ROSE CLARKE- BIOLOGY NOTES

Maintaining a Balance
1. Most organisms are active in a limited temperature range
Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical composition and use a
simple model to describe their specificity to substrates
Enzymes:
Chemical Composition:
Enzymes are globular proteins made up of long chains of amino acids
o Proteins are large, complex macromolecules, built from a linear sequence of amino
acids. As enzymes they control the metabolic reactions of cells
o Cofactors are a non protein component of an enzyme and may be an inorganic
molecule. Often added component of enzyme to complete catalytic properties.
Prosthetic groups (permanent) or coenzymes (temporary)
o Amylase acts of starch to create glucose
.
The part of the enzyme surface which the substrate is bound and undergoes the reaction is
known as the active site.
o Catabolism single substrate molecule to be drawn into active site , breaking
chemical bonds, breaking substrate into 2 separate molecules.
o Anabolism two substrate molecules are drawn into active site, chemical bonds
form single molecule
Role
Increase rate of reaction without a change in temperature
Lower the activation energy by bringing substrate specific molecules together rather than
random collision
Act of specific substrate
Chemically unchanged but can be reused
Biological catalysts
LOCK AND KEY MODEL or Induced-Fit Model

Identify the pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance

The pH scale is used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a substance
Is a logarithmic value of the concentration of [H+] ions in solution
o Greater log value the lower the pH
The presence of hydrogen ions in solution makes it more acidic
Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is important for optimal
metabolic efficiency
All chemical reactions within cells must occur efficiently and be effectively co ordinate to
bring about optimal metabolic efficiency.
Enzymes are extremely sensitive to changes in their internal environment (intercellular or
interstitial fluid and cytoplasm) and any imbalance can adversely affect their function
Internal environment of an organism must be maintained within a narrow range of
conditions (temp, volume, chemical contents) so that enzymes can function effectively and
metabolic efficiency can be maintained.
o Metabolic efficiency relies on temp/pH, concentration of metabolites, water and salt
concentration and absence of toxins that may inhibit enzyme to Regulate respiratory
gases, Cope with disease and pathogens, Maintain nutrient supply and Repair injury
Importance
pH and temp
o enzymes only
function in a narrow
temp and pH range;
outside these
ranges enzymes
decrease in activity
or denature
rendering non
functional reducing
metabolic efficiency
Metabolites
o Chemicals that

Experiments which affect activity of enzyme

1. increased temperature
- Risks: hydrogen peroxide is hazardous if swallowed,
irritant to eyes, hot plates are at high temperature so
can burn
1. 5 water baths at different temperatures
(independent variable) (5,25,39- control,80,100)
2. Add 5 identical pieces of liver (controlled variable)
(enzyme) into each test tube
3. Add 5ml of Hydrogen peroxide into separate test
tubes
4. Place test tubes into water baths for 2 mins
(controlled variable) and pour the two test tubes
together

participate in
chemical reactions
in cells. Some are
taken from outside
while others are
products of
metabolic pathways,
e.g. ATP. Metabolic
reactions rely on
energy, thus a lack
of metabolites can
slow down or stop
cellular respiration
and affect overall
metabolic efficiency.
Water and Salt
concentration
o Reactants in
chemical reactions
need water while
dissolved salts affect
the osmotic balance
of fluids and so
concentration of
salts ect must be
maintained in
narrow range.
Absence of toxins
o A build up of CO2 or
other wastes as a
product of cellular
reactions may be
toxic, affecting
enzymes directly by
blocking active site
or indirectly by
altering the optimal
conditions of
enzymes.

5. Measure height of the foam in each and repeat /

average results
- High temperatures decrease activity as enzyme is
denatured, Low temperatures decrease activity as
kinetic energy is lower

1.

2.
3.
4.
-

2. Change in pH
Risks: hydrogen peroxide is hazardous if swallowed,
irritant to eyes
Add 1ml of acid into 4 test tubes using pipette each
with different pH level (independent variable), (aethanoic acid, b-distilled water, c-tap water, dsodium carbonate)
Add 1ml of potato solution, and mark the height
Add 1ml of hydrogen peroxide solution and time for
30 seconds
Measure the height of the bubbles and repeat,
record results (dependent variable)
Activity decreased either side of optimum as
enzymes were denature

3. Change in substrate concentrations

- Risk: hydrogen peroxide is hazardous if swallowed,
irritant to eyes (substrate)
1. 6 test tubes, with increasing amounts of hydrogen
peroxide (independent variable) and increasing
amounts of distilled water into each
2. Add 1ml of potato solution to each and record the
top of the mixture
3. Time for 1 min, measure the height of the bubbles
(dependent variable) and record/ repeat results
- Height of bubbles increased as substrate
concentration increased until saturation point
- Control was test tube a with no hydrogen peroxide
- Controlling variables- amount of enzyme, time, pH,
temperature

Describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable

internal environment
Homeostasis is the process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable constant internal
environment, regardless of the external environmental conditions.
Stimulus

receptor

brain (CNS)

effector

response

To maintain homeostasis organisms must detect stimulus from both internal and external
environments then counteract the change.
It is vital for survival of all cells as all the chemical processes function within a narrow range
of conditions.
It maintains optimal metabolic efficiency.
Note: Body temperature in mammals is a homeostatic mechanism.
To reduce temperature, heat can be expelled by sweating or radiation of heat from the skin. To
increase heat, the body can respond by shivering or by contracting the skin. These responses can be
activated by heat receptors. If a mechanism is activated, it will operate until receptors indicate that
the optimum temperature has been reached.
Explain that homeostasis consists of two stages:
o Detecting changes from the stable state
o Counteracting changes from the stable state
Homeostasis involves coordination, control and maintenance of stable internal environment. In
mammals, nervous and endocrine systems are involved.
Variables within internal environment have a set point. If the fluctuation of these variables is
large, the stimuli is detected by receptors and a negative feedback mechanism operates to
counteract the change, returning body to homeostasis.
1. Detecting changes
Sensory cells or receptors detect change in temp or chemical composition
Called stimuli
2. Counteracting changes
Effector organs (such as muscles or glands) respond to change and counteract it to return to
homeostasis.
Model for Negative Feedback Mechanism:

Outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to environmental
changes
The nervous system consists of Central Nervous System (CNS) [brain and spinal cord] and Peripheral
Nervous System (PNS) [sensory nerves and effectors nerves]
-

The nervous system detect changes, sending neuron messages to the hypothalamus in the
brain to respond to the changes and ensure homeostasis is maintained

Receptors:
Rods and cones in the retina detect light
Hair cells in the cochlea of the ear that detect pressure waves in the cochlea fluid
Taste buds on the tongue
Olfactory receptors in nose
Mechanoreceptors, thermo receptors, pain receptors in skin
Endocrine system: consists of endocrine glands which produce hormones into the bloodstream.
Chemical message which travel through the blood, so take longer to act than nerves but their effects
are longer lasting.

Identify the broad range of temperatures over which life is found compared with the
narrow limits for individual species

Broad Range: - 70 degrees to 350 degrees

Narrow Limits: Individual Species
-

Tolerance Range- optimal range of temperatures

o Degree to which an organism can tolerate and survive in variation in environmental
factors
Chemical reactions that occur in cells take place only within a relatively narrow range of
temperatures, due to the temperature sensitivity of enzymes
o If temperature increases- enzymes begin to denature as the weak hydrogen bonds in
enzymes break and change the shape of active site
Examples: Submarine hydrothermal vents, can reach 350 degrees.
o the hydrothermophilic microbe, Pyrolobus fumarii.
o Pompeii worm
Extreme cold
o Microbes such as bacteria, lichen and fungi- a range of -17 to 20 degrees
o arctic fox can withstand temperatures of -70 degrees.

Compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and endothermic organisms to

changes in the ambient temperature and explain how these responses assist temperature
regulation
The ambient temperature is the temperature of the environment the air, water in the immediate
surroundings on an animal.
Ectothermic: Organisms that depend on an external source the environment for heat energy
Endotherm: Remains relatively stable despite the environment, but varies metabolism.

Habitat and
optimum
temperature
range

Adaptations

Comparison of
responses

EndothermsRed Kangaroo

Desert
woodlands
and open
plains

Has a steady
internal core
temperature, the
metabolic rate is
maintained at a
high level as it
gains its source of
body heat
internally.

Endotherm-

Coastlines,
cold icy
locations

larger surface area enables the kangaroo to

maintain and lose body heat during periods
of high temperatures.
dense network of blood vessels particularly
in their forearms. These blood vessels dilate
when the ambient temperature is high. This
dilation increases blood flow to the forearms
and promotes heat loss. To increase cooling
kangaroos lick their forearms.
Kangaroos cool themselves by sweating. This
evaporation of the water cools the organism
down. However in times whereby the
kangaroo needs to conserve water it will
increase its body temperature a couple of
degrees in order to maintain water.
Kangaroos fur has two main processes when
the ambient temperature
increases/decreases. When the temperature
decreases the fur stands on end in order to
reduce heat loss and maintain body heat.
When the ambient temperature increases
the fur insulates the kangaroo from the hot
air surrounding it.
Kangaroos regulate their metabolic rates in
order to regulate their body temperature.
This is done by remaining crouched in the
shade during times of extreme heat.
- Feathers which trap air to reduce
heat loss by acting as an insulator
- In low temps, the feathers are
further away from skin to trap the
maximum amount of heat
- In high temps, the feathers are
flatter on body to reduce the

Fairy penguin

insulation, also move to water to

cool body down
EctothermsFrilled neck
lizard

EctothermEastern
brown snake

Hot tropical
climates- dry
forests and
woodlands

Dry desert
areas in
australia

Frilled neck lizards will flatten their body to

absorb as much sun as possible in order to
increase their body temperature.
Frilled neck lizards will narrow their body if
the ambient temperature is too high or if
their own body temperature is too high. This
is performed in order to reduce their surface
area.
Frilled neck lizards move into shades or
burrows to cool down from the rising
ambient temperature. The temperature in
burrows is fairly constant, which enables the
lizard to cool down. Burrows in particular
also minimise water loss which is beneficial
to the lizard.
Due to the ambient temperature being too
cold frilled neck lizards can go into a state of
torpor whereby their body shuts down for
the winter and their metabolic rate is
slowed.
- In hot temperatures, becomes active
at night whilst sheltering during the
day
- In low temps, the snake basks in
sunlight to gain additional heatbecomes less active by slowing down
metabolism.
- If long periods of low temperatures,
hibernates in a well sheltered spot
to retain stored food

Dependent on the
exterior hot
climate in order to
regulate body
temperature.
Varies
dramatically
depending on the
ambient
temperature

Identify some responses of plants to temperature change

Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment is vital for plant metabolism.
Response to high temperatures
-

Temperatures above 40 may cause damage to proteins and those above 75 to chlorophyll
pigment within the plant. These responses are mostly structural and physiological

Evaporative cooling (transpiration)

o

Causes the stomata in plants to open, leading to the loss of water via transpiration.
This in turn decreases the internal temperature

However this can cause dehydration of the plant, so excessive heat causes the
stomata to close to preserve water

Turgor response (wilting)

o

Reduce the exposure of their surface area to the sun and its associated heat and
light.

In extreme heat, the plants transpire and lose turgor in the palisade cells of leaves,
resulting in leaves wilting, reducing SA. If water is available, wilting is temporary,
however if not then wilting will lead to death. Many introduced plants do not have
the adaptations for the dry climate such as hydrangeas and roses.

Leaf orientation
o

Some leaves can hang vertically downward in hot temp to reduce surface area

Leaf fall- eg. eucalypts

Reseeding and resprouting in response to extreme high temperatures - fire eg. eucalypts
Thermogenic plants eg. lotus bud
Response to cold temperatures
-

Organic anti freeze - eg. Antarctic hairgrass plant

o

Dormancy eg. deciduous beech tree

o

Substance that reduces the temperature at which the cytoplasm or cell sap in the
vacuole freezes

Deciduous trees lose their leaves in winter and undergo a period of dormancy, which
allow them to survive, storing water and lower availability of sunlight

Vernalisation
o

eg. tulip buds

Flower, e.g. tulip bulbs

Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available
evidence to develop a model of a feedback mechanism

2. Plants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and gases in a

fluid medium
Identify the forms in which each of the following is carried in mammalian blood:
o Carbon dioxide
o Oxygen
o Water
o Salts
o Lipids
o Nitrogenous waste
o Other products of digestion
Substance

Form carried in mammalian blood

Carbon dioxide

70% transported in the form of hydrogen carbonate ions, formed in

red blood cells and carried in plasma
Some combines with haemoglobin forming carboaminohaemoglobin
7% is dissolved in plasma

Oxygen

Around 1.5% travels dissolved in plasma

Binds to haemoglobin molecule, via diffusion across the biconcave
red blood cell surface oxyhaemoglobin

Water

In plasma as the basis of the cytoplasm in all cells and the interstitial
fluids surrounding cells and blood and lymph system

Salts

Carried in blood as ions dissolved in blood plasma

Lipids

Are insoluble due to their strong hydrophilic end so many are not
able to dissolve in plasma. Although small proportions of fatty acids
and glycerol are soluble and enter the blood stream directly, most
are packaged into droplets, then through lymph system and into
bloodstream. called micelles
Micelles are transported in colloidal solution. Which are then
absorbed as they pass into lacteals inside the villi of the small
intestine. During this process they form into chylomicrons to which
they join the blood stream.

Nitrogenous waste

Includes urea, uric acid, creatinine and ammonia and some non used
amino acids are carried dissolved in blood plasma
Metabolic nitrogenous waste is broken down by liver and removed
via kidneys

Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin

Haemoglobin:
Structure
Protein made up of 4 polypeptide chains
each folded polypeptide chain is called a
globin. Towards the centre of each
globin is a haem unit (iron containing
group). The iron weakly binds with the
oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin
Each haem is a red pigment molecule
and the iron necessary for haemoglobin
formation is obtained from the diet.
Iron is necessary in diet to maintain
haemoglobin in red blood cells
Adaptive advantage
Major role of Hb is to transport oxygen. This is insoluble so cannot be dissolve in plasma, this
binds to haemoglobin
At high altitude, blood cannot absorb amount of oxygen at sea level. Thus body adapts by
initially increasing heart rate, breathing rate, then the number of red blood cells --> more
haemoglobin
Is able to increase the oxygen carrying capacity of blood
o 4 haem units on haemoglobin molecule allow it to bond with 4 oxygen molecules
Ability to bind oxygen increases once the first oxygen molecule binds to it
o The bonding on each oxygen molecule to the haemoglobin molecule, changes it
shape slightly making the rate and efficiency oxygen uptake increase.

Small increase in oxygen concentration in the lungs can result in a large

increase in oxygen saturation in the blood.
Capacity to release oxygen increase when carbon dioxide is present.
o Important to release oxygen to cells that need it, while uptaking oxygen at
respiratory surfaces
o Metabolising cells release CO2 which combines with water and forms carbonic acid,
lowering the pH. Haemoglobin reduces the affinity for oxygen at lower pH, release it.
Bohr effect

Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their function
Blood Vessel

Diagram

How structure is related to function

Artery

Transport oxygenated blood away from heart

Thick, elastic and muscular layer- high pressure of
pumped blood
Elastic fibres- expand and recoil, controlling blood
pressure
Smooth muscular fibres- control diameter of artery
and rate of flow of blood

Vein

Transport deoxygenated blood towards the heart

Thin, elastic and muscular layers, wider diameterFlows at a much lower pressure
Valves ensure that blood flows in one direction
Situated between skeletal muscles to help push
blood through veins

Capillaries

1 cell layer thick, small diameter of lumen, narrowred blood cells must pass through single file, slows
down flow to allow for exchange of materials
Surround body tissues, expansive network, large
surface area- efficient exchange

Describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it moves around
the body and identify tissues in which these changes occur
Organ/
Tissues
Lungs

Chemical that changes in

composition
- Oxygen increases in
blood

Why does the change in concentration occur

-

Gas exchange occur

Oxygen diffuse from lungs into blood for

Small
intestine

Large
intestine

Liver

Carbon dioxide
decreases
Products of digestion
increase (glucose,
amino acids)
Water, vitamin,
mineral
concentration
increases
Unwanted
substances decrease
(toxin, alcohol)
Urea increases
Minerals decrease
Glucose may
increase or decrease

Kidney

Brain and
active muscle

Substance

Urea decreases
Salt and water
decrease

Oxygen decreases
Co2 decreases
Glucose decreases

respiration
Co2 diffuses from blood to be excreted
Diffuse across the villis of small intestine
and into blood to be carried to body cells
for respiration
Diffuses across the large intestine walls and
into blood to reach cells

Removes and breaks down toxins etc

Removes excess amino acids and ammonia
from blood and converts to urea called
DEAMINATION
Stores some vitamins and minerals
Can remove glucose wen sugar levels are
high
When levels are low- release glucose into
blood from stores of glycogen
Urea is filtered out of blood and kidneys
and excreted
Remove any excess salt and water by
osmoregulation
High rate of respiration occurs which
requires glucose and oxygen
Releasing CO2 in the blood

Source

Destination

Form/component
carried in blood

Oxygen

Alveoli in lungs from

inhaled air

Heart and tissues of

body for respiration

Oxyhaemoglobin in red
blood cells
Dissolved in plasma

Carbon dioxide
Water

Body cells
Waste product of
cellular respiration

Alveoli in lungs
Kidneys

Plasma
Plasma

Salts

Capillaries

Kidney

Plasma

Lipids

Lymph vessels

Nitrogenous waste
Amino acids and
glucose

Liver
Small intestine

Kidney
Liver

Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon dioxide from
cells in essential
Need for Oxygen:

Is necessary for cellular respiration, a process where cells obtain energy from glucose
This energy is needed for growth, repair of tissues, movement, excretion, reproduction.
However this energy must be converted into form for living cells to use in metabolism
Oxygen combines with glucose via a series of enzyme controlled steps during cellular
respiration to release ATP
o This is called oxidation of glucose and it occurs in all living cells
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

6CO2 + 12H2O + ATP

Removal of carbon dioxide

Produced in cells as a waste product of chemical respiration. It must be removed to prevent
a change in pH in the cells, bloodstream and body.
o When CO2 reacts with H2O it forms carbonic acid. A build up of carbonic acid is toxic
as it lowers the pH of the cells and blood stream, affecting the homeostatic balance
within an organism.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
A lower pH will prevent the enzymes and cell functioning by reducing the metabolic
efficiency. Thus it is essential to be removed for optimal functioning of enzymes.
Describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of materials
through plants xylem and phloem tissue
1. CAT Theory (cohesion-adhesion-tension theory) Xylem
What is it:
- Movement of water and mineral ions through xylem
- Root pressure forces the solution which has been absorbed into the roots into the xylem
upwards
- Most upward movement is due to Transpiration stream occurs due to physical forces from
water being moved by passive transport, evaporative suction pull of water is pulled up
through stem
Evidence:
- Xylem vessels are hollow very little resistance to the flow of water
- Properties of water:
o Cohesive forces (attraction of water molecules to each other)
o adhesive forces (attraction of water molecules to walls of xylem) lead to capillarity
(water rises up xylem)
- Concentration gradient exists across leaf
o Surface of the leaf, the osmotic pressure is high, water concentration is low as it is
constantly being evaporated through the stomata
o Centre of the lead, the osmotic pressure is low, water concentration is high
2. The pressure flow theory (source path-sink theory)
What is it?

phloem

Translocation in phloem tissue moves products of photosynthesis by active transport

Mechanism of flow is driven by an osmotic pressure gradient, which is a continuous flow as
sucrose is continually being added to one end and removed at the other- due to difference
in sugar and water concentration

What happens:
- Active loading of sugar, amino acids, sucrose, other mineral nutrients into phloem (source
eg. leaves)- the pressure attracts water to flow in due to differences in osmotic pressure
1. Symplastic loading- sugars move in the cytoplasm from the mesophyll cells
2. Apoplastic loading- sugars move along a pathway through the cell walls, cross cell
membrane to enter phloem tube, pass through sieve cell by active transport
- Increases the solute (sugar) concentration
- Active unloading of sugar from phloem into surrounding tissues (sink eg. roots or flowers)pressure causes water to flow out
Choose equipment or resources to perform a firsthand investigation to gather first hand
data to draw transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem tissue.
Longitudinal section

Transverse Section

Xylem

Phloem

Perform a firsthand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on

the pH of water
See Prac worksheet in folder

Perform a firsthand investigation used the light microscope and prepared slides to gather
information to estimate the size of red and white blood cells and draw scaled diagrams of
each
See Prac worksheet in folder
Analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies that allow
measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide concentration in blood and
describe and explain the conditions under which the technologies are used
Arterial blood gas analysis
-

Takes blood samples from artery and the sample is tested to determine different
substances. The test evaluates respiratory diseases and conditions to show how effective the
lungs are at removing carbon dioxide and bringing oxygen to the blood. It is an invasion
procedure. A limitation is that a sample left at room temp must be analysed within 10-15
min and a sample on ice within an hour.

Current technologies for measurement of oxygen saturation in blood

A Pulse Oximeter is an
instrument that measures the
amount of oxygenated
haemoglobin in the blood.
-

The amount of oxygen

in the blood
determines how much
light is absorbed by
haemoglobin.
Non invasion
technique, relatively
cheap and simple to
use, useful screening
tool

It uses two wavelengths of

light: red (660 nm) and infra
red (910 nm).
photodetector receives the
signals and a processormeasure absorbed to calculate
oxygen saturation
Oxygenated haemoglobin
absorbs more infra red light
and allows more red light to
pass through.

Uses: Monitoring oxygenation

and pulse rates during
anaesthesia, during recovery
phase and in intensive care
during mechanical ventilation
Limitations:
Readings may not be accurate if severe hypotension, cold,
cardiac failure.
Intravenous dyes can also give
false readings and they cannot
distinguish between
carboxyhaemoglobin and
methaemoglobin.

Current technologies for measurement of carbon dioxide concentration in blood

-

Carbon dioxide is produced as a metabolic waste from respiration toxic to cells

Can travel in the blood via hydrogen carbonate ions, dissolved carbon dioxide or bound to
haemoglobin as carbamino compounds

Capnometers
measure the
amount of carbon
dioxide in expired
air.
- It is a
safe, non

Use changes in the infra

red light transmission
properties and consist of
an infra red transducer, a
pump to draw the gases
through a tube, a water
trap and a microprocessor.

Uses: They are used during anaesthesia, in

lung studies and in intensive care, monitoring
the performance of assisted ventilation.
Limitations:
include the presence of gases in the sample
that the device cannot measure, e.g. helium.

invasive
test with
few
hazards

High breathing frequency can also affect the

response capabilities of the capnometer.

Analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products extracted from
donated blood and discuss the uses of each product

Donated Blood
Products
Red Blood cell concentrate

Platelet concentrate

Uses
Contain about twice as many
red blood cells as normal, is
used to boost the oxygen
carrying capacity of patients
with anaemia or after blood
loss
Treats the haemoglobin levels
of patients while not increasing
the blood volume for people
suffering anaemia, kidney
failure, and traumas.

Is given to patients who need

extra blood clotting capability,
such as leukemia sufferers or
following severe blood loss

Discussion
For: can be used to boost the
oxygen carrying capacity of a
patient.
High level of specificity more
efficient when separated into
separate components.
Against: is a liable product, a
perishable blood component
with a short shelf life and must
be transported under certain
refrigerated conditions
42 day shelf life
Risk of infection,
allergic reaction
For: can be stable and have
long shelf life if it is blood
clotting component.
Against: is a liable product, a
perishable blood component
with a short shelf life and must
be transported under certain
refrigerated conditions
5 day shelf life

White blood cell concentrate

Given to patients needing a

boost to their immune system,
perhaps following a severe
infection

For: can help boost the immune

system of patient and prevent
infections
Against: is a liable product, a
perishable blood component
with a short shelf life and must
be transported under certain
refrigerated conditions

Plasma

Is the liquid part of the blood

and is often given in an

For: can be used as a blood

volume expander after blood

emergency to boost the volume

of blood following severe blood
loss
- Contains blood clotting
factors
- Adjust the osmotic
pressure
- Treat haemophilia

Cryoprecipitate

Is a fraction collected from

plasma and contains blood
clotting factors. It is used to
treat severe bleeding

loss, obtain intragram,

immunoglobins, anti-D,
albumex and prothrombinex

Against: is a liable product, a

perishable blood component
with a short shelf life and must
be transported under certain
refrigerated conditions
12 month shelf life
For: can be used to treat severe
bleeding and contains blood
clotting factors
Against: is a liable product, a
perishable blood component
with a short shelf life and must
be transported under certain
refrigerated conditions

Factor VIII and Monofix

Are extracted from plasma and

are used to treat people who
have haemophilia (an inherited
and incurable disorder in which
the blood will not clot properly)

For: is a stable product, thus it

has longer shelf life and can be
produced fractionally or by
recombinant manufacteuring.
Used to treat haemophilia and
blood clotting

Analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress in the
production of artificial blood and use available evidence to propose reasons why such
research is needed.
Progress in the production of artificial blood
Developments
Volume
Expanders

Perflurocarbon
Dr Leland Clark-

Description
- Are fluid solutions that
are inert and used to
increase the blood
volume.
- The blood is dilute and
has a lower
concentration of red
blood cells.

Oxycyte and flurovent,

easily dissolve oxygen
and carbon dioxide

Benefits
Non oxygen carrying
blood substitutes can
be crystalloid
solutions which
contain salts and or
sugars, e.g. saline
solution.
universal acceptance
by all blood groups
Carries 50 x more
dissolved oxygen
than plasma.

Uses
Emergency situations
such as trauma patients
These plasma
expanders are effective
for blood loss and most
have few negatives

Uses include surgery,

trauma, and
oxygenation of tumours

mid 1960s
high demand in
Vietnam War
-

Haemoglobin
based oxygen
carriers

and can transport

these gases to tissues
and lungs respectively
They are combined
with other materials,
e.g. lipids, to form
emulsions which can
be injected into the
patient.

Combine with oxygen.

Clinical trials are
ongoing as HBOCs are
not protected by a cell
membrane and hence
not protected from
degradation
They are based on
haemoglobin from
humans, animals and
recombinant
technology.

stored at room
temperature

during radiation and

chemotherapy.

do not need typing

or cross matching
Most are inert and
chemically stable and
can be fully sterilised.
Produced in large
quantities at a low
cost
free of infective
agents and allergens,
making them non
toxic and disease
free

Limitations:
Vasoconstriction and
there can be
gastrointestinal side
effects, e.g. nausea,
vomiting.

Do not trigger the

immune response
Have a long shelf life

Reasons why artificial blood research is needed

Further research needed to enclose the haemoglobin, with the required enzymes, inside an
artificial cell membrane a lipid vesicle to increase circulation time.
Further research is needed to make perflurocarbon emulsions with lipids for effective with
large enough quantities to make a significant result as they currently have short circulating
life
1. Cheaper to produce
- Current estimates of the costs of blood substitues range between 300 and 1000 dollars. The
current cost of a unit of blood varies by region, but the highest current cost is about $200.
2. Safer to use
- Although transfused blood in the US is very safe, with between 10 and 20 deaths per million
units, blood substitutes could eventually improve on this.
3. Developing nations
- 10-15 million units of blood are transfused each year without testing for HIV or hepatitis.
Blood transfusion is the second largest source of new HIV infections in Nigeria. In certain
regions of South Africa as much as 40% of the population has HIV/AIDS, and thorough
testing is not financially feasible. A disease-free source of blood substitutes would be
incredibly beneficial in these regions. Hemopure is currently approved for use in South
Africa, largely because it is a major improvement over the blood supply in this region.

4. Increase in demand
- About 14 million units of blood were used last year in the United States alone. According to
Dr. Bernadine Healy, former president of the American Red Cross, donations are increasing
by about 2-3% annually in the United States, but demand is climbing by between 6-8% as an
aging population requires more operations that often involve blood transfusion. New York
City currently relies on Europe for 25% of its blood supply.
- Supply blood quickly and effectively to soldiers and people in critical trauma situations.
5. Replacement for Donated Blood
- Blood supply is voluntarily donated and therefore the amount varies, can be critically low at
times of need
- Donated blood has a relatively short shelf life, e.g. platelets have a shelf life of 5 days
- Donated blood is difficult to transport and needs certain conditions

3. Plants and animals regulate the concentration of gases, water and

waste products of metabolism in cells and in interstitial fluid.
Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a narrow
range for optimal function
Water is a universal solvent in cells
-

Amount and concentration of water must be kept constant

Molecules such as salts, ions and respiratory products can be dissolved and transported
through the water medium
Water can change solute concentration and pH
If too much water the cells can burst or too little the cells can shrink

Maintenance of Osmoregulation - water regulates osmotic pressure

Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity
Metabolic wastes, particularly nitrogenous wastes,
-

are toxic to cells.

the by-products of the breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids, are toxic to cells and must
therefore be removed quickly
Nitrogenous wastes have the ability to change the pH of cells and interfere with membrane
transport functions and may denature enzymes.
o Nitrogenous waste such as ammonia can cause an increase in pH of cells, resulting
in them becoming more alkaline
o Carbon dioxide accumulation which lowers the pH, results from internal
environment becoming too acidic.
Increased solute concentrations interfere with reaction rates and an osmotic imbalance
adversely affects membrane functioning

Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals
Kidney:
The excretory system is a group of organs that
function together to remove metabolic wastes from
the tissues of an organism and expel them to the
outside.
Mammals:
Filtering the blood and removing nitrogenous
wastes from the body in the form of urine
- Plays a central role in homeostasis, forming
and excreting urine while regulating water
and salt concentrations in the blood. It
maintains the precise balance between
waste disposal and the animals need for
water and salts
Fish : - dependant on the environment of the fish.
Produce urine that ensures homeostasis is maintained in the body by osmoregulation
-

In marine (salt water) environments, the kidneys excrete small quantities of isotonic (same
concentration as sea water) urine. This helps conserve water and excrete the excess salt
they gain from their hyperosmotic environment.
In freshwater fish, the kidneys work continuously to excrete copious quantities of dilute
urine, which also has a very low salt concentration. This helps to remove excess water
gained from the hypo-osmotic environment.
Explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing dissolved
nitrogenous waste in some organisms

Diffusion and osmosis are both types of passive transport that require no energy input and are
relatively slow. They rely on random movements of molecules. Diffusion is too slow for the normal
functioning of the body and does not select for useful solutes. Osmosis only deals with the
movement of water and thus would only allow water to move out of the body, not the nitrogenous
wastes.
Problems with Diffusion
Problems with Osmosis
The rate of movement is too slow
Too much water may be lost in
o Nitrogenous waste must be dissolved in
urine
water to be removed. Thus wastes would
o Urine contains large
only be able to move if they were more
number of nitrogenous
concentrated inside the cells or the
wastes in solution,
bloodstream rather than the fluid
water must be drawn
outside.
into the urine by
Not all wastes can be removed via diffusion
osmosis to dilute the
o If concentrations within the blood and
wastes and try to
urine equalised and no further wastes
equalise the

were removed, their accumulation

would change the pH of cells and
become toxic.
Active transport is therefore essential to remove
wastes such as uric acid against the
concentration gradient from blood into urine in
the kidneys.

concentrations of the
fluid inside the urine and
in the surrounding
kidney.
Movement of water may make
wastes too dilute for excretion
by diffusion.

Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these processes occurring in
the mammalian kidney
-

Within the kidney, the movement of substances between the bloodstream and excretory
fluid in the microscopic tubules (nephrons) involves both active and passive transport

Transport
Passive

Details
-

Active

Process of
diffusion and
osmosis
No energy input
Along a
concentration
gradient

Involves a carrier
protein
Energy input
Selective process
Can move against
a concentration
gradient

Mammalian Kidney
Passive transport moves water and some
nitrogenous wastes such as urea and ammonia
in the kidney of mammals
Filtration
Once filtration has occurred in Bowman's
capsule, water returns via the interstitial fluid
from the tubule to the capillary in the process
of osmosis. This occurs along the length of the
tubule.
-

Reabsorption, Secretion
Moves mainly sodium ions, glucose, amino
acids and hydrogen ions across the wall of the
nephron
Depending on their concentration, the ions in
the blood (Na+, K+, Cl- , H+ and HCO3) can be
transported to cells in the nephron tubule and
then secreted by the cells into the tubule.
Some poisons and certain drugs are eliminated
from the body in this manner
Sodium salts reabsorbed, glucose and amino
acids reabsorbed, removal of nitrogenous
waste

Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron
regulate body fluid composition
Filtration
-

occurs in glomerulus filtrate in the Bowman's capsule where high blood pressure in the
glomerulus forces all small molecules out of the blood into the capsule

Water, urea, ions (Na+, K+, Cl- , Ca2+, HCO3- ), glucose, amino acids and vitamins are all small
enough to be moved into the glomerular filtrate. Blood cells and proteins are too large to be
removed. This filtering process is non-selective and therefore many valuable components of
the blood must be recovered by reabsorption.
Filtration of blood takes place at the surface between the glomerulus and the inner lining of
each Bowmans capsule.
Substances within the blood that are small enough to go through the capillary wall under
pressure pass through the cellular layer lining the bowmans capsule and move into the
lumen. Blood cells and proteins are retained n the blood, while large volumes of water pass
through, carrying dissolved substances such as amino acids, glucose, salts and nitrogenous
wastes glomerular filtrate
Separates from blood depending on size
Is the movement of materials across the filtration membrane into the lumen of Bowmans
capsule to form filtrate

Reabsorption:
-

Reabsorption takes place selectively at various points along the proximal tubule, loop of
Henle and distal tubule. All glucose molecules, amino acids and most vitamins are
recovered, although the kidneys do not regulate their concentrations. The reabsorption of
the ions Na+, K+, Cl- , Ca2+ and HCO3-occurs at different rates depending on feedback from
the body. In some cases, active transport is required. Water is reabsorbed by osmosis in all
parts of the tubule except the ascending loop of Henle. The amount of water reabsorbed
depends on feedback from the hypothalamus. If no water were reabsorbed human would
soon dehydrate, losing water at a rate of around 7.5 L per hour. The chemical composition
of the body fluids is precisely regulated by the control of solute reabsorption from the
glomerular filtrate.

Secretion (active) collecting duct, PCT, DCT

Outline the role of the hormones aldosterone and ADH in the regulation of water and salt
levels in the body
Hormones are chemical control substances that are secreted by endocrine glands, directly into the
bloodstream.
Aldosterone brings about the retention of salts
within the body

ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) brings about water

reabsorption within the body.

Produced in the adrenal gland

Hypothalamus detects Dehydration A decrease in the concentration of
leads to blood volume dropping
potassium/ sodium ions
It stimulates the posterior pituitary gland
Aldosterone increases the permeability
to release the hormone ADH which acts
of the nephron to sodium, particularly in
on the nephrons of the kidneys to
the ascending limb of the loop of Henle
increase the reabsorption of water
Reabsorption of sodium ions from the
The presence of ADH increases the
nephron into the surrounding kidney
permeability of the membranes of the
tissue and capillaries occurs, resulting in
cells lining the distal tubules and
the retention of salts by the body
collecting tubules to water thus water
Increase in chloride ions/ water
is reabsorbed into the kidney tissue and
Increase in blood pressure and blood
bloodstream
volume
Decrease urine volume, increase urine
Fludrocortisone?
concentration, increase blood volume
ADH and aldosterone play an important role in helping the kidney carry its homeostatic functions of
osmoregulation
-

Regulation of salt concentrations of the blood

Regulate blood volume

Define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in
response to variations in the environment and discuss its importance to estuarine
organisms in maintaining appropriate salt concentrations

Enantiostasis: is the maintenance of metabolic and physiological function in response to variation in

the environment
-

Applicable to any organism (plant or animal) that live an environment that varies
E.g. estuary in its salt concentration varies to carry out enantiostasis to maintain
homeostasis

Estuaries
-

Estuarine organisms are eurynaline (tolerant salinities)

High tide environment brings high salt concentration (high osmotic pressure)
Low tide, sea water flows out and fresh water flows to estuary
Periodic tidal fluctuating conditions

Osmoconformers
Organisms that tolerate the changes in the
environment by altering the concentration of
their internal solutes to match the external
environment
Use small organic molecules to vary the solute
concentration in their cells to match that of the
surroundings

The osmotic pressure inside the body and

outside are the same
Examples:
- Fiddler crab
- Sharks
Organisms that tolerate changes by altering the
concentration of their internal solutes to match
external environment
Metabolism able to tolerate changes in salinity

Osmoregulators
Organisms that avoid changes in their internal
environment and have the ability to keep the
solutes at an optimal level
Their body fluids are similar to those in a marine
environment, so when exposed to fresh water,
the water tends to accumulate by osmosis. To
counteract this, the animal produces more dilute
urine, to reduce the internal water concentration
to a level at which the cells can function
A higher osmotic pressure is maintained inside
the body than in the external environment
Examples:
- Mussels
- Salmon
- Polychaete worms
Use active transport to maintain a constant
osmolarity of blood and intersitiual fluid
regardless of changes in surrounding water

Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants that assist in minimising

water loss
Minimising Water Loss in Plants: (note: main form of water loss is transpiration)
Mechanisms that minimise

Features/adaptations

Water conservation and

water loss
Reducing the internal
temperature of plants

Reducing the exposure of

leaves (stomata) to the sun

Shiny, reflective waxy

leaves
Thick, insulating cuticle

Reducing the difference in

water concentration between
the plant and the outside air

Leaf orientation in
eucalypts
Leaves reduced to
leaflets
Leaves reduced to
scales
Rolled leaves
Sunken stomata
Hair on leaves
Rolled leaves

Features related to water

storage

Succulent plant organs

Woody fruits

examples
- Allows the plants to use
less water for
evaporative cooling
- Waterproof epidermal
cells prevent water loss
e.g. waxy leaves on salt bush
course/leathery leaves of
eucalypts
- Cladodes are think and
have regular intervals
to conserve water
- Phyllodes

Sunken stomata in the

hakea and in the
cladodes of she oaks

Calandrinia, fleshy
stems or leaves which
are able to swell up and
retain moisture

Analyse information from secondary sources to compare the process of renal dialysis with
the function of the kidney
Renal Dialysis
Wastes in the blood are removed by diffusion across a partially permeable membrane. Limitationstime consuming; only lmited amounts of wastes can be removed from the blood, sodium phosphate
and potassium ions are not excreted
Types of Renal
Dialysis
Haemodialysis

Similarities
-

Peritoneal Dialysis

A partially permeable
membrane filters the
blood, allowing wastes
to pass through but
not blood components
A dialysis solution is
used
Diffusion of blood
occurs into the dialysis
solution

Differences
-

Blood is passed into a dialysis

solution outside the body
Blood moves through plastic tubing
Can be used only 3 times a week for
4 hours at a time
Anti-clotting agent, heparin is
added
Requires a constant temperature
bath
Undertaken inside the body in the

Dialysis solution has

similar ion
components to blood

peritoneal caviety
A catheter is used
Can be taken daily, 4 times a day for
4 hours

Kidney function vs Renal Dialysis

Renal
Dialysis

Kidney

Similarities
- Remove wastes
in the form of
urea
- Movement of
dissolved
substances
through
semipermeable
membrane
- Both involve
passive
transport

Differences
- Movement across membrane through diffusion
- Removal of wastes (urea) only
- An external body process
- Perfmoed by a dialysis machine attached to a computer
- Periodically- 3x a week
- Concentration is monitored by machines so wastes are
removed
- Inconvenient, time consuming, less effective, some side
effects
- Movement across membrane is active transport,
osmosis, diffusion
- Filters and reabsorbs substance and secretes
- An internal body process
- Performed by two fist sized organs
- Removes waste constantly
- Varies concentration of ions automatically, depending
on the bodies needs
- No side effects
- Wastes may be removed by both active and passive
transport

Outline the general use of hormone replacement therapy in people who cannot secrete
aldosterone
Aldosterone increases the amount of salt reabsorbed from kidney tubules and as a result it also
helps regulate blood pressure, blood volume
Lack of Aldosterone

Consequences

Addisons Diseasecaused by
- Damage to the
adrenal gland
that produces
aldosterone
- Damage to the
pituitary gland
that controls
the adrenal
gland

Results in low sodium

levels and high
potassium levels in
blood
Severe cases of
mineral ion imbalance,
blood pressure drops
due to the low
amounts of sodium
and potassium ions an
imbalance of hydrogen
ions lead to lowering

Hormone Replacement
Therapy
Restoring the
imbalance of the
hormones at levels
that are normal for the
body
modern day hormone
replacement therapy
involves administering
a genetically
engineered hormone
called fludrocortisone.

Consequences
can increase fluid
retention
raise blood pressure
remove the danger of
heat failure

of blood pH and blood

glucose imbalance may
arise

Compare and explain the differences in urine concentration of terrestrial mammals,

marine fish and freshwater fish
Organism

Excretory Product
and Concentration

Environmental Reason

Terrestrial
Mammals

Varied concentration
of urine

FACE THE DIFFICULTITY WITH CONSERVING WATER AND

REMOVING NITROGENOUS WASTES AT SAME TIME
- body needs to conserve water- (hot days) excrete
concentrated urine so that water is conserved
- (Cool days)- dilute urine is excreted by kidneys
- Water content of blood & blood pH is maintained at a
constant level- kidneys able to adjust the concentration
of water and salts in urine
- Varies in terms of concentration of water and dissolved
substances
- Humans: urine is 4.2 more concentrated than blood
plasma
- Kangaroo rats:diet contain almost no water, urine is
highly concentrated

(mammals in desert,
highly concentrated)
(herbivores, less
concentrated)
URIC- UREA

Marine Fish
Eg. native bass

Set High
Concentration of
Urine
Urea- to avoid
dehydration

Freshwater Fish
Eg. whiting

Set Dilute
Concentration of
urine
(urine has a lot of
water relative to the
solutes)
Ammonia- highly
toxic, remove quickly

PROBLEM OF OSMOSMIS- Water moves out

- Water surrounded fish has higher concentration of
solutes (more salts)
- Water moves out of fish by osmosis along concentration
gradient
- Needs to conserve water, small quantities of
concentrated urine are excreted.

PROBLEM OF OSMOSIS- Water moves in

- Water surrounded fish has low concentration of solutes
- Water moves by osmosis along concentration gradient
- More water moves from environment into body tissuesbalance the amount of water
- Large Quantities of Dilute urine are excreted

Explain the relationship between the conservation of water and the production and
excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a range of Australian insects and
terrestrial mammals
Organism

Type of nitrogenous waste excreted- toxicity,

amount of energy needed

Relationship between
conservation of water and
excretion of nitrogenous
wastes

Insects
Eg. blow fly

Uric acid
low toxicity
Low energy (<urea)
Very Concentrated Urine

Insects are covered with a

cuticle impervious to water.
They conserve water by
producing a dry paste of
uric acid.
Excreted through
malphighian tubules, which
are deposited in various
parts of body.

Almost no water is lost during

excretion
Insects
Eg. Aquatic Insect
Mayfly larvae

Ammonia
High toxicity
No energy required
Dilute urine

As there is a high
availability of water, the
insects can excrete their
waste products efficiently
and continuously without
any energy. Thus, there is
no need to conserve water

Terrestrial Mammals
Eg. Spinifex Hopping
mouse

Urea
Medium Toxicity
Some energy required
Highly Concentrated

The animal lives in a very

arid environment of Central
Australia. It drinks very
little water, eats dry seeds
and excretes urea in a
concentrated form, so that
water can be conserved.

Terrestrial Mammals
Eg. Euro

Urea
Medium Toxicity
Some energy required
Highly concentrated Urine

Terrestrial Mammals
Eg. Red Kangaroo

Urea
Medium Toxicity
Some energy required
Highly concentrated Urine

Euros have a very efficient

excretory system that
recycles nitrogen and urea
to make very concentrated
urine. This allows them to
survive in very arid
environments
Desert mammal that has
little water available, so
much conserve water

Discuss processes used by different plants for salt regulation in saline environments
Organism
Grey Mangrove

Processes for salt regulation

Salt Bush

(Salt tolerant)

Secretion: Special salt gland in its leaves that excrete salt

small leaves hanging vertically to reduce the surface presented to the
sun and thus reducing transpiration
far-reaching, exposed roots- pneumatophores that build off from the
roots to the surface to get oxygen
restrict opening and closing of stomata
Salt desposits: deposit salt on older tissue (bark and leaves) which are
then discarded and excreted by shedding
Able to metabolic function, by minimising salt concentration and toxicity
and increasing water content in large vacuole
Salt barriers- special tissues in the roots and lower stems stop salt from
entering the plant but allow uptake of water
accumulates salt in the swollen leaf bases which fall off, thus removing
excess salt and Sporobolus virginicus has salt glands on its leaves.
Minimal salt content through structural and physiological adaptations

Perform a firsthand investigation to gather information about structures in plants that

assist in conservation of water
Characteristic
Banksia Serrata
- Thick cuticle on
leaves
- Woody fruits
- Serated edge of leaf
reduces SA

How it reduces water loss

- Reduced surface
area
- Limits water loss via
evaporation
- Waxy thick leaves,
thus no water leaves
- Reduced
evaportation

Plant example

She oak
- Sunken stomata
- Reduced surface
area
- Small leaves with
crown shape scales
- Drooping orientation

Eucalypts
- Orientation drooping
- Stomatas open in
cool parts and closed
at hot times
- Waxy thick cuticle

Reduced surface
area and orientation
Limit evaporation
and direct sun
contact

Waxy cuticle
prevents loss of
water
Orientation prevents
sun exposure directly
limiting evaporation

Perform a firsthand investigation of the structure of a mammalian kidney by dissection,

using a model or visual resource and identify the regions involved in the excretion of
waste products

Blueprint of life
1. Evidence of evolution suggests that the mechanisms of inheritance,
accompanied by selection, allow change over many generations
Evolution: is the development and progression of life forms and organisms overtime
Outline the impact on the evolution of plants and animals of:
o Changes in physical condition
o Changes in chemical condition
o Competition for resources
Changes in:
Physical
Condition

Impact of Evolution on Plants and Animals

Change in Australian climate from cool and wet
hot and dry
affect vegetation from rainforest to
woodland, dry sclerophyll forests
- Drying up of lakes
- Influence of fire
- Dust clouds
- Fire resistant

Examples
Snow gums have developed
adaptations to conserve water

Chemical
Condition

Changes in pH, salinity, presence of minerals

- Anoxic to oxic environment has led to

DDT antibiotic resistant bacteria

Peppered Moth

Competition
for Resources

simple to more complex organisms

biotic (living) and abiotic (non living)
Factors: food, water, shelter, pred-prey
relationships
resources have become limited (dry
climate) and thus competition

Mangroves for salt secretion

Fly catchers feed on same
insects so competition exists
within the species- they now
have different behavioural traits
to catch prey

Macroevolution takes place over millions of years and a new species arises. There is a correlation
between chemical change and the type of organism. E.g. red wolf, jackel, dog
Microevolution is a shorter period and involves changes within a population, e.g. peppered moth

Describe, using examples, how the theory of evolution is supported by the following areas
of study
o Palaeontology
o Biogeography
o Comparative embryology
o Comparative anatomy
o Biochemistry
Evidence
Palaeontology

Supported Theory of Evolution

The study of fossils- mostly found in sedimentary rock.
Provides a timeline of evolution in which they exist due to rock layers, suggest
evolutionary pathways
Transitional Fossils Archaeopteryx
- Reveal a gradual change in life forms over millions of years
- Qualities of both reptiles (teeth, tail, reptile-like skeletion)
- And Bird (feathers, wishbone, flight muscles)

Biogeography

Darwin and Wallace studied the distribution of species in different

biogeographic regions
-

Using the theories of Divergent and Convergent Evolution- the

evidence suggest species have come from Common Ancestors, but
have been separated and new species have evolved in order to survive

in their new environmental pressures

Comparative
Embryology

Example: Flightless bird (emus/ kiwis)

Comparison of developmental stages of species in the embryonic life form.
-

Comparative
Anatomy

Comparison of anatomical structures on different organisms that have the

same basic plan but perform different functions are called homologous
structures
-

Biochemistry

Obvious similarities between fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds,

mammals - Gill Slits
Suggesting a common ancestor

Pentadactyl Limb- monkey, bird, pig, horse, cat basic plan consists of
one bone in the upper limb, two in the lower limb leading to five
fingers/ toes
Suggest a common ancestor existed

Comparison of organisms on a molecular basis- study of macromolecular

structure of cells in different organism
-

DNA sequencing- ordering bases and reveals how closely related

organisms are eg. humans and monkey common ancestor
Amino acid sequencing- humans share 8 amino acids sequences with
monkeys and 125 with lampreys (more closely related than expected)

Explain how Darwin Wallace theory of evolution by natural selection and isolation
accounts for divergent and convergent evolution
Darwin Wallace theory of evolution by natural selection assumes that living things arose from a
common ancestor and that some populations move into new habitats where they adapt over time to
their environments.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Variation exists
Favourable Characteristic
Survive and Reproduce
More Common

Divergent Evolution
When species are isolated changing
environmental pressures cause different natural
selection process to occur. Specification (new)
species arise by splitting or budding
Example:
Darwins Finches in Galapagos islands
Kangaroo in Aus
Elephants are large plains-dwelling animals that
are closely related to a small guinea pig-like
animal called a hyrax

Convergent Evolution
If species exist in similar environment, exposed
to similar selective pressures but yet distantly
related natural selection could account for their
structure similarities.
Example:
Shark, dolphin, penguin (fish, mammal, bird)streamlined body shape, fins

Analyse information from secondary sources to prepare a case study to show how an
environmental change can lead to changes in species
Species
Physical Change
Change in environment

Form of Evolution

Darwins Theory of
Evolution

Peppered Moth (biston betualaria)

Industrial Revolution- Pollution
woodlands near industrial cities had a blackened soot on tree trunks.
The light coloured moths were captured and killed by predators more
frequently because they could be easily seen resting on the dark tree
trunks
Micro evolution as it took place over a short period of tile and resulted
in a change within populations of species but it did not produce a new
species
In the moth population there would have been variation, some black
and some lighter. Due to the selective pressures caused by the industrial
revolution, the black moths had the selective advantage to camouflage
and the white moths more likely to be killed by predators due to
conspicuous colour. The black moths became more abundant having the
favourable characteristic they can survive and reproduce. Passing on this
characteristic to the offspring, the black have become more common in
the population.

Analyse using an example, how advances in technology have changed scientific thinking
about evolutionary relationships
Identify technology
DNA sequencing and
hybridisation
Amino Acid sequencing

Advances in technology
Then
- Early classification of
evolutionary
relatedness was based
on structural anatomy
- E.g. 1860 Ernst Haekl
reviewed the hind limb
walking and enamel on
teeth of chimps and
gorillas were closer
than human and
orangotang

Now
-

1960s and 70s Amino

acid sequencing of
cytochrome C and
haemoglobin revealed
identical sequence in
chimps and humans
and 1 difference with
gorilla
DNA compared genes
as well as
mitochondrial DNA
confirming amino acid
sequence
African apes were
closer to humans as
orangotang had earlier
divergence
Human and chimp 1.6 3/4 % difference
Quantitative results

Direction of change in scientific

thinking about evolutionary
relationships

Evaluation

minimise bias
Data from advanced molecular technology such as amino acid
sequencing and DNA hybridisation and sequencing has
established new links and evolutionary relationships in particular
with humans and homo sapiens race. They have created a new
phytogenic tree
Reveal more closely related organisms
Advances in technology have led to a better, more specific
scientific understanding of evolutionary relationships and
relatedness

Analyse information from secondary sources on the historical development of theories of

evolution and use available evidence to assess social and political influences on these
developments
Historical Development of theories of evolution
Biologist
and dates

Theory

Evidence of
theory

Evidence
against theory

Jean
Baptiste
Lemarck
1790
research
1802-22

Inheritance of
acquired
characteristics

Observations
e.g. giraffes

Characteristics
cannot be
inherited

Animals from
simple to complex

Challenged by
punctuated
equilibrium
against
gradualism

Industrial
revolution
Scientific
growth and
knowledge
Science was
socially
accepted but
not fully
understood

Challenged by
punctuated
equilibrium
against
gradualism

Uproar of
theologians
Science was
socially
accepted but
not fully
understood

Adaptation of
animals to
environment
Charles
Darwin
1830+

Alfred
Wallace
1848 - 62

Gould and
Eldridge
1970s

Theory of evolution
via natural
selection and
isolation
- Gradual

Theory of evolution
via natural
selection and
isolation
- Gradual

Theory of
punctuated
equilibrium

Galapagos
observation
e.g. finches

Biochemistry
and
observations
of Indonesian
birds

Many
fossilised
remains

Social and
Political
influences
Enlightenment
questioning
creationism
and species
creation

Uproar of
theologians
Modern
industrial
power and

Acceptance of
Theory
Not accepted
although
adapted

Accepted
today

Similar and
accredited
alongside
Darwin

Debated
although
accepted in

1.
2.
3.
4.

Short
bursts of
evolution

showed no
noticeable
evolutionary
change
e.g. soft
bodied sea
organisms

knowledge of
science

some
circumstances

Perform a firsthand investigation to model natural selection

Collect 50 green and 50 yellow pick up sticks
Scatter randomly over green grass
For 2 mins time how many sticks one person (predator) can collect in that time
Repeat steps 2-3 again, leaving the unpicked up sticks and not the eaten (prey)

Results: the yellow sticks were found to be ill-suited to the environment and were eaten more than
the green which were conspicuous

Perform a firsthand investigation to gather information to observe, analyse and compare

the structure of a range of vertebrates forelimbs
Observe the pentadactyl limb which is used for varying functions
Cat
-

Long humerus
Long radius
Short falangies

Human
- Long humerus
- Long radius
- Long fingers

Frog
-

Long humerus
Short radius
Long carpels

Bird
-

Short humerus
Long radius
Varying fingers

2. Gregor Mendels experiments helped advance out knowledge of

inheritance of characteristics
Outline the experiments carried out by Mendel
Gregor Mendel (1822 84) the father of genetics
Experiment
Why / Features

Characteristics

peaplants 1860s to investigate their breeding patterns to determine the

inheritance of characteristics
- Easy to grow
- Produced new generations quickly
- Easily distinguishable characteristics
- Strictly control the breeding patterns
- Used pure breeding lines
- Self-pollinating the flowers to make sure pollen from the stamens
lands on the carpel of the same flower
- Cross-fertilisation was ensured by cutting off stamens from a flower
before pollen was produced, then dusting the carpel of the flower
with pollen from another plant
- To ensure reliability, Mendel used thousands of plants in each
experiment.
seven characteristics found in peas:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Laws

Results

Mendels Experimental
technique
1. To establish
pure breeding
lines
What he did: Established

Flower colour, purple or white

Flower position, axial or terminal
Seed colour, yellow or green
Seed shape, round or wrinkled
Pod shape, inflated or constricted
Pod colour, green or yellow
Stem height, tall or short

Mendels law of dominance and segregation

Mendels law of independent assortment
Each of the seven traits that Mendel studied had a dominant and a
recessive factor.
When two true-breeding plants were crossed, only the dominant factor
appeared in the first generation. The recessive factor appeared in the
second generation in a 3:1 (dominant : recessive) relationship.

Summary of Mendels Work and his results

Pure-breeding line 1
Tall x tall all tall offspring
= pure bred tall
Pure breeding line 2

Significance of
Mendels results and
his explanation
Result: the offspring of
pure breeding lines all
resembled their
parents, ensuring that
they in turn are pure

two pure breeding lines

one tall one short

Short x short all short offspring

= pure bred short

How he did it: male and

females enclosed within
the same flower

2. To create
hybrids by
crossing
individuals with
contrasting pure
bred
characteristics
What he did: cross bred
two plants with
contrasting pure bred
characteristics tall x
short
How he did it: manually
transferred pollen
between tall and short
plants
3. To carry out a
monohybrid
cross
What he did:
Crossed two hybrid
plants from the first filial
generation of the
previous experiment,
identified the resulting
offspring as tall or short
and counted offspring
How he did it: some
were allowed to
undergo self pollination,
whereas others were
cross pollinated,
because all were
hybrids; large sample
size

breeding for a
particular trait
Importance: The
resulting tall and short
offspring that are
pure bred lines
become the P of
parent generation in
subsequent crosses

Create hybrid offspring:

Results: when parents

that are pure breeding
for contrasting
characteristics are
crossed, the offspring
all resemble one
parent
Explanation: these
offspring (F1) are
termed hybrids, but
they resemble only
one parent the
dominant
characteristic and the
recessive
characteristic.
Result: when two
hybrid plants are
crossed, one
dominant
characteristic appears
3 x as frequently in
the offspring as the
other recessive. 3: 1
ratio.

4. Conclusions
Mendel derived principles based on mathematical calculations. He showed that these ratios arise if
an individual possesses two factors for any characteristic, where one is dominant over the other and
these two factors segregate or separate when they are passed from parent to offspring
Explanation: Mendel proposed that during reproduction, the two factors segregate and each passes
into a separate gamete. When two gametes combine during fertilisation, each contributes one factor
to the new formed offspring
- Mendel used statistics to calculate the probability of different combinations of factors
pairing in offspring and he obtained a 3:1 ratio
5. Assessing the validity of conclusions
Collated data: Mendel made direct counts of the resulting offspring, giving quantitative data which
he collated and analysed identifying patterns and trends
Conclusions: Mendel applied logical thinking and mathematical model to the data he had gathered,
leading to valid conclusions.

Describe the aspects of the environmental techniques used by Mendel that led to his
success
He drew valid conclusions which became known as Mendels laws:
-

Studied separate characteristics one at a time- easily observable

Used pure breeding lines by self-pollination
Used quantitative results (3:1 ratio)
Large number of plants to increase accuracy
Cross-pollinated by hand
Studied traits that had two easily identified factors

Valid and reliable

used large sample size and repeated his experiments for different traits

Accuracy reduced experimental error as all experiments were conducted in a controlled

environment and those crosses that relied on self fertilisation were conducted by keeping the plants
isolated from any other, ensuring no accidental cross pollination, removing the stigma and anther of
others and then manually transferring pollen from the anthers of one plant to the stigma of another,
preventing accidental self pollination

Describe the outcome of monohybrid crosses involving simple dominance using mendels
explanations
Monohybrid: is an individual that has contrasting factors for one characteristic

Monohybrid inheritance is therefore the inheritance of a single pair of contrasting

characteristics

Mendels Law of dominance and segregation

-

Only one member of a pair of factors can be represented in any gamete (segregation)
When two hybrids breed statistically they produce a ratio of three offspring showing the
dominant trait to one recessive offspring. He called these traits factors but today they are
called genes. Contrasting forms of the same gene are alleles.

Mendels Laws
-

Each characteristic or trait in an individual is controlled by a pair of inherited factors

Mendels factors pass as unmodified units to successive generations according to set ratios
Individuals have two factors for each characteristic and they may have two factors the same
(pure breeding) or two factors that differ (hybrid breeding)
The trait that is expressed in the hybrid individual is dominant (Mendels first law of
dominance)
During gamete formation, the pair of factors for a trait segregate (Mendels first law of
segregations)
When the inheritance of more than one trait is studied, the pair of factors fro each trait
separate independently from the other traits of factors (Mendels second law independent
assortment)

A monohybrid cross involving simple dominance

Outcomes of monohybrid crosses

using Mendels explanation
Monohybrid offspring are created
when pure breeding parents with
contrasting characteristics are crossed
All gametes from pure bred tall will
contain the factor T similarly gametes
from pure bred short will contain t
Each hybrid F1 individual inherits one
factor from each parent (Tt)
The monohybrid plants of the first filial
generation all resemble the parent
possessing the dominant characteristic.
The factor that is expressed is
dominant in preference to the other
factor (recessive), which is hidden
When the hybrid plants produce
gametes, the factors for tallness and
shortness segregate or separate, with

the result that one half of the gametes

contain the factor for tallness (T) and
the other for shortness (t)
During fertilisation the gametes fuse,
each contributing one factor to the
resulting F2 offspring
In the plants of the 2nd filial generation,
the dominant characteristic appears 3
x more frequently than recessive one.
As a result a monohybrid cross there is
a 3:1 dominant to recessive.
Distinguish between homogenous and heterogeneous genotypes in monohybrid crosses
Homozygous

Individual with the same two factors from individual pure breeding

Heterozygous

TT or tt
Individual with different factors and from hybrid parents (dominant factor evident
in phenotype) Tt

Distinguish between the terms allele and gene, using examples

Gene

Allele

Specific segment of DNA which codes for a polypeptide

specifies a particular characteristic, has two alleles in an individual and two or
more alternative alleles in a population
Eg. height in pea plants
Alternative form of a gene
occur in pairs in a diploid individual, segregate during gamete formation, occur
individually in each haploid gamete, pair during fertilisation, when the diploid
condition of an organism is restored during zygote formation
Eg. tall or short allele

Explain the relationship between dominant and recessive alleles and phenotype using
examples
Phenotype: is the outward appearance of an organism. The genotype is the actual alleles that are
present on the chromosomes of the organism.
A homozygous tall plant would have two
identical alleles for height (TT) and would appear
tall.
A homozygous tall plant would have two
identical alleles for height (TT) and would appear
tall.
A hybrid species- phenotype is dominant

Relationship: In this case, tall is dominant and

short is recessive and is not expressed. The
following diagram shows the results of crossing
two heterozygous plants.
Outline the reasons why the importance of Mendels work was not recognised until
sometime after it was published
Mendel began his work in 1858 and published the results of his experiments in 1866, but his work
lay undiscovered until 1900 when others performed similar experiments. It was only then that the
importance of his work was realized. It is unclear why such original work went unnoticed, perhaps:
o
o
o
o
o
o

Mendel was not a recognized, high profile member of the scientific community
he presented his paper to only a few people at an insignificant, local, scientific
journal
accepted theory was that characteristics were blended in offspring- Darwins origins
of species, not that one factor came from each
Other scientists did not understand the work or its significance.
His work was too progressive, radical and was based on very little background sound
knowledge
His work differed radically from previous research and the scientists may not have
understood it

perform an investigation to construct pedigrees or family trees, trace the inheritance of a

selected characteristic and discuss their current use
Pedigrees: are used to show all the individuals within a family and can reveal certain traits genetic
disorders. Show the transmission of a character across several generations where the number of
individual organisms in each generation is small.
Use: zoos can prevent diease
The pattern of inheritance of a trait in a pedigree may indicate whether the trait concerned is
dominant or recessive.
Pattern of Inheritance
Autosomal dominant

Autosomal Recessive

X linked dominant

Key features
Gene loci on chromosomes other than sex chromosomes
Either sex can be affected
Affected individuals must carry at least one dominant allele
Unaffected parents will not produce affected offspring
- woolly hair in humans
Gene loci on chromosomes other than sex chromosomes
Either sex can be affected
Affected individuals must be homozygous recessive
Offspring will be affected
Two Unaffected parents can produce affected offspring
- albino pigment in hair, skin and eyes
Does not skip a generation
Affected males transmit the trait to their daughters and non of
their sons

X linked recessive

Solve

and
-

- rare form of rickets is inherited on X chromosome

More common in males than females
Affected females pass the trait to all their sons.
Affected sons may be produced by normal parents
- haemophilia

problems
involving
monohybrid
crosses using
punnet squares
other techniques

A monohybrid cross involves the inheritance of one characteristic. All problems apply
Mendel's basic laws of inheritance. The following is typical of a problem that uses Punnett
squares to solve problems involving monohybrid crosses.
Worked example
In peas, the gene for the characteristic tall (T) is dominant over the gene for a short plant (t).
If a homozygous tall plant (TT) is crossed with a heterozygous tall plant (Tt), what will be the
possible phenotypes of the offspring?
A Punnett square is a diagrammatic method of indicating the possible offspring produced
from a particular cross.

In the sample problem, a homozygous tall plant (TT) is crossed with a heterozygous tall plant
(Tt), By filling in the squares, it is possible to work out all of the combinations that are likely
to occur.

When you analyse the information in this case, you can predict that 100% of the offspring
will be tall plants: 50% are homozygous tall (TT); 50% will be heterozygous tall plants (Tt).
Describe an example of hybridisation within a species and explain the purpose of this
hybridisation

Hybridisation within a species- the crossing of different variations of one species to produce new
varieties of offspring with desirable characteristics
Example:
Hybrid
Inherited
Features

Bob = indian wheat and Canadian fife

- Indian wheat was drought tolerant and resistant to some diseases
- Canadian fife wheat matured late and had the best milling and baking
qualities

1870

William Farrer became aware that wheat growing in Australia was presenting
problems as strains being grown were not suited to the harsh, dry environment and
were susceptible to diseases such as rust and the grain quality was not of a high
enough standard for milling and baking

3.Chromosomal structure provides the key to inheritance

Outline the roles of Sutton and Boveri in identifying the importance of chromosomes
Boveri (1896 1904)
-

Worked on sea urchins

1. Nucleus of eff and perm contributed 50% of the chromosomes of zygote
a. Connecting chromosomes to heredity
2. Chromosomes were not all the same and full complement was require for normal
development
3. More hereditary factors than chromosomes recognising that there was more genes on
one chromosome
4. Complete set of chromosomes was needed for normal development

Sutton (1877 1916)

-

Worked independently of Boveri on grasshoppers

1. Chromosomes occur in pairs visible in meiosis. One is maternal and the other is paternal

2. During meiosis, chromosomes number is halved as each pair of chromosomes separate

(mendels law) and each gamete receives 1 chromosome and fertilisation restores the
full number. He stated that chromosomes arrange themselves independently along the
middle of the cells before it divides.
3. Connection between behaviours and chromosomes and Mendels work on the
inheritance of factors and carriers of hereditary units
4. Chromosomes assort independently during segregation
5. He also believed that several factors were on one chromosome.
Developed the Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance- chromosomes cary the units of inheritance
(genes) and occur in distinct pairs

Where in the cell are heredity

factors found?
What material stores the
heredity information?

Before Sutton- Boveri

Cytoplasm and nucleus

After Sutton Boveri

Nucleus only

A full set of paired

chromosomes, where many
heredity factors are carried on
each chromosome
Random assortment during
meiosis units of inheritance
carried on chromosomes in
gametes
Chromosomes occur in set
numbers in every cell in pairs
and each pair of chromosomes
has the same size and shape

How are inherited factors

passed to the next generation?

Gametes transport factors but

how or what these factors were
was unknown

Nature of chromosomes

Chromosomes were believed to

disappear and reappear and
were all veiled to be the same
size and shape

Describe the chemical nature of chromosomes and genes

The chemical nature and chemical structure of chromosomes and genes remained unsolved
until the 1940s.
1953, discovery that DNA is the molecule that meets all the requirements of the hereditary
material

Structure
Chromosomes

Genes

Chemical Nature
- Chromosome is a compact coils of thread like molecule DNA,
organised around proteins called histones.
- Made up of DNA, long, thin thread like macro molecule, which is
the information carrying part of the chromosome
- Proteins around which the DNA is coiled, to keep it neatly
packaged
- Chromosomes consist of 40% DNA and 60% protein (histone).
Short lengths of DNA make up genes so genes have the same
chemical composition as DNA.
-

portions of DNA with a specific sequence of bases that code for

a particular trait.

genes have the same chemical composition as DNA

A locus is the position of a gene on a chromosome
The total amount of genetic material that an organism has in
each of its cells is called its genome

Identify that DNA is a double stranded molecule twisting into a helix molecule with each
strand comprising of a sugar phosphate backbone and attached bases adenine, thymine,
cytosine, guanine, connected to a complementary strand by paring the bases, A-T and C-G
DNA
DNA
structure

DNA
chemical
structure

double helix shape two strains of

nucleotides
Each strand of the helix consists of 4
different nucleotides made up of
deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate molecule
and a nitrogen base.
sides of the ladder- deoxyribose sugar and
phosphate molecules.
The complementary bases, A-T,C-G, form
the rungs (Adenine pairs with thymine and
guanine pairs with cytosine)
Strain is sequence of many nucleotides
held together by weak hydrogen bonds in
the centre. The strands have a antiparallel
arrangement
The vertical sides are made up of
alternating sugar and phosphate molecules

Explain the relationship between the structure and behaviour of chromosomes during
meiosis and the inheritance of genes

Chromosomes during Meiosis:

1. Homologous pairs form

2. Duplicate to form chromatids- each
chromosome (genes duplicate) makes
a complete copy of itself, attached at
the centromere
3. Crossing Over occurs during
metaphase variation (increased
number of combinations of genes
variation)
4. Independent Assortment- the
homologous chromosomes randomly
line up in matching pairs at the
equator
5. Random Segregation of chromosomes,
moving into new cells
6. Next the duplicated chromosomes
separate to single strands resulting in
four sex cells that are haploid, (ie
contain half the chromosome number
of the original cell).
During Meiosis 2
1. Two daughter cells that result from
meiosis 1 each undergo meiosis 2 and
the behaviour of chromosomes does
not affect genetic variation.
Hence:
- One cell undergoes two meiotic
divisions to generate 4 haploid
cells
- The genes in each haloid cell are a
new combo of the paternal genes
The new combo results from crossing over and
random segregation, allowing the individual
alleles of maternally and paternally derived
chromosomes to assort independently
- Chromosomes are made of DNA. Genes are coded within the DNA on the chromosomes.

Explain the role of gametes formation and sexual reproduction in variability of offspring
Discoveries have shown:
-

Genes on chromosomes determine characteristics that are inherited

Alleles are different forms of the same gene and occur in pairs in individuals

Haploid gametes carry one copy of each allele from parents to offspring, resulting in genetic
recombination and resting the diploid number
Genetic variation in individuals arises as a result of sexual reproduction. This involves
gamete formation (by meiosis), followed by fertilisation

Gamete formation and variability

-

Gametes form by meiosis, where recombination of genetic material takes place as a result of
crossing over and random segregation
o In crossing over, homologous chromosomes exchange genes and so the resulting
combination of alleles on chromatids differs from those originally on the parent
chromosomes.
o In random segregation and independent assortment, genes on different
chromosomes sort independently of each other, giving different gene combination
in gametes from those of the parents.

Sexual reproduction and variability

-

In sexual reproduction each female or male cell produces 4 sex cells (gametes) from the
process of meiosis. Each of these sex cells is haploid (has half the normal chromosome
number) and has a random assortment of genes from the parent. The genes (Mendel's
alleles) are separated and the sex cells have a random assortment of dominant and recessive
genes. More variability is introduced depending on which sex cells are successful in
fertilisation. The resulting embryo has a completely different set of genes from either of the
parents.
Describe the inheritance of sex linked genes, and alleles that exhibit co dominance and
explain why these do not produce simple Mendelian ratios

Type of inheritance
Sex linkage Genes:

Determined
Not Mendels ratio
Example:
CODOMINANCE

Sex linkage
genes are carried by the Sex cells
males, XY chromosomes lack one X chromosome, lack one allele
females XX chromosomes
by segregation of sex chromosomes during meiosis, the transfer of one sex
chromosome to each gamete and the fusion of gametes during fertilisation
If genes do not assort independently or do not show dominance (can express
co-dominance), Mendels ratios are not obtained
Note: Haemophilia is a sex linked disease
Red-green colour blindness in humans
- The gene is carried on the X chromosome and there is no
corresponding gene on the Y chromosome
- Males only need one allele on X chromosome for colour blindness,
females two more males not 3:1 ratio

Punnet Square of Red-Green Colour blindness:

-

Take the cross between a normal female XN XN and a colour-blind male X n Y.

F1

XN

XN

Xn

XN X n

XN X n

XN Y

XN Y

All offspring have normal sight. But if the female is a carrier for colour blindness and crosses
with a normal male then 50 % of the males will be colour blind and none of the females.
F2

XN

Xn

XN

XN XN

XN X n

XN Y

XnY

Describe the work of Morgan that led to the understanding of sex linkage
Thomas Morgan:
- worked on the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. He looked at crosses between red- eyed
and white-eyed flies and found that the results could not be accounted for by simple
Mendelian crosses.
He showed that some genes were sex-linked because they were located on the X
chromosome and that hereditary factors can be exchanged between the X chromosome of
an individual
Experiments
1. Cross 1
a. He cross bred pure breeding parents to obtain F1 hybrid offspring. Morgon crossed a
white eyed male and a pure bred homozygous red eyed female
2. Cross 2
a. He then crossed the F1 hybrid offspring to obtain the F2 generation expecting a
Mendelian 3:1 ratio but instead found that more than 80% of the flies had red eyes
and less than 20% had white eyes
3. Cross 3
a. He performed a typical test cross to investigate this hypothesis. He crossed a white
eyed male with a hybrid red eyed female. His results showed in the F2 that both
females and males could have white eyes.
He determined that the white eye characteristic is sex limited and is carried on X chromosome.
Following this pattern he proved that red eyes were sex linked.
- Supported Sutton and Bovery Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance

Explain the relationship between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes and the
resulting phenotypes in examples of co dominance

Co dominance: does not show a mendelian pattern because in genes of some organisms, pairs of
alleles do not show dominance of one over the other exceptions to mendels law of prominence.
Homozygous: when the individual expresses only one characteristic in there phenotype they only
have one allele in genotype. Eg. A, B, O for blood type
Heterozygous: can show both alleles in phenotype- separate, unblended- or has 2 dominant alleles
in genotype eg. note A and B are both dominant so AB is co-dominant
Example1 : Blood type
Example 2: Roan Cattle- RW coat colour
- Shorthorn cattle have Allele for both red RR and white hair WW neither is dominant
F1

F2

RW

RW

RR

RW

RW

RW

RW

WW

When the roan cattle are crossed in F2 Half the

offspring will be roan while a quarter will be red and quarter white.
Outline ways in which the environment may affect the expression of genes in an individual

Nature vs Nurture Debate:

-

Studies have shown the effect of a gene can be enhanced or masked by variation in the
environment.

Example 1: Coat colour of Siamese cats is determined by a colour mutation. They can change on
their environmental temperature. The darker the hair the poorer the circulation. Thus the
phenotypic expression of colour is therefore influenced by the temperature of the environment.
Example 2: Hydrangeas- The acidity or alkalinity of the soil influences the colour of the flowers.
Hydrangeas growing in acidic soil develop blue flowers, whereas those grown in alkaline soil develop
pink flowers.
Construct a model that demonstrates meiosis and the processes of crossing over,
segregation of chromosomes and the production of haploid gametes
Models provide an opportunity to see linkage, demonstrate processes. Although, limited.
Solve problems involving co dominance and sex linkage
Sex linkage
-

Sex of parents and offspring mentioned

One sex usually male has one cope of gene
X and Y chromosomes are written using genotype
o XHHH normal female
o XHY normal male

o XHXh carrier female

o XhY affected male
o XhXh affected female
Recessive characteristic appears more in males then females because there is no dominant
gene and the Y chromosome to counter its affect

Co dominance
-

One type of characteristic is involved, usually 3 variations of it

The heterozygote exhibits the phenotypes of both homozygote (both phenotypes are
dominant and are expressed)
Genotypes written using different capital letters
o RR = red coat (homozygous)
o WW= white coat (homozygous)
o RW = roan coat (heterozygous co dominant)
No X and Y chromosomes
Identify data sources and perform a firsthand investigation to demonstrate the effect of
environment on phenotype

4. The structure of DNA can be changed and such changes may be

reflected in the phenotype of an affected organism
Describe the process of DNA replication and explain its significance
Process
DNA
Replication
Replicates
prior to cell
division
(meiosis
and mitosis)

Diagram
1. The DNA double helix unwinds.
Each DNA molecule is a double
stranded helix and an enzyme
called helicase causes the DNA
helix to progressively unwind
2. DNA unzips that is, the two
strands separate
a. Weak H bonds break
between the
complementary bases of
the nucleotides on
opposite strands and the
two DNA strands
separate, exposing the
nucleotide bases.
3. Nucleotides are added to each
single strand
a. Each separate strand of
existing DNA molecule
acts as a template for
the production of a new
DNA strand. Nucleotides
are picked up by the
enzume DNA
polymerase and slotted
in opposite their
complementary base
partner.
b. Base pairing is checked
by another DNA
polymerase enzyme

Significance
-

Heredity relies on DNA

replication
Gene expression relies on protein
synthesis

Outline, using a simple model, the process by which DNA controls the production of
polypeptides
Perform a firsthand investigation to develop a simple model for polypeptide synthesis
Process
Polypeptide 1. Transcription
Synthesis:
- an enzyme cause the DNA in nucleus to
separate where the active gene (section
that codes for the necessary polypeptide)
is copied
- Free RNA (ribonucleic acid) nucleotides
made in the nucleus line up with their
complementary DNA bases (C-G, U-A)
join by the enzyme-RNA polymerase
forming messenger RNA strand (mRNA)
- continues until a stop triplet is reached
- mRNA carries the code out through
nuclear pores to a ribosome in cytoplasm
the DNA zips back up
2. Translation synthesis of polypeptides at
ribosome
- mRNA binds to a ribosome
- mRNA message is read as triplets of
bases CODONS (codes for amino acid)
note: has a start codon AUG and has one
STOP codon
- Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules pick up
amino acids from the cytoplasm and take
to ribosome, each tRNA has an ANTICODON (3-bases which are
complementary to codon on mRNA)
- tRNA with the complementary anticodon
attaches to the mRNA in the ribosome
- ribosome moves along one codon on the
mRNA strand
- second tRNA binds to the next codon. Its
amino acid links with a peptide bond to
the first amino acid
- the first tRNA molecule is released to go
back out into the cytoplasm and pick up a
new amino acid
- a third tRNA molecule binds to the next
mRNA codon and so on..
- process continues until the entire
polypeptide is complete and a STOP
codon is reached
- STOP codon becomes a release enzyme
which causes the ribosome parts to
separate and release the polypeptide
chain into the cytoplasm

Diagram

Explain the relationship between proteins and polypeptides

Proteins: are large complex macromolecules made up of one or more long polypeptide chains
-

Enzymes (catalase) , structural proteins (keratin), hormones (insulin)

Polypeptides are a long single chain of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds. (there are
about 20 different amino acids linked together in chains of up to 300)

Explain how mutations in DNA may lead to generation of new alleles

Mutations change the nucleotide sequence in DNA
-

It can be a:
o

Substitution of one or more bases

Deletion of bases

Insertion of bases

If the mutation takes place in an essential part of the gene, the protein that is coded for by
the gene will be changed also. (sickle cell anaemia is caused by the substitution of only one
base)

Note: if a gene is altered from its original form the 2 variations are termed alleles

Mutations occur naturally due to the possibility of error when genes are copied, so there is a
small percentage of natural mutation in a population for every gene (important for
evolution)

Most gene mutations produce recessive alleles because they prevent the gene from
producing a functional protein. If the homozygous form is present or it is dominant, a change
in phenotype will result.

The variation may be harmful, beneficial or neutral. With a change in environment, they may
become beneficial or harmful to the organism if selective pressures arise (e.g. peppered
moth)
Discuss evidence for the mutagenic nature of radiation

A mutation is a natural or human made agent (physical or chemical) that can change the structure or
sequence of DNA. Mutations are known in molecular terms to be changes in the genetic material.
Mutations are known to arise as a result of mistakes in DNA replication the addition of an incorrect
nucleotide by DNA polymerase. The frequency with which the DNA polymerase makes mistakes
determines the frequency of spontaneous mutations

Radiation is defined as energy in the form of waves or moving subatomic particles. Radiation may be
ionising (causing atoms to split into ions or charged particles) or non ionising. Ionising radiation
includes the emission of alpha and beta particles, X rays, gamma rays and neutrons.
Mutagenic nature of non ionising radiation
-

UV rays react with DNA seen through the incident of skin cancer as well as chromosomal
rearrangement. UV exposure tends to affect somatic cells and so it may cause cancer in
individuals

Mutagenic nature of ionising radiation

-

Evidence from war and disaster from the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Hans Muller received the Nobel Prize in 1927 for showing that genes had the ability to
mutate when exposed to X-rays. Beadle and Tatum used X-rays to produce mutations in
bread mould in the formulation of their one gene one polypeptide hypothesis.
The atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki also increased the evidence for
mutations caused by radiation. There was a tenfold increase in cancer deaths directly after
the bombs were dropped.
Mutagens may cause death in the individual but unless they affect the sex cells the effect is
not passed on to the next generation.
Cancer and mutation
Cancer treatment provides evidence of mutagenic nature of radiation.
Explain how an understanding of the source of variation in organisms has provided
support for Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection

Causes of Variation in Organisms

1. Mutation
- new alleles can be created by changes in base
sequence.
- alleles can then be passed onto the next generation,
and therefore cause a change in the phenotype
(which may or may not be favourable) up which
natural selection occurs
2. Meosis gamete formation
- Crossing over of homologous chromosomes
- Independent assortment of homologous
chromosomes at the equator
- Random segregation of homologous chromosomes to
the poles
3. Fertilisation
- Random joining of a male and female gamete (sex
cell)

Darwins Theory of Natural selection

Evolution
1. Variations in the population
2. individuals with favourable
characteristic are well adapted to
the environment
3. survive and reproduce and pass
on these favourable characteristics
to their offspring
4. over time these characteristics
become more common in the
population

Describe the concept of punctuated equilibrium in evolution and how it differs from
gradual process proposed by Darwin
Punctuated Equilibrium

Gradualism

Gould in 1970s developed this theory:

- Using Fossil evidence
suggest that long period of time with no change followed by
short bursts of rapid change (new species formed)
Eg. mass extinctions due to ice age, volcanic activity
Darwins Theory:
- Using transitional fossils
- Suggest new species accumulate adaptive characteristics to
different selective pressure over time
Eg. horse evolution

Outline the evidence that led to Beadle and Tatums one gene one protein hypothesis
and explain why it was altered to one gene one polypeptide hypothesis
Beadle and Tatum
Proposed Theory:
One Gene- One Protein

Process:
1941

Experiments with the

bread mould Neurospora
crassa to investigate
nutritional mutations
- Definitive
evidence to show
relationship
between genes
and enzymes

Using X-rays, they produced mould that was

unable to produce a specific amino acid
inducing mutations.
- They exposed the spores of the wild
type fungus to x rays or UV radiation
to produce mutant varieties that have
special nutritional needs
The mould was unable to grow unless
the amino acid was added. They
showed that genes controlled
biochemical processes.
- Their hypothesis was that for each
gene there was one enzyme or
protein. The enzymes that they
studied consisted of one polypeptide
but many enzymes consist of chains of
polypeptides.

Proposed that one gene

controls the production
of one enzyme

Developed Theory:
One Gene-One
Polypetide
Demonstrated that there
are other proteins
besides enzymes that are
also encoded by genes.
Instead a polypeptide
chain is responsible for
the structure of an entire
protein
e.g. haemoglobin has 4
polypeptide chains of 2
different types. Each type
is controlled by a
different gene.

Construct a flow chart that shows that changes in DNA sequences can result in changes in
cell activity
If there is a simple substitution for a single base pair on a strand of DNA such as a G-C replaced
by A-T, then this will result in a different amino acid codon forming a different polypeptide. If
one base pair is lost from the sequence there will be a shift along the DNA molecule producing
different polypeptides.The flow chart below shows the reaction if thymine is lost from the start
of a DNA sequence.

Cell activity is controlled by enzymes. Enzymes are formed from chains of polypeptides. If the
chain of amino acids forming the polypeptide is not in the right sequence, then the enzyme
formed will not be functional. In this case, there is a premature stop.
Describe and analyse the relative importance of work of...in determining the structure of
DNA and the impact of the quality of collaboration and communication on their scientific
research
o James Watson
o Francis Crick
o Rosalind Franklin
o Maurice Wilkins
-

Scientific discoveries are rarely the work of one person but tend to result from teams of
people bringing together different skills. These teams may be working together or may be
scattered all over the world working independently in different laboratories. Determining
the structure of DNA is a good case study exemplifying the role of collaboration and
effective communication in scientific research.
The four people in this story worked at two different places. Rosalind Franklin and Maurice
Wilkins were from King's College London and James Watson and Francis Crick were from
Cambridge University. Rosalind Franklin was a woman working in a field that was male
dominated. You will see as the story progresses that she didn't get equal recognition for her
contributions. Her work on X-ray diffraction showed that DNA had the characteristics of a
helix. She wished to gather more evidence of this result but Maurice Wilkins showed her
results to Watson and Crick without her permission or knowledge.
This information was enough to encourage Watson and Crick to develop their model of the
double helix for the structure of DNA.
Rosalind Franklin died of cancer in 1958 at the age of 37. Watson, Crick and Wilkins received
the Nobel Prize for their work in 1962.
Explain a modern example of natural selection

Peppered Moth:
Prior

the peppered moth were of a light appearance. The light coloured moths were
at a selective advantage because they were camoflagued against white lichen on
trunks. The black variety were clearly seen by predators, keeping their overall

numbers low.
Environment
Change
Natural Selection

Pollution, Industrial revolution in cities during mid 19th Century

- Woodlands near the industrial cities became blackened by soot deposits
darker overall appearance in the bark of tree trunk
As a result of the selective advantage over the light form, the darker form of the
moth became more abundant within the population. The light coloured moths
were captured and killed by predators more frequently because they could be
easily seen resting on the dark tree trunks

5. Current reproductive technologies and genetic engineering have the

potential to alter the path of evolution
Identify how the following current reproductive techniques may alter the genetic
composition of a population
o Artificial insemination
o Artificial pollination
o Cloning
Reproductive Technologies:
Technologies
Artificial
Insemination

Technique
Involves taking sperm from a
selected stud male and
artificially introducing it into
vagina of several selected
females.

Artificial
pollination

Involves removing the stamens

of a flower and dusting the
pollen onto the stigma of the
same flower or another flower

Cloning
Reproductive
cloning
Therapeutic
cloning
Gene cloning

Involves making an individual

identical to the one that already
exists, whereas genetically
modifying an organism involves
adding a desirable gene to the
DNA or removing or
substituting a gene

Advantages
- Sperm can be
frozen
- Long term
storage
- Increase the
number of
offspring
-

Increase
number of
offspring

Mass produce a desired

demand- eg. seedless
grapes
Increase numbers of
endangered species and
to reintroduce genes
from extinct animals
such as the thylacine
into the gene pool

Disadvantages
- Reduced
genetic
variationselect few
males
- Alternative
allele will be
lost
Alleles that increase in
frequency are chosen
by humans
continued longer term
breeding of the same
hybrid lines decreases
genetic composition
If all genetically
identical, they are less
likely to survive
sudden environmental
changes and may be
vulnerable to foreign
pathogen

Outline the processes used to produce transgenic species and include examples of this
process and reasons for its use
Transgenic Species
Plants

Animals

Bacteria

Technique
Recombinant
DNA
Technique

Microinjection

Reasons For Use

- Crops which are resistant to insect attack or bacterial damage
- Higher yield, highly quality proteins eg. golden rice
- Healthier vegetable oils
- Produce more meat and less fat
- Grow faster or produce more wool
- Produce more milk for the same amount of feed
- Mass produce human hormones
- Digest oil from oil spills

Processes
1. DNA with favourable gene is
removed from the cell of an
organism
2. Using restriction enzymes and
ligase, recombinant DNA is
formed into single molecule
a. Restriction enzymes are
used to cut DNA. Ligases
are used to repair and
strengthen DNA
especially after it has
been cut by restriction
enzymes.
3. Multiplied copies of recombinant
DNA are made using PCR usually
in bacteria
a. PCR is a method used to
amplify a specific target
region of a larger DNA
molecule. Two specific
oligonucleotide primers
prime DNA synthesis
from each end of the
target sequence.
4. The transgene is inserted into
fertilised egg cell or ES cells via
microinjection, retrovirus, ES cell
transfer ect.
5. Develops into a mature
transgenic species with new gene
switched on
-

male and female pro nuclei are

fertilised in vitro
before they fuse into a new
zygote, the male pronuclei is

Diagram

Embryonic
stem cell
mediated
transfer

Retrovirus
mediated
transfer

microinjected with the

recombinant DNA.
The embryo develops until
blastocyst stage in vitro then
place in pseudo pregnant female
to develop
25% embryos produce transgenic
offspring
Embryo of male and female
pronuclei are created in vitro
fertilisation and are cultured until
the blastocyst stage 5-7 days
after fertilisation
ES cells are isolated then injected
with recombinant DNA. Once it is
determined that the transgene is
present in the ES cells, they are
injected into the blastocyst
Blastocyst is implanted into the
surrogate mother to create
transgenic offspring

Viruses target where the

transgene is inserted e.g. AAV
Cellular infection rate is very high
RNA virus that can be engineered
to carry transgene
Virus is used to infect a cell, e.g.
ES cells, with RNA. An enzyme
from the virus copies RNA to
double strand DNA. Once in
nucleus, the DNA sequence of
virus is inserted into cells
genome at specific spot
Concerns about new viruses
being created

Examples
Human Insulin

Bt Cotton

Processes
1. Human DNA is cut using restrictive enzymes
2. The genes for human insulin is sliced into a plasmid
3. Plasmid is inserted into bacterium
4. Human insulin (a protein) is made by bacteria
1. Cut normal cotton seedlings into small pieces and
place them on solid growth medium to form into
calluses. Then transfer callus to liquid medium to
grow into cotton plant embryo
2. Genetic engineering, Bt gene extracted from
bacterium, Bacillus Thuringiensis, using restriction
enzymes
3. Transfer Bt gene into cotton plant embryo using
second bacterium, Agrobacterium tumefaciens,
causing crown gall as a vector.
4. The cotton plant embryo is dipped in mixture of
vector bacterium and extracted Bt gene combined,
and vector bacterium inject Bt gene into cotton cell
5. Bt cotton is then grown in tissue culture, another
solid medium for germination to become plant
Reduce resistance

Uses
Using transgenic bacteria
we can produce Human
insulin which is vital for
diabetics
Bt gene codes for
production of toxic
protein that is harmless to
humans and most animals,
although kills the
bollworm caterpillar when
it enters the digestive
system, making its own
insecticide so we dont
have to use fertilisers
- Increase yield of
product

Discuss the potential impact of the use of reproductive technologies on the genetic
diversity of species using a named plant and animal example that have been genetically
altered
Potential Impact of Reproductive Technologies
Plant- Bt Cotton
Increase Yield and Quality of Crops
- Alter crops so they resist to particular
pests, produce higher yield
Problem:
- Little diversity making it susceptible to
changing environmental conditions
- Biodiversity is reduced and the genetic
pool is reduced

Animal- Sheep
Recombinant DNA technology has been used to
introduce certain human genes into mammals
such as sheep and pigs to make them produce
milk that has foreign proteins
Advantage:
- human blood clotting factors VIII is
introduced which can potentially be
used to assist people with Hameophilia A
or B
- Due to a worldwide shortage in blood
products this is potential solution
- Transfer of foreign genes from one
species to another can increase diversity
as creating new species

Describe the methodology used in cloning

Whole Reproductive cloning somatic cell nuclear transfer
-

Involves 3 animals: one that donates the nucleus, one that acts as egg donor and one that
plays role as surrogate mother
1. Cells are taken from udder (mammary glands) of 6 year old ewe
2. Nucleus was removed from an unfertilised egg, a process called enucleating, on another
sheep. Scientists make cytoplasmic contents and membrane
3. An udder cell from sheep 1 was injected into the enucleated egg of sheep 2. The two cells
were then zapped with electricity, which caused the cells to fuse or blend together and now
fertilised egg cell was allowed to undergo normal growth and development, dividing by the
process of mitosis. As the cells continue to divide, the embyro was impacted into the uterus
of a third sheep. The embryo continues to grow and born identical to sheep 1.
Identify examples of the use of transgenic species and use available evidence to debate
the ethical issues arising from the development and use of transgenic species
Ethical Issue
Environment and Nature
- Ethical to intervene
with nature

For
-

Many new discoveries

are often considered a
threat, although if we
are able to produce
products that are
beneficial, it would be
unethical not to.

Financial and socio justice

issues
- Ethical to put a
price/patent on GMP,
restricting access
- Respect for human
vulnerability and
personal integrity

Could create crops that

are drought
tolerant/pest resistant
and have higher yield,
thus quality improves
and less money spent
in long run
Money can be put back
into research

Medical and Health issue

- Is it unethical to not
make medical products
that can benefit health
and life quality even if
we can
Animal and rights issues

Foods with higher

nutritional value
suppling better
nutritional products
Reduced use of
pesticides for health
GM crops may be used

Against
- Playing god and
tampering with nature
- Biodiversity is upset as
variation in the gene
pool is lowered, leading
to mass extinction
- May change natural
process of evolution
- Ethical issue of mixing
genetical info of
humans with others
- People in lower socio
economic areas, e.g. 3rd
world may not be able
to afford GM products,
widening poverty gap
and falling behind
development
- Patenting and
ownership of certain
genes of species
restricts access to
technologies creating a
monopoly
- Unknown potential
long term risks of GM
products
- Allergies may arise

Vegetarians may

Ethical to GM foods or
products and made
available to public who
are unaware of
consuming and are
given no alternatives

to solve food shortages

in 3rd world countries
producing higher yield
at lower cost

unknowing eat food

with animal DNA
Transgenic animals
could be made into
genetically modified
works of art
Ethical issue of whether
we have right to use
animals or plant DNA

The Search for Better Health

1. What is a healthy organism?
Discuss the difficulties of defining the terms health and disease
Health is hard to define as it is something that is ever changing- the absence of disease. The WHO
defines health as,
A state of physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity
-

Physical health refers to the physical state of the body and includes fitness level,
bodyweight, and amount of energy and proper functioning of body functions.
Mental health is related to our ability to function effectively in society and to cope with
changing situations in our lives.
Social health is our ability to interact, communicate and socialise effectively.

Disease is also hard to define, we say it disease is,

any condition that adversely affects the normal functioning of any part of a living thing
-

Diseases fall into 5 main categories; congenital and hereditary, inflammatory, degenerative,
metabolic and abnormal cell growth (neoplastic) diseases.

There are difficulties in defining both health and disease because the definitions change in
different circumstances and are used in different ways in everyday conversation.
Outline how the function of genes, mitosis, cell differentiation and specialisation assist in
the maintenance of health.
Factor
Genes

How the factor assists in the maintenance of health

- A hereditary unit that controls the
production of polypeptides that make up the
proteins in cells
- control the development and behaviour of
the organism

Mutation/ Example
Mutation can disrupt
metabolic pathway health of the person
could be affected
cystic fibrosis is a genetic

Mitosis

The production of the proteins by genes,

regulate cell growth and repair and assist in
maintenance of health.

disease that is caused by

the mutation of the CFTR
gene.

Mitosis is the process in cell division when

the nucleus replicates two identical daughter
nuclei. It is most important for cell growth,
repair, reproduction, genetic stability.
DNA repair genes, Proto-oncogenes and
tumour suppressor genes regulate the cell
cycle and mitosis and allow for the efficient
cell growth, repair and functioning of cells for
a healthy being.

A mutation in mitosis in
the zygote or early
embryo stage the mitotic
error can affect the health
of the organism.
E.g. non disjunction can
cause trisomy or
monosomy

Cell
Differentiation

Cell differentiation is a process that causes a cell to

become specialised to perform a specific function.
E.g. skin cell, nerve cell
Ensures different tissues are produced- to perform
specific functions

Cell
Specialisation

As the embryo develops particular genes in a cell

become switched on causing the cell to differentiate
and become specialised
- Differentiation and specialisation enable cells
to work together in a healthy body and to
carry out complex functions and control,
coordinate ways to maintain and repair
tissue and influence the health of a person.

Proto-oncogenes code for

proteins that regulate
differentiation and cell
growth. Health can be
affected in a protooncogene becomes
defective as it becomes an
oncogene, increasing the
malignancy of tumour
cells.

Use available evidence to analyse the links between gene expression and the maintenance
and repair of body tissue.
Gene Expression
Gene expression
refers to when a
gene is switched
on, a gene is
expressed when it is
switched on and
the DNA code is
converted into
polypeptides that
control the structure
and functions of the

Maintenance and Repair

DNA is damaged gene
expression will produce
enzymes that can repair the
damaged DNA.
If all genes in normal cells are
expressed as they should be,
the cells function and the body
tissue is maintained and
repaired.

Example
BRCA 1 is a tumour suppressor gene
responsible for the coding of proteins
involved in the repair of the PTEN gene.
The PTEN gene limits cell division and
encourages cell death, regulating the cell
cycle and preventing excessive
proliferation of cells that leads to tumours
and cancers. A damaged PTEN gene would
be repaired by proteins coded by BRCA 1
allowing for normal cell division and
expression. However a mutation in the

cells.

Proto-oncogenes help to speed

up cell division while tumour
suppressor cells help to slow
down or restrict cell division.

BRCA 1 gene would mean proteins

necessary for PTEN repair would not be
produced, thus PTEN would not be
repaired or expressed, not maintaining or
repairing body tissue.

2. Over 3000 years ago the Chinese and Hebrews were advocating
cleanliness in food, water and personal hygiene.
Note: Hebrews and chinese (200BC) began implementing hygiene practices such as drainage
systems, disposal of faeces, cleanliness of body
Distinguish between infectious and non infectious diseases
Type of Disease
Infectious

Define:
Caused by pathogens which invade the body
and grow and multiply in the tissues

Non-Infectious

Caused by some factor other than a pathogen

(genetics, environment, physiological
malfunction)

Example
Influenza
Measles
Thrush
Obesity
Cancer
Lead poisoning
Scurvy

Cannot be transmitted from person to person

and their causes are often multifactorial
Explain why cleanliness in food, water and personal hygiene practices assist in control of
disease
Hygiene:
Personal Hygiene methods:
-

Hands washed with soap and water- before/ after food, toilet
Body, teeth and hair regularly washed
o Reduce build up in mouth- cause gingivitis
Cough or sneeze into tissue (reduce airborne droplets )

Community Hygiene methods:

-

Sewage and garbage disposal

Sterilisation and disinfection of equipment in hospitals, dentists
City planning- reduces overcrowding- (controlling disease)

Effect:
- Reduce the risk of pathogens entering our bodies, or transmission of these pathogens to
others, which can invade and cause disease
- Reduce the spread and growth of pathogenic micro-organisms

Control spread of disease

Inhibits the build-up of micro-organisms on our bodies

Cleanliness of food and water

Treatment of Water:
1. Sedimentation
2. Coagulation and Flocculation
3. Filtration - to remove particulate matter that may harbour pathogens
4. Disinfection - to kill or inactive pathogens
o Chlorine is added
o Fluoride is added to tap water- maintenance of dental health
Treatment of Food:
- Hands washed before and during preparation of foods
- Hair always tied back, cuts covered
- Utensils washed in hot soapy water
- Different surfaces and chopping boards- prevent cross-contamination
- Frozen foods thawed in refrigerator or microwave (avoiding room temp- growth )
- Meats are all cooked thoroughly
Effect:
-

Treatment of water is to destroy pathogens and prevent their further multiplication whilst
reducing their presence and control in society
If food is not cooked properly, the bacteria is not killed, and grows rapidly and can invade
the host when eaten or handled
o Hepatitis A is transmitted by eating foods that have been handled by an infected
person
o Salmonella- undercooked food
If water is contaminated with the faceces of animals or sewage, could contain unsafe levels
of pathogens such as protozoans
o Cholera is a fatal disease that is transmitted in water- untreated sewage

Identify the conditions under which an organism is described as a pathogen.

A pathogen is an infective agent or organism that lives on or in another living organism, causing
disease.
- Modes of transmission include direct, indirect and vector transmission.
- different types of pathogens such as prions, viruses, bacteria, protozoans, fungi and macro
parasites
Conditions:
- causes disease when invading the host

reproduce in or on the host

avoid being affected by hosts immune response
Identify data sources, plan and choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand
investigation to identify microbes in food and water.

Aim: to perform a first-hand investigation to identify microbes in food and water

Hypothesis:
Risk Assessment:
What
We may be growing bacteria and fungi which are pathogenic
Why
Pathogens may invade our bodies and cause disease
How- avoided
- Wear gloves when handling food, water, agar plates
- Wash hands with antibacterial soap before/ after use
- Lift agar plate at 45 to prevent contamination of exhaled air
- Incubating the agar plates at 25-35 (not at 37- human ideal
bacteria growing temperature)
- Must seal the agar plates once inoculating and never reopen
- Autoclave and incinerate used agar plates
- Label agar plates known bacteria and date
- Disinfect workbench and sterilise equipment
Method:
1. Wash hands and sterilise bench with disinfectant spray
2. Collect 5 nutrient agar plates, and label
3. 1 unexposed (control), 2 different foods and 2 different types of water samples
4. 0.5ml of sample on each, using cotton bud and streak in zig zag pattern
5. Seal the agar plates, incubate for 2-3 days at 27 C
6. Wash hands with antibacterial soap and disinfect benches
Results:
No. of types and Percentage Coverage
- note: reproduce in suitable conditions: temperature, nutrients, moisture
- colonies are distinguished by their size,shape, surface, profile, colour
Conclusion:
Successfully answered our aim, and identified various microbes- bacteria and fungi.
Discussion:
Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe the ways in
which drinking water can be treated and use available evidence to explain how these
methods reduce the risk of infection from pathogens
Treatment of Drinking Water
1. Sedimentation
o Water is poured into a sedimentation basin, using a sludge thickener it is excreted
from the water
2. Coagulation and Flocculation

Small particles are forced together by coagulants to make larger particles, then left
to settle the particles are dense enough to fall to bottom
3. Filtration - to remove particulate matter that may harbour pathogens
o force water molecules through a membrane that has extremely tiny pores, leaving
the larger contaminants behind
4. Boiling
o rapid vaporization of a liquid, which typically occurs when a liquid is heated to its
boiling point
o effective method of killing most protozoan parasites and bacteria present in the
drinking water as the enzymes will be denatured
5. Disinfection
o removal, deactivation or killing of pathogenic microorganisms through the addition
of certain chemicals
o Second Disinfection can take place at end: to ensure bacteria doesnt multiply during
distribution
6. Chlorination
o Water which has been treated with chlorine is effective in preventing the spread of
waterborne disease, eliminating almost all bacteria, viruses and amoeba
Reduced Risk:
- Water supplies are treated in various ways before distribution to the community
- Bacteria, particles, viruses, protozoans are eliminated and killed from the water so they do
not survive, reproduce, invade the host and cause disease

3. During the second half of the nineteenth century, the work of

Pasteur and Koch and other scientists stimulated the search for
microbes as causes of disease.
Describe the contributions of Pasteur and Koch to our understanding of infectious diseases
Louis Pasteur:
Proposed the Germ Theory disproving the theory of Spontaneous Generation (living things arise
from non-living matter)
Contributions
1. Microorganisms in air cause
decay of food germ theory
2. Microorganism cause
disease when in contact
with the host
3. Pasteurisation
4. Developed process of
inoculating animals
(Vaccines)
5. Principle of immunity and

Examples/ Experiments
- By fermentation of beet juice he found that it was a
process of living things, a microbe called yeast
- Swan neck flask experiment- broth was heated and
then cooled, with different stoppers so air could or
couldnt reach
- Pasteurisation- microorganisms can cause wine
spoilage heating to kill contaminated bacteria
- Vaccine - relationship between microorganisms and
disease using fowl cholera, where he found a way of
weakening the bacteria so when introduced to the

vaccination is now a widely

used method to prevent
disease

body their would be no real infection

Disease transmission- silk worm disease- spread
microbes in air, hand or clothes

Robert Koch:
Contribution
1. Cause of Disease- developed
a way of growing pure
cultures of microorganisms
2. Developed a set of rules
which scientists need to
follow before confidently
declaring a microbe as the
cause of a disease
3. Isolated and described the
bacterium which caused
cholera, tuberculosis
4. Developed tuberculin to test
for TB in humans

Experiments/ Examples
- Disease: Anthrax in sheep- isolated and identified the
pathogen, anthrax bacillus
Koshs Postulates - CCCC
Common microbe believed to cause the disease must be
present when disease occurs
Culture a microbe must be isolated from an infected host
and grown in a sterile/pure culture
Cause the pure culture, when injected into healthy patient
must cause the same disease
Compare the same microbe must be recovered from the
newly infected patient

Distinguish between prions, viruses, bacteria, protozoans, fungi, macro parasites and
name one example of a disease caused by each type of pathogen

Type of
pathogen
Prions
Microscopic

Viruses
0.01-0.3 um

Diagram

Features

Cells

Examples

Protein (mutation)
Infective prion ( when in
contact with normal
prions)
No Genetic Material
Only seen under electron
microscope
Genetic material (DNA,
RNA)
Outer protein coat

Non cellular

CJD in humans
BSE in cattle
(mad-cow)

Needs a living host to

survive (reproduces inside
cells and bursts)
Only seen using electron
microscope

(Holes in brain
tissue )
Non cellular
(own
enzyme
system)

Chicken pox
Measles
Rubella
AIDS

Bacteria
0.5-100um

Prokaryotic (only cell wall)

Single strand of Genetic
Material
Classified by shape
Asexual binary fission
reproduction

Uni- Cellular

Tetanus
Pneumonia
Meningococcal

No distinct nucleus
Protozoans
1- 300 um

Eukaryotic
No Cell wall
Asexual binary fission
reproduction
Classified by type of
movement

Uni cellular

Malaria
Amoebic
dysentery

Fungi
(vary from
micro to
macroscopic)

Eukaryotic
Cell Wall

Uni-Cellular
Or
multicellular

Yeasts
Mushrooms
Tinea

Macroparasites

Eukaryotic
Endoparasites: inside host
Eg. tapeworms
Ectoparasites: outside
host
Eg. fleas, mosquitoes

Distinct nucleus
Membrane bound
organelles

Multicellular Endo:
tapeworm
disease,
elephantiasis
Ecto:
Flea is a vector
for bacteriumcauses
bubonic
plague

Identify the role of antibiotics in the management of infectious disease

Antibiotics are chemicals that interfere (by either damaging the structure or interfering with
metabolism) with disease causing bacteria. Antibiotics are chemicals that are capable of destroying
or inhibiting the growth of bacteria that cause disease.
Antibiotics have various methods to kill microbes :
-

Inhibit the synthesis of the cell wall

Inhibit protein synthesis
Damage the plasma membrane

An important aspect of antibiotics is their selective toxicity can act on the pathogen with little or
no effect on the patient taking the antibiotics, and can be altered by varying the dosage and the
duration of use.
1. broad spectrum used to treat many different pathogens
2. narrow spectrum used to treat a specific pathogen
Note: (penicillin, first antibiotic in 1928 by Alexander Fleming, Howard Florey- medical use in 1941)

Perform an investigation to model Pasteurs experiment to identify the role of microbes in

decay
Aim: To disprove spontaneous generation and show decay of food was caused by microorganisms
carried in the air
Method:
1. Equal amounts of 10ml broth in 3 sterilised equal size test tubes

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Boil all test tubes on a hot plate

Test tube A- place complete stopper on (control)
Test tube B- place stopper with short glass tube (pasteurs broken glass)
Test Tube C- place stopper with swan neck tube immediately after boiling
Place all test tubes in room temperature under same conditions for 2 weeks
Observe and record changes in colour, texture- evidence of decay (cloudy)
Repeat 3x and average

Results/ Conclusion
-

Swan neck maintained same colour and clear, whilst straight glass went cloudy in colour
(decay)
Decay of food is casused by the microorganism carried in the air
Microorganism are not spontaneously created

Gather and process information to trace the historical development of our understanding
of the cause and prevention of malaria
Infectious Disease
transmitted through
vector
Name of pathogen
Insect Vector
Symptoms
Prevention
Control

Malaria

Plasmodium, protozoan
Female anopheles mosquito
Fever, headache, vomiting, chills
Drugs such as quinine, insect repellent, long-sleeves
Killing mosquitos by DDT insecticide, quarantine infected person

Historical Development in Malaria:

Date
100 BCPrevention
1879- Cause

1897- Cause

1940Prevention
1960sprevention

Development
Ancient romans find that draining marsh water reduces risk of malaria
Laveran, identifies the protozoan- Plasmodium by studying blood under
microscope
- Tried to find source- air, soil, water (yet water isnt a source)
Ronald Ross- identifies mosquito as the vector
Maps the lifecycle of a Plasmodium that exists in both humans and in the salivary
glands of mosquitos
The insecticide DDT is developed and used against mosquitos as part of global
eradication program
A range of prophylactic drugs developed to prevent people contracting malaria

Identify data sources, gather process and analyse information from secondary sources to
describe one named infectious disease in terms of its: cause, transmission, host response,
major symptoms, treatment, prevention, control
Infectious Disease
Cause
Transmission
Host Response
Major Symptoms
Treatment
Prevention
Control

Influenza
Influenza Virus (pathogen)
Direct contact handshaking
Indirect contact- airborne particles- sneezing, coughing
Produces antibodies to destroy the antigen
Fever, headache, sore throat, chills
Cannot be treated with antibiotics- VIRUS
- Plenty of rest
Regular immunisation against Influenza A and B strain
- Quarantine infected people
- Increase educational campaigns
- Immunisation programs

Process information from secondary sources to discuss problems relating to antibiotic

resistance
Antibiotic Resistance: Bacteria during the normal process of natural selection have evolved strains
that are resistant to antibiotics. Due to natural resistance or mutation, they are able to survive and
reproduce, further building up the population of resistant bacteria.
Causes:
-

Widespread use of antibiotics

o Misuse of antibiotics- eg. viruses
o Does not take full dosage- surviving bacteria can reproduce
o Use of antibiotics as feed additives to food producing animals
o Use of cleaning products that contain anti-bacterial additives
Contact with bacteria that can invade and cause disease
Horizontal gene transfer through bacterial sex means higher chance of microbes
becoming resistant in production such as modification of crops

Problems
-

Antibiotics are no longer effective, or can be used to cure diseases

Effects of diseases will be more severe, take longer to cure, infectious period is longer,
greater chance of contact with others
Second-line and third-line antibiotics will become more dependent- but remain
expensive and toxic
o Countries which cannot afford- disease is untreatable, spreads
Increase in number of Superbugs
Soon there will be no treatment for pathogens
Economy- disrupt on international scale, goods/services/ transport systems
Pandemics arise

Strategies:
-

Only used for bacterial infections

Develop more effective vaccines
Narrow-spectrum antibiotics used- target specific pathogen and reduce the number of
antibiotics that will become resistant
Take whole course of prescribed medication
Do not use cleaning products that contain anti-bacterial additives

6. Often we recognise an infection by the symptoms it causes. The

immune response is not so obvious, until we recover
Identify defence barriers to prevent entry of pathogens in humans: skin, mucous
membranes, cilia, chemical barriers, other body secretions
The first line of defence is non-specific and involves the body using both physical and chemical
barriers to try to prevent the entry of pathogens into the blood and tissues. Such barriers include:

Barriers
Skin:

Mucous
Membrane:

FIRST LINE OF DENFENCE : Prevent entry of pathogens

- Is a physical barrier, forming a tough outer barrier that covers the body
and prevents the penetration of microbes.
- It is fairly dry and contains its own population of beneficial bacteria that
help to stop the growth of invading microbes
- Oil and sweat glands in the skin produce antibacterial and antifungal
substances that inhibit growth of pathogens
- If the skin is cut, the blood cuts in the area and prevents infection until
the skin grows back
-

The respiratory, digestive, reproductive and urinary tracts are covered in

membranes that produce thick layers of mucous which trap invading
pathogens.
The pathogen is held there until it is excreted by coughing or sneezing.
The mucous can contain an antibody that prevents the bacteria or virus
from attaching to the surface.

Cilia:

Cilia are tiny hairs that line the respiratory surfaces of the trachea and
bronchial tubes. They constantly beat in an upward direction to move the
mucus contain the trapped pathogens towards the throat, were they can
be excreted.

Chemical
barriers:

Different types of chemicals secreted in different areas of the body act as

barriers to invading pathogens
The pathogens that enter by food or drink when swallowed in the
alimentary canal are destroyed by the acidic conditions of the stomach or
the alkaline conditions in the intestines.
The urinary and vaginal openings are acidic which prevent the growth of

pathogens
Other body
secretions:

Urine is sterile and slightly acidic, helping to clean the ureters, bladder
and urthera from bacteria growth
Tears contain lysozymes that destroy the cell walls of some bacteria
Saliva also contains lysozymes and washed microorganisms from the
teeth and lining of mouth.

Identify antigens as molecules that trigger the immune response

Antigens are part of the second line of defence
An antigen is any molecule the body recognises as foreign and that triggers the immune response.
On the surface of cells in the body, there are MHC markers. When a pathogen enters the body they
have chemical markers, called antigens, on their surface; the immune system recognises these as
non self and activates the immune system to destroy the foreign organisms.
Explain why organ transplants should trigger an immune response
When a person has an organ transplant, the new organ received from a donor, will have different
MHC markers recognised as antigens to the host. The transplanted organ is therefore identified as
foreign and the immune system is activated to defend the body.
Prevention:
-

Tissue typing is done to try match up the antigen as closely as possible between the donor
and patient. This will mean that there are fewer foreign antigens on the surface.
A patient can also be treated with immunosuppressant drugs to lessen the immune systems
response to the transplanted organ.

Self-recognition has implications for medical procedures such as tissue grafts, tissue and organ
transplant and blood transfusions.
Identify defence adaptations, including: inflammation response, phagocytosis, lymph
system, cell death to seal off the pathogen
When pathogens are successful in penetrating the barriers of the first line of defence, a non specific
second line of defence is then activated to which defence adaptations try to destroy the invading
pathogen before they can cause much damage.
Adaptation
SECOND LINE OF DEFENCE:
Inflammation
- Occurs at the site of infection
response:
1. Dilation of Blood vessels - When the cells are infected or injured in some
way, they release chemical alarm signals such as histamines and
prostaglandins. These chemicals cause the blood vessels to dilate, increasing
the blood flow, causing the area to swell and become hot.
2. The chemicals also increase the permeability of the blood vessels; this allows

Phagocytosis

Lymph
System

the movement of phagocytes from the blood into the tissues so they can
attach the invading pathogen. Plasma also moves into the tissues, bringing
more phagocytes, producing swelling the area
3. Chemicals that increase the temperature are released. This inhibits the
growth rate of pathogens, inactivates some enzymes and toxins and
increases rate of biochemical reaction
- Is the process by which phagocytes change their shape so that they can
surround a foreign particle, such as a bacterium, and completely enclose it
within their cell. Once inside, enzymes are released to destroy the foreign
particle.
- Phagocytes are specialised white blood cells or leucocytes produced in the
bone marrow
- Neutrophils are the first to be called upon and move to the site of infection,
inactivating pathogens. (not-specific)
- Macrophages are long lasting phagocytes used to fight chronic infections
(not-specific)
-

Cell death to
seal off
pathogens

Other
Secretions

As blood circulates around the body, some of the plasma moves out of the
capillaries into the tissues, becoming tissue fluid. This tissue fluid moves into
the system of vessels known as the lymphatic system
The lymph vessels form a one way drainage system from all parts of the
body back to a point near the heart where the cleansed lymph fluid is
drained back into the blood.
If there is an infection in the tissues, the foreign particle, along with dead
cells and other debris, move with the tissue fluid into the lymph vessels.
When they get into the lymph node, the waste particles are filtered off and
any foreign particles are destroyed by macrophages.
If the infected cells are surrounded by a wall of dead cells it prevents the
infection from spreading to other areas and infecting them.
The cells inside then die, causing the destruction of the pathogen that are
infecting them
Interferons are secreted by some cells when they are infected with viruses.
Interferons can cause nearby non infected cells to produce their own anti
viral chemicals which inhibit the spread of the virus.
The complement system is a group of 20 proteins that assist other defence
mechanisms. These complement proteins can be involved in the destruction
of pathogens by stimulating phagocytes to become more active at the site of
infection or destroy the membrane of invading pathogens.

Gather, process and present information from secondary sources to show how a named
disease results from an imbalance in micro flora in humans
Disease from imbalance of
Microflora
Pathogen

Thrush
fungus Candida albicans
- Part of the natural microflora in human body - normally present on
the mucous membranes of females genital tract, mouth and

Cause

Symptoms

respiratory tract
oral contraceptive pill, diabetes, pregnancy, immune system disorders
and general illness
The use of some antibiotics - drugs kill most, if not all types of bacteria
present in the body.
- number of these C.albicans is usually kept low by competition
however the resulting natural imbalance of micro-flora leads
to the excessive growth of Candida, outbreak of thrush
-

Can include vaginal itch and discomfort

Thick discharge
Redness
Swelling
Stinging or burning sensation when urinating
Can also develop into other conditions such as genital herpes
or urinary tract infections
If oral thrush = creamy white lesions around
mouth/tongue/respiratory tract

Diagnosis

The diagnosis of the disease is done by taking a swab of the infected

area and examining it for the presence of Candida cells under a
microscope.

Treatment

use of antifungal cream, but may also involve the insertion of

suppositories such as micronazole. In some cases, the insertion of
natural yogurt into affected area may help to retain the balance of
microflora in this region.
- Pro-biotics
- Digestive and systematic enzymes

Prevention

careful washing and drying of susceptible areas, the avoidance of some

types of antibiotics and the practice of personal hygiene.

Explain why the disease is not always present and describe the conditions under which the disease
could develop.
Although the pathogen is present in our bodies micro flora all the time, we are not always affected
by the disease. The fungus that results in the disease is part of the natural micro flora of the human
body and is normally present on the mucous membranes of the female genital tract, mouth and
respiratory tract and the alimentary canal. However if a certain condition in this region alters the
natural balance of microflora an overgrowth of the Candida fungus may result in thrush disease. One
way the natural balance of microflora can be upset is by taking antibiotics to treat bacterial
infections as they kill almost all the bacteria in that area. Others include pregnancy, suppression of
the immune system, the use of steroids, oral contraceptives, general illness and intravenous drug
use.
Reliability of sources

The information obtained from the textbook and internet websites were reasonable valid and
reliable due to the consistency of information. Much of the information on the websites for example
the causes, symptoms and treatment had similar, if not the same information gained from the
textbook and worksheets. The websites were from reliable sources of information including medical
information government run sites.
Sources
Textbook and worksheet
Website:
http://www.return2health.net/articles/candida/candida-overgrowth-candidiasisoverview/?gclid=CJyZ6J39rawCFaoB4godnn5cHw
http://thrush-information.com/ - http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000626.htm

4. MacFarlane Burnets work in the middle of the twentieth

century contributed to a better understanding of the immune
response and the effectiveness of immunisation programs
Sir Frank MacFarlane Burnet:
Development
1. Understanding of how T and B
lymphocytes seek and destroy
foreign antigens
2. Founder of immunology
3. Clonal Selection Theory
4. Developed a method of
cultivating influenza viruses in
unfertilised chicken eggs

Contribution
- Body recognises its own tissues and will not destroy
it organ transplant
- formed the basis of organ transplant
understanding- non-self
- understanding of immune system (developing
immunosuppressant drugs for transplant)
- effective use of vaccination programs- influenza A
strain

Identify the components of the immune response; antibodies, T cells and B cells
Third Line of Defence: If a pathogen is successful in penetrating the barriers of the first line of
defence, and then survive the responses of the second line of defence, a specific response, third line
of defence in activated involving the production of T and B lymphocytes
Components
Antibodies

THIRD LINE OF DEFENCE: immune response

- Antibodies are proteins called immunoglobulins, produced with the presence

T-Cell

B- Cell

o
o
o

of antigens in the body

When the appropriate B cells are activated they produce plasma cells that
produce antibodies.
These antibodies seek out antigen and bind to it forming an antigen
antibody complex which caused the deactivation of the antigen.
Antibodies are highly specific and destroy antigens and each antibody has at
least to sites where it can bind to the antigen
T cells originate from stem cells in the bone marrow and mature after
passing through the thymus gland. They are then released into the blood,
spleen, tonsils and lymph nodes.
They respond to specific antigens that match their receptor proteins and
produce clones of cytotoxic T cells that release chemicals to destroy infected
cells
T cells control cell mediated immunity (destroy cells already invaded)
T cells defend against: intracellular bacteria and viruses, protozoa, fungi,
flatworm and roundworm, cancerous cells and transplant foreign tissues.
B cells/lymphocytes originate and mature in the stem cells in the bone
marrow. After they mature they are released into the blood, tonsils, spleen
and lymph nodes (lymphatic organs)
Each B cell has a different antibody on its surface that will respond to a
specific antigen. A mature B cell may carry as many as 100 000 antibodies
embedded in its surface and will become activated if it comes into contact
with its specific antigen.
When a B cell is activated it produces many copies of itself and each of these
cells forms plasma cells to that particular antigen. These antibodies move to
the site of infection to form antigen antibody complexes, which
deactivated the antigen.
B cells control antibody mediated (humoral) immunity (produce Y-shaped
antibodies that circulate in lymph, blood to attack pathogens)
B cells defend against: bacteria and viruses outside the cell and toxins
produced by bacteria.

Describe and explain the immune response in the human body in terms of:
Interaction between B and T lymphocytes
The mechanisms that allow interaction between B and T lymphocytes
The range of T lymphocyte types and the difference in their roles

Interaction between B and

T cells
1. Phagocytosis: When a
macrophage encounters a
foreign particle with an
antigen on its surface, it
surrounds it and engulfs it
2. antigen on surface of
foreign particle is moved to
the surface of the
macrophage, which is then
transported to the lymph
nodes
3. Activated helper T-cellThe antigen presenting
macrophage is then
presented to a Helper T cell
with a T cell receptor
4. Interleukin 2 produced by
the helper T cell activates
the production of specific B
cells, clones of cytotoxic T
cells
5. Successfully defeated the
infection, suppressor T cells
are responsible for
suppressing the activity of
the B cells and the cytotoxic
T cells.

T- Cell Differentiation
Helper T cell

Role
-

Cytotoxic T Cell

Memory T cell

Has surface receptors that recognise only 1 specific type of antigen

When a n antigen activates a T Helper cell, it releases cytokine
molecules (interleukin-2) that activates the cytotoxic T cells and B
cells specific for this antigen as well as other helper T cells
Other cytokine molecules activate macrophages

Destroys target cells on contact by releasing chemicals that destroy

the infected cells
Activated by Helper T cells or when they detect an antigen that
matches their surface receptor proteins, they produce many copies
of themselves and move to the site of infection.

Produces at the same time as cytotoxic cells.

It multiplies and remains in the body, so as to quickly respond to

future invasion on the pathogen

Suppressor T cell

Turns off the immune system when no more antigens are present

The mechanisms that allow the interaction of B and T lymphocytes

Outline the way in which vaccinations prevent infection

Vaccines: provide artificially acquired immunity without the need for a person to have suffered the
disease initially.
Vaccines contain cultures of microorganisms that can either be:
- Living but attenuated and therefore harmless (rabies, measles)
- Dead (typhoid, whooping cough)
- Can also be modified toxins called toxiods

1. Primary response
If sufficient antibodies are made
by, the B cells to produce plasma
cells that then secrete antibodies
and bid with the antigen to
neutralise it, to destroy all the
infected antigens, the person
recovers completely. This
produces memory B and T Cells.
2. Secondary response
If the same antigen were to re
enter the body in the future, the
secondary response is much
quicker as a result of the memory
B cells specific to that antigen
remain in the body and are
activated. They are produced
antibodies and cytotoxic t cells in
large numbers.

Active acquired immunity is where the immune response occurs and own antibodies- memory cells
are produced
It can be natural induced as the body as to undergo the immune response and suffer the symptoms
of the disease in order to develop immunity to it. Or it can be artificially induced though the use of
vaccines, which cause the production of memory cells without the body experiencing the symptoms
of the disease.
Vaccines are all harmless to the body and will not caused the disease they are specific for, but still
contains the antigen that causes the body to undergo an immune response and produce memory
cells for that particular antigen. Vaccination involves the introduction of a vaccine into the body.
Passive acquired immunity, involves the introduction of antibodies (immunoglobulins) by
vaccination to prevent a disease from developing. It is produced by another organism who suffered
the disease. This provides no long lasting immunity.

Immunisation
-

Immunisation is the process in which the body reacts to the vaccine by going though the
immune response that produces memory cells for the antigen and confers immunity to the
body so that if the antigen enters the body in the future, the secondary response will occur
and the body will not suffer the symptoms of the disease
Over a series of vaccinations the lymphocytes will more rapidly recognise the antigen and
the number of memory cells produced will be enough for long term immunity.

Outline the reasons for the suppression of the immune response in organ transplant
patients
Organ Transplant Patients:
Donor organs have marker molecules called antigens on their surface. These antigens are specific to
the donor and will differ to the antigens in the hosts body, thus the antigen on the donor organ are
identified as foreign in the patients body, initiating the immune response.
Cytotoxic T cells then move to the site of infection to destroy the foreign material which may cause
the rejection of the donor organ.
1. Tissue typing, which involves matching the antigens of the donor and recipient, are done to
minimise the severity of the immune response.
2. Immunosuppressant Drugs- Cylorosporin is a drug given to suppress the immune system so
the risk of rejection is lower. These drugs act to reduce the activity of T cells that attack the
transplanted organ. However not all of the immune system is suppressed, e.g. B cells , and
will inhibit normal T and B cell interaction which makes the recipient more susceptible to
disease as a result of the diminishing activity of the immune system.
3. Anti rejection drugs must then be taken for the rest of the recipients life.
Process, analyse and present information from secondary sources to evaluate the
effectiveness of vaccination programs in preventing the spread and occurrence of one
common diseases; smallpox, diphtheria and polio.
Effectiveness of Vaccination against Small Pox:
Before
Occurrence of Small
Until 1968, there were 10-15 million cases of small pox
Vaccination
pox
resulting in 2 million deaths
Program
1/10 of all deaths in Europe in 19th century
Spread of Small pox
By virus Variola major- airborne or spread by direct
contact- entering through throat and lungs and
eventually spreads to skin, entire body
After Vaccination Date Vaccination
1796- Edward Jenner
Program 1796
Program Began
(Jenner)
Description of
Not widely used until 1940s
Vaccination Program
WHO implemented world wide mass immunisation
program- mass immunisations, supplementary doses
given on special immunisation days, targeting people,
surveillance teams on possible cases
Occurrence of Small
Eliminated in USA and Europe in 1940
Pox
Compulsory for all travels until 1971 to have vaccine
In 1967, 33 countries with smallpox
1970- 17 countries
1973- 6 countries
1980- eliminated eradicated the disease
Spread of Small Pox
Overcrowding, extreme poverty, poor hygiene, poor
nutrition increased the spread
Effectiveness of
The immunisation programs completely eradicated the
Vaccination
disease. Therefore successful

6. Epidemiological studies involve the collection and careful statistical

analysis of large quantities of data. Such studies assist the causal
identification of non-infectious diseases.
Identify and describe the main features of epidemiology using lung cancer as an example

Epidemiology: the scientific study of patterns of occurrence of disease in human populations

and the factors determining and influencing the frequency and distribution of disease.
-

The purpose of establishing strategies to prevent and control their development and
spread by improving public health

Descriptive
Studies:

Analytical
Studies:

st

1 type of study when examining the

cause and pattern of disease
Includes frequency of disease and
sections of population affected,
geographical location, time period in
which individuals were affected
Qualitative info on sex, age, diet
occupation
Quantitative
Statistical analysis of hypothesis to
find the likely cause of lung cancer

Indicators of diseases:
- morbidity = no. of cases
- Mortality = % deaths
- incidence = no. of new causes in
specific period
- prevalence = non people affected

Intervention
studies:

Used to test the effectiveness of a

treatment (clinical trial)
the effectiveness of a public health
program to change the behaviour of
whole populations in order to
decrease the incidence of the disease

Main features of Epidemiological studies:

Example: Lung Cancer

data collected includes age, sex,
smoking habits, diet, occupation and
drinking habits in both smokers and
non-smokers

Case Control: compare people with

disease to people without. E.g. 1947
London smoking habits collated to
suggest a link between smoking and
lung cancer
Cohort studies: study two or more
similar groups of people without
disease. They differ by factor, that
being their exposure to the potential
cause of the disease smoking.
e.g. 1947 link between smoking and
lung cancer.
Group 1 (doctor smokers) Group 2
(doctor non smokers)
E.g. Quit advertisement
campaigns for smoking in order to
limit the incidence of lung cancer

conducted over extended period of time

very large sample size (thousands of participants)
represents a broad range of society
case-control methods: both affected and unaffected people
control groups- not exposed to potential causes of disease
identify patterns and trends in the disease occurrence
Gather, process and analyse information to identify the cause and effect
relationship of smoking and lung cancer

A 1960 study by Horn in USA developed a cause-and-effect relationship:

- Comparing smoker and non-smokers
- Collated over a long period of time from millions of people
- Established a clear link between smoking and lung cancer
Result:
- Consistency in results showed- smokers had a 10x greater change of dying from lung
cancer
- More cigarettes smoked each day, the greater the incidence of lung cancer
- Cigarette smoking and reduced life expectancy
Identify causes of non-infectious disease using an example from the following
categories: inherited, nutritional deficiencies and environment disease
Non-infectious Disease: are diseases not caused by a pathogen, but may be caused by
genetics, exposure to environmental factors of various of nutrients in diets.
Causes of Non-infectious Diseases
Inherited
Environmental
Nutritional

Examples
Cystic Fibrosis
Diabetes
Skin Cancer
Lead poisoning
Obesity
Anorexia nervosa

Identify data sources, plan and perform a first hand investigation or gather
information from secondary sources to analyse and present information about the
occurrence, symptoms, cause, treatment/management of a named non infectious
disease.

Occurrence

Cystic Fibrosis - Inherited disease

- The occurrence of CF varies with ethnic groups: 1 in 3300 in
Caucasians and 1 in 9500 in Hispanics
- 2500 babies are born with CF each year in the United States.
- 1 in every 20 Americans is an unaffected carrier of an abnormal CF
gene. These 12 million people usually are unaware that they are
carriers.

Symptoms

Causes

Treatment/
Management

Recurrent and severe chest infections

Malabsorption of nutrients and failure to thrive
Passing of large foul smelling motions
Diabetes
Excess salt in sweat
Liver failure
Infertility

mutation to the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance

regulator gene (CFTR) that is found on chromosome 7
The faulty gene changes the protein that regulates the normal
movement of sodium chloride in and out of cells
causes the mucus-secreting organs to produce abnormally thick
mucus
The CFTR gene is recessive, meaning that a person must have 2
copies of the faulty gene for them to develop the disease.
Treatment involves relieving the symptoms as there is no cure.
Giving supplements for diet to counter insufficient digestion and
absorption of nutrients
Daily physiotherapy to prevent excess mucus build up
Antibiotics and medication for infections

7. Increased understanding has led to the development of a wide range of strategies to

prevent and control disease
Discuss the role of quarantine in preventing the spread of disease of plants and
animals into Australia or across regions of Australia
Quarantine: is a period of isolation, of disease organisms is a strategy that has been used for
a very long time to control the spread of a disease.
The Australian quarantine and inspections service (AQIS)
-

Responsible for maintaining our reputations as a relatively disease free nations

Minimise the risk of exotic pests and diseases from entering Australia in order to
protect our native flora and fauna, our agricultural industries and environment and
our health.

Strategies
Border control

Plant/animal
quarantine

Human
quarantine

Example:
Northern Aus
Quarantine
strategies

Check passengers and cargo at entry points into Australia

Xray, dogs, surveillance
All containers, luggage and ships are checked and some
materials such as some plants and foods are prohibited
Bans, fines and jail sentences apply
Examination of plants/products and animals when moving across
regions or overseas
Can be treated in quarantine on entry to ensure no disease are
brought in, 4 week process
Passengers are checked and quarantined in they enter with
disease
Spray on insecticides upon persons
All sick passengers are reported
Close to insects and pests from the exotic nations to the north
sentinel animals such as cattle and pigs that are regularly
checked for disease as a warning system about the diseases
prevalence in the society.
Surveys to look for signs and trends
Restrict moment of fruit/vegetables/plants/soils and seeds
Quarantine check points on the roads

Process and analyse information from secondary sources to evaluate the

effectiveness of quarantine in preventing the spread of plant and animals disease
into Australia or across regions of Australia.

Description of
quarantine measures

Occurrence and
spread of
disease

Judgement
of
effectiveness

Plant
Disease
(Fruit Fly)

Explanation of how the

quarantine measures
assist the prevention
and spread
Quarantine bins around The fruit fly cannot fly
the FFEZ
very far without the aid
of fruits or other
Trains on the border
substances, thus the
capture flies and can
bins and bordering trap
monitor their spread
and contain the fruit fly
population
Public awareness
programs

They are
contained in
less then a 1km
radius in some
areas of the
FFEZ and the
traps range
from 6.5 to
250.4 flies

Highly
effective in
restricting
the spread of
the fruit fly
into other
regions of
Australia.

Animal
Disease
(equine flu)

All infected areas were

quarantined, and the
movement of horses or
contaminated items
were banned

Quarantine
measures were
successful in
reducing the
spread of the
disease

Highly
effective
quarantine
strategies to
limit the
spread and
occurrence of
the disease

All facilities,
equipment, clothing
and other were
decontaminated to
prevent the spread
Horses were tracked,
awareness campaigns
established, horse
activities banned

The quarantine
procedures allowed
and ensured that the
disease was controlled.
Stopped the spread of
horse and equipment
into other states
Decontamination of all
items with disease
ensured it could not be
spread

From its first

incidence in Syd
2007 there was
no reported
case in NSW or
QLD in 2008

Animals were
vaccinated and could
not move regions of
Aus

Explain how one of the following strategies has controlled and /or prevented
disease: genetic engineering to produce disease resistant plants and animals
Genetic Engineering:
Genetically engineered plants can now kill their own pests because of the insertion of a
gene from a soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) which makes them resistant to
disease.
Transgenic Species: organisms with genes from other organisms inserted into their own
genetic material

Example
Ability to present
disease occurring,
control spread of
disease

Bt Cotton
Bt contains a gene that produces
chemicals that kill certain insects,
bollworm caterpillar, that feed on the
plant (natural insecticide)
By taking that gene from the bacteria and
inserting into a genome of a plant, the
plant now produces the chemical that will
kill the insect pests.

Effectiveness

The incidence of disease among

these GM foods has reduced
significantly
Prevents the occurrence of
diseases in organisms and controls
the spread of disease through the
population
Not received universal acceptanceconcerns about the effect on
environment and biodiversity

Potatoes
1. Potatoes resistant to the
Colorado beetle
2. the potato leaf-roll virus
In Canada, genes from a frog
have been inserted into potato
plants to cause them to
produce the same chemicals as
frogs.

resistant to infection by
a broad range of
disease-causing fungi
and bacteria

Perform an investigation to examine plant shorts and leaves and gather first hand
information of evidence of pathogens and insect pests.
Aim: to observe and describe evidence of pathogens and insect pests on plants
Equipment: Hand lens, magnifying glass, binocular microscope, gloves if necessary
Method:
1. Examine and draw labelled diagrams of the diseased and non-diseased plant
material
2. Look for evidence of attack such as discolouration, browning or blotching, swelling,
leaf curling, bites over leaves
3. Identify the type of plant pathogen that is affecting each plant
Results:
Disease Black spot- black spots appear on the leaves, leaves fall early, less photosynthesis
able to be undergone, lower yield
Disease Citus leafminer- silver trail on leaf, distorted leaf, less photosynthesis

Gather and process information and use available evidence to discuss the changing
methods of dealing with plant and animals diseases, including the shift in emphasis
from treatment and control to management or prevention of disease.
Treatment: Involves strategies employed to either cure the disease or relieve its symptoms
once an organism has the disease. E.g. antibiotics to bacterial infections
Control: Involves reducing its spread through the population of organism once it is already
present. E.g. pesticides
Prevention: Involves the use of strategies that stop the occurrence of disease in organism.
Reduce the occurrence and incidence of disease in the population.
Management: Is defined in many different ways, but most commonly involves the programs
that improve the outcomes of chronic conditions and improve the quality of life of sufferers.
There has been a shift from waiting for a disease to occur, to preventing the occurrence of
the disease.
Earlier, the emphasis when dealing with diseases was on their treatment and control. As
problems such as antibiotic resistance developed, the emphasis shifted towards the
prevention and management of diseases. Less money would be spent on health and there
would be less drug and pesticide resistance
Animal Disease: Lung Cancer
Treatment/
Control

Advantage

Disadvantage

Prevention

the focus of lung cancer was on its

treatment including surgery,
radiography, chemotherapy and
combinations.
Prolongs survival
Kills rapidly dividing cells
Help with symptoms of cancer
Shrink a tumour during surgery
Can cause mutation to cells- more
problems
Painful, time out of work,
chemotherapy affects other body
systems.
Cancer could spread to other
organs
public health campaigns and
advertisements about the risks of
smoking
E.g. Quit campaign and smoking
kills, Packaging on cigarettes

Plant Disease: Cotton PestBollworm caterpillar

Pesticides used to kill the bollworm

Kills the pests- increases yield

Causes pollution, eutrophication,

damage to the environment

Genetically engineering Bt Cottonproducing its own toxins against

bollworm
Plant new cotton seeds in area and
this will survive

Advantage

the aims of reducing the occurrence Less insecticides used and therefore
and incidence of lung cancer in the reduced impact on environment
population
Catching it early

Communication- Option
1. Humans, and other animals, are able to detect a range of stimuli
from the external environment, some of which are useful for
communication
Identify the role of receptors in detecting stimuli
Stimulus: a change in internal or external environment of an organism eg. temperature, chemicals,
light
Receptor: detect a specific signal in the internal and external environment (usually sense organs)
Identify data sources, gather information from secondary sources to identify the range of
senses involved in communication
Stimulus

Sense
(sense
organ)

Sensory receptor

Function

Example
Response

Uses

Light

Eye (sight)

Photoreceptors: rods
and cones in the
retina of the eye

Detect light,
colour and
movement

Dilation or
contraction of
pupil to more or
less light in

Sound

Ears

Mechanoreceptors:
hair cells (cilia) in
organ of corti

Detect sound
waves

Turning towards
source

Facial expression,
Road signs,
Bioluminescence
in fireflies to
attract mates
Crickets- warning,
attract mates

Chemical

Tongue
(taste)

Chemoreceptors: in
taste buds

Detect dissolved
molecules

Sweet, sour, salty

taste

Monarch
butterflies- bitter
taste (posionious)

Chemical

Nose
(smell)

Chemoreceptors: in
nasal passages

Detect molecules
in air

Pleasure, danger

Dogs- recognise
trails, territory

Pressure

Skin
(touch)

Mechanoreceptors: in
skin

Detect pressure
in skin

Pain, pressure

Mating rituals,
Bees dance on
hive signal food

Heat

Skin
(touch)

Thermoreceptors: in
skin

Detect change in
skin temp

Seating, shivering

Gravity

Ear
(balance)

Cilia (small hairs)

Detect change in
body position

Change position

Explain that the response to a stimulus in involves- stimulus, receptor, messenger,

effector, response
Stimulus

receptor

messenger

effector

response

2. Visual communication involves the eye registering changes in the

immediate environment
Describe the anatomy and function of the human eye, including the: conjunctiva, cornea,
sclera, choroids, retina, iris, lens, aqueous and vitreous humor, ciliary body, optic nerve

Components
Conjunctiva

Structure
A thin transparent
membrane of epithelial cells

Sclera

Non-elastic tough, fibrous

tissue of whole eye

Cornea

Transparent, thin layer on

front part of the sclera

Choroid

Black, pigmented layer

inside the sclera containing
blood vessels

Iris

Ring of pigmented tissue

with two sets of muscle
fibres
Contains photoreceptors, a
pigment layer, nerve and
blood vessels

Retina

Fovea
Lens

Highest density of cone

receptor cells
Transparent, biconvex disc
made of protein

Function
- Aids in protection
- Keeps the outer surface of eye moist
- Continuation of the inner lining of the
eyelid
- Opaque
- Preserves shape and protects eye
- Serves as an attachment
- Allows light to enter
- Curvature refracts incoming light rays for
focusing
- Black pigment reduces the reflection and
scattering of light within the eye
- blood vessels provide nutrients and
oxygen to other layers
- extension of the choroid layer at front of
eye
-

Ciliary Body

Sensory

structure that extends from

cornea, sclera and attaches
to iris and lens
Ligaments

inner layer of the eye

photoreceptors respond to light,
converting light energy into electrical and
nerve impulses
central area of retina, and therefore has
the sharpest vision (visual activity)
focuses light onto retina
can change shape to focus on close or far
objects
divides the eye into anterior cavity and
posterior cavity
produces aqueous humor
relaxes and contracts to control the shape
of lens
slacken or tighten to allow the curvature

Ligaments
Aqueous Humor

Watery fluid in the chamber

between lens and cornea

Vitreous Humor

Viscous, jelly-like fluid

Optic Nerve

Nerve which leaves back of

the eye
No rods or cones

Blind Spot

of lens to accommodate the near or far

vision
maintains shape
provides nutrients and oxygen to lens/
cornea
maintains shape and volume
pressure is maintained inside the eye
carries nerve messages to brain from the
eye
no photoreceptors, no vision in that spot
area of retina where the optic nerve
leaves the eye

Plan and perform a first-hand investigation of a mammalian eye to gather first-hand data
to relate structures to functions
Aim: To investigate the structure of a mammalian eye, and relate the structure to functions
Risk Assessment: scalpel blades are sharp. Cut away from body, dispose in sharps container
Method:
1. Remove the fat
2. Observe the optic nerve, the toughness of the sclera, the bands of muscle embedded in the
sclera, the clear covering over the front of the eye (cornea)
3. Cut around the cornea-sclera junction
4. Let out the aqueous humour, front fluid- note the iris, pupil, choroid
5. Let out the vitreous humour and lens- attached by suspensory ligaments to the ciliary body
6. Make small incision on the side, turn eye inside out- observe- the blind spot, optic nerve,
retina
Discussion:
- The toughness of sclera, cornea- relates to protection
- Vitreous humour- clarity, size, colourless- allows light to penetrate, maintain shape
- Hardness of lens- composed of protein fibres, easily change shape

Identify the limited range of wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum detected by

humans and compare this range with those of other vertebrates and invertebrates
Electromagnetic spectrum: made up of a large group of waves that all travel at the speed of light but
have different frequencies and wavelengths.
-

Waves: gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet, VISIBLE light, infrared, microwaves, TV waves,
radiowaves
Note:
the shorter the
wavelength, the higher the

frequency, high energy- more dangerous

Humans
380-780
nanometers

Invertebrates:

Vertebrates

Can only detect colour in the visible spectrum- ROYGBIV (red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet)
Trichromatic Vision- See red, green, blue wavelengths
Receptor cells in eyes (rods/ cones) are sensitive to these colours
Honeybees- insects- Light-sensitive cells can detect shorter wavelengths
in UV range detect pollen in flowers
Birds- detect UV range most efficiently in the red and green ranges of
the spectrum
Snakes- have receptors to detect Infra-red light in nose and eyes to detect
predators and prey
Platypus- electromagnetic receptions on bill to detect prey

Use available evidence to suggest reasons for the differences in range of electromagnetic
radiation detected by humans and other animals
Animal

EM Range

Habitat, pred/prey,
behaviour

Types of
sensory
receptors

Reasons for differences

in EM range

Honey Bees

Ultraviolet
through the blue,
green visible
range (not red)

Food source is nectar

and pollen found in
flowers

Light sensitive
receptors in
eyes detect UV
light

Australian python

Infra-red and
visible range

Mice (endothermic)
emit infrared heat

Light sensitive
receptors in
nose and eyes

Salmon

Polarised UV light
and visible range

Light penetration
decreases in aquatic
environment
Red end is absorbed
at surface

Receptors in
the retina can
detect UV light

UV patterns on flowers
attract bees into the
bullseye pattern
towards the pollen and
nectar
Increase pollination,
reproduction
The prey camouflage
and use infrared to
easily detect the heat
emitted
Females prefer maes
with low levels of UV
plumage reflectance
mating ritual
Also, increases contrast
of pred/ prey in watereasily avoid

3. The clarity of the signal transferred can affect interpretation of the

intended visual communication
Identify the conditions under which refraction of light occurs
Refraction: is the bending of light rays when light passes from one substance into another with a
different density
1. Less dense
-

speed SLOWS down

particles more closely packed together
light rays become bent TOWARDS the normal

2. More dense
-

more dense

less dense

speed INCREASES
light rays become bent AWAY from the normal

3. Biconvex Lenses
-

rays are refracted towards a central point, focal point

Rays cross over and diverge
The image is upside down (inverted
Plan and perform a firsthand investigation to model the process of accommodation by
passing rays of light through convex lenses of different focal lengths

Aim: to model the process of accommodation by passing rays of light through convex lenses of
different focal lengths
Method:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Attach ray box to power pack and set up 3 parallel rays of light emitting from box
Select a thin biconvex lens
Place the lens vertically 10cm from ray box
Mark the path of the rays, focal point
Measure focal length (distance from middle of lens to focal point
Repeat steps 1-5 using thick biconvex lens
Analyse information from secondary sources to describe changes in the shape of the eyes
lens when focusing on near and far objects

Lens

Vision

Changing Shape

Diagram

Rounded

Near vision - thicker lens has

a greater refractive power
and shorter focal length

Ciliary muscles contract,

pulling sclera forward
Suspensory ligaments
slacken

Elongated,
Flat

Distant Vision-

Ciliary muscles relax

Suspensory ligaments
taut- pulling on lens

Process from secondary sources to describe cataracts and the technology that can be used
to prevent blindness from cataracts and discuss the implications of this technology for
society
Cataracts: cloudiness in the lens
-

when the cells of the lens die, the protein from them can accumulate in the lens- creating a
cloudiness
caused: old-age, diabetes, use of drugs containing stereoids, smoking, excessive salts,
alcohol consumption

Treatment

Method

Advantages

Disadvantages

Cataract Eye
Surgery

Small probe inserted into the

lens breaks up the inner
clouded lens, removing it by
suction
A clear plastic bionic lens is
inserted

Accomplishes the job

of a natural lens
Focus the light on the
retina to produce a
clear image
Safe
Decreased Recovery
time
$25 in developing
countries

Invasive technique
High risk of infection
Possibility of causing
blindness
Costly procedure

Identify the cornea, aqueous humour, lens, and vitreous humor as refractive media
Component
Cornea
Lens

Aqueous humour,
vitreous humor

Refractive Media
Greatest degree of refraction in the human eye when light moves from
surrounding air into the cornea
Lens consists of living protein fibres (crystallins) which are folded in a
particular way to make them transparent
Changing shape of lens- determines degree which light is refracted
Small role in refracting light

Identify accommodation as the focusing on objects at different distances, describe its

achievement through the change in curvature of the lens and explain its importance
Accommodation: the process of focusing light from objects at different distances onto the retina by
changing the curvature of the lens
Importance:
1. communication- reading, seeing people
2. Social computers, body language
3. Safety-at a distance, see road signs, depth perception
4. Information- reading, textbooks
Compare the change in the refractive power of the lens from rest to maximum
accommodation
The rounder lens had the shorter focal length and therefore the greatest refractive power used for
near objects

Distinguish between myopia and hyperopia and outline how technologies can be used to
correct these conditions
Name

Condition

Explain

Causes

Disadvantages

Correction

Myopia

Shortsightedness

See near objects

clearly
Distant- blurred
image falls short of
retina

-Eyeball may be too

elongated
-Refractive power of
cornea too large
-Lens not flat enough

Hyperopia

Long
sightedness

Near objectsblurred, image

focuses behind the
retina
Distant- clearly

-eyeball is too
rounded
-lens is too flat
-refractive power is
too weak

Seeing traffic
signs
Watching
movies
Recognising
others
Past: hunting
Reading books,
computers
Using machinery
Leisure
activitiescooking, sewing

-glasses with
concave lenses,
bending light
outwards
extending focal
length to reach
retina
-glasses with
convex lenses,
bending light
inwards,
shortening the
focal length to
fall on the retina

Technologies- correction techniques

Technologies
Spectacles

Explained
Non-invasive
convex or
concave lens

Contact
Lenses

Non-invasive but
shaped to fit the
curvature of the
cornea

Advantages
- No risk of infection
- Bifocals
- Protection against UV
rays
-

Lasik Surgery

Invasive
technique, to
sculpt and shape
the middle layers
of cornea

Looks natural, simple,

easy to use
Peripheral vision
Not limited to
activities- ie.sport
Variety of contacts,
styles, disposable
Corrects eye vision
accurately
Single treatment
Fast, effective
Peripheral vision
Machine- eliminate
human error

Disadvantages
- Inconvenient
- Poor peripheral
vision
- Sport, activities can
be hampered
- High risk of infection
- Can dry out if not
enough natural tears
- Limits oxygen
entering cornea

Expensive
Changes cant be
reversed
Risk of blindess,
worse vision
Risk of infection
Time off work

Explain how the production of two different images of a view can result in depth
perception
Stereoscopic Vision: depends on the fact that the two eyes are separated horizontally so they have
slightly different views of objects located different distances away
-

Both eyes view the same target from different positions, this is then combined by the brain
Matching up the similarities and small differences into one picture- in a 3D stero picture

Depth perception: is the sense of depth that occurs when objects are viewed with stereoscopic
vision (viewing the world in 3D)

4. The light signal reaching the retina is transformed into an

electrical impulse
Identify photoreceptor cells
Photoreceptors:
-

Found in the retina of the eye- nerve cell which contain light sensitive pigments by convert
light images into electrochemical images that the brain can interpret
Light energy electrochemical energy

Two types: Rods and cones

Describe the differences in distribution, structure, and function of the photoreceptor cells
in the human eye
Rods
125 million rods (20x more than cones)
Spread evenly across retina, more dense on
peripheral section
No rods in fovea

Cones
6-7 million cones
Spread across retina in groups
Most found in the fovea (150 000)

Function

Light energy electrochemical energy

Very sensitive to light but cannot distinguish
colours
Night- Best in dim light (black, white, grey)
Detect movement, peripheral vision

Visual
Pigments

Light absorbing Rhodopsin (retinal + opsin)

- Absorbs at wavelength of 505nm
(blue-green)

Light energy electrochemical energy

Require large amounts of light to stimulate
Day- detail and clarity
Colour vision
Take longer to regenerate once they have been
bleached by flash
Light absorbing Iodopsin (retinal + photopsin)
- Each type contain different photopsin
which absorbs different wavelength
(red, green, blue)

Distribution

Structure

Outline the role of rhodopsin in rods

Rhodopsin: a derivative of vitamin A called retinal is bonded to a protein called Opsin. The retinal is
the initial light- absorbed part of the molecule.
(need vitamin A to supply rhodopsin as humans cannot make it)

Summary of Role
1. Light activates rhodopsin- retinal and opsin split
- The split rhodopsin is bleached
2. Opsin changes shape to become active
3. Electrochemical signal is regenerated and moves to end of rod cell
4. Signal is transmitted to Bipolar cells
- A chemical neurotransmitter is released and activates the cell
5. Bipolar cell stimulates signal in ganglion cell
- axons of ganglion cells make up optic nerve
6. optic nerve transfers electrochemical signal to brain

Identify that there are three types of cones, each containing a separate pigment sensitive
to either blue, green or red light
Three Types of Cone Cells: Trichromatic vision suggests that each is sensitive to a different range of
wavelengths- red, blue, green.
Each cone contains a different colour pigment, which is detected by the brain from the sensory input
from combinations of the cones. The brain builds up a colour picture due to the number of impulses
received.
Explain that colour blindness in humans results from the lack of one or more of the colour
sensitive pigments in the cones
Colour Blindness: is the result of one or more missing photopsins (photosensitive pigments) in the
cones. It is caused by a mutation in the gene which codes for a cone pigment to not function
correctly.
Conditions:
1. A person with red-green colour blindness cannot distinguish red from green, because they
lack either the red or the green-sensitive cones. (diochromatism)- Sex linked genetic
2. Cocaine causes blue-green defects
3. Non-genetic forms from diseased condition of the optic nerve
Process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare and describe the
nature and functioning of photoreceptor cells in mammals, insects and in one other animal

Mammalian
eye

Insect eye

Structure
refracts
light
Cornea,
lens,
aqueous,
vitreous
humour
Cornea
crystalline

Number
of eyes

Ability to
focus

Photoreceptors

Colour
vision

Sensitivit
y to light

Visual
acuity

Detection of
movement

High

Rods
(number
of cones
vary)

Yes

High

High

High

Blurred,
8000
onamitidi

16, 000
cells in
each eye

Yes but
can vary

Detect
lights

Poor
(only
1mm

Very high
over wide
visual range

cone

Simple eye
(mollusc)

Fluid in
pigment
cup

a which
creates
mosaic
image
Unclear,
not
inverted

away)

Very few
called
ocelli

No

Light in
environ,
and
direction
from
which it
comes

Very low

Poor

Process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe and analyse the use
of colour coordination in animals and relate this to the occurrence of colour vision in
animals
Animal
Satin Bowerbird

Chameleon

Use of colour for

communication
Reproduction/
Courtship Displays

Warning Colours
Mating Displays
Warning - Yellow

Monarch
Butterfly

Description
Male bowerbird builds a bower and then decorates it with brightly colour
objects (blue) such as seeds attracting females
Stimulus desire to mate
Sender- male bowerbird
Receiver female bowerbird
Red and yellow act as warning signals
Camouflage
Warning colour to birds, reptiles, insects to deceive they are poisonous
Stimulus- colour of butterfly attracts or scares other animals
Avoidance technique
Receiver- birds, reptiles

5. Sound is also very important communication medium for humans

and other animals
Explain why sound is a useful and versatile form of communication
Sound:
-

Range of sounds can be produced by variations of volume, pitch, tone, duration

Sound travels through all mediums- liquid, solid, gas
Can bend around objects and travel around corners and long distances
Useful at night, aquatic environments when sight is impaired
Plan and perform a first-hand investigation to gather data to identify the relationship
between wavelength, frequency and pitch of sound

Frequency: number of waves which pass a given point in one second determines the pitch
Note: low frequency gives low pitch sounds

Wavelength: peak to peak distance- distance between centres of two adjacent compressions or
rarefactions
Note: low pitch sounds have long wavelengths
Amplitude: height of wave- maximum distance that a particle moves away from its original positionvolume

Aim: to identify the relationship between wavelength, frequency and pitch of sound
Equipment:
- CRO- cathode ray oscilloscope
- Audio oscillator
- Amplifier
- Selection of tuning forks and boxes
- Microphone
Method:
1. Using CRO and audio oscillator, select a sine wave output at 500Hz, adjusting volume
2. Select appropriate sweep time and volts per cm so that a sine wave has 4 crests on CRO
3. Observe and record- frequency of the note, wave shape, wavelength, amplitude
4. Change pitch of note to 200Hz and record observations
5. Change pitch of note to 1000Hz and record
Conclusion: The relationship is: L. L. L lower the frequency, longer the wavelength, and the lower
the pitch.
Gather and process information from secondary sources to outline and compare some of
the structures used by animals other than humans to produce sound
Animal
Bats

Description of structure used to produce sound

ultrasonic signals from the bat's larynx

Grasshoppers

friction of the back legs or rubs the veins on the wings

together (stridulating)
male frogs vocalise by squeezing their lungs while shutting
their nostrils and mouth, air flows over their vocal cords and
into their vocal sacs

Frogs

Reasons
Communication between each
other due to the lack of sight
echo location
Attract mates
Warn off predators

Explain that sound is produced by vibrating objects and that the frequency of the sound is
the same as the frequency of the vibration of the source of the sound
Production of Sound: Vibrating objects

1. When an object like a guitar is plucked, the air molecules are crowded together, becoming
compressed
2. The compressed molecules move away from the vibration that started them moving
3. The air becomes rarefied when the string moves the other way
4. The vibration, compression and rarefactions continues so that longitudinal waves are
created
The frequency of the vibrations of the source of the sound is the same as the frequency of the sound
produced.
Outline the structure of the human larynx and the associated structures that assist the
production of sound
Human Larynx
Human
Larynx
Voice box
Hollow box
Nine
cartilages,
joined by
membranes
and
ligaments

Role

Structure

Diagram

1. to provide an
open airway when
breathing
2. to provide a
mechanism for
sound production

Glottis- covered by epiglottisallows only air to pass into

trachea to produce sound
Thyroid cartilage- ring at top
of larynx
Arytenoid Cartilage- anchor
vocal chords to sides of larynx
Cilia on mucus-lining help to
clear the throat
Vocal chords- vibrate
The diameter of the glottis
and length of vocal chords
determine the pitch of sound

High Pitch

Low Pitch

Tight, short ocal chords

Glottis forms a narrow slit

Low tension vocal chords

Glottis is much wider

Phonation: process of producing intelligible sounds or speech

1. Production of airflow
-

Relax diaphragm and intercostal muscles so air is force out of the body to equalise t the
pressure inside and outside the body

2. Production of sound
-

Rapid opening and closing of glottis set up a vibration pattern

shorter, tenser vocal chords, faster they vibrate, higher the pitch

3. Articulation of the voice

-

the pharynx and sinuses of the cranium determine the quality of the voice
The tongue, cheeks, lips shape the sounds into consonants and vowels

6. Animals that produce vibrations also have organs to detect

vibrations
Describe the anatomy and function of the human ear
Diagram

Structure/ Function
External Ear:
Pinna collects and detect sound waves
and channels them to auditory canal

Middle Ear:
Sound waves travel through the solid
ear ossicles and is magnified in volume

Inner Ear:
The semi-circular canals have 3D
sensors for maintaining balance

Process information from secondary sources to outline the range of frequencies detected
by humans as sound and compare this range with two other mammals, discussing possible
reasons for the differences identified
Mammal

Range of detected sounds in Hz

Human
Dog

Lower
20
15

Upper
20 000
50,000

150,000

Bottlenose
dolphin

Difference between
human and other
mammal in Hz

Reason for the differences

30,000

19

130,000

Relys on sound as main form of

communication so has wider range
Find prey- high frequency
Alert to danger
Communication by whistling with
each other (without vision)
Navigate by echo location in low
light
Find prey- low frequency

Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources on the structure of
mammalian ear to relate structures to functions
Part
Pinna

Structure
External organ composed of cartilage and skin
- Poor blood supply

Tympanic
membrane
(ear drum)
Ear
ossicles
Hammer
(malleus)
Anvil
(incus)
Stirrup

Taut, thin membrane made up of 3 layers.

Separating the external and middle ear

Oval
window

Three small bones in the middle ear- hammer,

anvil, stirrup
Shape resembles a hammer, with handle
attached to inner layer of tympanic membrane
Attached to the hammer at one end with the
long process attached to the stirrup
The footplate of the stirrup rests on oval
window
The membrane covering an opening in the body
case of the cochlea

Round

Membrane located in the round window niche

Function
Helps to collect sound waves and focus them into
ear canal
Glands produce ear wax which traps dust
preventing it from entering ear drum
Sound waves in the air set up vibrations in the
membrane, transferring them to ear ossicles
Magnify and transfer sound waves from tympanic
membrane, to oval window
Collects sound waves from ear drum and passes
on to anvil
Continues transferring the sound waves
Boosts vibration by 2.5dB
Boosts vibrations by 20dB as a result of the
vibrating are of oval window
Separates the middle ear from the fluid of inner
ear and retains the cochlea fluid
Transfers vibrations from stapes into fluid in inner
ear
Vibrations terminate at round window, bulging

Window

of the cochlea

Cochlea

Spiral structure containing 3 canals filled with

fluid, separated by 2 membranes

Organ of
Corti

Middle of the canal of the cochlea, made of

membranes and hair cells

Auditory
nerve
Eustachian
tube

Leads from cochlea and sense organ of balance

to the correct perception centre of brain
Tube which links the middle ear to the nose and
throat

outward to allow the displacement of fluid when

vibrations are passed through
High pitched sounds are detected at the start of
the cochlea and low pitched sounds at the end of
the spiral
Sound energy electrochemical energy
Hair cells translate mechanical vibrations to
electrochemical impulses along neurons
Sends messages to the brain concerning
frequency of vibration, intensity and duration of
sound
Transmits electrochemical impulses from the hair
cells in the cochlea to the brain
Helps to equalise the air pressure on either side
of the tympanic membrane by bringing in air from
the mouth
Also, drains fluid from middle ear

Outline the role of the Eustachian tube

Eustachian Tube: Helps to equalise the air pressure on either side of the tympanic membrane by
bringing in air from the mouth
Outline the path of a sound wave through the external, middle and inner ear and identify
the transformations that occur

Describe the relationship between the distribution of hair cells in the organ of corti and
the detection of sounds of different frequencies

Organ of Corti
The receptive
organ for hearing
in the cochlea, that
contains tiny hair
cells and connects
to the auditory
nerve

Structure
Each inner hair cell has
tiny sterocillia which
can be in contact with
the tectorial
membrane, sending
an electrochemical
message to auditory
nerve

Different frequencies
Activated at the base of
the cochlea (oval
window)- Width and the
tension of the basilar
membrane change along
its length due to different
pitches

Diagram

Outline the role of the sound shadow cast by the head in the location of sound
A sound shadow is the phenomenon caused by the obstruction or absorption of a sound by an
object (the head) in its path.
The brain collects the data from both ears about:
-

the intensity of the sound

the difference in the arrival time of the sound

This allows the brain due to the small differences to interpret the direction, location of the sound,
usually turning the heads until the intensity of the sound is equal in both ears.
Process information from secondary sources to evaluate a hearing aid and a cochlear
implant in terms of- position and type of energy transfer occurring, conditions under
which the technology will assist hearing, limitations of each technology
Technologies Hearing Aid
:
Description
- Battery operated device
- Single component with three parts
microphone, amplifier, earphone.
Modern aids now also have a digital
sounds processor and convertor
- Bypass the middle ear
- Amplifies vibrations and makes
sounds louder so they stimulate the

Cochlea Implant
-

Battery operated device

Three components: headset
(microphone and coil); speech
processor; implant (receiver package
and electrode array)
Electronically stimulates cochlear
nerves (has only 24 electrodes
compared with thousands of hair cells)

Conditions
which assist
hearing and
Candidates

Positioning
where is it
placed?

cochlear nerves

Australian innovation developed by Prof

Graeme Clarke and team in the 1980s

Patients must have adequate residual

hearing
Middle ear: ruptured tympanic
membrane, damaged ossicles
Sensoneural and conductive hearing
losses

Inner ear: damaged hair cells in cochlea

Severe to profound sensoneural hearing
loss
People with limited or no benefit from
hearing aids
People with high motivation and
realistic expectations

Sits inside the curve of the pinna and

ear canal
Worn externally (modern aids are
worn completely in the canal)
Modern hearing aids are digital

Type of
Energy
Transfer

Receiver package and electrode array

are surgically implanted. Receiver is
placed in skull and thread through the
cochlea of the inner ear.
Microphone (behind the ear) and
speech processor are worn externally

Sound energy

Electrical energy (converted by

speech processor)

Electrical pulses stimulate cochlear

nerve

Electrochemical energy along

auditory nerve (sent to brain for
decoding)
Advantages

Limitations

Does not require surgery

No side effects
Relatively inexpensive
Modern aid hearing aids are
programmable
May be used successfully at any age

Background noise is amplified

Distance limited to < 3 m (best at 1 m)
No benefit if inner ear or auditory
nerve is damaged
Patients must have residual hearing
Amplification can distort sound,
causing feedback interference

Quality not dependent on residual

hearing can benefit profoundly deaf
individuals
Works best when implanted before the
age of 5

Requires surgery post-operative sideeffects

Expensive with ongoing costs
Background noise is amplified
Distance limited to 15 m
Comprehensive education program
needed to teach person to interpret the
sounds they hear

Diagram

Outline and compare the detection of vibrations by insects, fish, and mammals
Animal
Insects

Fish

Mammals

Structures for detection of

vibrations
Crickets: tympanic organs on each
leg below the knee
- air filled sacs enclosed by a
membrane
- Nerve fibres are attached
Cicadas: tympana at base of
abdomen
- Connected to auditory
nerve
All Fish:
- Fluid filled lateral lines
(sensory canals running
through body)
- Contain hairs which are
distorted by low frequency
waves
- Messages sent to nerves
Humans:
- Use ears to hear
- Ears collect waves in
auditory canal, tympanic
organ vibrates and hair
cells in cochlea bend to
sound waves converting
vibrations
- Nerve carries signal to
brain

Similarities

Differences

To humans, both have ear

drums and messages can be
carried across nerves

To fish, lateral line

Vibrating membranes

To humans, lateral line is fluid

filled duct like a cochlea
The labyrinth filled with fluid and
hair cells is very similar to a
cochlea

To fish and insects, nerves carry

the signals to the brain

To humans, the tympanic

organ is filled with air
whereas we have fluid
filled cochlea
Hairs are exposed to the
air, humans are in the
cochlea
Sound waves are picked
up from water whereas
we detect it through air
No tympanic organ that is
vibrating

Fish, insects have most

structures of the ear
internally

7. Signals from the eye and ear are transmitted as electro-chemical

changes in the membranes of the optic and auditory nerves

Identify that a nerve is a bundle of neuronal fibres

A neurone is a nerve cell. A typical neurone consists of a cell body,
dendrites and an axon covered by an insulating myelin sheath
which holds the bundle of neuronal fibres together.
Dendrites and axons (are neuronal fibres), which in a bundle form
a nerve

Location

Function

Cell body,
dendrites
outside of
spinal cord

Conduct
impulse from
receptors to
spinal cord
and CNS

interneuron Short
dendrites
Short/ no
axon

Entirely
inside spinal
cord of CNS

Interconnect
the sensory
neuron to
appropriate
motor
neuron

Motor
neuron

Cell body,
dendrites
inside the
spinal cord,
axon outside

Conduct
impulse to an
effector from
CNS

Sensory
Neuron

Length of
fibres
Long
Dendron
Short axon

Short
Dendrites
Long axon

Diagram

Perform a first-hand investigation using stained prepared slides and/or electron

micrographs to gather information about the structure of neurones and nerves
Aim: to perform a first-hand investigation using stained prepared slides, micrographs to
gather information about neurones and nerves
Method:
1. View prepared slides of nerves and individual neurons using the light microscopes,
electron micrographs, internet images
2. Make a biological drawing of a neuron labelling dendrites, cell body, axon, axon
terminal, direction of the impulse
3. Make a cross section drawing of nerve and label the nerve fibres and myelin sheath

Results:
Parts of Neurons
Cell body

Dendrites
Axon
Myelin Sheath

Axon Terminals
(nerve endings)

Structure
Contains the nucleus as well as
other organelles (mitochondria) in
grey matter
Short branching structures

Function
Directs the activities of the rest of
the cell

receive impulses and direct them

to the cell body
A long extension from the cell body Conducts impulses away from cell
(white matter)
body
Fatty, insulating cover around the
Protect the axon and also speed
axon and Dendron
up the transfer of impulses by
- Produced by schwann cells travelling between the nodes of
Ranvier (the gaps between them)
Branch from the axon
Where impulses are passed on to
the next cell or to an effector

Perform a first-hand investigation to examine an appropriate mammalian brain or

model of a human brain to gather information to distinguish the cerebrum,
cerebellum and medulla oblongata and locate the regions involved in speech, sight
and sound perception
Aim: To examine a mammalian brain and locate the lobes, cerebrum, medulla oblongata
Method:
1. Wear correct safety equipment, globes,
dissecting board
2. Identify the cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla
oblongata, spinal cord
3. Identify the four lobes of the brain
o Occipital lobe- sight
o Temporal lobe- hearing
o Frontal lobe- sound production
o Parietal lobe- sound perception
4. Use the scalpel to cut vertically between the
hemispheres
5. Observe areas of grey (nerve cell bodies) and white matter (nerve fibres surrounded
by myelin sheath)
Discussion:
- Limitations: brain was soft and made it difficult to identify all the parts, sheeps brains
are smaller and elongated to humans, cerebrum was smaller

Brain Structure and Function:

Structure
Cerebrum
- Each hemisphere is divided into
four main lobes- sensory areas

Function
- responsible for such
activities as conscious

which perceive and interpret the

senses
The outer layer of the cerebrum
is the cerebral cortex which is
folded into convolutions to give
a large surface area

Cerebellum

Medulla
Oblongata

The medulla oblongata relays signals

between the brain and the spinal cord.

thought, intelligence and

memory
The left hemisphere controls
the right side of the body

coordinates sensory signals

and helps with balance,
movement and
coordination.
It controls automatic
functions such as breathing,
heart rate, blood flow and
some reflexes

Identify neurones as nerve cells that are the transmitters of signals by electrochemical changes in their membranes
Neurones transmit signals in the form of electricity by an electrical impulse from one part of
the body to another
- Travel very fast in one direction (from dendrite to nerve ending)
- Produced by the movement of ions across the cell membrane of the nerve cell, thus
is called an electrochemical impulse
- Can be detected as a change in voltage (resting membrane potential action
potential)

Transmission of Electrochemical impulse:

Neurones
Electrochemical changes Diagram

Polarised
(at rest)
-70mV

Stimulated

Ions are on either side of

the membrane, Na+
outside
K+ and Cl- inside

Stimulus is detected and

causes the protein
channels in membrane to
open, making it
selectively permeable to
Na+ and K+

Depolarised When threshold is

(excited)
reached, an action
potential is generated
-50mV
causing a positive shift in
the membrane potential
Repolarised
50mV

K+ ions quickly move out

of neurone to even up
the charge difference

Refractory
Period
-70mV

Sodium and potassium

are on wrong side so
actively pumped through
protein challenge, Na-K
pump to restore changes

Transmission of Nerve impulse from one neuron to the next:

Across a small gap called a synapse
- Neurotransmitters are present in vesicles, when the action
potential reaches the end of the neurone the vesicles release
the neurotransmitters which differences across the gap and
picked up by receptors in next neurone.
- Note: like a triathlon- runners (nerve impulse), to the swimmers
(neurotransmitters) who are driven (vesicles) to the water
(gap), and then picked up at the dock (receptors) whose
runners (nerve impulse) carry the nexth message along
Present information from secondary sources to graphically represent a typical
action potential

Define the term threshold and explain why not all stimuli generate an action
potential
Threshold is the amount of positive change in membrane potential, the point of excitation,
which is required before an action potential is produced.
-

When a neurone fires it is known as the 'all or none' response, the reaction either occurs at
the maximum or does not fire at all.
The depolarisation must reach a threshold, which has to be at least 15mV greater than the
resting potential (-70mV) otherwise a cell cannot produce an action potential

Identify those areas of the cerebrum involved in the perception and interpretation
of light and sound
Brain

Sight
perceptio
n area
(visual
cortex)

Found in the occipital lobe

receives information from the optic nerves
The left visual cortex receives information
from the right field of vision of both eyes
The right visual cortex receives information
from the left field of vision of both eyes
The optic nerves from each eye partly cross
over at the optic chiasma.

Visual
Associatio
n Area

surrounds the visual cortex.

processes the visual images we are seeing
with images previously encountered so that
we recognise what we have seen in the past
recognise people, places

Sound
perceptio
n area
(Auditory
Cortex)

found in temporal lobe

receives nerve impulses from the auditory
nerve
Different areas of the auditory cortex detect
sounds of different frequencies Rhythm
and loudness are also detected

Speech

Interpreted in PARIETAL LOBE in Wernickes

Area.
produced in the FRONTAL LOBE in Brocas
Area.

Explain, using specific examples, the importance of correct interpretation of

sensory signals by the brain for the coordination of animal behaviour
Stimuli must be received and transmitted to the brain or spinal cord before being interpreted and a
response give. The correct interpretation of these signals is essential for the brain when coordinating
behaviour.
Examples
Multiple
Sclerosis

How they impair the transmission of nerve impulses

MS is an autoimmune disease in which the bodys
immune system attacks the myelin sheath surrounding
neurones.
- The myelin is destroyed and becomes hard substances
called scleroses.
- The nerve impulses become short circuited and
eventually cease.

Symptoms, Effects
muscle weakness,
clumsiness, visual
disturbances

Alcohol

all block the transmission of nerve impulses by reducing

the ability of sodium ions to cross the cell membrane.
- no action potential

poor coordination, lack of

concentration, slow
reflexes, lethargy, blurred
vision and slurred speech

Neurofibrom
atosis

This is a genetic disorder which causes tumours to grow

along various types of nerves.

learning difficulties and

hearing loss and tumours
under the skin