Joint Definition)
Detalhado
0 1 2 3 4 5
•As Fases 1 e 2, são conhecidas como Projeto Conceitual e

Preliminar, respectivamente, dentro delas é que os problemas
críticos de engenharia são resolvidos.
64
Introduction
Other Approach
É comum encontrar, em publicações e nas divisões de outras

empresas aeronáuticas, as Fases 1 e 2 reunidas como Preliminar,
somente. Ou acrescentar uma de Qualificação/Certificação, ficando
assim:
Feasibility Protótipos/
Study Preliminary Projeto
design Detalhado Qualificação/ Production Phase Out
Certificação
0 1 2 3 4 5
Uma melhor forma de se definir as

fases de um Projeto são como segue
Feasibility Projeto
Conceptual Projeto Detalhado
Study design de (Protótipos Production Phase Out
Definição Certificação)
0 1 2 3 4 5
65
Introduction
Airbus Approach
Years
Research 5 3 2 5 30 - 40 20
Basic Concept Project

related related
Delivery first Delivery last Retire-

Go Ahead A/C in series A/C in series ment
Development
Defi-
Feasibility Concept Development Product improvement
nition
phase phase phase Basic version
phase
Modifications
Product improvement
(Stretch, MTOW)
duction
Pro-
Series Production Spares Production

Product
support
Product Support
66
Introduction
Main Activities
Phase
Avaliação do Mercado/Negócios, Caracterização Estratégica do
0 Produto/HLR e Estudo de Viabilidade do Projeto.
Focus: Commercial/Financing
1 Definição da Configuração e Integração Geral do Avião. Definição

dos Custos Finais.
Focus: Integração do Produto/Configuração Final
Definição Completa do Sistema, Solução dos Problemas Críticos e
2 Integração dos Subsistemas- Maior envolvimento da Enga; Parceiros;
e Fornecedores.
Focus: Complete definition of airplane
3 Elaboração dos Desenhos, Fabricação dos Protótipos/Certificação-

Fase mais Dispendiosa na Construção de Protótipos e Ensaios.
Focus: Certificação do Produto
4 Produção, Qualidade do Produto e Cronograma de Entrega.

Preparação para Entrada em Serviço
Focus: Prazos/Qualidade
5 Encerramento.
Focus: Customer support/Recycling
Feasibility Study
Feasibility Study
69
Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos Feasibility Study
Scope
• Customer needs
• Business opportunities
• Market Analysis
Ø Trends and market dynamics
Ø Market Share
Ø Competitor aircraft database
Ø Competitive advantages
Ø Customer database
Ø Competitors menace
70
Feasibility Study
Phase 0 Characteristics
• Althoug this phase is the first one, it is vital for the
sucessful outcome of the aircraft program
• É dela que emanam a maioria das diretrizes: as

estratégicas; as financeiras; e as de caracterização do
produto.
•Esta Fase deve indicar se o projeto é viável, bem como

avaliar todos seus riscos, para determinar o seu
prosseguimento ou não.
71
Feasibility Study
Business Plan
Ø Sumário Executivo
Ø A Indústria e seus Produtos
Ø Pesquisa e Análise de Mercado
Ø Parâmetros Econômicos do Negócio
Ø Marketing strategy
Ø Plano de Desenvolvimento do Produto

Ø Production scheme (requerido pelo órgão homologador)
Ø Plano de Gestão de Projeto
Ø “Master Phase Plan”

Ø Risk assessment
Ø Plano Financeiro
Ø Capitalização de Recursos
Feasibility Study
Product Development Process

Marketing Requirements & Objectives
It all begins with … a potential need in the market
• Identified through client comments, competitive and market analysis, market surveys …
Important document : Marketing Requirements & Objectives
•It covers different aspects, i.e. technical, operating cost, comfort, etc.
•The MR&O does not necessarily need to be comprehensive initially
•Written through use of surveys, focus groups
• Getting the MR&O wrong may produce a devastating financial result for the company
Embraer CBA-123 Dassault Mercure SAAB 2000
•The requirements directly influences the function and form of the vehicle
See what
happens when
you do not get
the requirements
right!
Example of Wrong Specification

Dassault Mercure
Instead of designing the aircraft for a maximum range, Dassault chose to design
the Mercure for the average range demanded by airlines. This range was only a
fourth of a typical maximum range, resulting in a design that was not flexible in
range and consequently it was an economic failure.
Boeing 737-100 Dassault Mercure
Range with max. fuel (nm) 1,440 nm 918
MTOW (kg) 43,999-49,896 56,600
Max. pax (FAA exit Limit) 124 (typical all-economy, 96) 150
Source: http://www.boeing.com/commercial/airports/acaps/737.pdf
Feasibility Study
Program Failure: Beechcraft Starship

The Beechcraft Starship is a turboprop-powered
six- to eight-passenger seat business aircraft. The
design was originated by Beechcraft in January
1980 as Preliminary Design 330 (PD 330). Burt
Rutan was subsequently retained to refine PD330
and one of the significant changes he instituted
was the addition of variable geometry to the
canard (he holds a patent for this). Rutan's
California-based design and fabrication company
Scaled Composites was then contracted to build
scale-model prototypes to aid in development.
The Starship featured a carbon-composite
construction, unique design and rearward-facing
turboprop engines, which leased him a futuristic
look. But it was slow, difficult to fly and a bear to
maintain. A 85% scaled model performed its
maiden flight in 1983 and later three full-scale
prototypes were built. Beechcraft was able to sold
only sold a few of the 53 it built. The company
established a buy back program for the
exemplars that were sold but some owners
decided to keep the airplanes.
75
Feasibility Study
Some Unsuccessful Aircraft Configurations: Budd Conestoga
When the U.S. entered World War II in December 1941, there were concerns whether American industry could produce the
huge quantity of materials needed to fight the war. One of the main concerns was whether the vast amounts of aluminum
needed for aircraft would be available.
The Edward G. Budd Manufacturing Company of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the manufacturer of munitions and railroad rolling
stock, approached the U.S. Navy (USN) with a proposal to build a twin-engined cargo aircraft comparable to the Douglas R4D,
q.v., but made of stainless steel. The USN accepted the proposal and placed an order for 200 RB-1's in August 1942; the U.S.
Army Air Forces (USAAF) also became interested and placed an order for 600 aircraft, designated C-93A-BU,
The RB-1 was a twin-engined high-wing monoplane with tricycle landing gear and 24-volt electrical system powered by 1,200
hp (894.8 kW) Pratt & Whitney R-1830-92 14-cylinder, twin-row, air-cooled, radial engines driving three-bladed Hamilton-
Standard Hydromatic constant-speed, full-feathering propellers. The rear of the outer portion of the wing, i.e., from the engine
nacelle to the wingtip, and the elevators and rudder were fabric covered. The fuselage featured a bulbous nose enclosing an
elevated flight deck. The elevated flight deck permitted the cargo area to be unobstructed for its entire length.
The first flight of the RB-1 occurred on 31 October 1943 and this aircraft was delivered to the USN in March 1944. It crashed
during testing and the test pilot swore that the plane's stainless steel construction saved his life. The flying characteristics of the
RB-1 were poor and problems with the use of stainless steel developed delaying production and causing the price to rise.
These difficulties plus the adequate supply of aluminum and the availability of the C-47/R4D resulted in the USAAF canceling
their order for this aircraft and the USN reducing their order from 200 to a total of 26. 76
Case Study: Ultra Long-range Business Jet
Bombardier Global Express XRS
Ø Average completion costs US$ 10 million and custom ones even more.
Ø It takes eight to 10 months to complete an aircraft and custom completions can take
longer.
Ø Most operators fly the aircraft 250-450 hours per year.
Ø Most operator also say that they typically fly two or three people in transoceanic trips .
Ø Bombardier projected a 51,200 lb BOW for the type. Operators say that it is a low-estimate
for the airplane. According to them typical BOW lies in the range 52,000-54,000 lb
because of optional cabin entertainment system.
Ø The XRS is certified to flight to 51,000 ft, but most operators seldom climb above the mid
forties.
Source: Business & Commercial Aviation, March 2010

Feasibility Study
Case Study: Chance-Vought Corsair
Ø Originally designed as a carrier-capable fighter, it saw combat in Guadalcanal in 1943 as land-based fighter instead.
Ø It was fitted with a single 2000-hp powerful engine. This required large propellers in order to obtain higher efficiency
from this large amount of power. The 18-cylinder Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp radial was the largest engine
available at the time.
ØAn inverted gull wing, a similar layout to the one used by Germany's Junkers Ju 87 dive bomber, provided to the F4U
Corsair fighter a considerably shortened length of the main gear legs.
ØIts long nose was the origin for poor visibility from the cockpit. This caused accidents at carrier operations.
Ø The large fuselage panels were made of magnesium and were attached to the frames with the newly-developed
technique of spot welding, thus mostly eliminating the use of rivets.
Ø The combination of an aft cockpit and the Corsair's long nose made landings hazardous for newly-trained pilots.
During landing approaches it was found that oil from the hydraulic cowl flaps could spatter onto the windscreen, badly
reducing visibility, and the undercarriage oleo struts had bad rebound characteristics on landing, allowing the aircraft to
bounce out of control down the carrier deck.
Ø The longest production run of any piston-engined fighter in U.S. history (1942–1952).
78
Feasibility Study
Case Study: Mitsubishi A6M Zero
Ø Airframe was divided for manufacturing into two integral blocks (lower weight è longer range and
higher maneuverability).
ØAlthough the airframe was of complex manufacture, over 10,000 Zeros left their respective
assembly lines.
Ø The Zero was the first carrier-based fighter to outperform the land-based ones.
Ø Lack of adequate armor resulted in loss of experienced pilots.
Ø Most of the aircraft was built of T-7178 aluminum, a top-secret aluminum alloy developed by the
Japanese just for this aircraft.
Ø Initially equipped with a 780-hp engine, in later versions power was increased to 1,130 hp.
Ø Outperformed by the Grumman Hellcat fighter, Wildcat’s successor.
Ø As Allied fighter design continually improved, the A6M would basically stay as the design first
conceived in 1937.
Feasibility Study
Case Study: North American P-51 Mustang
Ø Designed to fulfill a British specification for the Spitfire replacement

Ø Prototype flew just 119 days after program start
Ø Laminar airfoils were selected to compose the wing geometry
Ø After the Allison engine was replaced by the Rolls-Royce Merlin the P-51 fighter became
the outstanding fighter that everyone knows
Ø Laminar flow can not be attained in practice due to manufacturing imperfections of the
aircraft surface and to accumulated dust and bugs on some parts of the airframe
exposed to airflow
Ø It is believed that the P-51 Mustang fighter shot down half of German aircraft in World War II
80
Viability Study
Establishing Requirements
• Stating the problem properly is one of the

systems engineer’s most important tasks,
because an elegant solution to the wrong
problem is less than worthless.
• Problem stating is so important as problem
solving.
• The problem must be stated in a clear,
unambiguous manner.
81
Viability Study
The problem statement describes the customer’s

needs, states the goals of the project, delineates
the scope of the system, reports the concept of
operations, describes the stakeholders, lists the
deliverables and presents the key decisions that
must be made.
82
Feasibility Study
“Prevent the Germans from invading France

through the Rhineland.”
According to this problem statement the,
Maginot line was a success.
But with this problem statement

“Prevent the Germans from conquering
France,”
The Maginot line was a failure.
83
Feasibility Study
HLR- Customer Needs

Negócios: qual mercado servir e como servir este mercado?
Lean - Servir valores acima dos concorrentes.
Business plan Configuration
What What we
customers can deliver?
need?
How is the way to achieve the goals?

84
Feasibility Study
Market Analysis – Business Opportunities

EMB 312 Tucano
The single-engined Embraer EMB 312 Tucano replaced expensive jets being
employed in the advanced trainer role. It was developed to address a Brazilian
Air Force procurement for the replacement of the Cessna AT-37 side-by-side
trainer. After the Cold War was over declining budgets for armed forces around
the world forced many countries to decommission costly jets used as trainers.

Feasibility Study

Sikorsky Skycrane, Special Purpose Helicopter

Feasibility Study

Fokker 100 Reloaded
Entrepreneurs behind the long-running effort to develop a Fokker 100 successor intend to modify an existing airframe this
year, after securing financing from the Dutch economics ministry.
The organization driving the program, NG Aircraft, is a successor to the Rekkof company which has pressed for years to
restart Fokker production. NG Aircraft says that the economics ministry is to provide a €20 million ($27 million) loan -
although this still needs European Union clearance.
This funding would come through the Dutch SenterNovem agency, which became part of the ministry's innovations support
arm Agentschap NL this year.
SenterNovem has a civil aviation department which funds pre-competitive work, such as design, simulation and tooling, for
the creation of non-commercial prototype aircraft.
Grants of up to €10 million are available for aircraft transporting fewer than 100 passengers, or €20 million for other cases.
Under an initial phase NG Aircraft will begin adapting a Fokker 100 with new systems and engines. The twin-jet will serve as
a demonstrator for the proposed Fokker 100 NG, the first example of which the company wants to assemble by 2015.
Source: Flight Global, March 2010
Viability Study
Establishment of aircraft mission profile
Supersonic SSBJ
Feasibility Study
Market Analysis – Comparing Competitors

Valor de
MTOW Equipped Empty Range Mach Cruise
Models Pax Crew Mercado US$
(kg) Weight (lb) (nm) (max) Altitude (ft)
1.000,00
Gulfstream V 41051 48000 6500 0,885 13-19 4 51000 (max) USS 41.550,00
Gulfstream V-SP 41277 48300 6750 0,885 13-19 4 51000 (max) USS 41.550,00
Gulfstream IV-SP 33838 42500 4220 0,88 12-19 3 45000 (max) USS 32.750,00
Challenger 604 20500 26630 3769 0,85 9-19 3 41000 (max) US$ 21.800,00
Challenger SE 24040 33900 3120 0,8 14-19 3 41000 (max) USS 24.900,00
Continental 17010 22350 3100 0,82 8-16 2 45000 (max) USS 14.700,00
Global Express 43207 50300 6010 0,88 8-19 2-4 51000 (max) USS 38.000,00
Global 5000 40032 N/A 4800 0,88 8-19 2-3 51000 (max) USS 32.950,00
Learjet 31A 7711 11140 1455 0,81 6-7 2 51000 (max) USS 6.525,00
Learjet 45 9412 13550 2120 0,81 up to 9 2 51000 (max) USS 9.420,00
Learjet 60 10659 14640 2510 0,81 up to 10 2 51000 (max) USS 11.970,00
Citation X 16375 19376 3390 0,92 8-12 2 51000 (max) USS 18.600,00
Citation CJ1 4808 6460 1474 0,7 5-7 2 41000 (max) USS 3.800,00
Citation CJ2 5670 7359 1738 0,72 6-7 2 45000 (max) USS 4.300,00
Falcon 2000 16238 20735 3000 0,87 8-19 2 47000 (max) USS 23.500,00
Falcon 2000EX 18461 22330 3800 0,87 8-10 2 47000 (max) USS 32.000,00
Feasibility Study
Source: Flight Global

Feasibility Study
Source: Embraer
Feasibility Study
Market Analysis
Market Forecast for 30-60 seaters in the next 10 years
USA, CANADA AND

EUROPE
CARIBBEAN
9% (117 jets)
71% (923 jets) CHINA
8% (104 jets)
AFRICA AND
MIDDLE EAST ASIA PACIFIC
5% (65 jets) 3% (39 jets)
LATIN AMERICA
4% (52 jets)
92
Feasibility Study
Regional Aircraft: High Worldwide Demand
l Regional traffic is forecast to triple in 20 years.
l The potential demand for the next 20 years foresees 7800 new aircraft for a
corresponding value of 200 billion dollars ($ 10 billion per year).
China
Russia&CIS
Asia&Pacific
Delivery Forecast by
geographical area M.East&Africa
Next 20 years
Europe 26 %
L. America
N. America
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Number of Aircraft
• Regional market is changing:
– airlines are becoming less dependent from Majors (more efficient aircraft required,
economically driven choice)
– low cost airlines are entering regional market (37% of 2005 regional sales)
• More than 40% of new connections opened in the last 5 years are operated only by regional
aircraft.

Regional Aircraft: Important Role in ATS
Departures correlated with

community noise
Fleet Wide Body

8% Regional
Wide Body 46%
Regional
14% 46%
Narrow Body
8800 Units
41%
45%
correlated with
Flown Hours gaseous
Narrow Body emissions
Wide Body
23% Regional
Total World - Year 29%
2005 48%
Narrow Body
u European regional fleet represents 20% of current worldwide regional fleet
u Fully 60% of airports with scheduled service are served only by regional aircraft.
Sources: Alenia data processed from Lundkvist, Avsoft and Back-OAG databases
Market Analysis
Quem compra Ex. 150-200 lugares
Maiores possibilidades de
compras:
Low Cost Airlines
95
Market Analysis
CRJ
953 A/C ERJ
900 A/C
30 – 60 seater airliner Do328 jet

YAK-40
44 A/C
222 A/C Hawker
16 A/C
Frota Atual
350
300
250
Deliveries [A/C]
200
150
100
50
0
1993 1998 2003 2008 2013 2018 2023
Feasibility Study
Feasibility Study: Risks
Probabilidade
Análise Típica
Impacto
Riscos
• Problemas de Certificação – Atrasos no Lançamento
• Falta de Financiamento
• Custo mais alto do que o Planejado
•Tamanho da Empresa
•Problemas Externos- Estabilidade Política/Financeira do País
Resultados
O Board da Empresa • Riscos Identificados
tem que conhecer seus • Plano de Ação para cada Risco
pontos vulneráveis e se
preparar para superá-los • Riscos Classificados
97
Feasibility Study
Terms concerning Financial Analysis

•VPL-Valor Presente Liquido: é o valor onde é
recuperado o investimento considerando as taxas de
juros do mercado financeiro.
•Pay Back Time: é o tempo para recuperar o seu
investimento sem juros de capital.
•Break Even Point: é a quantidade de vendas de

aeronaves necessária à recuperação do investimento.
•TIR: é a taxa de desconto que iguala o valor presente

das receitas com o valor do investimento inicial do
projeto.
98
Investment Analysis
• Demand prediction: 10 years starting in 2013.
• Internal Rate of Return: 18%.
Market Analysis
Selling Price (US$ million)
(Range x Cruise Speed x Cabin Diameter)/ 106

Conceptual Phase (Estudo de Conceitos)
Conceptual Phase
Scope
Ø Detailed budget
Ø Master Phase Plan
ØWork Breakdown Structure (WBS)
Ø Quality
Ø Rules, standards, and norms

Conceptual Phase
Scope (cont.)
Aircraft Configuration
Ø Requirements shall be checked and improved
Ø Aircraft sizing
Ø Wind-tunnel testing (wing planform and section geometry)

Ø Structual layout
Ø System layout and preliminary system integration
Ø Technical drawings
Ø Performance calculation (aerodynamic database).
Ø Engine selection (supplier)
Ø Preliminary safety assessment. 103
Feasibility Study
Phase 1 Major Deliverables
• Conceptual design of the related aircraft

Ø Desenhos preliminares- 3D
Ø Reports
• TD-Technical Description: Aircraft systems
• EBD-Engineering Basic Data

Ø Performance
Ø Structural layout
104
Master Phase Plan
Start of 787-8 787-8 787-3 787-9
Airplane Authority Program Firm Major First Enters Enters Enters
Announcement to Offer Launch Configuration Assembly Flight Service Service Service
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
105
Missão do Avião - HLR
• Ao final da extensa e crítica Fase 0 chega-se a um dos mais

importantes Deliverables: o doc com a Missão da Aeronave e os
HLR (High Level Requirements). São oriundos da Inteligência de
Mercado e da área de Planejamento Estratégico da Empresa,
profundamente trabalhados com o Anteprojeto.
• Nessa altura as grandes decisões estratégicas da caracterização do

produto foram tomadas e elas influenciarão de maneira marcante o
que vem pela frente, por exemplo:
ØFly by wire
Ø Materiais
Modernidade/Desafios
Ø Motorização
Ø Nível Tecnológico
Ø Conceito Família
106
Conceptual Phase
Most important objectives from a conceptual design perspective are :
• Cabin/Baggage size: cross-section, length, volume & access

• Field performance: Balanced Field Length (BFL), Weight-Alt.-Temp.
(WAT), approach speed (VREF)
• En route performance: Initial Cruise Altitude (ICA), cruise speed(s),
buffet limits, range
• Keep BOW as low as possible to be competitive
• DOC goal must be achieved
• Others include block fuel, aft-body strike, derate schedule
Conceptual Phase
Conceptual Phase
Conceptual Phase
Objectives vs. Aircraft Parameters
Passenger Comfort
+
Field Performance
+ Best valued
Range product for the
+ DOC market
Remained requirements
110
Conceptual Phase
Conceptual Phase
Morphology Selection
• Morphology of an aircraft is the combination of wings, fuselage, landing gear,
empennage and power plant integrated to fulfill (as much as possible) the MR&O
• A myriad of configurations are available

•Selection of the configuration layout depends upon numerous factors:
-Mission role
-Economics
-Operational and functional requirements
-Safety and reliability
-Type of propulsion system
-Commonality with other variants/derivatives
112
Conceptual Phase
Carrier-based AEW Platform Selection
113
Conceptual Phase
Fighter concepts developed by NASA for the F-15

mission requirements
LFAX-4—a variable-sweep configuration

LFAX-8— a fixed-sweep version of LFAX-4
LFAX-9—wing-mounted twin-engine
configuration
LFAX-10—similar in external shape to
Soviet MiG-25 Foxbat
114
Conceptual Phase
Kelly Johnson Sketch for the P-38

Fighter
115
Commonality
• Much of focus in product family design is to improve
commonality and standardization within the family
• What is commonality?
– Possession of common features or attributes in either the product or
the manufacturing process for a set of products
• A product platform is defined “as the common elements,

especially the underlying core technology, implemented across
a range of products” (McGrath, 1995)
• Main advantage of commonality within a product family:

– maintain economies of scale (and scope) in manufacturing and
production processes 116
Conceptual Phase
Advantages of Commonality
• Decrease lead times (and risk) in product
development
• Reduce product line complexity
• Reduce set-up and retooling time
• Fewer components in inventory
• Fewer parts need to be tested and qualified
Other advantages?
117
Conceptual Phase
Disadvantages of Commonality
Individually
Best
Optimized
Designs
• Lack of Designs
Performance
distinctiveness
Designs
• Hinder innovation Based on
Common
and creativity Poor Platform
Designs
• Compromise
product Degree of Commonality
performance Despite disadvantages of
commonality, it does provide
a useful metric for assessing
families of products. 118
Conceptual Phase
The 787 Family of Aircraft
787-3
787-8 290-330 passengers (two-class)
210-250 passengers (three-class) 2,500 – 3,050 nm
7,650 – 8,200 nm
787-9
250-290 passengers (three-class)
8,000 – 8,500 nm
119
Conceptual Phase
Embraer Aircraft Family

EMBRAER 170
95% Commonality
EMBRAER 175
85% Commonality
EMBRAER 190
95% Commonality
EMBRAER 195
Common pilot type rating
100% commonality in the cockpit
High level of commonality in system components
120
100% flying commonality due to fly-by-wire system
Conceptual Phase
Performance of the E-Jets
121
Conceptual Phase
Boeing 777 Passenger Doors
• Each passenger door (8 total) has

different sets of parts with subtly
different shapes and sizes for its position
on the fuselage
• Challenge: make the hinge common for
all of the doors
• Result: not only a common hinge but 777 Passenger Door
also a common door mechanism (Sabbagh, 1996)
98% of all door mechanisms are common

Conceptual Phase
Wing-Mounted or Fuselage-Mounted Engines?
123
Conceptual Phase
Wing Mounted
• More critical for flutter problems

• Prone to water spray ingestion
• Larger landing gear
• Enable eventually additional rear doors
• Engines alleviate bending moment
• Disturb the airflow over the wing
• Can easily be struck and damaged in a misjudged crosswind landing
• The length of fuel lines minimized
• May limit the flap span
• Less available fuel volume for wing mounted engines because dry bays in the wing fuel tanks
to cater for disc bursts are required
124
Conceptual Phase
Rear Mounted
• May suffer from boundary layer ingestion

• Bleed air supply more complicated
• Difficult to inspect by the crew and maintenance team
• Thrust line above the cg
• Critical for stretched versions
• Larger tailplane
• Lower cabin noise level
• Rear mounted engines often require soft (rubber/fluid) engine mounts to absorb vibration and blade
off loads. For wing mounted engines the flexible wings act as effective dampers thus
allowing engines to use cheaper hard mount arrangements
• Heavier aft fuselage structure
• Ice shed from the wing and aircraft nose can be ingested by the engine
• There is the possibility of high drag from the convergent/divergent channel formed between the
nacelle and the fuselage wall on rear mounted engine installations
• Aft fuselage mounted engines reduce the rolling moment of inertia. This can be a disadvantage if
there is significant rolling moment created by asymmetric stalling. The result can be an
excessive roll rate at the stall
125
Conceptual Phase
Case Study: Lockheed Galaxy
126
Conceptual Phase
3
2 4
Four concepts proposed by Lockheed
127
Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos Conceptual Phase
Competing C-5 configurations during tests in

the Langley 8-Foot Transonic
Pressure Tunnel.
Boeing concept
Lockheed concept
Douglas concept
Conceptual Phase
Boeing concept
The C-5 design submitted by Boeing was found to have superior aerodynamic cruise
performance in the transonic wind-tunnel tests performed at Langley. Boeing’s experience with
the C-5 competition coupled with Boeing management’s vision of the marketability of jumbo
civil transports (and interest from Pan American Airlines) led to the development of the Boeing
747, which enabled Boeing to dominate the world market with a new product line. Although the
747 was a completely new aircraft design (low wing, passenger-carrying Lockheed concept
civil aircraft), the
Douglas concept
general configuration influence of the earlier C-5 candidate is in evidence.
Conceptual Phase
Some Successful Unusual Aircraft

Configurations
Lockheed P-38 Lightning
Lockheed Constellation
Kamov Ka-26
130

Configurations
Savoia-Marchetti Jahú
Boeing 727
Convair B-36
131

Configurations
çSAAB Viggen è
North American P-82

Twin Mustang
132
Conceptual Phase
Initial Configuration
Need to evaluate the “first shot”(initial configuration; Does satisfies MR&O?
• Dimensions
• Comfort Should be met, since it was designed for
• Amenities
Do not know, need to compute aircraft

• Economics technical characteristics (weights, aero, etc.)
• Performance
133
Conceptual Phase
Initial Configuration
• Need to evaluate the technical characteristics (how they are evaluated or

predicted)
• weights
• aerodynamics
• performance
• propulsion
• economics
• Initially done within Advanced Design with empirical and/or
statistical and/or analytical methods
• Implication of specialists in some areas
134
Conceptual Phase
Pressure Distribution on Fuselages
Comparisons of crown line pressure distributions for a low

wing transport configuration at M∞ = 0.84 and α = 2.8o ,
Boeing 747. Source: AIAA Paper No 72-188
Mach number distribution on fuselage nose,

McDonnell-Douglas DC-10, Mach = 0.85.
135
Conceptual Phase
Forward Fuselage of Some Airliners
EMB-110 Bandeirante
McDonnell Douglas DC-10
Boeing 777
Embraer E-170
Conceptual Phase
Forward Fuselage of Some Airliners
Airbus A-320 Boeing 737
Boeing 767 Embraer ERJ-145

Conceptual Phase
Cabin Design
ØMost aircrafts are designed from the “inside –out”

ØGeometric definitions dictated by cabin and cockpit comfort and
ergonomics as defined in the MR&O
ØCabin Layout Definition

• Cross-section (seats abreast, personal comfort, ergonomics)
• Windows
• Doors and stairs
• Lavatories, galleys, wardrobes
• Emergency egress and emergency equipment
• Environmental climate control, air conditioning
138
Conceptual Phase
Configuração Básica Aeronave
Definição da “Cross Section”
ERJ 145 CRJ 200 DHC 8 Dornier 328
Benchmark EMBRAER 170/190

ATR 42 / 72 Saab 340 / 2000
139
Conceptual Phase
Cabin Design
140
Conceptual Phase
Cabin Design
141
Conceptual Phase
Cabin Design
Volume above cabin floor
• Housing the passengers and seats (sometimes systems, e.g. avionics racks, PATS or
Branson tanks)
• Aisle(s)
• Overhead bins, galleys, and, lavatories and wardrobes (or freight)
Volume below the floor
• Cargo and freight
• Landing gear
• Center wingbox(or above)
• Fuel tank(s)
• Various systems
Key considerations when choosing the geometry
• Functionality (living volume) : maximize
• Weight (stress and loads) : minimize
• Drag (performance) : minimize
• Manufacturing (cost) : minimize 142
Technology Assessment
American Airliners Operating in the 30s
143
Early Jet Airliners
Aircraft First Flight Service Entry

Boeing 707 July 1958 October 1958
Douglas DC-8 May 1958 September 1959
Convair 990 Coronado January 1961 January 1962
Vickers VC-10 June 1962 April 1964 144
Early Jet Age
Boeing 707 / Douglas DC-8 / Boeing 747 / Sud-Aviation Caravelle
Late Jet Age
Bombardier CRJ-200/ Bombardier CRJ-700/Embraer ERJ-145 / Embraer E-Jets

145
Prof. Bento Silva de Conceptual Phase
Mattos
Regional jets
No Props
Aircraft First Flight Service Entry Capacity (Pax)

Embraer ERJ-145 August 1995 December 1996 50
Bombardier CRJ-100 May 1991 November 1992 44 - 50
Fokker 70 July 1994 October 1994 70 - 85
Avro RJ 70 July 1992 September 1993 70 - 82 146
Some Airliners Operating in 2008
Airbus A320
Early 80’s technology
Boeing 767
Late 70’s technology
Boeing 737-200
Late 60’s technology
Concorde was an ogival (also "ogee") delta-winged aircraft with four Olympus engines based on those originally developed for the Avro
Vulcan strategic bomber. The engines were jointly built by Rolls-Royce and SNECMA. Concorde was the first civil airliner to have an (in
this case analogue) fly-by-wire flight control system. It also employed a distinctive droop snoot lowering nose section for visibility on
approach.
The principal designer who worked on the project was Pierre Satre, with Sir Archibald Russell as his deputy.
Concorde had an average cruise speed of Mach 2.02 (about 2,140 km/h or 1,330 mph) with a maximum cruise altitude of 18,300 meters
(60,000 feet), more than twice the speed of conventional aircraft. The average landing speed was 298 km/h (185 mph, 160 knots).
The flight deck

Concorde pioneered the following technologies:
For high speed and optimization of flight:
• Double-delta (ogee/ogival) shaped wings
• Variable inlet ramps controlled by digital computers
• Supercruise capability
• Thrust-by-wire engines, predecessor of today’s FADEC-controlled engines
• Droop-nose section for improved visibility in landing
For weight-saving and enhanced performance:
• Mach 2.04 (~2,200 kilometers per hour (1,400 mph) cruising speed for optimum fuel consumption (supersonic drag minimum, although turbojet engines
are more efficient at high speed))
• Mainly aluminum construction for low weight and conventional manufacture (higher speeds would have ruled out aluminum)
• Full-regime autopilot and autothrottle allowing "hands off" control of the aircraft from climb out to landing
• Fully electrically controlled analogue fly-by-wire flight controls systems
• Multifunction flight control surfaces
• High-pressure hydraulic system of 28 MPa (4,000 psi) for lighter hydraulic systems components
• Data Highways for the transmission of aerodynamic measurements (total pressure, static pressure, angle of attack, side-slip) from the Air Intake Sensor
Units at the front of the aircraft to the Air Intake Control Units mounted near the rear of the aircraft.
• Fully electrically controlled analogue brake-by-wire system
• Pitch trim by shifting fuel around the fuselage for centre-of-gravity control
• Parts made using "sculpture milling" from single alloy billet reducing the part-number count, while saving weight and adding strength
• Lack of Auxiliary power unit relying on the fact that Concorde will be used for services to big airports, where a ground air start cart would be available
Airbus Technology 1/2

1974 A300 Q Twin-engine, twin-aisle configuration
Q Triplex power and control systems
Q Advanced supercritical aerofoil
Q Full flight regime auto-throttle
Q Automatic wind-shear protection
Q Just in Time manufacturing
1977 A300
Q Cat. IIIA autoland
Q Digital auto-flight system

Q Two-person cockpit
1982 A300FF
Q Increased wing aspect ratio and thickness

Q Advanced CRT cockpit displays with unique
1983 A310 electronic centralised aircraft monitor
Q Composite materials (secondary structure)
Q Electrical signaling of secondary controls
1985 A300-600 Q Half-generation advance” turbofan

powerplant (CF6-80C2)
Airbus Technology 2/2

1985 A310-300
Q Advanced aluminium alloys
Q Composite materials in primary structure
Q Trim tank/centre-of-gravity control
Q Carbon brakes, radial tyres
Q Sidestick controller
1988 Q Fly-by-wire
A320 Q Second generation digital auto flight system
Q Extensive use of composites and advanced
aluminium alloys
Q Active controls
1993 A330 Q Extension of A310/A300 and A320
A340 advanced technology
Q All new advanced technology wing
Q CCQ & MFF
Q Carbon Fiber Reinforced plastic (CFRP) for

1999 A380 primary structures
Q GLARE on upper fuselage panels
Q Laser welded lower fuselage
Q New Ethernet architecture for flight controls
Q Decentralized & high pressure hydraulics
system
R&T delivery to A380 Conceptual Phase
Some examples of successful research

Carbon Composite Flap vortex Extensive use
Section 19 High Re (Reynolds
generators of Knowledge Based
Number) Wing
Engineering
Design
Horizontal tail plane Automated
designed for relaxed New front
wing assembly Upper fuselage
stability Fuselage concept
skin in GLARE
Full double deck
fuselage
Electro-hydraulic
actuators
Variable frequency
Integrated and modular
power generation avionics architecture (IMA)
Bonded metallic
outwing box
Centre wing box On board
Dual air conditioning maintenance system
pack concept in CFRP
New four post main landing gear

2 hydraulic (5000 psi) + 2 electrical (4-6-6-4 wheels configuration)
channel architecture for flight
controls and landing gear
Skin to Stringer
Welding (first on A318)
Technologies have to be developed generally and then

151
applied on products
Composite Solutions Applied

Throughout the 787
Other
Fiberglass 5%
10%
Titanium Composites
Carbon laminate
15% 50%
Carbon sandwich
Fiberglass
Aluminum Aluminum
20%
Aluminum/steel/titanium pylons
152
Conceptual Phase
Boeing 787: Quiet for Communities

San Diego Intl Airport RWY 27
85 dBA NADP 2 (ICAO-B) Takeoff noise contours - 3000 nm mission
767-300
777-200
787-
8
Conceptual Phase
Boeing 787: Quiet for Communities

San Diego Intl Airport RWY 09
85 dBA NADP 2 (ICAO-B) Takeoff noise contours - 3000 nm mission
787-
8 777-200 767-300
Airframe Technology
What is being done?
Hydraulic Pumps
Avionics Electrical generators
(inside Pressure cabin) System runs
- Flight Data Recorder -ECS
-Electrical
-Hydraulics
Avionics APU
(inside Pressure cabin)
- Alt & Airspeed
- Navigational
- Multifunctional Disply (MFD)
- Primary Flight Display (PFD)
Air cycle machines
Fuel pumps
Ox bottles
Air pre-coolers
Ram Air Turbine Hydraulic reservoirs
(aux elec) Hydraulic accumulators
Fuel heat exchanger
Fuel pumps
Electrically driven Hydraulic pump
Electrical “J” Box
Batteries
Antenna
Electrical/ Hydraulics
(Nose steering)
Supersonic Business Jet
Conceptual Phase
More Ideas...
Ground-based power sources for take-off and
landing
The objective here is to reduce the installed

power and systems on the aircraft as a
means to reduce weight and fuel
consumption. For take-off, electrical, steam
or magnetic devices using oil based,
nuclear or solar energy sources could be
used. Aircraft ramps, MAGLEV or catapults
could be used, using supplementary rocket
power. For landing aircraft weight could be
reduced by eliminating the undercarriage
with landings on water or on small cars
using electro-magnetic fields to position the
aircraft, para-foil landings etc.

Conceptual Phase
More Ideas...
The Cruiser/Feeder concept including mid-air refueling
The concept envisages very large - possibly
nuclear-powered - aircraft flying on stable
circuitous routes that connect major centers of
population. These large cruisers remain airborne
for very long periods so that they could be
considered to be permanently cycling around
their designated route. They would fly at an
economical altitude and speed which would not
vary substantially. Linking these cruisers to fixed
bases near the population centers would be
short range shuttle aircraft designed only to
travel from the ground to the an interception with
the cruiser and back again. The feeder airliners
would be able to land on or dock with the cruiser
for the transfer of passengers and freight,
possibly via a kind of pallet system. New
methods of air refueling would need to be safer
and easer to handle than the current system and
automation would be required. The design of the
feeder aircraft would also need attention –
possibly an advanced super quiet VSTOL
aircraft with pre-loaded passenger containers.
Need to Develop capabilities for multiple challenges
Past : one single concept

Past : one single
to best meet all requirements
concept
Today : concepts
to best meet all tailored to fit specific
sets of requirements
requirements
1 - The Low Cost A/C
The idea is to
2 - The Green A/C
identify the
concepts to explore 3 - The Passenger Friendly
the more relevant 4 - The Value of Speed
capabilities and
meet the widest 5 - The Flying Truck
range of
challenges
Conceptual Phase
Preliminary Weight Estimation
• Aircraft weight, and its accurate prediction, is

critical as it affects all aspects of performance.
• Designer must keep weight to a minimum as far
as practically possible.
• Preliminary estimates possible for take-off
weight, empty weight and fuel weight using basic
requirement, specification (assumed mission
profile) and initial configuration selection.

Conceptual Phase
Preliminary Weight Estimation

• Most aircraft of reasonably conventional design
can be assumed to fit into one of the 12
categories.
• New correlations may be made for new
categories (e.g. UAVs).
• Account may also be made for effects of modern
technology (e.g. new materials) – method
presented in Roskam Vol.1, p.18.
• Raymer method uses Table 3.1 & Fig 3.1 (p.13).

Conceptual Phase
CG Location
The precise location of

the aircraft cg is
essential in the
positioning of the landing
gear, as well as for other
applications, e.g., flight
mechanics, stability and
control, and
performance. Primarily,
the aircraft cg location is
needed to position the
landing gear such that
ground stability,
maneuverability, and
clearance requirements
are met.
161
Conceptual Phase
Roskam Weight
Estimation Method
Category 7 Category 8
Weight Estimation
Engine
Engine weight – 1000 lb
Net sea level static thrust – 1000 lb
Dry engine weight. Source: NASA CR 2320

Weight Breakdown
Preliminary Weight
Estimation Process – Flow Diagram
Conceptual Phase
Drag Estimation
Drag
•Empirical
•semi-empirical
•CFD
•wind tunnel
Lift-to-Drag Ratio Estimation
1 ep AR
( L / D ) max =
2 CD 0
Source: Loftin, LK, Jr.. Quest for performance, The evolution of modern aircraft. NASA SP-468
167
Effective Lift-Curve Slope
AR
Helmbolt equation: C La = C la
(C la / p ) + ( C la / p ) + AR
2 2
Comparison of a NACA 65-210 airfoil lift curve with that of a wing

using the same airfoil (McCormick). 168
Low-speed Aerodynamics
169
Conceptual Phase
Low-speed Aerodynamics
Evaluation
Source: Bombardier Aerospace

Conceptual Phase
Estimation of CL,max
• Wing CL,max is always less than the section
maximum value.
• An initial approximation of CL,max for a swept
wing is:
(C L ,max ) 3 D = 0 .9 (C L ,max ) 2 D ´ cos L
171
Conceptual Phase
Effect of High-Lift Devices
Effect of leading edge devices on lift curve (Jenkinson).
172
Conceptual Phase
Estimation of CL,max
( D C L ,max ) 3 D = ( D C L ,max ) 2 D ( S flapped / S ref ) cos L HL
Definition of flapped wing area (Roskam).
173
Conceptual Phase
Refined Method for Computing CL,max
Spanwise lift distribution (Jenkinson).
174
Performance
• Now that the characteristics of the aircraft are known

performances can be computed
• Performances have direct impact on configuration
and vice-versa
• Most important performance items:
– takeoff
– ICA (Initial Cruise Altitude)
– cruise
– landing
– operating costs
175
Conceptual Phase
Performance - Takeoff
BFL (Balanced Field Length):

• BFL is the takeoff distance
• BFL is essentially a OEI (one engine inoperative) takeoff distance - AEO (all
engine operative) takeoff distances will be much shorter
•“Balanced ”refers to the fact that the distance is linked to a speed called the
decision speed around which the whole takeoff procedure evolves OEI

Performance - Takeoff
BFL (Balanced Field Length):
A good simple formula to approximate BFL is as follows
(
k W
S
)
BFL =
(T W )s C Lto
Performance - Climb
Climb (ICA, Initial Cruise Altitude)
• Important thrust sizing parameter

• Wing should be sized for achieving ~ best L/D at top of climb
• and Max. Climb Thrust sized at that point
Performance - Range
• Important parameter as it sizes the takeoff weight of the aircraft

• This is the classical Breguet Range Equation:
• Although not accurate for a whole mission, it gives a good understanding

of the driving parameters
Performance Evaluation
180
Conceptual Phase
Payload vs. Range
An aircraft does not have a single number that represents its range. Even the
maximum range is subject to interpretation, since the maximum range is
generally not very useful as it is achieved with no payload. To represent the
available trade-off between payload and range, a range-payload diagram may
be constructed as shown in the figure below
Payload vs. Range Graphs Conceptual Phase
Boeing 737-200 Source: http://www.boeing.com

Boeing 737-700
Range Payload Profile
Cessna Citation CJ4

Specific Range Graphs

Dassault Falcon 7X
Cessna Citation CJ4

Conceptual Phase
Turbofan thrust specific fuel consumption variations (High BPR)

Conceptual Phase

Conceptual Phase
Turbofan Performance Variation

187
Conceptual Phase
Aircraft Systems - Engine

Engine : most important (and expensive) system on aircraft
• The primary goal is to determine the minimum thrust and fuel burn to satisfy aircraft
performance
Other requirements include cost, noise/vibration, installation effects, weight, reliability and
availability; involves analysis of 2-3 off-the-shelf power plants
May involve studying paper engines assuming a trade-off between BPR, OPR, mass flow,
temperatures, etc.
May also involve the investigation of alternative technologies
• Sizing calculations conducted in order to determine the scale, i.e. dimensions and weight
Critical conditions for the engine are takeoff, climb, cruise, OEI; one critical scenario is generally the
determining case
• During conceptual design sizing and optimization analysis
Engine performance usually calculated from mathematical model provided by the engine
manufacturer (“deck”)
A deck may not always be available, in such cases use similar engine but linearly scaled to desired
engine size
Alternatively, a first-order rubber engine model is utilized, i.e. fractional change from a reference
engine table
188
Conceptual Phase
Aircraft Systems – Fuel System (F-16C)

Aircraft Systems – Hydraulic System (F-16C)

Conceptual Phase
Structural Layout
•Trata-se da parte de maior longevidade do

Projeto.
•Para instalar os sistemas temos que apóia-los,
fixá-los em algum lugar, assim é comum a
estrutura ser o ponto de partida.
• Distribuição cavernas e reforçadores.

• Segmentação para produção, parceiros e
logística.
• Requisitos de certificação.
Conceptual Phase
Arquitetura Estrutural
Wing
•Distribuição longarinas na Asa.
•Fixação Trem de Pouso.
• Janelas de Inspeção.
• Fixação Asa/Stub.
•Fixação Pilone.
•Sistema degelo.
• Combustível.
• Instal. Superf. hipersustent.
•Fixação/Distribuição superfícies de controle.

Conceptual Phase
Access Doors
F-15
F-16
Structural Layout
Ligação dos módulos-grande impacto no peso da
estrutura. Flanges – Parafusos-etc.
Integração Preliminar
Reserva de Espaços e Soluções
Logística/Segmentação Industrial
Ø Este tipo de questão, dependendo dos parceiros e da dimensão

do avião, pode ter um forte impacto nesta fase do projeto da
Estrutura.
Ø Às vezes tem-se uniões adicionais em função da logística

(containeres, carretas, estradas, redes elétricas, viadutos, etc).
196
Conceptual Phase
Cost Structure
Non-recurring Recurring
Ø Infra-structure Ø Manufacturing
Ø Engineering Ø System integration
Ø Prototypes Ø Materials
Ø Flight tests Ø Processes
Ø Certification Ø Overhead & Management
Ø Taxes, fees
197
Cost Diagram
Recurring
Cost
Non-recurring
Cost
198
Conceptual Phase
Cost Estimation
Airplane
199
Conceptual Phase
Conceitos Gerais: Composição de Custos

Learning Curve x104
10
log Ri
Total man-hour required

9
Tn = T1 × N log 2
8
• R1 = 0.93 (until 10th aircraft)
• R2 = 0.96 (after 10th aircraft) 7
• T598 = 56119mh (estimated)
6
• T10 = 71407mh (equation)
• T1 = 90874mh (equation) 5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Aircraft number
Maior quantidade aviões => menor custo => mais lucros.

200
Manufacturing Cost Model
Representative recurring cost breakdown by parts for a large commercial jet (from Markish)
Conceptual Phase
Lifecycle Cost
202
Operating Cost
203
AROC
204
NECESSIDADES DO COMPRADOR DO PRODUTO
CUSTO OPERACIONAL DA AERONAVE
è QUAL É O NEGÓCIO DAS EMPRESAS AÉREAS COMERCIAIS ?
PRODUZIR E VENDER ASSENTOS-MILHAS - ASM - ( OU ASSENTOS-QUILÔMETROS )
è CADA ASM TEM UM DETERMINADO CUSTO PARA O OPERADOR, COMO SEGUE :
TOC = DOC + IOC
TOC = CUSTO OPERACIONAL TOTAL

DOC = CUSTO OPERACIONAL DIRETO
IOC = CUSTO OPERACIONAL INDIRETO
205
Direct Operating Cost- DOC
SÃO INCLUÍDOS NO DOC :
§ DEPRECIAÇÃO CONTÁBIL DO PRODUTO,

SEGUROS E CUSTOS DE FINANCIAMENTO,
OU, A TAXA DE ARRENDAMENTO, SE FOR
O CASO.
§ SALÁRIOS E ENCARGOS DE PILOTOS E

ATENDENTES DE BORDO
§ MANUTENÇÃO ( MOTORES, ESTRUTURA E

SISTEMAS )
§ COMBUSTÍVEL
§ TAXAS AEROPORTUÁRIAS E OUTROS

CUSTOS
COMPOSIÇÃO TÍPICA DO DOC PARA UM

JATO DE 50 ASSENTOS – ETAPA DE 400 nm
206
Conceptual Phase
Tests with Scaled Models
C-5 ditching model with simulated structural skin on bottom of model.
207
Conceptual Phase
Active load alleviation test of the C-5 in the Langley 16-Foot Transonic Dynamics Tunnel.
208
Conceptual Phase
Clipped wing model of the C-5 in the Langley 16-Foot Transonic Tunnel for flutter tests.
209
Conceptual Phase
F-14 model in spin recovery tests in the Langley Spin Tunnel.
210
Catapult facility experiments

• Characterization of Near and
Mid field (up to x/b=60)
• Test of 3 different A380
configurations
• Applied methods:
PIV / smoke visualization
2D and 3D simulations
5 hole probe (near field at
A380 free-flight model in catapult facility, FI wind tunnel)
ONERA Lille, and F1 wind tunnel, ONERA Recovery system
Catapult Gust
generators
211
Conceptual Phase
Acoustics: Out-Of-Flow-Array with 2x2m2 Cross Section
Far-Field Microphone Traverse 212

Traversable Array
Conceptual Phase
Acoustics: Out-Of-Flow-Array with 4x4m2 Cross Section

Set-ups with Full-scale Models
Full-scale landing gear Full-scale wing

Conceptual Phase
Ground Effect Testing
214
Conceptual Phase
Flight Test with Scaled Model
Langley technician Ronald White with one of two F-15 drop models
used for research on spin-entry characteristics.
Source: http://oea.larc.nasa.gov/PAIS/Partners/F_15.html

Conceptual Phase
Early Wind-Tunnel Testing

A despeito dos grandes avanços das análises com CFD, os
ensaios aerodinâmicos ainda são indispensáveis.
At left
Túnel: NLR
Modelo: CMT1 (1/21)
Suporte da Balança
Tras.
Total de Corridas: 105
Período: Abril/2001
216
Conceptual Phase
Case Study : EMBRAER 170
CADA CASO É UM CASO.
A MELHOR CONFIGURAÇÃO PARA JATOS REGIONAIS DE PEQUENO PORTE ( FUSELAGEM

PARA TRÊS FILAS DE ASSENTOS ), POR UMA SÉRIE DE MOTIVOS, É A CONFIGURAÇÃO
ADOTADA PARA O ERJ 145 ( MOTORES NA FUSELAGEM ).
O CASO DO EMBRAER 170 É DIFERENTE; VÁRIAS CONFIGURAÇÕES FORAM FORMULADAS,

ANALISADAS E SUBMETIDAS À APRECIAÇÃO DOS CLIENTES POTENCIAIS, COMO SEGUE :
217
ESCOLHA DA CONFIGURAÇÃO FINAL PARA O EMBRAER 170 :
A CONFIGURAÇÃO ‘4-ABREAST’, COM FUSELAGEM DE DUPLO BULBO E MOTORES

SOB A ASA, SERIA A ESCOLHA MAIS ADEQUADA, PELOS MOTIVOS ABAIXO :
ERJ 170 : CONCEITO DO PRODUTO PROPOSTO
· MÁXIMO DE EFICIÊNCIA E PRODUTIVIDADE : ‘ JATO NO AR E NO SOLO ’

· MÁXIMO DE ACEITAÇÃO POR PARTE DOS PASSAGEIROS : CONFORTO DE CABINE
E AUSÊNCIA DE ASSENTOS REJEITADOS ( FILA DO MEIO )
· FAMÍLIA DE 70 A 110 ASSENTOS, PROVENDO VANTAGENS DE COMUNALIDADE
PARA A COMPOSIÇÃO DA FROTA
218
Conceptual Phase

A ) DERIVAÇÃO DO ERJ 145, ALARGANDO-SE AS PARTES CILÍNDRICAS DA FUSELAGEM :
219
Conceptual Phase
B ) FUSELAGEM ‘4-ABREAST’ CIRCULAR, MOTORES NA FUSELAGEM, ASA DERIVADA DO ERJ 145 :
220
Conceptual Phase

FUSELAGEM ‘4-ABREAST’ DUPLO BULBO, MOTORES SOB A ASA ( CONCEITO TOTALMENTE NOVO ) :
221
Conceptual Phase

D ) FUSELAGEM ‘5-ABREAST’ CIRCULAR, MOTORES SOB A ASA :
222
EMBRAER 170 : CONFIGURAÇÃO ESCOLHIDA
• Quatro portas na cabine
• Menor tempo de serviço

no solo
• Posicionamento adequado
de pontos de serviço
• Compartimentos de
bagagem dianteiro e
traseiro
• Baixo risco de colisão de

equipamentos de apoio
• Fluxo simultâneo de
passageiros e serviço de
cabine
223
Customer Needs: Air Canada Fleet Renewal 2007
“The Boeing 777 is 26 percent cheaper to operate than the Airbus

A340s, now used on many international routes. “
“The Brazilian-made Embraer 190 is 18 percent cheaper to run than Air
Canada's Airbus A319s, the airline's mainstay for shorter haul flights.”
Montie Brewer, Airline’s chief executive.
224
Configuração Básica Congelada
• Aqui é tomada a primeira importante decisão de

congelamento da configuração da aeronave
• Nesta etapa é definida a concepção estrutural e o

sistema propulsivo, e não se muda mais. Pode até mudar,
mas o preço é extremamente alto.
• Os demais itens, por exemplo, os aviônicos embarcados
no Cockpit vêm num grau de prioridade menor, junto com
outros elementos críticos.
Basic Configuration is Frozen
226
Preliminary Design Phase
Escopo Fase 2-Projeto Preliminar
Desenvolvimento dos estudos de engenharia e projeto.
ØProjeto aerodinâmico final da fuselagem; da asa;das empenagens;
dos hipersustentadores; ailerons do leme; e do profundor. Ensaios em túnel
vento 2a etapa (cargas, deflexão flaps, influência do motor, avaliar efeitos).
ØProjeto estrutural preliminar dos segmentos da fuselagem, asa e
empenagens horizontal/vertical.
ØArquitetura e definição funcional dos sistemas a serem aplicados no avião-
diagramas funcionais, esquemas, layouts, DMU, etc..
Ø Definição das cargas - estáticas e dinâmicas.
Ø Avaliação da estabilidade e controle.
ØAnálise estrutural.
ØDefinição detalhada das interfaces funcionais e físicas.
Ø Consolidação do desempenho (QV).

ØElaboração das especificações técnicas dos subsistemas e componentes para
compra.
Ø Analise de Riscos detalhada – FMEAs (Failure Mode and Effect Analysis).
Ø Preparação de desenhos (3D) e layouts necessários à definição.

Scope of the Preliminary Design (Phase 2)
• Identificação dos itens típicos/críticos e solução de todas

as questões que possam impactar o projeto.
• Seleção final de fornecedores.

• Pesquisa de normas, padrões e leis aplicáveis.
• Plano de Produção e projeto preliminar do ferramental.
• Definição do suporte à operação do avião.
• Celebração de contratos com terceiros.
• Realização de ensaios de componentes e partes de
soluções estruturais.
Integração de Sistemas: Mock-up de Madeira
Reserva de Espaços e Soluções
EMB-145
Desenvolvimento dos Estudos de
Engenharia e Projeto
•A vantagem do uso do CATIA é a migração

(aproveitamento) de dados da Concepção, desde dos
primeiros estudos na Fase 0.
CATIA DMU Nav
VPM
•Nesta fase temos a maior influência desse aplicativo na
eficiência do projeto.
231
Engenharia e Projeto (2)
Gestão da Configuração
• Caso 170
•A Gestão da Configuração é um item extremamente

crítico entre os parceiros, principalmente quando se
trata de um desenvolvimento globalizado.
232
Engenharia e Projeto (3)
Desenvolvimento Centralizado
• Durante esta Fase é importante que os parceiros estejam o mais próximo possível.
• Foi o que a Embraer fez com o 170. Parceiros na Empresa com acesso simultâneo.
Parceiro 3
Integradora
Parceiro 1
VPM
Parceiro N
Parceiro 2
233
Arquitetura e Integração Detalhada
DMUs • A evolução dos DMU- Intensa nesta fase.
• Não é exagero afirmar que, hoje, só é possível esse
tipo de parceria em função da existência desses
aplicativos e redes.
234
Arquitetura e Integração Detalhada (3)
•Compatibilidades físicas
• A evolução dos DMU- intensa nesta fase. Tudo é

desenhado e dimensionado.
235
Arquitetura e Integração Detalhada(5)
DMU na Cablagem
236
Projeto Ferramental/Instalações
Montagem final - Doca ou Linha ?
237
Projeto Ferramental/Instalações (2)
Processos e Infra-estrutura • Conhecimento Tecnológico

• Conhecimento das
ferramentas.
• Conhecimento do mercado
de materiais.
• Alto envolvimento das

áreas nas decisões de projeto.
• O envolvimento da Produção –
processos- também vai sendo
direcionado aos detalhes do
projeto. 238
Access to Repair Work/ Maintenance Plan
Ensaios Qualificação/Certificação
Tipos de Ensaios x Fase
• Ensaios em Solo de Sistemas e componentes

Ø Estruturais estáticos-fases 2/3
Ø Funcionais-fases 2/3
Ø Ambientais-fases 2/3
• Ensaios em Vôo-Fase 3
• Ensaios são uma questão de compromisso, entre tempo
e configuração. Quanto mais cedo melhor, mas não
adianta estar muito fora da configuração final.
240
Engineering Solutions
A 32nd Tactical Fighter Squadron F-15C climbs out shortly after takeoff . The bird-strike resistant windshield
consists of a center polycarbonate layer surrounded by a inner and outer layers of fusion bounded cast
acrylic. The polycarbonate canopy is made in two sections, separated by a thin red frame. The canopy
material is 0.74 cm thick and is covered by a abrasion resistant finishing. The F-15 engine intakes are fully
lowered to maximize airflow into the engines during takeoff.
A mass balance tops

the vertical stabilizer of
the F-15 fighter. This
reduces flutter caused
by aerodynamic
forces. A Loral
AN/ALR-56 Radar
Warning Receiver
(RWR) is immediately
below the mass
balance. A red anti-
collision light is placed
below the RWR.
242
A heat exchanger is placed closed to the

centerline of F-15 fighter fuselage, between
the engines nacelles. Air heated by mid-
fuselage electrical equipment vents from the
exchanger’s aft end. Grated openings allow
heated air to escape from the engine bays,
reducing temperature inside these areas. The
small Doppler antenna aft the heat
exchanger constantly measures the aircraft
altitude and feeds this information to the
navigation system.
243
Boarding steps in use on a A-7D Corsair.

Note that the gun gas vent door is open.
244
Engineering solutions: Ultra Long-range Business Jet
Bombardier Global Express XRS
Bombardier developed a slat out/flaps up high-lift configuration that is intended to give
operators more flexibility when operating at hot and high airports. The goal was to boost
maximum allowable takeoff weight as limited by one engine inoperative, second segment
climb requirements.
The alternate high-lift configuration produces mixed results. Less lift accompanied reduced
drag with the slats out/flaps up configuration, resulting in higher V speeds and longer takeoff
field lengths. In the case of the XRS, brake energy limits are also a factor, at times resulting in
a substantial reducing in maximum allowable takeoff weight.
For instance, when departing from a 5000-foot elevation, ISA+20oC airport and assuming a
slats out/flaps six-degree configuration, the XRS has a maximum allowable takeoff weight of
94,543 pounds and a 7,851-foot takeoff field length. The second segment climb
requirements is a limiting factor.
Configuring with a slats out/flaps up at the same airport as above, takeoff weight is limited to
88,311 pounds because of the brake energy limits (1000 nm range penalty). Takeoff field
length also increases to 8,359 ft because of higher V speeds.
Interfaces e Integração de Sistemas
• Questões de projeto e integração rigorosamente resolvidas
• Descrição Técnica e EBD editados.
• DMU e desenhos 3D elaborados.
• Análises elaboradas.
The aircraft is fully defined!

Arquitetura e Integração Detalhada (4)
A asa é um bom exemplo de um sistema de integração complexa:

leve, resistente, importância primária no desempenho,
volumosa, selada e com uma variedade enorme de sistemas
fixados nela.
Detailed Design Phase
Escopo da Fase 3 - Projeto Detalhado
• Execução dos desenhos de fabricação em 2D e montagem, com o

detalhamento completo da estrutura e sistemas:materiais e
tecnologias; tolerâncias de fabricação; tratamento
térmico/superficial; montabilidade; normas aplicáveis; etc.
• Fabricação do ferramental de produção.
• Elaboração do plano de manutenção e projeto do GSE.
• Elaboração dos processos de fabricação e montagem

do avião.
Escopo da Fase 3 - Projeto Detalhado
• Construção e montagem do RIG para ensaios

funcionais.
• Realização dos ensaios funcionais completos.
• Fabricação de protótipos.
• Fabricação de FTI (avionicos) para os protótipos e

dispositivos de testes.
• Execução campanhas de ensaios em vôo de qualificação
e de certificação do produto.
Projeto Detalhado
• Continuação Caso Embraer 170
Ø Volta às origens.
Ø Parceiros com DMU parcial.
Ø Controle Geral da Embraer.
Ø CC complexo.
Partner 3
EMBRAER
Partner 2
Partner 1 Partner N
Projeto Detalhado (2)
Desenhos 2D
• Depois que está tudo definido, gera-se os desenhos de
fabricação em 2D.
• Embraer 145 ~ 30.000 Desenhos

• Embraer 170 ~ 60.000 Desenhos 252
Desenhos 2D Projeto Detalhado
• Grande esforço e alto custo na conversão.

• Em princípio, cada parceiro faz a sua parte. 253
Construção dos Protótipos
• Automação x Manual
254
Construção dos Protótipos (4)
Manufatura- Integração
área do gabarito reservada

área
parado gabarito
aviões reservada
de maior
para aviões
comprimento de maior
de fuselagem
comprimento de fuselagem
(ERJ 190)
255
Execução dos Ensaios
•Tipos de Ensaio: Solo e em Vôo
Ø Estruturais
Ø Ambientais (ruído e vibração)
Ø Funcionais
Ø Vôo (Desempenho/QDV)
256
Ensaios Funcionais
Iron Bird - Instrumentation
Iron Bird - Cockpit
QLanding gear, wheels

and brakes
QHydraulic system
257
Ensaios Estruturais de Fadiga e Vibração
üLimit and Ultimate Load Tests Completed

üResidual Strenght Test
258
Ensaios Esrtuturais de
Fadiga e Vibração (2)
Wing Up Bending Test
259
Outros Ensaios
Bird Strike
Flape
Windshield / Direct View Window
260
Other Testing
Estouro de Pneu
261
Outros Ensaios: Aeroacústica
Full-scale landing gear Full-scale wing

Flight Tests
Performance – Flight Characteristics– Regular Operation as Airliner
• Ensaios configurados à certificação

• Programa de Ensaios-Plano e Instrumentação
• Esforço na elaboração dos relatórios de certificação
• Tremendo investimento em protótipos e operações 263
Outros Ensaios
Baixas Temperaturas no solo
Alaska
Picture freely distributed in the Embraer’s Website 264

Flight Test
Ice Contamination
Picture freely distributed in the Embraer’s Website

Issuing Manuals
Engine Exhaust Temperatures

Max Take-Off Power - GP 7200 Engines Source: Airbus
Issuing Manuals
Danger Areas of the Engines

Breakaway Power - GP 7200 Engines Source: Airbus
Certification
268
Certification
269
Entrada em Serviço
Dados obtidos em apresentações disponíveis na Internet
270
Embraer 170/175 – Frota em Operação
Airline EIS A/C in Service Acc. FH
Lot Polish March 17, 2004 10 37,353
US Airways April 04, 2004 12 54,182
Alitalia April 26, 2004 6 19,263
Republic Holdings October 22, 2004 54 127,226
Cirrus Airlines January 15, 2005 1 1,824
AIR CANADA July 27, 2005 15 12,455
Hong Kong Express September 08, 2005 3 2,916
FINNAIR October 01, 2005 5 3,189
Paramount October 19, 2005 1 2,089

Saudi Arabian Airlines February 01, 2006 4 905
E 170/175 March 17, 2004 111 261,402

Source: Airlines (as of Mar 17th 2006)
EI 19/JJan/06
Embraer 170/175 - Estatística
E170/175
Operators 10
Aircraft in Service 111
Flight Hours 261,402
Flight Cycles 175,886
as of Mar 17th 2006
272
Embraer 170/175 Dispatch Reliability
Schedule Reliability Completion Rate
Aircraft in Service
(SR*) (CR*)
Worldwide 111 98.2% 99.6%
Europe
22 98.8% 99.5%
LOT 10 98.2% 99.3%
(*) Monthly. Ref. date: Mar 15th, 2006

273
Reliability Diagnosis
Product Technical Spare Parts

Issues Availability
Specific Operators
Environment
274
E170/175 Dispatch Reliability Status
EMBRAER 170 - WW FLEET

Dispatch Reliability - 12 Months Running Average
100.0
99.6
99.5
99.0
98.5
SR/CR (%)
98.0
97.8
97.5
97.0
96.5
96.0
FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR
2005CR - 12M SR - 12M 2006
2752006)
(as of Mar 15th,
E170/175 Dispatch Reliability Status
EMBRAER 170 - European FLEET
Dispatch Reliability - 12 Months Running Average
100.0
99.7
99.5
99.0
98.6
98.5
SR/CR (%)
98.0
97.5
97.0
96.5
96.0
FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR
2005 2006
CR - 12M SR - 12M (as of Mar 15th, 2006)
The End
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Overview of the Aircraft Design Process

Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos

V40 March 2010

This lecture is intended to provide an

Recommended Further Reading

• D. Howe - Aircraft Conceptual Design Synthesis

Recommended Further Reading

• L.Jenkinson, P.Simpkin & D.Rhodes – Civil Jet Aircraft Design

Specific Industry journals

AVIATION WEEK & SPACE TECHNOLOGY

BUSINESS & COMMERCIAL AVIATION

THE WEEKLY OF BUSINESS AVIATION

AEROSPACE DAILY & DEFENSE REPORT

AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING AND AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY

ENGINEERING FAILURE ANALYSIS

ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS

AVIATION SPACE AND ENVIRONMENTAL MEDICINE

IEEE AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS MAGAZINE

Source: Prof. Mason, Virginia Tech

Source: Prof. Mason, Virginia Tech

Aircraft Design is a Compromise

• It is the task of the aircraft design engineer to

Aeronaves São Sistemas Multidisciplinares Complexos

• Sistemas multidisciplinares são intrisincamente difíceis de

Think Light, Think Simple,

Kelly Johnson’s Rules

Kelly Johnson established fourteen basic

Kelly Johnson’s Rules

Kelly Johnson’s Rules

Kelly Johnson’s Rules

Kelly Johnson’s Rules

Kelly Johnson’s Most

"Be Quick, Be Quiet, And Be on Time"

Payload = the revenue earning load

Maximum ramp weight is that approved for ground maneuver

Maximum landing weight = maximum weight approved for touchdown

Maximum to take-off weight = gross (all-up) weight = MTOW

in which operating empty weight and disposable load are built up as

Operating empty weight = basic empty weight + crew

Basic empty weight = standard empty weight + optional equipment

Standard empty weight = weight of the standard aircraft (as

Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos

Market Structure and Segmentation

Market Structure and Segmentation

Executive or Business Aircraft

Jet Transport Aircraft

EMB 145 AEW&C

EMB 145 MP/ASW

Lockheed 188 Electra II

Embraer EMB-110 variants and Derivatives

Fonte: Revista Manche, 1978

EMB-110 (C-95) 1973 Military liaison

EMB-110A (EC-95) 1973 Aerial Laboratory (Calibration of Airport Instrumentation)

EMB-110B 1975 Aerial photography

EMB-110C 1973 Airliner (15 passengers)

EMB-110S1 1976 Remote sensing

EMB-110B1 1976 Conversível Passageiros/Aerofotogrametria

EMB-110K1 (C-95A) 1977 Cargo/Paratroops transport

EMB-111 1977 Patrulha e Esclarecimento Marítimo

EMB-110P1 1978 Transporte de Passageiros e Carga (19 pax)

O EMB-100 Bandeirante foi desenvolvido no Centro Técnico de

Prof. Bento Silva de Mattos

Em 1972 o Bandeirante foi homologado pelo Centro Técnico de Aeronáutica (Atualmente