Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 2011, 46(4), 499-513

Division on Autism and Developmental Disabihties

Video Modeling and Prompting: A Comparison of Two

Strategies for Teaching Cooking Skills to Students with Mild
Intellectual Disabilities
Teresa Taber-Doughty, Emily C. Bouck, Kinsey Tom, Andrea D. Jasper,
Sara M. Flanagan, and Laura Bassette
Purdue University
Abstract: Self-operated video prompting and video modeling was compared when used by three secondary
students with mild intellectual disabilities as they completed novel recipes during cooking activities. Alternating
between video systems, students completed twelve recipes within their classroom kitchen. An alternating
treatment design with a follow-up and withdrawal probe was used to illustrate the effectiveness of both systems
on each student's independent task performance. Results indicated increased independence following video
system use by all three students with video modeling more effective for two students and video prompting more
effective for the third. Future directions for research are presented.

Students with mild intellectual disabilities are

those who typically face a range of challenges
related to learning, including difficulty generalizing and/or transferring information, inputting and retrieving information from
memory, and short attention spans (Belmont,
1966; Dunn, 1973; Kirk, 1972; Spiu, 1973;
Stephens, 1972; Thomas, 1996; Zeaman &
House, 1963, 1979). Specifically, students with
mild intellectual disabilities are characterized
by "significantiy subaverage intellectual functioning, existing concurrentiy with related
limitations in two or more of the following
applicable adaptive skill areas: communication, self-care, home living, social skills, community use, self direction, health and safety,
functional academics, leisure, and work" (Polloway, Patton, Smith, & Buck, 1997, p. 298).
However, despite the term "mild," these students do not necessarily possess mild learning
challenges (Luckasson et al., 2002; PoUoway,
2004; 2005). They experience numerous
The final four authors listed provided equal effort
into to this study and thus, their order should not be
interpreted as a greater contribution over a preceding author. Correspondence concerning this article
should be addressed to Dr. Teresa Taber-Doughty,
5162 BRNG Hall, Purdue University, 100 North University Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2098, 765494-7345, tabert@purdue.edu

learning challenges considerably impacting

their functioning in current and potential future environments.
Students with mild intellectual disabilities
once received a substantial focus in research
and practice; however, in recent decades, attention to the educational issues of these students declined (Bouck, 2007; Edgar, 1987;
Polloway, 2006). This lack of consideration
extends to issues of curriculum and instruction where historically these students theoretically received a functional curriculum-a curriculum focused on life skills that enable
adults to be successful in life, work, and participation in all facets of an inclusive community (Brown et al., 1979; Cronin, 1996; Patton,
Polloway, & Smitb, 2000). However, over the
past few decades, researchers suggested a decrease on a functional or life skills approach
in practice and research (Alwell & Cobb,
2009; Billingsley, 1997; Billingsley & Albertson, 1999; Nietupski, Hamre-Nietupski,
Curtin, & Shrikanth,1997), although vthout
data as to the effectiveness of other curricula.
For example, Bouck (2004a) reported a
range of curricular approaches being used by
teachers for secondary students with mild intellectual disabilities including a functional
curriculum (19.0%), a special education curriculum (23.8%), a general education curriculum (15.3%), a lower grade level curriculum

Video Modeling and Prompting / 499

(14.3%), a unique curricultim (13.8%), no

curriculum (4.8%), and a vocational curriculum (1.1%). Her results suggested limited attention to a functional curriculum for this
population, akin to the critique by Patton et
al. (2000) regarding tbe practice of educating
students with mild intellectual disabilities (i.e.,
a watered-down general education curriculum
lacking specialized instruction and concrete
educational benefits).
Currentiy, the curricular focus for students
vi mild intellectual disabilities is believed to
be mixed and variable, although educational
policy within the last decade placed greater
emphasis on students with mild intellectual
disabilities receiving and succeeding in a general education curriculum (Bouck, 2007;
Bouck, Bassette, Taber-Dotighty, Flanagan, &
Szwed, 2009; Patton et al., 2000). No Child Uft
Behind (NCLB, 2002) and the Individuals luith
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) privi-

lege students taking general large scale assessments, suggesting the curricular focus is a general education curriculum to the detriment of
other approaches (i.e., fimctional) (Bouck,
2007). Patton et al. questioned the availability
of specialized curriculum currentiy in schools
for these students.
The lack of specialized curriculum for students with mild intellectual disabilities may be
problematic given research suggesting the
poor postschool outcomes typically experienced by tbis population. For example, students typically face lower rates of employment, independent living, and postsecondary
school attendance (Blackorby & Wagner,
1996; Kaye, 1997; Newman, 2005; Newman,
Wagner, Cameto, & Knokey, 2009). While typically not measured in the instruments assessing other outcomes, students vnth mild intellecttial disabilities also face challenges related
to daily lixing skills (Lynch & Beare, 1990).
Thus, a need exists for elements of a functional curriculum for these students. Alwell
and Cobb (2009) identified the lack of research attention on fimctional life skills was
particularly apparent for students with high
incidence disabilities (e.g., mild intellectual
disabilities; Reschly, 2002) as well as research
of high quality on the impact of life skills
instruction.
Bouck and Flanagan (2010) note the limited current research on teaching functional

life skills to students with mild intellectual

disabilities. In a systematic review, the authors
found seven articles published between 1994
and 2009 on teaching at least one student with
a mild intellectual disability a functional curriculum or elements of a functional curriculum (i.e., functional academics, vocational education, community access, daily living,
financial, independent living, transportation,
social/relationships, and self-determination)
(Patton, Cronin, & Jairrels, 1997). Of the
seven, four focused, in part, on daily living
skills with three of those related to food, nutrition, and/or cooking (Collins, Branson, &
Hall, 1995; Kennedy, Itkonen, & Lindquist,
1994; Arnold-Reid, Schloss, & Alper, 1997)
and one directed at safety (Collins & Stinson,
1995). Students improved in the targeted
skills in each intended area; thus, the review
by Bouck and Flanagan highlighted the minimal attention on aspects of ftmctional living
skills while simultaneously showing the effectiveness for skill acquisition using this approach.
Strategies to Teach Functional Skills

Strategies used to teach functional skills to

sttidents with mild intellectual disabilities
since 1994 included time delay (Collins et al.,
1995; Collins & Stinson, 1995; Kennedy et al.,
1994), one-more-than concept for purchasing
(Denny & Test, 1995), goal setting (Agran,
Blanchard, Wehmeyer, & Hughes, 2002), and
the system of least prompts (Arnold-Reid et
al., 1997). Each resulted in overall increases in
functional skill acquisition and generalization
for students with mild intellectual disabilities.
Although no study could be found focusing
on functional skills training in which technology as an instructional tool was used, technology was used for teaching other skills to this
population. Computerized instruction (e.g.,
computer assisted instruction, pentop computers) was successfully used to teach mathematics (Bouck et al., 2009; Fazio & Polsgrove,
1989), social skills (Margalit, 1995), fact retrieval skills (Edyburn, 1991), and word recognition skills (Lin, Podell, & Rein, 1991). Thus,
the potential exists for students with mild intellectual disabilities to successfully use various forms of technology in acquiring and generalizing functional skills. Researchers have

500 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-December 2011

however taught functional skills, using technology, to students with moderate and severe
intellectual disabilities and autism spectrum
disorders.
Various technologies are frequently used
when teaching functional skills to students
with moderate and severe intellectual disabilities and autism spectrum disorders. Recent investigations reported the effectiveness of computers (Lancioni, Dijkstra,
O'Reilly, Groeneweg, & Van den Hof, 2000;
Lancioni, Van den Hof, Boelens, Rocha, &
Seedhouse, 1998; Lancioni, Van den Hof,
Furniss, O'Reilly, & Cunha, 1999; Mechling,
2003; 2005; Mechling, Gast, & Langone,
2002), personal digital assistants (PDA)
(Cihak, Kessler, & Alberto, 2007), MP3 players (Taber-Doughty, 2005), and iPods for
delivering numerous forms of instruction
incorporating technology in school and
community settings (Taber-Doughty, Patton, & Brennan, 2008; Van Laarhoven, Johnson, Van Laarhoven-Meyers, Grider, &
Grider, 2009; Van Laarhoven & Van Laarhoven-Meyers, 2006). All resulted in increases in skill acquisition, maintenance
and/or generalization; thus, demonstrating
the potential for the ongoing use of technology in instruction for these populations.
Two increasingly used strategies for teaching skills to students with autism spectrum
disorder and moderate to severe intellectual
disabilities incorporate video technology for
instruction in the form of video prompting
and video modeling. Video prompting combines visual and auditory prompts requiring
students to view a single step of a video task
sequence and complete that step before
watching the next video clip of the subsequent step and performing that step (Cihak,
Alberto, Taber-Dougbty, & Gama, 2006;
Krantz, MacDuff, Wadstrom, & McClannahan, 1991; Taber-Doughty et al., 2008).
Video prompting was successfully used to
teach individuals with disabilities vocational
skills in an employment setting (Van Laarhoven et al. 2009), to use an ATM and debit
machine (Cihak et al; Mechling, Gast, 8c
Barthold, 2003), daily living skills (CannellaMalone, Sigafoos, O'Reilly, de la Cruz,
Edrisinha, & Lancioni, 2006; Van Laarhoven
& Van Laarhoven-Meyers, 2006), grocery
shopping skills (Hutcherson, Langone, Ay-

res, & Clees, 2004; Mechling et al., 2002),

and cooking skills (Graves, Collins, Schuster, & Kleinert, 2005). Similar success was
also found vvrith video modeling in which
students perform a task in the same or alternative setdng without additional prompting
only after viewing the entire task sequence
(Cannella-Malone et al.; Taber-Doughty et
al.). What may vary with video modeling,
other than the task, is the delay between
viewing the video model and the actual performance of the task. Reported delays between viewing videos and performing tasks
range from immediately after viewing (Charlop-Christy & Daneshvar, 2003; Geiger, LeBlanc, Dillon, & Bates, 2010; Nikopoulos &
Keenan, 2004) to at least an hour after viewing (Alberto, Cihak, & Gama, 2005;
D'Ateno, Mangiapanello, & Taylor, 2003;
Taber-Doughty et al.; Wert & Neisworth,
2003) when teaching students with autism
spectrum disorder a variety of social, play
and drawing skills, and numerous functional
community skills (e.g., library skills, using
an ATM) with students experiencing moderate and severe intellectual disabilities.
While ongoing evidence is reported about
the effectiveness of both video prompting
and modeling for teaching students with autism spectrum disorder and moderate to severe intellectual disabilities, no studies
could be found in which these strategies
were used for teaching skills to students with
mild intellectual disabilities. At a time when
video technology is increasingly accessible
and uncomplicated while concurrently socially desirable by peers (Taber-Doughty et
al. 2008), research should seek to examine
whether this technology is appropriate for
use with students who experience mild intellectual disabilities. In addition, the need
exists to refocus research efforts in the area
of functional skills training for students with
mild intellectual disabilities (Bouck & Flanagan, in press). As such, the purpose of the
present investigation was to compare the
effectiveness of video prompts and video
modeling when used to teach three middle
school students with mild intellectual disabilities to acquire cooking skills when preparing a variety of simple recipes.

Video Modeling and Prompting /

501

TABLE 1

4-

'-^

Student Characteristics

Student

Chronological
Age

Ethnicity

/Q

Adaptive
Behavior

Brittany
Rose
Wes

12
IS
12

Caucasian
Caucasian
African American

72"
61"
63"

44"
88"

Reading
4.5* grade"*
83'
87"

4.5* grade''
45'
70'-

"wisc-rv.
"GAC
** Test Scores unavailable; score given is a teacher estimate
' Woodcockjohnson

Method
Participants

Three sixth grade students with mild intellectual disabilities served as participants for this
study. Brittany, Rose, and Wes were nominated by their teacher for participation in the
study based on the following: (a) willingness
to participate, (b) level of cognitive functioning within the mild range of intellectual disabilities, (c) no sensory deficits, (d) limited, or
no experience cooking, and (e) successful
completion of a pre-training program. Two of
the participants were Caucasian and one was
African American and all participants spent
approximately 80% of their time in a special
education .setting for students with mild intellectual disabilities and 20% of their time in
general education, largely for elective courses
(i.e., physical education). All participants
spoke English as their first language. Intelligence, adaptive behavior ratings, and reading
and math levels were obtained from the
teacher. Table 1 provides a summary for each
participant.
Brittany. Brittany was a 12 year-old sixthgrade female with a mild intellectual disability. Brittany had limited previous cooking experience at home and no previous cooking
experience at school. Additionally, Brittany
reported she did not have previous experience using an iPod. Despite her limited cooking experience, Brittany expre.ssed interest in
using an iPod to learn how to make new recipes.
V
'

502

Rose. Rose was a 13 year-old sixth-grade

female with a mild intellectual disability. Rose
reported she had limited previous cooking
experience at home, and Rose's special education teacher indicated she did not have previous cooking experience at school. Additionally, Rose reported she did not have previous
experience using an iPod, but she did have
experience using another brand of MP3
player and thought it was easy to use. Rose was
also interested in learning how to cook and
making new recipes using videos although she
lacked prior experience with these types of
activities.
Wes. Wes was a 12 year-old sixth-grade
male with a mild intellectual disability. Wes
reported his parents did not typically allow
him to cook at home. Wes' teacher indicated
he did not have previous cooking experience
at school. Wes also indicated he had no previous experience using an iPod, though he did
state that he was good at "figuring out computers and a lot of stuff." Similar to Brittany
and Rose, Wes expressed an interest in using
an iPod to learn how to cook.
Setting

All cooking activities took place in the participants' special education classroom. Upon entering the classroom there was a small area
(approximately one-fourth of the classroom)
with three sinks, a counter, cooking appliances (i.e., toaster oven, toaster, blender, and
microwave), and a refrigerator. Additionally, a
round table with six chairs was present for

Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-December 2011

students and teachers to eat. Next to the refrigerator, near the rear of the classroom, was
a table with three computers for student use.
On the other side of the table, also near the
rear of the classroom, was a desk for the paraeducators. In the middle of the classroom was
a large instructional area where sixteen student desks faced the front of the classroom. In
the front of the classroom next to the teacher's desk was an interactive electronic whiteboard students used to complete several academic activities (e.g., math worksheets, daily
oral language, etc.).
Cooking activities took place in the morning between 8:30AM and 11:30AM. Depending on the class period, there were 12 to 15
additional students in the classroom. While
participating students completed cooking
tasks, other students in the class were engaged
in mathematics or Language Arts. These activities were typically completed in a group setting with the teacher or paraeducator lecturing to students and allowing students to raise
their hands and ask questions. Conversation
amongst students and teachers occurred often
while target students engaged in cooking activities.

Materials

Recipes. All recipes students followed were

from the Cooking to Leam books functional
curriculum from PCI Educational Publishing
(Anderson, Coxson, Lamontagne, Buteyn, &
Chapman, 2008; Anderson, Coxson, Britt,
Haugen-McLane, & MuUins, 1999; Coxson &
Anderson, 2001). Recipes were written at an
independent level of reading, allowing students to read them without assistance. Recipes
from the books were re-typed in Microsoft
Word to allow for changes in the recipes (i.e.,
if a recipe called for an oven, but was changed
to a toaster oven due to the supplies available)
and for consistency in how recipes were
worded (i.e., to read, "Put 1/2 cup of
,"
instead of variations on that step/wording
such as "Add one half cup of
"). Recipes
were also retyped to eliminate the preprinted
checklist of ingredients and supplies at the top
of each page. Recipes were varied, but all
required completing seven or more task steps
using multiple foods and cooking supplies.

Cooking supplies. Cooking supplies were

those typically available in a kitchen (e.g., a
toaster oven, toaster, hot plate, and a microwave). Other cooking supplies used included
pans, a cookie sheet, measuring cups and
spoons, cooking and eating utensils, and
plates or bowls. Students were able to use
these independently without instruction.
Ingredients. Recipe ingredients were purchased prior to baseline and intervention sessions. For each recipe, all ingredients were
placed on the worktable for students to select
from when completing steps of each recipe.
Common ingredients used included a variety
of fruits, milk, crackers, and biscuit dough.
Videos. Short videos ranging from one
minute andfifty-sevenseconds to six minutes
and thirty-eight seconds were created using
iMovie (Apple Inc., 2010) and demonstrated
how to complete each recipe from start to
finish. Each video also contained simple audio
instructions in which task analysis steps were
read prior to being demonstrated on the
video. The third author physically and verbally
modeled each step. All videos had similar pacing (i.e., how far apart each step was modeled)
and view. For example, the video always
showed the entire measuring cup being filled
with an ingredient rather than just the specific
line that to which the cup was being measured; or, the video zoomed in when going to
a temperature or time setting. All videos were
filmed in the classroom where participants
performed tasks and used the same equi>
ment and ingredients to be used by students
for completing recipes.
iPods. Three Apple 8-G iPod Nanos with
color video capabilities were used in this
study. The screen display was approximately
one and one-fourth inches wide and two
inches in height. Below the screen wis the
control wheel approximately one inch in diameter containing the word "menu" at the
top, play/pause at the bottom, and rewind
and fast forward on the left and right sides
respectively. At the center of the wheel was a
black select button pressed when making a
selection from the screen. Students turned on
the iPod by pressing and holding down any
one of the buttons. In order to access videos,
once the screen was lit, students pressed the
menu button. Students moved their thumb
around the control wheel until the word "vid-

Video Modeling and Prompting / 503

eos" was highlighted. Students then pressed

the center select button. From the next list of
items appearing on the screen, students used
their thumb to scroll to the word "movies" and
pressed the center button to confirm that selection. On the final screen, students scrolled
down to the name of the correct recipe video
and pressed the center select button. Once
selected, tbey were able to press the play (or
pause) button as needed. Students did not
report any difficulty with being able to view
the screen. During this study, all students navigated the iPods independently. Students
watched videos and listened to the audio using earphones; two students preferred behind-the-ear headphones wbile one preferred
ear buds.
Dependent and Independent Variables

Video modeling and video prompting in conjunction with a six level system of least
prompts were two independent variables used
to teach students to cook basic recipes. Pairs
of recipes were matched based on number of
steps, difficulty of completion, and similarity
of tasks involved. Students completed 12 total
recipes using video modeling or video
prompting during the intervention condition.
When using video modeling students watched
the full video of the task to be completed five
minutes prior to being asked to cook the recipe. When video prompting was used, students
watched individual task steps while cooking
and paused the video after each step.
When the system of least prompts was
needed during video modeling and video
prompting sessions, the following prompts
were available: independent student performance (no prompt), verbal prompt, gesture,
modeling, partial physical prompt, and full
physical prompt. The dependent variable was
the percent of task analysis steps for each recipe each student completed independentiy
without prompting. The level of prompting
needed for students to complete each step was
also recorded.
' ,

'

Design and Data Collection

An alternating treatment design (ATD) with a

baseline and maintenance condition was used
to illustrate the effectiveness of the video mod-

eling and video prompting systems for each

student. This design was selected as it allowed
investigators to rapidly compare the effects of
both interventions to establish if one was more
effective than another when determining independent task performance while concurrently demonstrating experimental control
(Kennedy, 2005). A flip of a coin was used to
determine the order in which prompting systems were used with no more than two consecutive administrations of a prompting system during intervention. The maintenance
condition allowed investigators to confirm student performance levels achieved during intervention using the system that resulted in
greater independence.
Each recipe was divided into discrete steps
of a task analysis. Event recording was used to
record the number of steps from each task
analysis students were able to complete independentiy. Using each recipe step, a data
sheet was created to allow researchers to record whether students completed each step
independentiy or required a prompt and the
level of prompt needed.
Experimental Procedures

Twenty-three different recipes were used in

this study across conditions. Recipes were selected from the Cooking to Leam curriculum
books (Coxson & Anderson, 2001) and were
divided and grouped together into three categories based on their number of task analysis
steps. Specifically, the three groups included
recipes containing 6-8 steps, 9-11 steps, and
12 or more steps. Tbree recipes were included
in the study from the first group, 15 recipes
from the second group, and five recipes from
the third.
Recipes were randomly selected during all
phases of the study. Specifically, a total of 37
recipes were selected and divided into the
three groups based on their number of steps
(i.e., 6-8, 9-11, and 12 or more). Six (16%)
recipes contained 6-8 steps, 20 (54%) contained 9-11 steps, and 11 (30%) contained 12
or more steps. During intervention sessions,
recipes were randomly selected and paired
based on task difficulty, similarities, and number of steps. Overall, 6 recipe pairs or 12 total
recipes were used during intervention. Each
recipe pair had a similar number of steps, type

504 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-December 2011

of food, cooking supplies needed, and preparation steps.

Pretraining. Prior to data collection, students were introduced to the iPod Nanos and
taught how to use the device to watch videos.
A sample video illtistrating a simple task was
created. To ensure each student was able to
successfully use tbe iPod prior to beginning
the study, each watched the video and completed the tasks (i.e., raised their right hand as
the model on the video did, drew a blue star,
drew a pink circle, etc.). Each student was
required to complete the tasks vyith 80% accuracy before beginning baseline.
Baseline. During this condition, students
were given a paper copy of a recipe and instructed to make the assigned recipe. The students were observed while cooking and a
member of the research team used the system
of least prompts to correct the students, as
needed. The percent of steps each student
completed independently were recorded per
session. Students continued in the baseline
condition based on tbe order they were selected to begin the intervention. Brittany began intervention first while Rose and Wes continued baseline pbase using traditional
instruction. Rose began intervention second;
Wes continued in the baseline phase using the
traditional instruction and was the last student
to begin tbe intervention. Students only began the intervention phase once baseline stability was established.
Intervention. This condition consisted of
two treatments: video modeling and video
prompting. Six pairs (12 recipes total) of
matched recipes were used and each student
completed one of the matched recipes using
video modeling and the other recipe using
video prompting. Dtiring video modeling sessions, students were individually presented
with the iPod set to start on the selected video.
Each Weis then instructed to watch the entire
video at his/her desk. Once each student finished watching the video, he or she remained
seated for 5 minutes (5-minute time delay)
prior to beginning the cooking activity. At that
time, students were asked to move to the cooking area. Once there, students were presented
with a paper copy of the recipe and directed
to begin cooking. Throughout each session,
the system of least prompts was used when the
student required assistance with a task step.

During video prompting sessions, each student immediately moved to the table in the
kitchen area where he or she was given the
iPod set to start at the selected video. Each was
then instructed to pause the video after each
step and complete that step before pressing,
"Play," to move on to the next step. Students
were also instructed to rewind the video if a
step needed to be viewed again before moving
on to the next step. Finally, each student was
provided a paper copy of the recipe. As during
video modeling sessions, the system of least
prompts was used to assist the students as they
completed each cooking step.
Folloiu-up. Two separate probes over a twoweek period were collected during this condition in which students completed two additional matched recipes. The first probe
recorded the sttident's level of independence
as he or she continued to tise his/her more
effective intervention used during the previous condition. The second follow-up probe
was conducted one week later wbere neither
video system was used. The ptirpose of this
final probe was to determine if student performance would return to baseline levels. As
in baseline and intervention, the percent of
steps completed independently by students
were recorded and the system of least prompts
was implemented as needed.
Interobserver Agreement and Treatment Integrity

Interobserver agreement data were collected

by a trained second observer for each student
across all three conditions. The second observer recorded whether the student completed steps independently or with prompts.
Interobserver data were collected by tbe second observer at the same time as the first
observer. The percent agreement for steps
completed independently by students was calculated by dividing the number of agreements
by the total of agreements pltis disagreements
and mtiltiplying those by 100. For Rose, data
were recorded during 33% of tbe baseline
sessions, 58% of the intervention sessions, and
100% of the maintenance sessions. Agreement was 100% for baseline and maintenance
and 97% for intervention. For Brittany, data
were recorded during 60% of the baseline
sessions, 50% of the intervention sessions, and
100% of the maintenance sessions. Agree-

Video Modeling and Prompting / 505

Intervention

Baseline

Follow-up

Simultaneous video

Delayed video "

Brittany
0 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 !2 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
'

Session

Figure 1. Percentage of independent correct steps per session (Brittany).

ment was 100% for baseline and maintenance

and was 96% for intervention. For Wes, data
were recorded during 63% of ba.seline, 67% of
intervention, and 100% of maintenance sessions. Agreement was 100% during baseline
and maintenance and 95% during intervention.
, J.
A checklist was developed to assess treatment integrity during the intervention condition to ensure that the student began each
session by meeting with the researcher(s),
watching the appropriate video depending on
the intervention they were receiving for a
given session (this included having the students receive the time delay and prompts as
needed), and completing the recipe. Treatment integrity was collected for 33% of the
sessions for all three students and was 100%
for all of the sessions for all three of the
students
Results
Figures 1, 2 and 3 demonstrate the number of
steps each student was able to complete independendy using video modeling or video
prompting while engaged in cooking tasks.
Visual analysis revealed all students increased

506

the number of steps they completed independently when using video prompting and modeling over baseline levels. Visual analysis indicated Brittany's level of independence was
higher when using video prompting, while
Rose and Wes cooked more independently
when using video modeling.
Brittany. Figure 1 illustrates the percentage of steps Brittany completed independendy while engaged in cooking tasks. She
completed 58.5% of the steps independendy
during baseline 77.8% of during intervention
using video prompting and 74.3% independendy using video modeling. The difference
between the percentages of steps completed
using the two independent variables was 3.5%
with video prompting resulting in slighdy
greater independent performance. A nonparametric analysis (standardized mean difference effect size) was used to verify these intervention findings and confirmed the positive
effect of video prompting over video modeling for Brittany (d = 0.285, r = 0.14). During
the follow-up probe using video prompting,
Brittany completed 100% of steps independently. When video prompting was then withdrawn, her level of cooking independence
dropped to 90%.

Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-December 2011

Baseline

Intervention

Follow-up

100

A:

90
80

70

<u
ex

60

-a
T3

50
40

I
S.

Delayed video

30
^ Simultaneous video

20
10

Rose

0 i

-10 -^ ! 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Session
Figure 2. Percentage of independent correct steps per session (Rose).

Rose. Figure 2 illustrates the percentage of

steps she completed independendy whUe engaged in cooking tasks. Visual analysis indicates Rose completed tasks more independentiy when using video modeling. During
baseline, she completed 52.0% of task analysis
steps independently. However, this increased
during intervention where she completed
78.5% of steps independentiy using video
prompting and 87.0% using video modeling.
To confirm visual analysis findings of intervention data, the standard mean difference effect
size was calculated verifying video modeling
was slightiy more effective than video prompting for Rose {d = 0.587, r = 0.28). During the
follow-up probe. Rose continued to increase
her percentage of independent task performance by completing 91.0% of steps independently using video modeling. When this video
system was withdrawn during the second
probe her level of cooking independence increased to 100%.
Wes. Figure 3 illustrates the percentage
of steps Wes completed independently while
engaged in cooking tasks. Visual analysis indicates he completed more steps independently when using video modeling than

when video prompting was used. During

baseline, he completed 42.83% of task analysis steps independently. This increased to
65.3% when using video prompting and
77.5% when using video modeling was used
during intervention sessions. The difference
between the percentages of steps completed
using the strategies (e.g., video modeling
and video prompting) was 12.2%. To confirm these findings, a nonparametric analysis (standardized mean difference effect
size) was conducted verifying that Wes completed tasks more independently when using video modeling (d = 0.706, r = 0.33).
During the first follow-up probe using video
modeling, Wes continued to increase his
level of independent task performance by
completing 91.0% of task analysis steps independently. However, when this was withdrawn, his level of cooking independence
dropped to 73%.
Social Validity

Each student was informally interviewed prior

to and following the study in order to determine whether they felt learning to cook was

Video Modeling and Prompting /

507

Baseline

Intervention

Follow-up

100

g. 90
ndeni

a
on

&

cent

oU

53
CL,

Delayed video

A!

80

70 '

60

50
40
30

Simultaneous video

20
10 -

Wes

0 -

l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Session
Figure 3. Percen^e of independent correct steps per session (Wes).

important and if video modeling and prompting were effective strategies to use. In addition, their teacher was also interviewed to confirm the social validity of cooking skills and
instrtictional procedures used by students.
Students unanimously agreed that learning to
cook was an important skill to learn and video
prompting and modeling were strategies that
made tasks "easier to do after seeing it." Students also reported the availability of the written recipe in addition to the video prompts
and models were important for successfully
completing the cooking activities.
The teacher reported her students loved
using the video iPod technology but was concerned about using it herself due to her own
lack of knowledge on how to operate the
equipment. However, she indicated her intent
to incorporate the video strategies into her
"cooking curriculum for next year." Additionally, she noted the potential benefits of using
video prompting and modeling for students
who were visual learners and indicated these
strategies might be beneficial for teaching her
students in other functional skill areas.

Discussion

Ensuring all students with disabilities receive

access to the general education curriculum is
not only a legal but ethical obligation for all
educators (Bechard, 2000; Hitchcock, Meyer,
Rose, & Jackson, 2002). Special educators
must also assure students will have access to a
curriculum that facilitates future autonomous
functioning in school, domestic, work, and
other community settings (Clark, Field, Patton, Brolin, & Sitlington, 1994). As such, a
clear need exists for education programs serving students with disabilities, including those
with mild intellectual disabilities, to provide
concurrent access to the general education
curriculum and a functional curriculum in
order to meet students' academic and functional skill needs. The present investigation
compared the effectiveness of video prompting and video modeling delivered via iPod
Nanos when teaching functional cooking
skills to students with mild intellectual disabilities. The results indicated each student was
successful in using video prompting and video
modeling for independently completing novel

508 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-December 2011

recipes and improving their accuracy over

baseline levels.
Increased independence was evident for
each student between baseline and intervention conditions. For students, baseline levels
ranged from 42.8% to 58.5%. During intervention when video prompting was used, independent performance increased from
65.3% to 78.5%. However, a somewhat higher
percentage was found for students when video
modeling was used with percentages of independence ranging from '74.3% to 87%. While
video modeling resulted in slightiy greater
task performance, upon closer examination of
data, slight differences in student performance were measured between the two video
instructional methods. For example, both Wes
and Rose were able to complete cooking tasks
more independently when using video modeling whereas Brittany's performance was
greater when using video prompting. Interestingly, while each student indicated their preferred video instructional system, only Rose
performed better with her nonpreferred system, video modeling. Previous studies examining student's preferred instructional methods indicate some correlation between
preference
and performance
(TaberDoughty, 2005; Taber-Doughty et al., 2008).
However, this remains an area in need of further validation.
Two separate follow-up probes were conducted to determine students' ongoing level
of cooking independence. The first probe was
conducted to confirm the effectiveness of the
more effective intervention used during the
previous condition. The second probe examined whether each student's level of independence when cooking would return to baseline
levels following withdrawal of the video system. All three students demonstrated a continued level of independence as observed during intervention when using their more
effective video system. When those systems
were removed during the follow-up probe, tbe
level of independent functioning decreased
slightiy for both Brittany and Wes while Rose
increased in her performance level. Thus, students either improved in their cooking skills
or some carry-over effect existed as a result of
the similarity to the previous recipe completed when using the video system. Future
research may seek to expand this condition

over more sessions to confirm the effects of

the video systems on student performance. In
addition, a more accurate measure of student
learning might compare student performance
on similar recipes (e.g., similar number of
steps, type of food, equipment needed, and
preparation steps) previously completed using
a video system as well as novel recipes requiring only a few similarities.
While students in the present investigation
demonstrated increased independence in
cooking and following recipes when using
video modeling or video prompting, only
three students served as participants. Replication is needed to confirm these results when
used by students who experience mild intellectual disabilities. In addition, further studies
are needed to validate the use of video
prompting and video modeling by students
who experience high and low incidence disabilities. While there is a growing body of
literature demonstrating the effectiveness of
these video strategies with students who experience low incidence disabilities (e.g., Cihak et
al., 2006; Van Laarhoven et al., 2009) and
autism spectrum disorders (e.g., CharlopChristy 8c Daneshvar, 2003; Charlop-Christy,
Le, & Freeman, 2000), this research is still in
its infancy. When used by students who experience mild intellectual disabilities, the present investigation may represent the first to
involve this student population.
Although students in the current study were
generally successful in using video prompting
and modeling, one possible limitation to their
immediate success and independence may be
attributed to the equipment used to deliver
the videos. While lightweight and portable,
the iPod Nanos contained an extremely small
viewing screen. Students may have experienced limitations while completing cooking
activities due to an inability to see video details. As such, future studies may need to introduce similar forms of portable equipment
yet with larger screens for delivering video
models and prompts. Another potential hmitation involves tbe teacher's knowledge and
comfort level with the technology being used
to deliver the intervention. During the present study, the teacher expressed enthusiasm
about using video prompts and modeling with
her students yet was hesitant about using the
iPods dues to her own lack of knowledge in

Video Modeling and Prompting / 509

how to program and operate the equipment.

As such, future studies should examine how
interventions are selected and used based on
the teacher's knowledge and comfort level. In
addition, a second area of study might examine the amount of training a teacher receives
in the use of technology and its subsequent
use in the classroom.
More empirical studies are needed examining strategies for teaching functional skills
to students who experience mild intellectual
disabilities. While acquisition of functional
skills leads to a greater likelihood for future
independence and success in school, home
and community settings (Browder et al.,
2004; Brown et al., 1979), the declining curricular focus for students with mild intellectual disabilities may result in individuals
who struggle to complete basic life skills
(Bouck, 2004b). This study represents one
recent attempt to address functional programming with students who experience
mild intellectual disabilities while concurrently incorporating socially desirable technology during intervention. Future studies
should examine how to integrate new technologies in addressing skills for students
who continue to demonstrate a need for
functional
programming. Additionally,
noted throughout this investigation were
numerous positive comments from peers
who indicated their desire to use the iPod
Nanos to assist them in completing their
work beyond the tasks targeted for intervention. Future studies may also examine the
social validity associated with the various
technologies used to deliver video prompts
and models to students in an effort to find
the most effective and those considered
most socially valid.
Finally, investigators should examine
whether or not the video systems are associated with the types of tasks targeted for intervention. For example, does video prompting
or video modeling work better with discrete
trial tasks or those less precise? Can they be
used for tasks with less clear outcomes such as
social interactions where appropriate responses may vary? Prospective studies might
investigate whether a linkage exists between
the video system used and type of task to be
completed.

510 /

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Received: 29 September 2010

Initial Acceptance: 2 December 2010
Final Acceptance: 22 January 2011

Video Modeling and Prompting / 513

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TITLE: Video Modeling and Prompting: A Comparison of Two

Strategies for Teaching Cooking Skills to Students with
Mild Intellectual Disabilities
SOURCE: Educ Train Autism Dev Disabil 46 no4 D 2011
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