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LEGAL HISTORY
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ASSIGNMENT
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THE REVOLT OF
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1857
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Submitted To:

Submitted By:

Hakim Yasir Abbas

Sana Wasim
B.A. LLb (Hons.)
IIIrd Semester

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
At the outset, I would like to thank our, Legal History Professor Hakim
Yasir Abbas, Faculty of Law, Jamia Millia Islamia, for giving me an
opportunity to work on such a good topic and being a guiding force
throughout the course of its submission and being instrumental in the
successful completion of this Assignment on the Revolt of 1857, without
which, my efforts would have been in vain.
I would also like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my family members
and friends, for being immeasurably accommodating the requirements of this
humble endeavour.
SANA WASIM.

OBJECTIVES
The Revolt of 1857 was the first step leading
India towards its independence. By 1856, the
English were governing India by annexing
Indian states, depriving Indians of their political
rights and exploiting them economically. A
number of causes that have been discussed in
this project were responsible for instigating the
Indian sepoys into mutiny. I chose this topic
because I found it extremely intriguing. This
Revolt produced deep and far reaching effects
on the social and political life of India.

TABLE OF
CONTENTS
1.Introduction
2.Position of the East India Company
before the Revolt of 1857
3.Main Events of the Revolt of 1857
4.Causes of the Revolt of 1857
5.Causes of the failure of the Great Rising
of 1857
6.Results of the Great Rising
7.Constitutional Changes after the Great
Rising of 1857
8.Conclusion
9.Bibliography

INTRODUCTION
The Revolt of 1857 is considered to be one of the most crucial chapters in the
history of India and her people. The revolt was the first stage towards the
liberation of India from the chains of bondage of the British, which shook the
very foundation of its rule. It began with a mutiny of the Indian Sepoys of the
Companys army but soon involved civilians, the peasantry, artisans as well as
all sections of the Indian people. With a series of local risings and civil
disturbances in different parts of India, the mutiny of troops was not a rare
occurrence in the history of British rule in India. The novelty of the Mutiny of
1857 lay in the wide extent of the area which it covered and in its military
potentiality. There was widespread discontent in the country and practically
every class had grievances against the British rulers; but it is unlikely that any
dissident group would have actually risen in revolt without a lead from the
Companys Sepoys. The Sepoys had substantial grievances regarding their
conditions of service, but it was the threat to their religion which actually
provoked them into mutiny. The dread of conversion to Christianity worked as a
nightmare upon their minds. At the initial stage at any rate, the sepoys were not
intimidated by any patriotic feeling or nationalist sentiment. They were moved
by a blind fury against the Firingi who threatened their caste and religious
faith. The upsurge of the sepoys was so deep and strong that it attracted the
nearly the entire population to join them. Ultimately the sepoy mutiny turned
into a national revolt. The hatred of the people towards the Firingi was so
bitter and spontaneous that historian W. H. Russell wrote In no instance is a
friendly glance directed to the white mans carriage. Oh! That language of the
eye! Who can doubt! Who can misinterpret it? It is by it alone that I have learnt
our race is not even feared at times by many and that by all is disliked.

POSITION OF THE
EAST INDIA
COMPANY
BEFORE THE
REVOLT OF 1857
The East India Company was a massive export company that was the force
behind much of the colonization of India. The power of the East India Company
took nearly 150 years to build. In bribing the Government, the East India
Company was allowed to operate in overseas markets despite the fact that the
cheap imports of South Asian silk, cotton and other products hurt domestic
business. By 1767, the Company was forced into an agreement that is should
pay 400,000 pounds into the National Exchequer annually.
By 1848, however, the East India Companys financial difficulties had reached
a point where expanding revenue required the massive expansion of British
territories in South Asia. The Government began to set aside adoption rights of
native princes and began the process of annexation of more than a dozen
independent Rajs between 1848 and 1854.
In order to consolidate and control these new holdings, a well-established army
of 200,000 South Asians officered by 40,000 British soldiers dominated India
by 1857. The last vestiges of independent Indian states had disappeared and the
East India Company exported tons of gold, silk, cotton, and a host of other
precious materials back to England every year.

MAIN EVENTS OF
THE REVOLT OF
1857
The Sepoys of Dum Dum in Calcutta were the first to express their resentment
at the use of greased cartridges on January 23, 1857. The news spread to the
cantonment at Barrackpore where an Indian sepoy killed two British officers,
when he was forced to use greased cartridges. He was arrested and hanged to
death on April 8, 1857. The regiment posted at Barrackpore was disbanded. The
news then travelled to Meerut cantonment.
Events at Meerut
On 6th May, 1857 A.D. when the new cartridges were issued to 90 Indian
soldiers in Meerut, 85 of them refused to bite them with their teeth. These 85
soldiers were court-martial led and sentenced to 10 years imprisonment. They
were stripped of their uniforms in the presence of the entire Indian garrison. It
was too much of a disgrace to be put up with and this incident sent a wave of
indignation. On 10th May 1857, the Indian soldiers at Meerut broke into open
revolt. They released their companions and murdered a few European officers.
The sky was rent with deafening shouts of Maro Firango Ko. On the night of
10th May the mutineers marched to Delhi and thousands of able-bodied
civilians also joined them.
Events at Delhi
The revolutionaries from Meerut reached Delhi on 11th May, 1857 and the
small British garrison at Delhi could not resist and consequently fell into their
hands within 2 days. The Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah II, joined the
revolutionaries after initial vacillation and was proclaimed Emperor of India.
The loss of Delhi lowered the prestige of the British in India. To retrieve their
prestige they put everything at stake and Sir John Lawrence sent a strong British

contingent commanded by John Nicholson. After a long siege of four months,

the British were able to recover Delhi in September 1857 A.D. The Mughal
Emperor Bahadur Shah II was captured by the British from the tomb of
Humayun. Two of his sons and a grandson were shot in cold blood before his
eyes. The emperor was deported to Rangoon where he died in the year 1862 A.
D.
Events at Kanpur
At Kanpur the struggle for independence was led by Nana Sahib Dondu Pant,
the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II. The British Commander, Hugh Wheeler
finding the odds heavy against him surrendered on June 20, 1857 A.D. A large
number of Englishmen, women and children fell into the hands of Nana Sahib
and he promised them a safe passage to Allahabad. But the news about the
inhuman massacre of the Indians at the hands of General ONeil at Allahabad
and Benares infuriated the crowd which in vengeance killed all the Englishmen
in their custody. However, later researches reveal that Nana Sahib had no hand
in these killings. General Havelock captured Kanpur after defeating Nana Sahib
in a hotly contested battle on June 17, 1857 A.D. In the meantime, Tantya Tope,
the able General of Nana Sahib, was successful in winning over the troops at
Shivajinagar and Morar by appealing to their sense of patriotism. With the
concerted strength of these troops Nana Sahib and Tantya Tope recaptured
Kanpur in November 1857 A.D. But they could not keep Kanpur under their
charge for long because the English General Campbell appeared there with a
large force. The British won a decisive victory against the forces of Nana Sahib
in the battle which was fought from December 1 to 6, 1857. Nana Sahib fled
towards Nepal, where he probably died, while Tantya Tope migrated to Kalpi.
Events at Lucknow
The tide of revolution touched its highest mark in Oudh. Not only the Hindu
and Muslim Taluqdars but even the common people went all out to help the
dispossessed Nawab, Wajid Ali Shah. As soon as the revolt broke out the
people carried out a complete massacre of the Englishmen. The Chief
Commissioner, Sir Henry Lawrence, sought refuge with 1000 English and 700
Indian soldiers inside the Residency. The revolutionaries besieged the
Residency and killed most of the Englishmen, including Sir Henry Lawrence
and the notorious English General ONeil. At last, the Commander-in-Chief of
the British forces in India, General Collin Campbell, himself marched towards

Lucknow, at the head of English and Gurkha soldiers. Lucknow fell into the
hands of the British after a fierce battle in March 1858.

Events at Jhansi and Gwalior

The leader of the revolutionaries in Central India was Rani Laxmi Bai of Jhansi.
General Sir Huge Rose attacked Jhansi in March 1858 but the brave Rani Laxmi
Bai kept the British General unnerved for quite some time. Her appeal to Tantya
Tope for help brought Tantya Tope rushing to Jhansi, but not before her troops
were severely defeated on the banks of the river Betwa. Laxmi Bai had to hold
on to her fortress alone. The British resorted to deceit and treachery and bribed
the guards to open the gates of the fortress. But the Britishers could not capture
Rani Laxmi Bai who slipped out of the fort and reached Kalpi where she was
joined by Tantya Tope, the brave General of Nana Sahib. Both fought many
successful battles against the British. At last they had to leave Kalpi as well and
they fell upon Gwalior with lightning speed and captured the fort of Jayaji Rao
Scindia, a dependent ruler of the British company. A fierce battle was fought
between the British and the revolutionaries under Rani Laxmi Bai and Tantya
Tope from June 11 to June 1 8, 1 858 A. D. But the personal valour of Rani and
Tantya Tope could not match the resources at the command of the British. The
Rani fell fighting the British. Sir Huge Rose paid a tribute to the valour of Rani
Laxmi Bai when he said Laxmi Bai was the bravest and the best of military
leaders of the rebels. Tantya Tope was betrayed by the Gwalior Chief Man
Singh and fell into the hands of the British. He was subsequently hanged on
April 18, 1859.
Events in Bihar
In Bihar, the Revolt was led by Kunwar Singh, a zamindar of Jagdishpur.
Though he was eighty years old, he played a prominent part in the revolt. He
fought the British in Bihar and then joined Nana Sahibs forces and took part in
various encounters with the English in Oudh and Central India. He died on
April 27, 1858, leaving behind a glorious record of valour and bravery.
Events at Faizabad
The Revolt at Faizabad was led by Maulvi Ahmadullah, a native of Madras. He
aroused the Muslim community against the British rule and took part in various
battles in Oudh and Rohilkhand. He was, however, treacherously killed.

CAUSES OF THE
REVOLT OF 1857
1. POLITICAL CAUSES
The doctrine of Lapse had caused Indian territories to be annexed
by the English and this angered the Indians. Disrespect shown to
the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah was also intolerable for the
them.
Ill-treatment of Nana Sahib and Rani of Jhansi, annexation of Oudh
and disbanding of armies of annexed states agitated the people and
soldiers who wanted revenge.

2. SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS CAUSES

The English adopted forceful and violent methods to spread
Christianity. They insulted Islam and Hinduism. When the
English abolished Sati the Hindus saw this as an act of
interference, in their religious affairs.
The Brahmins and Maulvis were upset when western culture was
introduced and their role and influence in the society declined.
Fear and suspicion was aroused by the introduction of telegraph
and railways.
Tax levied on religious sites and the insulting attitude of the
English added fuel to thr fire. Unrest and discontent was rising in
the hearts of the Indians.

3. ECONOMIC CAUSES
Exploiting economic resources and subordinating Indian economy
to the interests of British trade and industry led to the decline of
Indian industry
Handicrafts and artisans were not cared for and they collapsed.
Jagirdars and Zamindars were unhappy when the English resumed
the tax-free lands and confiscated jagirs.
The Annexation of Oudh and disbanding of its army made the
soldiers very angry and the Zamindars and Taluqdars were
distributed when their land were annexed. This led to
unemployment, and starvation.
Soon the educated Indians were jobless too as only the English got
high posts and good remunerations.
Lack of attention to trade and Industries led to their decline.
Poverty and famine were common. All this turned the people
against the English.

4. MILITARY CAUSES
Indian sepoys had aided the British in setting up their Empire in
India but they never got their due. They were ill-paid and illtreated. The General Service Enlistment Act forced Indian sepoys
to be sent to fight even on an overseas front. The sepoys opposed
this Act.
When the English lost the Afghan War, the Indian sepoys thought
that the English were not invincible. As they were more in number
compared to the English soldiers, they grew confident of revolting
and winning.
As the English soldiers went to fight the Crimean War they were
less in number and weak in the British Indian Army. The rumour
that hundred years British Rule would soon end also encouraged
soldiers.

5. THE IMMEDIATE CAUSE

The Enfield Rifle introduced in the army used greased cartridges.
A rumour spread that cow and pig fat was used to grease the
cartridges. This angered the Hindu as well as the Muslim sepoys.
Mangal Pandey in Barrackpore, Bengal refused to use the greased
cartridge on 29th March, 1857. He killed two English officers.
Further oppositions led to uprisings in Meerut, Delhi Kanpur,
Lucknow, Jhansi, etc.
As a result many sepoys were dismissed. To avenge this, the
sepoys killed officers or set their houses on fire. But with the aid
of some loyal soldiers and Indian chiefs the British were able to
suppress the Rising of 1857 which is often referred to as the First
War of Independence.

CAUSES OF THE
FAILURE OF THE
GREAT RISING OF
1857
The freedom fighters failed to achieve their aims and their aims and their
attempt ended in utter failure. Many causes were responsible for that.
i.

ii.

iii.

Rising Started before the Fixed Date: The Rising started much
before the fixed date, i.e., 31 May, 1857 due to the incident of the
greased cartridges. So the whole plan remained disorganised and
the preparations could not be completed.
The Rising Could Not Spread All Over India: The rising was not
widespread. It could not embrace the entire country and become an
All-India struggle. The Southern India, Sindh, Rajputana, Bengal,
Kashmir, Punjab did not join it. The revolt did not break
simultaneously at the centres and failed miserably.
Lack of Unity: The rising was a national movement but lacked
unity.All the groups and classes of the Indian society did not join
it. Scindia, Holkar, the Nizam, the Raja of Jodhpur and other
Rajput rulers, the Nawab of Bhopal, the rulers of Nabha, Patiala
and Jind, many other ruling chiefs, Zamindars and big merchants
remained loyal to the British and gave active help to the British.
Not more than one per cent of the chiefs of India joined the Great
Rising.

iv.

v.

vi.

vii.

viii.

ix.

x.

Indian help to the British: Many Indian princes and races

remained loyal to the British and helped them to fight against the
revolutionaries. The Sikh, Rajput, Gorkha battalions remained
loyal and helped the British to suppress the Great Rising.
Lack of Resources: the British had at their disposal better and
more resources than th rebels. The rebels lacked resources both in
men and money. On the other hand, the British Government poured
a large supply of men, money and arms into India. The rebels
fought with lathis, swords and spears and could not face the
English rifles. The rebels failed to face the superior might of the
British with their limited resources.
No Effort Made to Disrupt the Communication Services: The
telegraphic and postal system and other means of communication
were under the control of the English. The revolutionaries made no
efforts to distrupt the communication services. The means of
communication helped the British to keep an eye on the rebel
positions and their movements.
Lack of Good Generals: The freedom fighters had no good
generals. It is true that Nana Sahib, Tantya Tope, Laxmi Bai etc.
were brave and patriotic , but they were certainly inferior generals
and military strategists as compared to the English generals like
Havelock, Lawrence, Nicholson, Outram, Campbell etc.
No Discipline among the Freedom Fighters: There is no doubt
that the sepoys were brave and selfless but they were illdisciplined. On the other hand, the British soldiers were more
disciplined and fully equipped.
Lack of a Common Cause: The revolutionaries lacked unity and
common ideals. The Hindus wanted to set up a Maratha Empire
while the Muslims wanted to revive the Mughal Kingdom. As a
result they couldnt win the popular support for themselves. The
selfishness of the leaders sapped the strength of the Great Rising.
The whole movement lacked unified and forward looking
programme. On the other hand, the English were fighting for one
aim of saving the British Rule in India.
Lack of Planning and Organisation: There was a lack of a
common plan of action and a central organisation to guide the
revolutionaries and the whole movement. They fought like an

xi.

unruly mob. They lacked organisation and could not act together.
They had no common leader. The uprisings in different parts of the
country were not well-coordinated.
British Control of the Seas: The British had mastery over the seas
and it helped them to suppress the rising. They could pour men and
war material into India from other parts of their vast empire. The
rebels did not possess even a small boat to intercept the British
supplies on the seas.

RESULTS OF
THE GREAT
RISING
Results pertaining to Constitutional and Political Field
End of the Companys Rule: The first and great result of
thr Rising was that the hundred years old Companys Rule in
India came to an end. The Board of Control was abolished
and the Board of Directors was stripped of all it powers.
Now the Government of India passed into the hands of the
British Queen and her Parliament, who appointed a Secretary
of State for India to look after the administration of India.
The Secretary of State of India was a member of the British
Cabinet. A 15 member Council, eight of whose members
were appointed by the Queen and seven by the Directors of
the Company, was constituted to aid and advise the
Secretary of State. His office was in London but all his
expenditures were met by the Indian Government.
Change in the Designation of the Governor-General:
With the transfer of the Government from the hands of the
Company to those of the Crown, the designation of the
Governor-General was also changed. While he remained the
Governor-General for the provinces under his rule, he came
to be known as the viceroy while dealing with the nawabs
and the Rajas and other native princes.
Accepting the Previous Treaties: The British Government
had fully realised that the Great Rising had broken out

mainly due to the discontent caused by their aggressive

policies towards the Indian princes. Therefore they took
various measures to appease the princes for making them
loyal to the British. The first of these measures was to
honour all the treaties entered by the Indian rulers with the
East India Company. In this way they tried to win back the
trust of the princes. Queen Victoria declared in her
Declaration of 1858 We hereby announce to the native
princes of India that all the treaties and engagements made
with them by or under the authority of the Honourable East
India Company are by us accepted and will be scrupulously
maintained and we look for the like observance on their
part
Changes in policies towards the Indian states: To win
back the confidence of the native princes the most important
measure taken by the English was to switch over the policy
of subordinate union instead of the earlier policy of
subordinate isolation.
* The Indian Princes were assured that their kingdoms
would never be annexed.
* The Doctrine of Lapse was given a final goodbye and the
Indian rulers were allowed the right of adoption.
* But the number of Indian soldiers in their armies was
restricted and they were forbidden to enter into any relations
with any native or foreign power without reference to the
British Government.
* They were also assured that there would be no
interference in their internal matters except in their case of
misgovernance.
* All these princes who had helped the British during this
Rising were decorated with big honours and rewarded
fabulously to seek their appeasement. The Nizam of
Hyedrabad was relieved of his debt of 5,00,000 pounds.
Abolition of Peshwaship and the Mughal Line: The
adopted of Peshwa Baji Rao II had taken an active part in the
Rising of 1857 but he had voluntarily escaped into Nepal
after the failure of the Great Rising without any intention to

return. The office of the Peshwa was abolished. With the

abolition of Peshwaship one of the chief worries of the
English ended. In the same way the title of the Mughal
Emperor was abolished following the death of Bahadur
Shah II, who had been actively associated with the Great
Rising. Thus ended the line of the Great Mughals founded
by Babur in 1526
Policy of Divide and Rule : During this revolution there
were ample instances of the Hindu- Muslim unity and also of
the people supporting their princes against the British. Such
a thing was considered harmful to the imperialistic designs
of the English who could not shirk even to take questionable
measures to sabotage this unity by following a policy of
Divide and Rule. They alienated the rulers were led to the
ruinous path of luxurious life and they began to disregard the
vital interests of their people. The British also encouraged
hatred and ill-feeling among the various sections, especially
the Hindus and the Muslims so that they would never quite
unite again to pose a threat to the British Rule in India.
Rise of Nationalism: A far- reaching effect of the Rising
1857 was that the sacrifices of the Indian leaders gave birth
to the nationalist movement in India. To quote Dr.
Majumdar It has been said that Julius Ceaser dead was
more powerful than when he was alive. The same thing may
be said about the Mutiny of 1857. Whatever might have been
its original character, it soon became a symbol of challenge
to the mighty British Power in India. It remained a shining
example before nascent nationalism in India in its struggle
for freedom from the British yoke, and was invested with the
full glory of the First War of Independence against the
British. Nana Sahib, Rani of Jhansi, Bahadur Shah and
Kanwar Singh became national heroes and champions of
national freedom more than half a century later. Popular
songs and ballads kept their memories alive and made it a
powerful force to reckon with.

RESULTS PERTAINING TO ARMY

Amalgamation of Troops of the Crown and the Company: Since 1784
when Pitts India Act was passed, the Company had two categories of
European settlers in India by the Company itself and the other were those
recruited directly by the British Government in England and sent to serve
in India. The soldiers belonging to the first category were called the
Companys Troopers while those of the second category were known as
the Kings Troopers. After the Mutiny a controversy arose regarding the
status of the two categories which lasted till 1860 when the Queen
amalgamated these two categories , thereby ending the long-standing
controversy.
Increase in the Number of European Troops: At the time of Mutiny
the number of European soldiers was far less than the number of Indian
Troops. It had been a factor that encouraged the Indian sepoys to break
out in open revolt. After the Mutiny it was laid as a principle that in no
case the number of the Indian sepoys would exceed twice that of the
European troops. The new army consisted of about 72,000 European and
1,35,000 Indian troops.
Placing Artillery and Other Effective Weapons Exclusively in
European Hands: After the meeting Indian officers were never placed in
charge of ammunition, nor were they allowed to use more sophisticated
weapons of war. It was done primarily to desist Indian soldiers from
harbouring any design of breaking out in rebellion.
Mixing of Different Classes of Sepoys: The soldiers of the Bengal army
belonging to the same caste and practicing same faith had played an
important role in provoking the Mutiny. Therefore, it was decided to mix
the soldiers belonging to different castes and practicing different faiths in
the same armies, so that unity and nationalism did not develop among
them. Besides the Indian sepoys were stationed in cantonments away
from the civil areas where they would not come in contact with the
common people.
Increase in Expenditure on the Army: A European soldier got salary 4
to 5 times more than an Indian sepoy. It was, therefore, natural that an
increase in the number of European soldiers resulted in a proportionate
increase in the expenditure.

RESULTS PERTAINING TO THE RELIGIOUS, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC

FIELDS
Promise of Religious Freedom: It was clearly stated in the Queens
Declaration of 1858 that there would be no interference in the religious
beliefs and practices of the people and all would enjoy full freedom in
this respect. It was stated in the Declaration- We declare it to be our
royal will and pleasure that none be in any way favoured, nor molested
or disquieted by reason of their religious faith and observances; but all
shall alike enjoy the equal and impartial protection of law, and we
strictly change and enjoin all those who may be in authority under us
that they abstain from all interference with religious belief or worship
or worship of any of our subjects on pain of our highest displeasure.
Promise of Free and Impartial Admittance to Service: The Indians
were promised appointment to the highest offices under the
Government without prejudice to caste, colour or religion. It was
particularly stated in the Declaration of 1858 And it is our further
will that so far as may be our subjects of whatever race or creed be
freely or impartially admitted to offices in our service, the duties of
which they might be qualified by their education, ability and integrity,
duty to discharge.
Straining of Relations between the Europeans and Indians: Both the
Indians and the Europeans committed such atrocities against each other
that the relations among the people of both the races became bitter and
strained. The Indians hated the British while the British suspected ghe
Indians and doubted their loyalty and integrity. To quote Russel, The
Mutinies have produced too much hatred and ill-feeling between the
two races that perhaps confidence will never be restored.
Widening of the Gulf between the Hindus and the Muslims: Both
the Hindus and the Muslims had showed utmost zeal and enthusiasm in
this rising. But the Muslims started harbouring hatred and mistrust
against the Hindus, because of the role played by the Sikhs and the
Gorkha soldiers in suppressing the Great Rising and in perpetrating
excesses upon them. In later years the English made capital out of
these differences and fanned the Hindu-Muslim mistrust so that the two
communities might never come together and thus the British Empire
would stay longer in India, without any challenge from any quarter
whatsoever.

 Economic Exploitation: The wealth of India had already been

plundered by the traders and the officials of the Company, but with the
introduction of the Crowns Rule it became more serious and much
wider. Dr. Majumdar has nicely described the result of the Revolution
in the following words- The extinction of the East India Companys
rule brought in grave economic perils to India. For, henceforth, India
became the field of economic exploitation not of a single trading
concern, but of the entire British people. The trading and other
interests outside the Company had hitherto exercised a sort of scrutiny
over its transactions, thus providing a safeguard, however weak for
Indian interests. The British people, who were not masters of India, not
only gave up this critical attitude but used their political power to
further their own interests both political and economics. India now
became a dumping ground of British manufacturers, and an almost
inexhaustible field for investment of capital for it offered unlimited
scope for commercial and industrial enterprises like railways, steamer
,tea and coffee, plantation etc. The number of Englishmen seeking their
fortunes in India, both private individuals and members of the civil and
military services, also rapidly increased.

CONSTITUTIONAL
CHANGES AFTER
THE GREAT
RISING
The bitter experience of the events of 1857 made the British government realize
that the rule of the sword simply would not be sufficient. For the stability of the
British rule, the hearts of the subject race should also be changed. In pursuance
of this aim, a massive change was brought in the field of constitutional
development and legislation.

Just after the end of the great uprising, the Government of India Act 1858 was
passed in the British Parliament. While introducing the Bill in the House of
Commons in February 12, 1858, Lord Palmerston, the Prime Minister of
England said, The principle of our political system is that all administrative
functions should be accompanied by ministerial responsibility responsibility
to the Crown. The Bill proposed the transfer of Government of India to the
Crown, the liquidation of the Court of Directors and Proprietors and setting up
of an Executive Council headed by a Cabinet Minister to conduct the affairs of
India on behalf of the crown. According to this Act, India henceforth was to be
governed by and in the name of her Majesty Queen Victoria. It changed the
designation of the Governor-General to The Viceroy of India. The Act
empowered the Crown to appoint the Viceroy of India and Governors of
Presidencies. The Act created a new post of Secretary of State for India. He had
to rule India with the aid of a council of fifteen members. The Act required the
Secretary of State for India to lay annually before the British Parliament, a
financial statement of expenditure and revenues of India. The Parliament could

also ask him questions relating to India or criticize him on the charge of
inefficiency. According to Gurumukh Nihal Singh, a great significance of the
Act was that it closed one great period of Indian history and ushered in another
great era the direct rule of the crown. It rang the death-knell of the trading
company which was born in 1600 A.D.

The famous Queens Proclamation or the Proclamation of Queen Victoria of

England was another step in the constitutional changes in India. In order to
celebrate the occasion of the taking over of the Government of India by the
Crown, a Darbar was held at Allahabad where Lord Canning, the first Viceroy
of India read out the Queens Proclamation to the princes and people of India. It
declared, We have resolved to take upon ourselves the Government of the
territories in India hitherto administered in trust for us by the Honourable East
India Company. Moreover, the Crown also assured that it would respect the
rights, dignity and honour of native princes and forbade any further aggression
upon Indian dominions. The crown also declared that religious faith and
observances of the people would be protected by law and enjoys equal status in
this regard. The Queens Proclamation also declared an unconditional pardon
and amnesty to those who were found severely guilty during the Revolt of 1857.

The proclamation was important in many respects because it laid the foundation
of a new policy in India. Regarding the various effects of the proclamation Dr.
Ishwari Prasad observes: To the people of India the proclamation brought a
new heaven on earth. It promised them peace, prosperity and the protection of
their religion, equality of treatment with other subjects of the Queen and above
all promised to them a share in the highest services of the state, if so qualified.

The great uprising of 1857 served as an eye-opener to the British Government.

It brought home to British statesmen that no government can be secure in its
seat by antagonizing the people. The British now felt the necessity of seeking
the cooperation of the Indians in the administration of their country. Therefore
Lord Canning, the Viceroy of India, forwarded some suggestions to the
Secretary of State for setting things right.

CONCLUSION
Indian Mutiny, also called Sepoy Mutiny, widespread but unsuccessful
rebellion against British rule in India in 185758. Begun in Meerut by Indian
troops (sepoys) in the service of the British East India Company, it spread to
Delhi, Agra, Kanpur, and Lucknow.
To regard the rebellion merely as a sepoy mutiny is to underestimate the
increasing pace of Westernization after the establishment of British
paramountcy in India in 1818. Hindu society was being affected by the
introduction of Western ideas. Missionaries were challenging the religious
beliefs of the Hindus. The humanitarian movement led to reforms that went
deeper than the political superstructure. Lord Dalhousie had made efforts for the
emancipation of women and had introduced a bill to remove all legal obstacles
to the remarriage of Hindu widows. Converts to Christianity were to share with
their Hindu brethren in the property of the family estate. There was a
widespread belief that the British aimed at breaking down the caste system. The
introduction of Western methods of education was a direct challenge to
orthodoxy, both Hindu and Muslim. To these problems may be added the
growing discontent of the Brahmans, many of whom had been dispossessed of
their revenues or had lost lucrative positions. Everywhere the old Indian
aristocracy was being replaced by British officials.
The mutiny broke out in the Bengal army because it was only in the military
sphere that Indians were organized. The pretext for revolt was the introduction
of the new Enfield rifle. To load it, the sepoys had to bite off the ends of
lubricated cartridges. A rumour spread among the sepoys that the grease used to
lubricate the cartridges was a mixture of pigs and cows lard; thus, to have oral
contact with it was an insult to both Muslims and Hindus. There is no
conclusive evidence that either of these materials was actually used on any of
the cartridges in question. However, the perception that the cartridges were
tainted added to the larger suspicion that the British were trying to undermine
Indian traditional society. For their part, the British did not pay enough attention
to the growing level of sepoy discontent.

Late in April 1857, sepoy troopers at Meerut refused the cartridges; as

punishment, they were given long prison terms, fettered, and put in jail. This
punishment incensed their comrades, who rose on May 10, shot their British
officers, and marched to Delhi, where there were no European troops. There the
local sepoy garrison joined the Meerut men, and by nightfall the aged
pensionary Mughal emperor Bahdur Shah II had been nominally restored to
power by a tumultuous soldiery. The seizure of Delhi provided a focus and set
the pattern for the whole mutiny, which then spread throughout northern India.
With the exception of the Mughal emperor and his sons and Nana Sahib, the
adopted son of the deposed Maratha peshwa, none of the important Indian
princes joined the mutineers.
From the time of the mutineers seizure of Delhi, the British operations to
suppress the mutiny were divided into three parts. First came the desperate
struggles at Delhi, Kanpur, and Lucknow during the summer; then the
operations around Lucknow in the winter of 185758, directed by Sir Colin
Campbell; and finally the mopping up campaigns of Sir Hugh Rose in early
1858. Peace was officially declared on July 8, 1858.
A grim feature of the mutiny was the ferocity that accompanied it. The
mutineers commonly shot their British officers on rising and were responsible
for massacres at Delhi, Kanpur, and elsewhere. The murder of women and
children enraged the British, but in fact some British officers began to take
severe measures before they knew that any such murders had occurred. In the
end the reprisals far outweighed the original excesses. Hundreds of sepoys were
bayoneted or fired from cannons in a frenzy of British vengeance (though some
British officers did protest the bloodshed).

The immediate result of the mutiny was a general housecleaning of the Indian
administration. The East India Company was abolished in favour of the direct
rule of India by the British government. In concrete terms, this did not mean
much, but it introduced a more personal note into the government and removed
the unimaginative commercialism that had lingered in the Court of Directors.
The financial crisis caused by the mutiny led to a reorganization of the Indian
administrations finances on a modern basis. The Indian army was also
extensively reorganized.

Another significant result of the mutiny was the beginning of the policy of
consultation with Indians. The Legislative Council of 1853 had contained only
Europeans and had arrogantly behaved as if it were a full-fledged parliament. It
was widely felt that a lack of communication with Indian opinion had helped to
precipitate the crisis. Accordingly, the new council of 1861 was given an
Indian-nominated element. The educational and public works programs (roads,
railways, telegraphs, and irrigation) continued with little interruption; in fact
some were stimulated by the thought of their value for the transport of troops in
a crisis. But insensitive British-imposed social measures that affected Hindu
society came to an abrupt end.

Finally, there was the effect of the mutiny on the people of India themselves.
Traditional society had made its protest against the incoming alien influences,
and it had failed. The princes and other natural leaders had either held aloof
from the mutiny or had proved, for the most part, incompetent. From this time
all serious hope of a revival of the past or an exclusion of the West diminished.
The traditional structure of Indian society began to break down and was
eventually superseded by a Westernized class system, from which emerged a
strong middle class with a heightened sense of Indian nationalism.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS REFERRED1.
2.
3.
4.

M.P Jain
NCRT Indian History
ICSE History and Civics by D.N Kundra
Outlines Of Indian Legal & Constitutional History Eight Edition
M.P Singh

WEBSITES REFERRED1. www.brittanica.com

2. www.encarta.com

3. www.britannicaindia.com