Revised according to the syllabus for and after the year 2013, Frank = CERTIFICATE ;BIOLOGYDisclaimer: This teaching materialis meant for enlightening students and inculceting the right values in ther. It has been published pursuant to.an undertaking given by the author/s that the contents do not in any way whatsoever violate any existing copyright or intellectual property right. In the event the authors have been unable to track any source, and if any copyright has been inadvertently infringed, please notify the publisher for any corrective action. Consulting Editor E.R. Harrison Published by Frank Bros. & Co. (Publishers) Ltd. B-41, Sector-4, Noida-20130 Gautam Budh Nagar Phones: 0120-4689999 (100 Lines) Regd. Office 2/10, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Deihi-110002 © All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without the prior written permission of the publishers. First Edition 2001 Seventh Revised Edition 2011 ISBN 978-93-5037-082-7 Printed at Capital Offset, Bawena Ind, Area, Delhi-110039.Contents 1 An Introduction 1 6, Biotechnology: Applications 30 Progress of Science Historical Background Definition of Biology Biotechwoloey a nds History of Biology Applications of Biotechnology 7. Flowers (Structure of Bisexual Flower, Branches of Biology Functions of Various Parts) 55 Main Sub-divisions of Biology Biology and its Relation to other Branches of Sci Why is the Study of Biology Necessary? Recent Branches of Biology What is a Flower? 8. Pollination and Fertilization 66 What is Pollination? Unit-3 Plant Physiology Importance of Biology in Daily Life EERE 9. Seed: Structure and Germination 13 2. Being Alive—What is its Meaning? vt Seed? (Characteristics of Life) 8 _ 3 ‘Wht is being Alive? Some Experiments on Seed Germination Unit-1 Basic Biology 10. Respiration in Plants 80 3. The Cell—A Unit of Life 1s Experiments on Respiration in Plants History of Investigation Experiment Showing Alcoholic Fermentation Cell Theory Protoplasm Theory Wien scopesiady at Cel 4. Tissues 28 Unicellular or Acellular Orzanismss Multiceliular Organisms What is a Tissue? Plant Tissues Animal Tissues Organ, Organ System and Organism Unit-2 Plants 5. Vegetative Propagation 44Unit-4 Diversity in Living Organisms/ Ecos ‘Types of Nutrition Process of Nutrition 11. Understanding Ecosystems mn ‘Structure and Types of Teeth Ecosystem ‘Nutrition in Men ‘Types of Ecosystems Absorption of Nutrients Forests Ecosystem 17. The Skeletal System (Joints, Muscles 12. Interaction Between Biotic and Abiotic and their Movements) SS Factors in an Ecosystem __95 ‘Types of Skeletons Introduction Eunctions of the Skeleton Components of Ecosystem Bones Abiotic Components Human Skeleton Biotic Components Joints Energy Flow Muscles Pyramid 18. Structure and Function of Skin 164 Food Chain Histology of Skin Food Web Derivatives of Skin 13. Diversity of Life and Classification 101 (reat Vaiation among Onzanisms a —$_ Respiratory Organs Classification Brief History of Classification Binomial System of Classification A New Five Kingdom Classification 14, Bacteria and Fungi: Their Importance 120 Bacteria Why are they Cosmopolitan? Fang Unit-5 Human Anatomy and Physiology 15. Nutrition in Man (Classes of Food, Balanced Diet) 129 What is Food? Classification on the Basis of Chemical Composition Roughage Balanced Diet ‘Malnutrition Deficiency Diseases 16. Digestive System (Teeth, Organs, Digestive Glands and their Functions) 140 Necessity of Nutrition (Food) Respiratory System of Man Cellular Respirations Respiratory Quotient (RQ) Demonstrations Unit-6 Health and Hygiene 178 ‘Types of Disease Categories of Disease Infectious or Communicable Diseases ‘Transmission of Diseases ‘Vectors of Infection Non-infectious or Non-communicable Diseases 21. Health: Personal and Social 194 Dimensions of Health Factors Affecting Health Hygiene Control of Disease Carriers Contamination of Wateraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Being Alive—What is its meaning? (Characteristics of Life) We see different types of things in our surroundings in which some are living, certain others are non-living. All the plants and animals are living. The things made up of metal, stone, soil, etc., are non-living. Wood, sponge and cork are also non-living but they are called dead because there was life in them in the past. All living matters have some specific characteristics. WHAT IS BEING ALIVE? Generally, we say that all the living beings possess life, What is life? What is this vital energy which is responsible for all the living activities? Perhaps the answers to these questions seem simple to you, but it is a very complex question. Life can neither be seen nor be touched. It can only be felt. Therefore, like love, hate, anger and fear it is also an abstract thing. It may be surprising for you to learn that biologists do not know everything about the nature of life. The only possible scientific solution to this question is to analyse the difference between living and non-living things. This analysis can throw some light on life and the problems of human beings, animals and plants in maintaining this vital condition. By analysing the differences between living and non-living things, although we cannot give a concrete definition of life yet it can be defined in a broad way as follows: “Life is a formof energy which is found in a complex arrangement of chemical substances occurring in alt living things.” Living Things Man, lion, snake, bird, tree, grass, etc. can be put in this group, till they are performing the vital activities of life. For example, nutrition, respiration, reproduction, growt, etc. Non-living Things Pen, pencil, chair, rock, water, train, etc. are few examples of non-living things. These are non- living because unlike living things they do not perform the same vital activities. Apparently car, train, plane, etc., move but they require external energy for theit movement. This energy is entirely different from the internal energy by which we see a boy running or a butterfly flying. Some non- living substances like crystals of alum and copper sulphate increase in size, in their concentrated solutions, but this happens due to addition of particles from outside. Pulse of Arhar ‘car Boy Crystal Place of Leather Fig. 21 Living, non-living and dead things Dead Things All the living beings after completing their life span become so weak that they lose the energy responsible for the vital activities. Then they are termed as dead. Man uses some of the dead thingsaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.stages: (a) birth, (b) growth, (c) maturity, and (@) death. The time hetween birth and death is termed as life-span. No form of orgenic life can exist infinitely. Concept of life-cycle is not there in non- living things. The differences between living and non-living things are summarised below in table 2.1 Table 2.1 Differences between Living and Non-living Things Character Living Non-living 1, Definite form and Living things have a definite Non-living things do not have a definite 10, size form and size. Cellularstructure The fundamental unit of living organism is cell. Organisms can be unicellular or multicellular. Protoplasm is found in cells. Body organisation All the living organisms show body organisation. It may be up to cell, tissue, organ or organ system level. Nutrition the formation of new protoplasm. Respiration They take in O, and give out CO, and utilise oxygen for the oxidation of food by the enzymes with the release of energy, CO, and H,0. Metabolism cells. spring like their own. organisms. Movement and place to place. Living organisms require nutrition for energy and for They show many vital acti- vities which are important for the maintenance of life. Living things grow by the for- mation of new protoplasm and Living things can produce off- As a result of metabolism some nitrogenous and other waste materials are formed. These are thrown out through special excretory organs in higher All living things show move- ment. Animals move from form and size e.g. water can exist in the form of a drop or a river or an ocean. Absent. Non-living things do not show body organisation. They do not require nutrition. Some non-living objects like car, bus, ete. use oxygen for combustion of fuel but this process is not regulated by any enzyme. Absent. Few non-living things increase in size due to addition of substances externally but it is not growth. These do not reproduce. Non-living things do not excrete. Non-living things like car, train and truck move from one place to another but it is neither movement nor locomotion. Non-living things require some external force and control.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.2. A cell is a mass of protoplasm having a nucleus. 3. Cells are similar in basic structure and metabolism. 4, The new cells are formed by a process similar to the crystal formation. Virchow (1858) stated that the new cells originate from the pre-existing cells only (omnis cellula e cellula). The main features of the cell theory as known today are as follows: 1, All living organisms are composed of cells. Thus, cell is the structural unit of living organisms. 2. All cells arise from the pre-existing cells of the similar kind. Thus, cell is a unit of heredity. 3. The chemical composition and metabolism of all cells is basically alike. 4. All living cells arise only from already existing cells by cell division. EXCEPTIONS TO THE CELL THEORY 1. Virus, Protoplasin and nucleus absent. ONAand RNA is the genetic material, 2. Bacteria and Blue-green Algae. ‘No trac cells, Nuclear membrane is absent, therefore. the nuclear content is in direct contact with the cytoplasm, 3. Some Mould Fungi. Body is having undivided mass of protoplasm in which numerous nuclei are scattered PROTOPLASM THEORY It was proposed by Max Schultze (1861) that cells were ‘nucleated protoplasm’ or ‘the physical basis of life’. The protoplasm and not the cell wall being the important constituent. In 1884 Strasburger recognised that the nucleus is related to inheritance of the characters. ‘The entire substance found in the cell is called protoplasm. It is the most important biological substance. Purkinje (1840) proposed the name protoplasm to this substance. It is colourless, vital, semi-transparent and semi-liquid. All the vital activities are carried out only due to protoplasm. Huxley (1868) has called protoplasm as the physical basis of life. Physical Properties of Protoplasm 1, Protoplasm is a complex, jelly-like gelatinous, granular, elastic and colourless substance. 2. Itchanges form from sol to gel or vice versa. 3. In protoplasm the molecules are always in rapid motion. Such random movement of molecules is called Brownian movement. 4. The molecules of protoplasm always show streaming movement. 5. The protoplasm responds to various stimuli like temperature, light, chemical, etc. Chemical Composition of Protoplasm ‘The protoplasm is composed of inorganic and organic chemicals. 1, Inorganic substance. Protoplasm contains about 70% water and 30% elements among which carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sodium, potassium, calcium, iron are important. Sulphate, phosphate, chloride and carbonate are also present in little amount. Salts and gases are also present. Among gases CO, and O, are mainly found in dissolved state. 2. Organic substances. Organic substances include carbohydrate, fat, proteins, nucleic acid and enzymes. By the decomposition of carbohydrate and fat energy is released. Protein is important for body building and repair. Nucleic acid synthesises protein and is also responsible for hereditary characters. MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF CELL ‘The detailed structure of a cell has been studied under compound microscope that uses light and can magnify an object up to 2000 times and also under electron microscope that uses beam of electrons and can magnify things as much as 2,00,000 times of its original size After the discovery of different techniques and also the electron microscopes, our knowledge about the cell and its organelles has developed a lot. 6aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.surrounds the nucleus is called cytoplasm. It is formed of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and certain inorganic substances. Many small organelles are found inside cytoplasm. These are known as cell organelles. These organelles are the actual sites for various metabolic functions of the cells. CELL 18 A SELF.CONTENT UNIT All the vital activities of the body are performed by a cell, So itis called as the complete unit. The cell shows following properties: 1. Every cell has a nucleus, 2. Every cell has mitochondria, golgi body, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosome and vacuoles, 3. Different activities of life are performed by cell orgonellee 4. Every cell has a definite life period. Oxidation of food material takes place in every cell, by which energy is obtained 6, Every cell can reproduce. Cell Organelles Important cell organelles embedded in the cytoplasm are described below: 1, Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER). The term endoplasmic reticulum was given by Porter in 1953. It is a very fine structure which can be seen only through electron microscope. Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tube-like structures distributed extensively throughout the cytoplasm, Endoplasmic reticulum has three parts: () Cisternae, These are parallel inter- connected flattened _sac-like structures. Lumen of Endopiasme ‘eicuum ea Tubuies Cisternae Vesicles Fig. 3.9 Cisternae, vesicles and tubules in ‘endoplasmic reticulum (ii) Tubules. Often branched, network- like structures. (iii) Vesicles. These are rounded or oval- shaped structures of ER. Endoplasmic reticulum is of two types: (a) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) is not associated with ribosomes. (b] Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) is associated with the ribosomes. Functions. The following functions are performed by ER: (i) It increases the surface area of the cytoplasm for different metabolic activities of the cell. Rough endoplasmic reticulum is the site for the synthesis of proteins. (iii) It is associated with synthesis, storage and transport of metabolic products. 2. Ribosomes. Ribosomes are extremely minute granular or spherical structures found either in free state in the cytoplasm or attached to the surface of endoplasmic reticulum. They are composed of nucleo- protein (ribonucleic acid and protein). — 508 0s ‘Subunit ‘Subunit 70s 0S 20s Fig. 3.10 Two sub-units of rbosomes Functions. The main function of ribosome is to act as a platform or work place for the synthesis of proteins. 3, Mitochondria. Mitochondria were first described by Altmann, but named by Benda in 1898. They are small rod shaped or spherical organelles found in large number. Each mitochondrion is bounded by two membranes - outer and inner. Outer membrane is smooth and the inneraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Fig. 3.18 Cellinctusions. @ e) 1) Insulin, (b to g-Starch grain), (b) Eccentric, (c) Eccentric and compound, (d)-{e) Concentric ‘and (f)-(g) Concentric and compound, (h) Aleurone grains WORTH REMEMBERING * Crystals of calcium oxalate are called raphides. + Star-like crystal aggregations are called druse, + Cystolith which resemble a bunch of small grape like structure are the crystals of calcium-carbonate. + Presmatic raphides are found in onion leaves. Nucleus ‘The credit for the discovery of nucleus goes to Robert Brown (1831). J. Hammer Ling (1953) proved its role in heredity. Nucleus is present in all the eukaryotic cells. Some cells contain nucleus when they are young but it degenerates when the cell matures e.g. sieve tubes in plants, and RBC in mammals. In prokaryotic cells ‘true nucleus’ is absent. Nucleus is the control tower of the cell The nucleus is composed of the following structures: 1. Nuclear Membrane. it is 2 selectively permeable double membrane envelope-like structure around the nuclear contents which separate the nucleoplasm from cytoplasm. Nucleoplasm. It is a fibrous transparent, semi-solid granular material that fills the nucleus. The nuclear components such as the nucleolus and the chromatin fibres are present in it. ‘Nucleolus. Inside the nucleus lies one (or more than one) denser body known as nucleolus. It contains a large amount of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins used in the formation of ribosomes. The nucleolus stores all the proteins of the ribosomes. bosome Chromatin Endoplasmic Petinuclear Space Rateutum Fig. 3.19 Nucleus : Electron microscope view 4. Chromatin. It is a fibrous hereditary part of the nucleus. It occurs as a network of filaments or fine threads. At the time of cell division, the chromatin becomes thick and ribbon-like. Functions (i) The nucleus controls all the metabolic activities of the cell. Without a nucleus the cell dies and it cannot divide. (iii) It regulates cell division. (iv) It is concerned with the transmission of hereditary traits from parents to offepring. (ii) Differences between Plant and Animal Cells Although, there are some basic differences between a plant and an animal cell, their basic general structure remains the same. Differences between plant and animal cells are tabulated as follows (Table 3.1). 24aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Tissues When you see different kinds of plants and animals, you can easily point out the differences in their external appearance. If we go alittle deep, ‘we shall find that this difference is not only confined to external appearance but is present in the internal structures as well. Each part of the body, whether external or intemal is made of, small units called cells. Living organisms can be divided into two groups: 1. Unicellular or Acellular 2. Multicellular UNICELLULAR OR ACELLULAR ORGANISMS A single cell organism is called a unicellular organism. All the vital activities—respiration, excretion, nutrition, and reproduction—are performed by this single cell. Fig. 4.1 Acellular organisms (a) Amoeba, (b) Paramoecium, (c) Euglena, (2) Chlamydomonas showing exchange of gases MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS Organisms made up of many cells are called multicellular. These organisms divide the work to keep themselves alive i.c., a group of cells. () synthesizes the extra cellular materials. (i) helps to carry stimulus in body. (ii) performs respiration. (iv) participates in exeretion. () circulates blood. (vi) forms bone marrow, and (vii) repairs wear and tear of body. Advantages of Multicellularity 1, Division of labour is found in organisms, by which energy is liberated and stored for the future in body. 2, Repair of wear and tear of body is done by the formation of new cells. So the age of the organism increases. 3, Multicellular organisms have regeneration power. 4. They can adopt according to the environment. Multicellular Organisms with Cell Differentiation In most of the animals, the body consists of many cells. These organisms are called multicellular organisms. Interstia Call Fig. 4.2 Hydraaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.—S Fig. 4.7 Types of sclerenchyma: (a-{g) Sclereids, (b)-() Fibres ‘Types of Sclerenchyma Fibres and Sclereids. Fibres are long, narrow, thick and lignified cells usually tapering at both ends while sclereids cells are normally short with very thick walls, irregular and not tapering at the ends. Functions. Sclerenchyma gives strength, rigidity and flexibility to the plant body and thus enables, it to withstand various strains. Complex Tissues Tissues which are composed of two or more types of cells but contribute to a common function are called complex tissues. These tissues provide passage for water dissolved materials to move up and down in the plant. Therefore, these are also called as conducting tissues. These tissues are formed of (2) xylem, and (0) phloem. Xylem Occurrence. The xylem tissue is found in all parts, such as the root, stem and leaf of the higher plants. They occur together with the phloem and form the vascular bundles. Structure () Xylem is a complex tissue composed of several types of cells. (i) This complex tissue includes tracheids, vessels, xylem fibers and xylem parenchyma. (a) Tracheids. These cells are long and tubular. Their walls are thick, rigid and lignified. The tips of these cells are pointed. Tracheids are found in all vascular plants. Its main function is conduction of water ‘and minerals from root to stem. (b) Vessels. These are long cylindrical cells which are placed in a row one above the other forming a pipe like appearance. These are also lignified cells. They also participate in conduction of water and minerals. (c) Xylem Fibres. In structure and function they are sclerenchymatous fibres. Because these cells are found attached to xylem therefore they are called xylem fibres. These provide strength to the plant organs. (d) Xylem Parenchyma. These are simple parenchyma found in the xylem. These cells are living. These are connected with 32aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.‘Types. This tissue is normally divided into three categories, namely, (a) Striated (Striped) (b) Unstriated (Smooth) (©) Cardiac muscles. (@) Striated Muscle Tissue. These are under the control of the will of an individual. For example, the muscles in your arms or legs will move only if you so wish. Such muscles constitute about 50 per cent of the body and are also known as voluntary muscles. This tissue occurs in groups of fibres and provide force to walk, run and perform work. Striated muscles have distinct light and (ii) Muscles are responsible for all involuntary movements needed to keep the body alive. Connective Tissue Occurrence. This tissue is distributed all over the body. Structure. The connective tissue has a large amount of matrix which shows great variation in size and shape. The cells of this tissue are living but the matrix is composed of non-living cells. ‘Types of Connective Tissues. There are several types of connective tissues which can be grouped into the following main categories: la) Loose areolar dark bands. They are unbranched. These —_[b) Fibrous muscles get easily fatigued. (c) Cartilage (a) Bone (e) Fluid connective tissue. (a) Loose Areolar Connective Tissue. It is the most fundamental type of connective tissue which is found all over the body, beneath the skin. It connects organs together and fills up space between adjacent tissue and thus acts as a packing tissue. Areolar tissue looks like a white sticky material and consists offine bundles of fibres. The matrix has mucin. Two types of fibres, white and yellow are found in the matrix on ground substance. The matrix also contains the following cells—fibroblasts, phagocytes, amoeboid mast cells, lymphoid cells and mesenchymal cells. Fibrous Connective Tissue. It serves for packing and binding most of the organs. Tendon fibres connect muscles to bones ‘striped (Voluntary) Muscle Fibres ‘Smeoth (Involuntary) Muscle Fibres Cardiac Muscle Fig, 412 Types of muscle tissues (b) Unstriated Muscle Tissue, They are also known as smooth, involuntary or visceral muscles. They are not under the control of one’s will. This muscle tissue has elongated, spindle shaped smooth fibres. Movements of passage of food in the intestine are caused by the contraction of this muscle tissue, These are found in-the dermis of skin and walls of uterus. {c) Cardiac Muscles, The muscles of the heart of vertebrates are called cardiac muscles. ‘They are striated but involuntary muscles. Cardiac muscles are branched. As you know, the heart goes on beating throughout life without getting tired. The only rest that this muscle gets is between two successive contractions of the heart. Functions of the Muscular Tissue (i) Muscles provide force for voluntary movements to carry out work in day-to-day life. and ligaments connect two bones at joints. A fibrous tissue called fascia binds animal skin to the underlying structures. Adipose tissue is filled with fat and makes a man fat and plump. (c) Cartilage Connective Tissue. It is a non- porous tissue also, known as cristle. This tissue is secreted by cartilage cells embedded in the matrix. There are two types of cartilage tissues, namely, hyaline cartilage—a bluish white translucent tissue and elastic cartilage—a yellow fibrous tissue present in the external ear. Cartilageaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.is present on the radial and tangential walls of endodermal cells. This is called casparian strip and is made up of lignin, suberin and cutin. Transverse Wall [Sngtuira Fig. 4.18 Casparian strips and passage cells in the ‘endodermis (a) Endodermal cell to show casparian strip (b)and (c) Endodermal cells in 7.5. (P = Passage cell) A distinct endodermis is a constant feature of roots of all plants but in stem it is not very distinct. In roots thick walled endodermal cells are interrupted by thin walled cells just outside the protoxylem patches. These thin walled endodermal cells are called passage cells, or transfer cells. They help in passage of water from cortex to xylem. Endodermis has several functions i.e., it acts as watertight dam between vascular and non-vascular regions, it stores starch, it may serve as a protective layer and maintains root pressure. Perteycte Itis a cylinder of thin walled parenchymatous or sometimes thick walled sclerenchymatous tissue (Cucurbita) ranging in width from a single layer of cells to a few layers. In some stems e.g. sunflower, the pericycle is composed of alternating bands of thin walled and thick walled cells (heterogenous pericycle). If it is made up of only one type of cells it is called homogenous pericycle. When composed of parenchymatous cells, it may act as storage region. In dicot roots the pericycle cells become meristematic and forms part of the cambium ring. Thick walled pericycle gives mechanical support to the plants. In angiosperms pericycle give rises to lateral roots. Medulla or Pith If occupies the central part in dicot stem and dicot and monocot roots. Itis generally composed of large parenchymatous cells with intercellular spaces (sometimes sclerenchymatous). In most dicot roots, the pith is completely obliterated by the metaxylem elements. In most dicotyledons, the peripheral layers of pith extend between the vascular bundle and are in contact with pericycle. Cells of pith in this region are smaller and densely packed. These extensions are called pith rays, or medullary rays. Vascular (Fascicular) Tissue System ‘The central cylinder of the shoot or root surrounded by cortex is called stele. The varying number of vascular bundles formed inside the stele constitute vascular tissue system. Each vascular bundle is made up of xylem and phloem with or without cambium. The vascular bundles in dicotyledonous stem and in roots of dicots as well 2s monocots are arranged in a ring while in monocotyledonous stem they are scattered in general ground tissue. Elements of a Vascular Bundle: ‘The vascular bundles of a dicot stem are made up of the following elements: (a) xylem or wood, (b) phloem or bast, and (c) cambium. (a) Xylem. In dicotyledonous and monocoty- ledonous stems, the development of xylem takes place towards periphery ie., protoxylem is formed towards the centre and metaxylem towards the periphery. This is called centrifugal xylem and this condition is called endarch condition. (0) Phloem. In stem, the phloem is away from the centre towards the periphery and situated above the xylem. In dicotyledonous plants, phloem is made up of sieve tubes, companion cells and Phloem sclerenchyma. The phloem parenchyma is absent. Outer (peripheral) part of phloem is made up of narrow sieve tubes called protophioem and the inner part is metaphloem. (€) Cambium: A thin strip of primary meristem is present in between the xylem and phloem in dicotyledonous stems. It is called vascular cambium. The cambium cells, 40aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.FLOWERING PLANTS Vegetative Propagation WHAT IS REPRODUCTION? Reproduction can be defined as the process of formation of new individuals from the pre-existing ones. It is required for perpetuation of a species because in nature the older individuals are subjected to death after a particular time, Plants usually show two types of reproduction viz., asexual and sexual. Asexual reproduction is of following two types: 1, Agamospermy. In this method, the seed is formed without gametic union. 2. Vegetative Reproduction. These are the methods where vegetative parts of the body such as rhizomes, tubers, bulbs ete.. are ‘used for multiplication. We shall study in this chapter in detail about the vegetative reproduction or propagation. Vegetative Propagation Vegetative reproduction can be defined as regeneration or formation of a new piant from any vegetative part of the plant body. ‘The methods of vegetative reproduction involve separation of a part of plant body which develops. into a new plant. Many plants produce modified stems, roots and leaves, specially for natural vegetative propagation. On the other hand with the advancement of scientific knowledge human beings have also developed numerous methods of artificial vegetative propagation for various useful plants. ‘Vegetative reproduction can be studied under the following headings: 1, Methods of natural vegetative propagation 2. Methods of artificial vegetative propagation Methods of Natural Vegetative Propagation Different parts of many plants are variously modified for vegetative propagation. Some common are discussed below:' 1. Vegetative Propagation by Stem. You have already studied about modification of stems, Out of these specialised stem forms like tubers, bulbs, runners, rhizomes, corms, offsets, etc., help the plant to multiply uncer favourable conditions. (a) Tuber. It is a modification of underground stem tip. The ‘eyes’ or buds present on the tuber develop into new plants. Potato is the best example of tuber. Fig. 5.1 Vegetative propagation by tuber (0) Bulb. it is a modified shoot that has a very short stem and apical and axillary buds. These buds grow to form shoots e.g. onion, tulip, garlic and lilies. aaaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(i) Establishment of tissue in culture, (ii) Multiplication of tissue and its differentiation. (iii) Root formation and conditioning of plants. liv) Growth in pots kept in green houses and experiments in fields. A wide range of plants are propagated by this technique. It is used in commercial micropropagation of orchids, carnations, gladioli, Chrysanthemums, etc. The technique is also useful in obtaining disease free plants, clones and genetic experimental plants. It is a quick and convenient technique. Stage ii Vo Stage lV Fig. 5.10 Micropropagation technique Hybridisation From the very beginning man has been trying to improve the traits of plants beneficial to him. One of the methods of crop or plant improvement in Hybridisation. It is the obtaining of a progeny from a cross of two or more parent plants that differ in one or more genetic characters. Hybridisation may be carried out between two ormore plants. Hybridisation may be between two plants of same species, of different species or between two varieties of same species. The objectives of hybridisation may be summed up as under: ( Development of hybrid vigour (plants superior to both parents are obtained.) (ii) Accumulation of desired traits of two or more plants in a single hybrid. The method is time consuming. It involves removal of male parts of flowers (emasculation) to prevent underived fertilization. Then pollen of desired plant is artificially brushed on stigma of emasculated flower to obtain seeds of hybrid plant. The emasculated flower is kept bagged both. before and after fertilization. Economic Importance of Propagation and Hybridisation ‘Vegetative propagation and plant hybridisation are two techniques that are extremely beneficial to mankind today. They not only help in improvement of food crops but also of cash crops and ornamentals. The overall significance of these methods may be summed up as follows: 1. Plants raised through _vegetative propagation are identical to parents totally ie,, they are clones and genetically similar. 2. In some plants, seeds are never formed, vegetative propagation is the only option to multiply such plants. 3. Some plants like grapes, pineapples, roses, bananas, Chrysanthemums etc., form seeds that are not viable i.e. they do not germinate. Again vegetative propagation is the only option available for their multiplication. 4. Vegetative propagation is a cheaper, rapid and convenient method of multiplication of plants. 48aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.11. Enzymes. Certain enzymes are obtained by biotechnological techniques for medicinal and industrial use. eg. Proteases, lipases, amylases are obtained from cultures of yeasts like Saccharomyces and Tonila and certain bacteria. 12, Antibiotics. These are substances produced by microbes which are effective against other pathogenic microbes without harming the host. Very few antibiotics are synthetic. Most are still obtained from microbes. Biotechnology has enabled us to obtain purer and larger amounts of antibiotics. Common examples include penicillin and tetracycline. Penicillin is produced by Penicillium sp. of fungi. It destroys bacteria that cause tonsilitis, sore throat, rheumatic fever, gonorrhea, local infections and certain types of pneumonia. Tetracyclines are a group of antibiotics isolated from streptomyces and processed. They are used to treat viral pneumonia, whooping cough, eye infection ete. Fig.6.4 Antibiotics 13. Vitamins. Vitamins are food factors which do not provide energy but are required for ideal functioning of body processes in small quantities. Certain vitamins are still manufactured by employing microbes e.g. vitamin B,, vit B,, and d-sorbose the precursor of vitamin C are all obtained through biotechnology. 14. Vaceines. Vaccines are nothing but killed or weakened pathogens employed to provide immunity against the diseases they cause. Successfull cheaper and better vaccines have been developed using biotechnology. These are purer, safer and more potent. Fig.6.5 Vaccines 15, Antibodies. Antibodies against disease causing pathogens can be obtained through clone cultures. 16, Hormones. Bacteria are suitable tools for biotechnological work. A gene from any organism, even man, can be inserted into the DNA of a bacterium. This artificial manipulation of genes of organisms is called recombinant DNA technology. One of the most important and earliest success of gene manipulation was production of human insulin through E. coli (2 bacterium). Insulin is required in the body to control blood sugar level. If its secretion is reduced or stopped, the person suffers from “diabetes mellitus”. Earlier enimal insulin wae used for treatment, but it was not as good as human insulin and more expensive. Other human hormones like somatostatin involved in controlling growth is now commercially produced using EB. coli using techniques of genetic engineering. 17. Tissue Culture. Tissue culture is an important tool for mankind that can be 52utilized in ell fields. This was made possible 18, Genetic Engineering. This is another tool by advancement of biotechnology. that has been developed in recent times. We can now modify and change genes thus transforming the properties of living organisms. 19, Test-tube Babies. These arc also a gift of biotechnology. 20. Diagnostic Kits. For detecting many diseases especially those caused by parasites, diagnostic kits are available today that give more reliable and quicker results easily. 21. Forensic Science. DNA fingerprinting has made it possible for law agencies to identify and arrest criminals on the basis of minute DNA samples from hair, semen, blood and Fig. 6.6 Plant issue culture other body fluids and tissues like skin, ete. 1. What is biotechnology? 2. Is biotechnology an independent subject? 8. What do you know about utilization of microbes in ancient times? 4. Mention some food items prepared with the help of microbes around the world. 5. Name two pioneer institutes in the field of biotechnology in India. 6. Give four industrial applications of biotechnology. 7. (a) What are biofertilizers? (0) Explain “Biological control". 8. How are microbes used to a) Treat Sewage (t) Produce Gobar Gas? 9. Give five applications of biotechnology in the field of medicine. 10, Match the following: Column A Columa B Koji Yeast Gari Japan Temph Fermentation Vinegar Indonesia Baking Africa 21, Fill in the blanks: (a) —__-______ and ________ are made in South India by fermentation of rice and black gram paste. ) ———___ ana _____ are obtained in breweries. () _____ is one of the hormones synthesized by genetically modified microbes. (@) Forensic science has helped in arresting dangerous (€) Biotechnology is the marriage of —_____ with —_ 12. Every question has four options. Choose the correct answer: (i) Biotechnology has enabled production of (a) hormones (b) vitamins (c)_ vaccines (d) all of the above 53(ii) Gari is made by (a) sterilization () baking (iif) The Aryans made (2) Rase () Arka (iv) Vaccines are (a) weakened pathogens () vitamins () Vinegar is actually (a) acetic acid {co} tartaric acid {b) @ as offering to God. fb) @ &) @ ® @ acid fermentation none of these Soma Jal strong pathogens hormones lactic acid citric acid 54aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Androsctum Collection of Stamens Filament Anther ‘Long Stalk Dihecous, coro! Coliction of Petals, Brig Yellow, Expanded Above, Free ‘or Polypetalous Calyx Cofection of Sepals, Green, Polysapalous Peels Stalk of Flower Stigma Bilcbed Short Style Gynoeclum ovary Bicarpellary, Syrcarpot BBiocular, Superior Axle Placentation Receptacle Base of Flower on which Feral Organs are Arranged. also cafed Thalamus. Fig. 7.2 Parts of a typical flower (@) ®) Fig. 7.3 (e) Polysepalous calyx and polypetalous corolla of ‘mustard, (b) Gamosepalous calyx and gamopetalous corolla of dhatura insects for pollination and also protect the inner whorls (stamens and pistil). Usually, petals are coloured but in some plants petals are green in colour e.g. Artobotrys, Anther Tubeot Fused Filamens Calyx Epicalyx Fig. 7.4 Calyx and epicalyx of Hibiscus The number of petals in dicotyledons are usually five (variation from 2-10) and in monocotyledons three. Corolla assumes various shapes. Some of the common 56aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.On the inner surface of the ovary walls, ovules are attached. These ovules are attached on cushion-like structure called placenta. Placentation The manner in which placenta and ovules are arranged inside the ovary wall is known as placentation. It is of several types. 1. Marginal. Single placenta which develops along the junction of two fused margins e.g. In this case, the ovary is unilocular and has two or more longitudinal placenta e.g. Argemone. Dorsal Sutuee Ventral Suture Pracerta @) Ovary Wall Locule ‘Owle Placenta Central Axis (a) Fig. 7.11 Different types of placentatior 3. Anile. The ovary is many chambered. The ovules are borne on the central axis e.g. ‘Solanum. 4. Free Central. The ovary is unilocular and the ovules are borne on the axis in the centre of the ovary e.g. Dianthus. 5. Basal. The ovary is unilocular and a single ovule is borne at the base of ovary e.g. sunflower. 6. Superficial. A large number of ovules are borne on the walls of loculi without specific order eg. waterlily. The gynoecium is multicarpellary syncarpous. Ovary Wal Central, ‘Axie (ovary Wat! Lecule Owle “Septum ovules: o (©) (2) Marginal L.S.) and(T.S.), (b) Parietal, (c) Axite, (4) Free central, (e) Basal, (f) Superticial What are Bracts? ‘These are specialised leaves from the axil of which flowers arise. They are of the following types: 1. Foliaceous. They are leaf-like in appearance e.g. Gynandropsis. 2. Petaloid, They look like petals eg Bougainvillea. 3. Epicalyx. There are one or more whorls of bracteoles found at the base of calyx e.g. China rose. 4. Involuere. There are’one or more whorls around the entire inflorescence and they are green eg. sunflower. 5. Sealy. These are membranous small bracts different from involucre bracts eg. sunflower 6. Spathy. They are boat-shaped, large, enclosing cluster of flowers e.g. banana. 7. Glumes. These are small and dry, scaly bracts found in spikelet of gramineae e.g. wheat. 60aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(vi), Umbel. Axis short and all flowers (b) Cymose. In this, the oldest flower is in the appear on the same point. Younger centre and youngest flower towards the flowers are in centre and older periphery. Such arrangement is called flower towards the periphery e.g. centrifugal. Centella (vi) Capitulum. Receptacle is flat and bears numerous sessile and small florets in a centripetal manner ice youngest in the centre and older towards the periphery. Two kinds of florets are present on the receptacle. — Ray florets. Arranged on the rim of the receptacle, have yellow star-shaped petals. Florets are sterile or fertile and are zygomorphic. - Dise florets. Grouped in the Racemose cymose centre and are bisexual and actinomorphic. Fig. 7.17 Racemose and cymose inflorescence EXERCISES 1. Write in detail the structure of a typical flower studied by you with the help of a labelled diagram. 2. Define the following terms and mention their main functions: (a) Inflorescence (6) Gynoecium (c) Placentation (@ Incomplete flower (e). Perianth Write down the different positions of floral leaves on the thalamus in deteil? What is the significance of flowers in the plant and how many types of flowers are there? Write a difference between (a) Calyx and Corolla (b) Inflorescence and Flower (c) Androecium and Gynoecium (a) Kypogyny and Perigyny (e) A Complete flower and an Incomplete Flower 6. What do you mean by persistent calyx? 7. Explain the function of calyx. 8. How many whorls are present in a typical flower? Write the names of the components of every whorl. 9. What is corolla? Write the name of its unit. 10. What do you mean by essential and non-essential parts of flowers? Give their functions. 11, What do you mean by hypogynous, perigynous and epigynous ovary? 12. Differentiate between: la) Flower and Inflorescence (b) Racemose and Cymose inflorescence (©) Marginal and Parietal placentation (@)_ Ray florets and Disc florets 18. Write four lines on the following: fa) Androecium (0) Gynoecium (c) Calyx (@) Corolla gee 6414, Give one example of each of the following: {a Actinomorphic flower (0) Complete flower (c) Bisexual flower (@) Inferior ovary fe) Persistent calyx () Catkin inflorescence, 15. Every question has four options. Choose the correct answer. (i) Thatermus is a fa) stem {t) condensed stem (c) plumule (@) condensed plumule ii] Meaning of gamosepalous is (a) free calyx (b) jointed calyx (c) calyx petaloid (a) spiny calyx (iii) Four whorls of a flower are located on (a) flower axis {b) pedicel (co) thalamus {d)_ none of these (iv) The shape of anther in shoe-flower is (a) reniform (®) rounded (linear (@) appendiculate (v) Sunflower’s inflorescence is (a) corymb (0) umbel (c)_ capitulum (4) cyathium 65aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(@) Birds Pollination or Ornithophily. The phenomenon where flowers are pollinated by birds is called ornithophily. Humming birds and honey thrushes which feed on the nectar of flower-like Bignonia, carry the anthers to the stigma of a different flower. Ornithophilous flowers have following adaptations: (i) Flowers are coloured, generally orange and red since birds are highly sensitive to these colours. (ii) Produce plenty of nectar, (iii) Flowers are scentless as birds lack a good sense of smell. () Pollination by Bat or Chiropterophily. Pollination carried by bats is known as chiropterophily. Bahivia megalandraof Java and Anthocephatus are pollinated by bats. Advantages of Cross Pollination (i) Stronger and healthy offspring are produced by cross pollination. (ii) Production of a large number of seeds which are viable. (iii) This technique of crossing is employed in improving the crops for the development of new kinds of vegetables and fruits. (iv) New varieties are produced with a useful character. Disadvantages of Cross Pollination () It is an uneconomical process because large quantities of pollen grains are to be produced as some may be wasted in transit. (i) Since plants are dependent on external pollinating agents for pollination, cross pollination is not always certain. (iii) Lot of energy and food materials are required by the plant to adapt various devices to bring about pollination. ~ Some Examples of Pollination Pollination in Salvia. Insects bring about pollination in Salvia. The flowers of Salvia have a bilipped corolla and two stamens are attached to the tube of corolla. Corolla is tubular below and its upper part is divided into two lips. Upper lip form a hood-like structure while the lower lip serves as a platform for the insects. Salvi has two stamens of which fertile one is situated under the hood of upperlip of corolla. The stigma is bilobed and has a long style and lies close under the hood of the corolla. When the insect sits on the lower lip and pushes its proboscis down into the corolla tube to collect nectar it brings down the fertile anther to touch the back of the bee, thus dusting its back with pollen grains. ‘As Salvia flowers are protandrous when the same bee visits another flower for nectar, carrying the pollen grains on its back, the style bends down and touches the back of the insect and thus pollination is brought about. Antigr ‘Stiga Fig. 8.5 Pollination in Salvi: (2} 1b) LS. of flower ‘showing immature pistil and mature stamen, (c)-(a) Bee ‘carrying pollen, (d)-(a) Flower with mature stigma Pollination in Maize. In maize the pollination is brought ebout by wind. Maize plant is monoecious i.e., both male and female flowers are borne on the same plant. The cluster of mate flowers (tassel) are bome terminally and the female inflorescence (cobs) are borne laterally at lower levels. The female flowers are surrounded by involucre and their silky thread-like styles project out of the involucres. Male flowers produce large quantities of pollen grains which are large and heavy. When mild wind shakes the plant the male flower releases the pollen which fall down vertically. The pollen grains on falling on the stigma bring about pollination. 6aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.UNIT-3 PLANT PHYSIOLOGY Seed: Structure and Germination WHAT IS A SEED? Seed is a fertilized and matured ovule. A seed is formed as a result of fertilization of an egg with a male gamete within the embryo sac of an ovule. There may develop as many seeds as there are ovules but generally all ovules do not result in the formation of seed. A true seed may be defined as a fertilized mature ovule which possesses an inactive embryo and reserves food for its further development. Do You KNow? + Smallest seed is of Orchis (weigh only 0.1 mg). ‘Largest seed 1s of Lodotcea moldiviea (double coconut) It has fresh weight of about 18 kg, + Study of seed is known as spermology. Seeds are found in Phanerogams, Structure of a Seed Atypical seed consists of two essential parts - the seed coat and the embryo. 1, Seed Coat. The outer covering of the seed is known as seed coat. It develops from the integument of the ovule. The outer layer is called testa and the inner layer is called tegmen. Sced coat is protective in nature. 2. Micropyle. At the point where the seed breaks from the seed stalk, there is a scar called hilum. Close to the hilum is a small pore called the micropyle, which allows entry of water into the embryo. 3. Embryo. The embryo may be defined as the young or miniature plant, enclosed within the seed-coat. It develops from the fertilized egg, ‘The embryo of a matured seed consists of cotyledons, plumule, hypocotyl and radicle. Cotyledons. The cotyledons, are also known as seed leaves. In dicots, two cotyledons are joined to the embryo by astalk. In monocots, there is only one cotyledon (called the scutellum) joined to the embryo. Cotyledons store food material for the embryo. The radicle, plumule and hypocotyl together form the embryonic axis or tigellum. Plumule. It develops from the embryonic axis and gives rise to the primary shoot. Radicle. The part of the axis which projects out of the cotyledons is called the radicle. Radicle gives rise to the primary root. Hypocotyl. The part of the axis ofthe embryo lying below the point where cotyledons are attached is called hypocotyl. It bears the radicle at its end. 4, Endosperm. This is a food reserve that develops in certain seeds. Such seeds are called endospermic while those without endosperm are called non-endospermic. Types of Seeds There are two types of seeds depending upon the number of cotyledons present in a seed: 1, Monocotyledonous seeds are those which have a single cotyledon in their seeds. They give rise to monocotyledonous plants like wheat, rice, maize, onion and barley. 2. Dicotyledonous seeds are those which have two cotyledons in their seeds. They give rise to dicotyledonous plants like mango, gram, pea, castor, etc. 73Reserve Food Stored inEndespem Send Coat Catyledons Plumule Tigelium Racicle @ rs Fig. 9.1 Typical structure of dicotyledonous seed: (a) A dicotyledonous exalbuminous seed, (0) dicotyledonous albuminous seed Resewe Food nEncospern Resene Food inCotyedon Pumue Radice ‘Cotyledon ‘Goutelum) Colechiiza (a) o) Fig. 92 Typical structure of monocotyledonous seed: (2) A monocotyledonous exalbuminous sead, (b) Amonocotyledonous slbuminous seed Seeds are also of two types on the basis of the presence or absence of endosperm. 1, Bndospermic seeds. In some dicotyledons (e.g. castor) and monocotyledons (e.g. cereals and grasses) the food is stored mainly in the endosperm. Such seeds are kmown as endospermic or albuminous. 2, Non-endospermic seeds. Such types of seeds do not have endosperm and food is stored in the cotyledons only. Such seeds are known as non-endospermic or exalbuminous e.g. pea, gram, lentil, Structure of Some Common Seeds The study of the structure of some common seeds helps in understanding their germination and their overall nature, The Bean Seed Bean is a kidney-shaped seed which is generally deep red or brown in colour and is enclosed in a hard seed coat called testa. It protects the delicate inner parts of seed from injury and attack of bacteria, fungi and insects. Inside the testa there is another membranous covering called tegmen. On the concave side it shows a scar from where it is attached to the fruit hilum. Just below the scar there is a minute pore called micropyle. ‘On removing the seed coat, we see two large kidney-shaped cotyledons attached to embryonic axis. The embryo consists of two cotyledons, radicle and plumule, The radicle is present towards one side and plumule towards the other side. The cotyledons store reserve food. So, this seed is an example on non-endospermic seed. ‘On germination of seed, the radicle gives rise to root and plumule forms the shoot. ) a y (@) External (0)Testa Removed (0) One Covyledon Appearance Renoved Fig. 9.3 Phaseolus (Bean) seed The Maize Grain Maize is an example of one seeded fruit in which seed coat and fruit walll are fused. It is somewhat triangular in shape. At the pointed end there is a small whitish area. The seed is endospermic. Vertical section shows the following structures (Pig. 9.4): ‘Seed coat. It is a thin brownish membranous layer made up of the seed coat and the wall of the fruit fused together. Endosperm. In longitudinal section the seed is divided obliquely into two, upper endosperm and lower embryo which is separated by a layer called epithelium. The endosperm is surrounded by a special one-cell thick layer, called aleurone layer. It is filled with aleurone grains which are proteinaceous in nature. Endosperm contains stored food mostly as starch 74Embryo. The embryo is a lower part of the seed. It consists of an embryonic axis on which there is a massive cotyledon called scutellum. The embryo has two main parts ie., radicle and plumule. The radicle is covered by root cap and an outer sheath called coleorhiza. The plumule bears few rudimentary leaves and is covered by a sheath called coleoptile. Cotyledon (Scutelum) Radice ‘Celeormiza Fig. 9.4 (a)-{0) Structure of corn (Zea mays) grain: (a) Entire grain, (b) L.S. of grain Seed Germination The process by which the dormant embryo of the seed resumes active growth and forms a seedling is known as germination. A dormant seed is a seed which is in the state of apparent inactivity and which will not start to grow, even if the favourable conditions are provided, until a definite time has elapsed. A seedling is a young plant which has just produced its first two leaves. Conditions for Seed Germination ‘The various conditions necessary for germination of seed are as follows: 1. Water. For germination of a seed, water is indispensable; the protoplasm becomes active only when itis saturated with water. In air-dried seeds the water content is usually 10-15%. No vital activities are possible at this low water content. Water facilitates the necessary chemical changes in food material. Water also serves as a medium where enzymatic reactions occur. Water is imbibed by the seed coat which becomes soft, swells up and bursts open. This helps the embryo to come out easily. 2. Temperature. A number of physiological processes occur within the seed during germination therefore, suitable tempera- ture is always necessary for germination. Seeds do not germinate at temperature below 0°C or above 45°C. Optimum temperature for seed germination is 15-30°C though it can occur from near OC to 40°C. 3. Oxygen. During germination embryo resumes growth and for this energy is tequired. This energy comes from the oxidation of food material stored in the cotyledons or the endosperm which requires oxygen. Types of Germination On the basis of the behaviour of cotyledons, the germination may be of following two types: 1. Epigeal Germination. In this type of germination, cotyledons are pushed upwards above the soil into the air and light due to the rapid growth and elongation of the hypocotyl e.g. bean, cotton, castor, papaya, onion and tamarind. 2, Hypogeal Germination. In this type of germination, the seed remains inside the soil. This is due to the fact that epicotyl elongates faster then the hypocotyl so that the cotyledons remain inside the soil eg. wheat, rice, maize, pea, groundnut, mango, ete. Germination in Some Common Seeds ‘The Bean Seed Bean shows epigeal germination. Here food is stored in the cotyledons. When seeds are sown water is soaked up and radicle comes out by the elongation of hypocotyl which carries two cotyledons upward. As the hypocotyl grows the cotyledons spread apart. In the mean time plumule grows rapidly and first two leaves 75aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.10. 11. 12. Differentiate between: (a) Coleorhiza and Coleoptile. (0) Albuminous seed and Exalbuminous seed. (¢) Bpigeal germination and Kypogeal germination Give two examples each of {a) Dicotyledonous albuminous seeds. (6) Monocotyledonous albuminous seeds. (c) Dicotyledonous non-endospermic seeds showing hypogeal germination. {d) Monocotyledonous endospermic seeds showing hypogeal germination. Briefly, explain the factors that are necessary for germination. Describe three beans experiment. What does it demonstrate? Explain, why seeds sown in too deep in the soil fail to germinate. Describe the structure of a seed by suitable diagram. Every question has four options. Choose the correct answer: ()) Food is stored in the seeds of castor (a) in radicle (®) in plumule (c) in cotyledons (d) in endosperm (ii) Carbuncle is present in (a) wheat (b) maize {c) paddy (d) gram (ii) Essential condition for germination is (a) water (b) oxygen (c) temperature (@) all of these (iv) Hypogeal germination is present in (a) pea (b) bean {c) castor (@) maize (@) Largest seed is (a) double coconut (e) coconut (c) heartnut (@) wainut (vi) The collective term for the stages that lead to the formation of seedling from a seed is (a) dormancy (0) germination (c) viability (d) none of these 79aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.7. Internal Factors. Age of the tissue, rate of plant growth and amount of respiratory substrates are some of the internal factors which can change the rate of respiration. Respiration and Combustion The respiration and combustion are similar proc- esses because both are oxidative processes and produce energy. But these processes differ in cer- tain respects mentioned ahead. Comparison between Respiration and Combustion ‘Respiration Combustion 1. Respiration takes place in living cells only. 2. Food material is oxidized stepwise and stepwise release of energy occurs. 3. Most of energy released during respiration is stored in the form of ATP. 4. Respiration takes place at ordinary temperature. 5. It is a continuous process. 1, It does not occur in the living cells. ‘The substrate is oxidized at random and energy is released from the spontancous breakdown of foodstuff. 3. The energy released in combustion is lost in the form of light and heat. 4. Combustion takes place at a much higher temperature. 5. It is not a continuous process. Respiration and Photosynthesis ‘You have seen that during photosynthesis carbon dioxide is used by the plants and oxygen is liberated. On the contrary, in respiration oxygen is used while carbon dioxide is liberated. In this way, they are opposite processes and requirements of one process are fulfilled by the products of the other process. In this way, both these biological processes are complementary to each other. They are contrasted below. Comparison between Respiration and Photosynthesis ‘Respiration Photosynthesis 1. Respiration is a catabolic process during which food material is broken down and energy is released. C,H,,0,+ 6CO, > 6CO, + 6H,O + Energy 2, Due to utilization of food materials the dry weight of the plant decreases. 3. The raw materials used are food material (carbohydrates and fats) in anaerobic respiration and food material plus oxygen in aerobic respiration. 4. Light is not necessary for respiration, hence it takes place at all times. 5. Every living cell of the plant body carryout respires. 6. The end products of the respiration are H,0, CO, and energy (ATP). 1. Photosynthesis is an anabolic process during which food material is synthesised and energy is stored. 6CO,+ I2H,0- C,H,,0, + 6H,0 + 6CO, 2. Due to synthesis of food material the dry weight of the plant increases. 3. The raw materials required are carbon dioxide and water. 4. Light is necessary, hence in natural condi- tions it takes place in day time only. 5. Only those cells which contain chlorophyll carryout the process of photosynthesis. 6. The end products of photosynthesis are O,, ATP and food material. 83aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EXPERIMENT FERMENTATION Objective. To demonstrate alcoholic fermen- tation by yeast. Procedure. Put 10 cubiccmof 10 per cent glu- cose solution in a test tube A and add a small amount of yeast powder. Put a few oil drops of oil on the surface of the solution so that air may not, enter. Fix a cork with one hole on the test tube A. Keep one end of the glass tube inside the test tube through the hole of the cork and dip the other end of the glass tube into another test tube B containing lime water. Make the apparatus air- tight. Keep the test tube A containing glucose solution and yeast at 37°-40°C for 10-20 min- utes. After some time it is observed that lime wa- ter of the tube B becomes milky because CO, pro- duced in fermentation reacts with lime water. Now SHOWING ALCOHOLIC open the cork of the test tube A, smell of alcohol comes out. Thus, it is clear that alcohol (C,H,OH) and CO, are formed in anaerobic respiration of yeast. Fig. 10.7 Demonstration of alcoholic fermentation EXERCISES 1. Answer the following: (a) What do you understand by respiration? (®) What are the respiratory substrates? Give two examples. (c) Write the overall equation of aerobic respiration. (@) What is alcoholic fermentation? (e) Which process is common to aerobic and anaerobic respiration? () Where does glycolysis take place in the living cell? (g) Name the cell organelle in which Kreb’s cycle take place. 2, Distinguish between: {a) Fermentation and anaerobic respiration. (b) Aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration. {c) Respiration and combustion. 3. How will you demonstrate that energy is released during aerobic and anaerobic respiration? 4. Do you agree that respiration is the reverse of photosynthesis? 8. Match the terms of column A with the statements in column B: Column A (i) Yeast (ii) Glucose (iii) Anacrobic (iv) Glycolysis (v) Pyruvie acid Columa B (a) partial breakdown of food substances. (0) nutrients are oxidized without using molecular oxygen by the process of fermentation {e) is the best organic substrate respiration for the respiration. (@) the intermediate substance in the breakdown of glucose. (e) the series of change from glucose to pyruvic acid in respiration, 87aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ECOSYSTEMS DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISMS/ Understanding Ecosystems ECOSYSTEM ‘The most unique characteristic about our planet is its ‘web of life’ which links all living organisms, together in the habitat they are placed in. The placement of the living organisms, affects them and they in turn, affect their physical environment. Thus, ecosystems are formed when. organisms are bound together in various interactions between themselves and their surroundings. The environment is the sum of all external conditions and influences affecting organisms. The environment may be divided into abiotic {non-living} and biotic (living) components A British Botanist, Professor Arthur Tansley coined the term ‘ecosystem’ in 1935 and defined it as the “system resulting from the integration of all living and non-living factors of the environment.” The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992, defines an “ecosystem” as a ‘dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit’. Ecosystems are classified according to their flora, fauna and the existing abiotic factors. Ecosystems are units consisting of living things and their specific habitats in the biosphere where living things interact with each other and their environment. The organisms and their habitat are linked together forming a working or functional unit. In the natural environment, ecosystems are smaller, self-interacting systems which function as individual units in the biosphere. Each organism interacts with the other and with the environment in a variety of relationships, such as two organisms in competition, predator and prey, or as a food source for other organisms in a food chain. These relationships are usually complex and finely balanced, and natural ecosystems should be self-sustaining. The main features of an ecosystems are — + All living things in an ecosystem are grouped as a community, which consists of all the plants and animals that live and interact with each other. They are named after the kind of place they live, like pond communities or marsh communities. + Communities are made up of populations which are a group of the same kind of living organisms in a community. For example, all the flying lemurs in the tropical rainforest make up one population while the chimpanzees make up another population and so on. + The specific dwelling place a community occupies is called a ‘habitat’. Let us consider the ecosystem as the ‘neighbourhood’ (forest) where an animal lives, and the habitat would be its ‘address’ (forest canopy) in that neighbourhood. Everything an animal needs for survival such as food, water, and a home is found in the habitat. + Each organism has its own ‘niche’ or role to play in the same habitat occupied by other organisms. TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS Ecosystems are basically of two types— Natural ecosystem and Artificial ecosystem, 38aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.12 Interaction Between Biotic and Abiotic Factors in an Ecosystem INTRODUCTION ‘An ecosystem contains ‘the web of life’ found in the natural environment where interactions between biotic and abiotic components take place. The very survival of these components depends on these interactions which are vital for the functioning of plants and animals and also for the abiotic components they interact with. The slightest disturbance that occurs in a single component will upset the fragile web of life in that ecosystem. Changes in rainfall and temperature patterns will have an impact on the plant life which in turn will influence animal life that directly or indirectly depends on it for food. COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM Ecosystem Atiotic compononts Biotic components {nortlving components) (living components) Climatic —Edephic © Inowganis Organic Producers ABIOTIC COMPONENTS ‘The ‘abiotic’ factors are the non-living factors like climate, edaphic, energy etc. that affect an organisms. Local Climatic and Atmospheric Conditions ‘They operate in a variety of ways to affect the biotic community of an ecosystem. Species have limits of tolerance and some optimum range of tolerance for sunlight, temperature, humidity, rainfall or wind. If local climate exceeds the limits of ‘Consumers Decomposers tolerance then the species will not occur in that place. If it exceeds the optimum limits the species will not be able to survive there. Favourable climate will encourage population growth of species. Changes and fluctuations in temperature, rainfall and humidity have major effects on various species in an ecosystem. In humid tropical lowlands there are rarely any changes or fluctuations in temperature, humidity and rainfall conditions whereas in dry tropical lowlands, not only is moisture the limiting factor for plants but the annual fluctuations in rainfall will cause extreme conditions for species. In the northern temperate regions low temperatures restrict the growth of plants and existence of animal species. Vital Gases in the Atmosphere Life-sustaining gases in the atmosphere such as oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are important abiotic components in the atmosphere that play a vital role in the ecosystem. Oxygen is, much more abundant and constant in the atmosphere than in water. Oxygen availability seldom becomes a limiting factor for land animale unless they live in soil or invade high altitudes. Plants contribute oxygen into the air which is taken in by animals that give out carbon dioxide through respiration required by plants for photosynthesis. Nitrogen is an important gas vital for the growth and sustenance of organisms. Sunlight Duration of sunlight in a given place plays a crucial role in the biotic community as the process of food manufacture by plants occurs in the presence of sunlight. The amount of sunlight 95aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Detritus Food Chain Primary detritus feeders such as decomposers (bacteria) and some detrivores {carrion beetle) acquire their energy from dead matter. ‘The dead organic matter (detritus) is the primary source of energy. Secondary detritus feeders such as protozoa (that may eat bacteria) and a spider (that may eat the beetle) acquire their energy and nutrients from the primary detritus feeders. Auxiliary Food Chain Auxiliary food chains are operated through parasites and scavengers. The ultimate source of energy for all auxiliary food chain is the solar energy trapped by the plants. FOOD WEB ‘There are many different food chains within an ecosystem. Some organisms may be involved in different types of food chain at the same time. Individual food chains interconnected in a complex way is called ‘food web’. It is a network of food chains forming relationships between various organisms. Name the organisms that convert sun’s energy into chemical or food energy. What ere organisms that depend on others for food called? Name the climatic impacts that occur on ecosystems. How do variations in temperatures affects plants and animals? What do you understand by ‘consumers of the first and second orders? How is water a limiting factor in the deserts? Differentiate between biotic and abiotic components. Differentiate between primary and secondary producers and give examples of eich. What role do vital atmospheric gases play in an ecosystem? Name two types of food chain. What is food web? What is an energy pyramid? . Explain, how do living organisms interact in an ecosystem. . How does energy move in an ecosystem? . What is a food chain? Why is pyramid of energy broader at the base and narrower at the top? Each question has four options. Choose the correct answer. (i) Energy flow in an ecosystem is (a) unidirectional (Q) multidirectional (ii) A food chain consists of (a) producers ()_decomposers [b) bidirectional |e) all the above |b) consumers [d) producers and consumers. (iii) Trophic levels in a food chain are formed by (a) producers (0) decomposers (iv) A food chain always starts with (a) photosynthesis (6) nitrogen fixation (v) Primary consumers are (a) green plants (0) carnivores (wi) (2) herbivores (c) insect, larvae, nematodes [b) consumers [d) all the above b) respiration Id) decay (b) herbivores (d) all the above Primary consumers in detritus food chain are (b) bacteria, fungi, ete. (d) all the above 99(vii) An ecosystem is an interacting system of (a) communities (b) communities and their physical environment (©) populations (@) individuals (vil) The driving force for an ecosystem is fa) biomass (b) producers (©) carbohydrates in producers {@) solar energy (ix) The two components of an ecosystem arc {a) plants and animals (0) weeds, trees, animals and man (6) energy flow and mineral cycling _(@) biotic and abiotic (@) Tropical forests are denser due to {a) wild animals (©) high temperature and less rainfall (¢) low temperature and excess rain (d) high temperature and high rainaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Il, KINGDOM - PROTISTA In this kingdom mostly aquatic acellular organismo have been included. Characters of Protista 1, Their celle are eukaryotic type in which all organelles like nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosome, golgi complex and plastids are found. 2. They are photosynthetic and autotrophs. They act as producers in rivers, ponds and sea. They are called phytoplanktons which have cell wall and perform photosynthesis in light. 3. Zooplanktons are dependent on others for food. They have no cell wall. Holozoic il Surface Flagellum Contractile eee cine ® Membrane Yacusle Nucleus. Leishmania Food Vacuoe ‘Amoeba, nutrition is found in Amoeba. 4, Some protists are parasites and others are endoparasites in the alimentary canal of animals. A few are decomposers also. 5, Some have mixotrophic type of nutrition e.g. Euglena has two types of nutrition methods. Itis autotrophic in the presence of sunlight but in absence of sunlight it has heterotrophic nutrition. Such type of nutrition is called mixotrophic. It passes its life cycle in-between plants and animals, hence may be a placed in both. Similarly, slime moulds in vegetative stage have no cell wall and take the food as acellular animals. But cell wall is formed at the time of reproduction. Vestibule Euglena Micto- Fig. 13.3 Various forms of protists II, KINGDOM - FUNGI This kingdom includes moulds, mushrooms, yeasts etc. They have eukaryotic cells. Characters of Fungi 1. They may be unicellular or multicellular. 2. They have heterotrophic nutrition and mostly they are saprophytes. 3. They secrete digestive enzymes from their cell wall, which dissolve the solid organic food materials which are absorbed by the hyphae. 4, Plant body is made up of mycelium, one filament of it is called hypha. 5, Their cell wall is made up of chitin. 104Agaricus Fig. 13.4 Various forms of rungi IV. KINGDOM - PLANTAE In this kingdom, all the coloured multicellular terrestrial and aquatic plants have been included. Characters of Plantae 1, The plant body is simple or well differentiated into root, stem and leaves. 2. Cell membrane is surrounded by a thick cell wall of cellulose. 3. Except a few aquatic life forms, plants are non-motile 4, Reproduction results in formation of embryo. 5. They have different modes of nutrition: autotrophic, parasitic even insectivorous. ‘The Kingdom Plantae has been further divided into: ‘Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta Spermatophyta (@) Gymnosperms (}) Angiosperms 1, Thallophyta consists of red, green and brown algae. () Algac are of universal occurrence such as fresh and sea water, snow, rocks and as animal and plant parasites. (i) Body ranges from unicellular to multicellular colonies, filaments or sheets of cells. (iii) ‘The major groups are divided on the basis of photosynthetic pigments hence the names red (Rhodophyta), green (Chlorophyta) and brown (Phacophyta). (iv) Vascular tissues are absent. (e) Nutrition is generally autotrophic i.e., photosynthesis. (vi) Reproduction vegetative and sexual. Bryophyta consists of liverworts and mosses. (i) They are terrestrial, found in damp, shady places generally. (ii) The life cycle has two distinct phases ~ the gametophytic (long) phase and sporophytic phase (short). (iii) Liverworts have prostrate thalloid gametophytic body but mosses have erect body. (iv) True roots absent but similar structures called rhizoids are present. n 305aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Phylum : Nemathelminthes (Greek : Nematos ~ thread, hebninth - worm) Important Characters Fig. 13.12 Animais of Phylum Platyheiminthes: (2) Fasciola, (b) Taenla solium, (c) Schistosoma, (@) Dugesia (Planaria) 7. They are bisexual and sex organs are well developed. 8. Triploblastic i.c., body comprises three germ layers ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm. 9. They lay eggs. 10. Self or cross fertilization occurs. 11. Direct or indirect development. 12, Life history may involve one, two or more larval stages. Examples: Fasciola (Liver fluke) Taenia solium (Tapeworm) Schistosoma (Blood fluke) Dugesia (Planaria) 1. The body organization comprises organ system grade. 2. They are triploblastic, unsegmented and bilaterally symmetrical. 3. Body covered with cuticle, cilia generally absent. 4. Digestive system present, 5. Respiratory and circulatory systems absent. 6. Excretion by protonephridia and canals. Flame cells are absent. 7. Pseudocoel represents body cavity. tb) (@ Fig. 13.13 Animals of Phylum Nematheiminthes: (a) Ascaris (Male and Female), (b) Dracunculus 8. Nervous system present. 9. Sexes are separate i.e., dioecious. 10. Larval stage is not found. 11. Microscopic or small sized or may be one metre long. 12. Mostly aquatic, some live in soil. Some are free living or parasitic. Examples: Ascaris (Roundworm ~ Parasitic in human beings) Oxyuris (Pinworm) Wuchereria (Filarial worm ~ causes filaria in human beings) Dracunculus (Guinea worm) aaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.@ Fig, 13.19 Representative animals of Class ‘Amphibia: (a) Salamandra, (b) Frog, (c) Icthyophis, (a) Toad, (e) Necturus 6. Cold blooded animals. 7. Respiration by skin and lungs. & Immovable or movable eye lids on the eyes. 9. Exoskeleton is absent and fingers are without claws. Examples: Salamanca (Salamandra), Rana (Frog), icthyophis (Limbless amphibian), Necturus (Mud-puppy), Hyla (Tree frog) ‘CLASS-AMPHIBIA Five important characters: + Skin soft and moist. Nictitating membrane present on the eyes. Mucilagenous and sticky tongue. Presence of vocal sacs in male, + External fertilization - Exoskeleton is made up of epidermal scales, shields, plates and scutes. 5. They are cold blooded. Single occipital condyle is found in skull 7. There are three chambers in heart (except Order-Crocodilia). Order-Crocodilia possesses four-chambered heart. Respiration takes place by lungs. 9. Sexes are separate. Male has copulatory organ. 10. Fertilization is internal, oviparous. 11, Teeth are present in jaws, absent in some. 12. Two auricles in heart. 13. Ventricle is incompletely divided into two parts by a septum, 14, The eggs are covered with shell. 15. Pinna is absent. 16. Cloaca is present. Examples: Uromastix (Sand lizard), Tortoise (Kanchuga), Naja naja (Cobra), Hemidactylns (Wall lizard), Alligator (Gharial) 2 2 Class - Reptilia (Latin : Reptum = to creep) Important Characters 1, Terrestrial as well as aquatic, creeping in habit 2. Their bodies are divided into head, neck, trunk and tail. © 3. Two pairs of pentadactyle limbs are found, the digits are provided with hard claws. Limbs absent in all snakes. Fig. 13.20 Representative animals of Cless Repti (a) Uromastix, (v) Tortoise, (c) Hemidectylus, 5aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(ii) Jelly-fish is classified in the phylum (a) coelentrata b) mollusca ()_ pisces (@) arthropoda (iii) The animal of phylum mollusca is (a) scorpion b) Hydra {e) octopus (@) earthworm (iv) The animal of phylum protozoa is (a) earthworm (b) housefly {) paramoecium (@) sponge (¥) The animal of class pisces is (a) jelly-fish (b) starfish (6) hippocampus (@) whale (vi) Which of the following io not a helminth parasite? (a) scorpion (6) Wuchereria (€)_ Ascaris (@) Oxyuris (vii) Whittaker is famous (a) for two kingdom classification. (b) for five kingdom classification. (©) for four kingdom classification. (4) to tell the differences between bacteria and blue-green algae. (viii) Protista is the link between (a) prokaryotic and multicellular eukaryotic cell (0) virus and bacteria (c)_ bacteria and green algae () dianofageliates and zooflagellates (ix) Multicellular producers are (a) protista ) animal () fungi (@) plant (9) ‘Systema naturae’ has been written by (a) John Ray b) Darwin (2) C. Linnaeus (@) Theophrastus (xi) Binomial Nomenclature was proposed by (a) Benthum Hooker 6) Hutchinson (c) Englar and Prantle (@) Carolus Linnaeus 119aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.gram, fruits (banana, mango), sago, sweet potato, beet root, sugar, honey, jam and milk. Importance of Carbohydrates () They are the main source of energy for all living beings. They are utilized as fuel in the cells to provide energy. (i) Carbohydrates are also stored in tissues for later use as starch and insulin (in plants) and glycogen (in animals) serve as reserve fuel. (iii) Cellulose forms the cell-wall in plants. (iv) Carbohydrates act as component of cellular compounds and organelles, Pentose sugars, ribose and deoxyribose are the components of RNA and DNA respectively. (0) Ahetero polysaccharides are very important substances, such as anti-coagulant heparin, mucus, lubricant hyaluronic acid are present in synovial fluid of the joints and luteinizing hormone. Daily Requirement. An adult human being of average weight and doing moderate work needs about 500 gm of carbohydrates daily. Athletes, mountaineers and labourers need more. Carbohydrates form more than half of our total diet, but form only 1% of our total weight. This shows that they are primarily fuel food and more rapidly oxidized to supply energy for metabolic activities. Fats Rats are also formed from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. But compared to carbohydrates, fat contains proportionately less oxygen and more carbon and hydrogen. These are compounds of fatty acid and glycerol. They produce more energy than carbohydrates. Fats and oils are insoluble in water but soluble in ether, benzene and acetone. They have greasy texture. They form emulsion with dilute alkalies. Sources of Fats ‘The sources of fats in our diet are vegetable cooking oil, vanaspati ghee, desi ghee, butter, cream, oil, seeds and nuts, dry fruits, milk, cheese, egg yolk, meat, fish, cod-liver oil, etc. Importance of Fats Fats serve a variety of functions. (ij Fat acts as energy producer. They produce many times as much energy per gram as do the carbohydrates. (jij, Fats also protect the body against rapid loss of heat. Fats are stored below the skin as adipose layer, which forms an insulating layer to prevent heat loss during winter. (iii| Fats are stored in the body and serve as, reserve food material. Fat forms protective and shock-absorbing cushions around many organs. (v) Fats are the structural component of plasma membrane and cellular membranes along with proteins. (vi) They also play a role in the formation of certain female sex hormones such as estrogen. Fat helps in absorption of fat soluble vitamins like A, D, E, K. Daily Requirement. About 50 gm of fat is needed by a human being daily. (vii) Proteins Proteins are the major component of body and. made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Nitrogen is the most essential element in proteins, Some proteins contain sulphur and phosphorus also. Proteins are made up of simple basic units called amino acids. In a protein, hundreds of amino acids are linked together into a long chain by peptide bonds. Twenty different types ofamino acids, join in various combinations and produce numerous varieties of proteins. Proteins are insoluble in water and form colloidal solution there. They get denatured on heating above 45°C, the critical temperature. Sources of Proteins ‘The sources of proteins are cereals, pulses, oil seeds and nuts, fresh and dry fruits, meat, fish, eggs, milk, cheese, leafy vegetables, etc. Importance of Proteins The term protein meaning the ‘primary substance’ signifies its importance to living beings. (i) The main role of protein is to serve as the building material. They are essential for growth, repair and reproduction, 30(ii) Proteins are the essential components of the cytoplasm, the cell-membrane and the chromosomes, Proteins act as enzymes and play a key role in various metabolic processes such as digestion, respiration, excretion, muscular contraction, etc, (iv) Proteins assist in maintaining a balance of acidity and alkalinity in the cells by combining with excess acids and bases. (W) Proteins are used as a source of energy when carbohydrates and lipids are exhausted. Daily Requirement. About 70-100 gm of proteins are needed daily. Since the proteins are constantly degraded and replaced, there is a continuous necessity for a certain minimum amount of protein in the diet, even for adults whose growth has stopped. Minerals (Inorganic Salts) Minerals form about 4% of our body weight. Over a dozen elements are known to be essential as mineral salts in the diet. These include sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca}, magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P), chlorine (Cl), copper (Cu), fluorine (F), manganese (Mn), cobalt (Co), zine (Zn), iron (Fe), iodine (1), molybdenum (Mo) and selenium (Se) etc. Of these first six elements are called major minerals because they are needed in relatively large amounts whereas others are required in very small amounts and are termed as trace minerals. The minerals do not require digestion. Deficiency of these elements causes different types of diseases in human beings. Table 15.2 gives the various minerals, their sources and their functions as well. Table 15.2: Role and Source of Important Minerals in the Diet Mineral Best Source Functions Sodium Most foods except fruits. Maintains fluid balance. Muscle contraction and nerve reaction. Potassium Bananas, apricots, potatoes. Maintains fluid balance, synthesis of acetylcholine (neuro-transmitter) Nerve reactions. Calcium Milk, eggs, cheese and other Essential for clotting of blood, formation dairy products, green vegetables of bones and teeth. Working of nerves and all other electrically active body tissues, Controls cell-membrane permeability. Phosphorus Dairy products, meat, beans, peas, Mediates the metabolism of numerous cereals. organic compounds, being a constituent of complex organic compounds like nucleic acids, nucleotides. Magnesium Beans, peas, nuts, cereals, leafy-green Important in musculer contraction vegetables. chemistry. Important in electrical activity of nerves and muscles. Required by all cells. Sulphur Onion, garlic, radish, Forms a part of proteins of the supportive tissues like keratin of hair, horn, wool. Iron Liver, meat, eggs, enriched cereals, Required for the synthesis of haemoglobin. bananas, spinach. Deficiency leads to anaemia Iodine Sea food, iodized salt. Required for the synthesis of thyroxine, metabolic growth and development. Deficiency of iodine leads to goitre. 332Water, luoride toothpaste. Protects teeth from decay. Copper Liver, meat, sea food. Required by cells to utilize oxygen and synthesis of enzymes. Cobalt Fish, liver, cattle kidneys, Structural constituent of vitamin required for normal erythrocyte (red blood cell) maturation. Zine Sea food, meat, whole wheat, Required for the synthesis of enzymes. beans, peas and nuts. Importance of Minerals Dr. Casimir Funk. He coined the term vitamin () Minerals are main building material of bones, teeth e.g. phosphates of calcium and magnesium. Minerals are required in the structure and functioning of muscles and nerve fibres. ‘They are also the important component of certain hormones like insulin, thyroxine. Na and K are required for the transmission of nerve impulse and Ca is required in the contraction of muscles. Fe is required for haemoglobin, Salts are required for maintaining osmotic pressure. Vitamins The vitamins are organic compounds regularly required in minute quantities in the diet for normal metabolism, health and growth. ‘The term vitamin (Latin, vita= life + min= amine, vitally essential amine) was first used by (ii) (ii) iv) ™ the synthesis of (wi) because he thought that they were all amino acids. Though this view is now rejected, but the name ‘vitamin’ is still used. Types of Vitamins They are classified into two groups: (a) Fat soluble vitamins which include A, D, E and K. fb) Water soluble vitamins which vitamin B complex and C. Most of the vitamins are contained in food naturally. Certain vitamins are synthesized in our body. Most vitamins act as catalysts or enzymes in essential chemical reactions in the body but each vitamin also has some special functions in the body. ‘Absence or shortage of vitamins in the diet over a continued period leads to the deficiency diseases. Table 15.3 mentions various types of vitamins, their sources, functions and the deficiency diseases, include Table 15.3: Vitamins - Sources, Functions and Deficiency Diseases Vitamin Sources Functions Deficiency disease Water Soluble Vitamins ® B-Complex 1, Vitamin B, Whole grains, rice, bran yeast, Act as a major component —_Beri-Beri - loss of (Thiamine liver, egg, etc. of co-enzyme carboxylase appetite and vigour, Antineuratic) and play a role in retarded growth, 2. Vitamin B, (Riboflavin) Yeast, liver, chees vegetables, milk, egg, soyabean, curd, pulses, green-leafy vegetables. carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism, promotes appetite, increases growth and functioning of nervous system. degeneration of nerves and muscle atrophy. ‘Accumulation of fluid in the tissue of hand end legs (Ocdema). Cheilosis ~ digestive disorders, burning sensation in skin and eyes, inflammation of tongue. Required for cellular res- piration and growth, It maintains normal healthy akin and oral mucosa. 3323, Vitamin B, Cereals, legumes, milk, Active group in co- Pellagta - characterized (Niacin-Nico- yeast, fresh meat, liver, enzyme NAD, required by skin inflammation, tinic acid) fish. for oxidative metabolism. diarrhoea and nervous Antipellagric disorder. 4, Vitamin B, Milk, cereal, yeast, Required in protein and Convulsions of muscles, (Pyridoxine) liver, meat and egg. amino acid metabolism. mental disorder, anaemia, nausea, dermatitis. 5. Vitamin B, Yeast, liver, egg and Part of co-enzyme A required Dermatitis, nerve (Pantothenic pulses, milk, peanuts in cell respiration. degeneration, gastro- acid) and also synthesized intestinal disorder, by colon bacteria. anaemia. 6. Vitamin H Fresh fruits and vegetables, Essential for fatty acid Sealy and itchy skin, (Biotin) liver, milk, egg, whole grain, synthesis and energy loss of appetite, cereal, yeast, pulses. production. hairfall, weakness. 7. Vitamin B,, Green vegetables, soya Helps in the synthesis Megalo-blastic anaemia (Folic acid) bean, liver, yeast, kidneys, of DNA and the maturation (Presence of large synthesized by intestinal _of RBC. immature nucleated bacteria. RBCe without haemo globin), retarded growth. 8, Vitamin B,, Meat, fish, liver, egg, milk. Formation of blood Pernicious anaemia, (Cyanoco- corpuscles and co-enzyme retarded growth. balamin) for nucleic acid metabolism (ii) Vitamin C Citrus fruits like Essential for development Scurvy-general weakness (Ascorbic acid) lemon, orange; grape, of teeth and gums and pain in joint, gums amla, tomato, apple formation of collagen, become spongy and potato, carrot, green cartilage, bone, connective swollen, bleeding occurs, vegetables, ete. tissues and RBCs, loss of appetite, delay in wound healing, decreased resistance to common cold. Fat Soluble Vitamins (iii) Vitamin A Yellow and green vege- Essential for synthesis Night blindness, loss (Retinol) tables and fruits, egg of visual pigments. of rhodopsin in the yolk, milk, cod-liver Health of eyes, skin rod cell of retina oil, butter, ghee. and mucous membrane. _Xerophthalmia-thick, Keratinized, opaque and ulcerated corner of the eyes. (iy) Vitamin D— Animal fat, butter, Regulates absorption Rickets (in children) (Calciferol) ghee, oil, milk, egg of calcium and phosphorus soft, deformed bones, yolk, etc. It is syn- in the intestine, mineral _ bowed legs. thesized in the ski deposition in bones and Osteomalacia {in adults) in the presence of teeth. weak bone liable to easy suntight. fracture, (v) Vitamin E Dark green-leafy vege- Normal functioning of Sterility in males and (Tocopherol) tables, whole cereals, sex glands, pregnancy, muscle degenerations. grains, nuts, legumes lactation and muscle egg yolk, vegetable oil. formation. (vi) Vitamin K Carrot, lettuce, cabbage Essential for synthesis Haemorrhage as blood (Phylloquinone] tomatoes, liver, egg of prothrombin in liver, _ clotting factors are not yolk, cheese. which is required for blood clotting. synthesized. 333Water Water is the main constituent of protoplasm. It forms about 90% of it. Water also occurs in plasma of blood and lymph, tissue fluid, etc. Importance of Water ‘Water does not yield energy. However, it is so vital for the body that in the absence of water a person dics. It serves following functions: (i) Water acts as a solvent for many inorganic and organic compounds. (ii) Water serves as a good medium for various metabolic reactions. (lii) Water facilitates the movement of food materials, waste products and other chemical substances in the cytoplasm and circulatory process. (iv) It plays an important role in regulating body temperature and osmotic pressure of the body fluids. (x) Water has low density and viscosity. This permits rapid diffusion of molecules in cytoplasm. Daily Requirement. Water is regularly lost from the body through sweat, urine and as water vapour in breath. Therefore, it must be constantly replaced. An average adult needs 5-6 glasses of water daily. ROUGHAGE Undigested fibrous material present in the food is called roughage. Cellulose of the cell walls of plant material, such as vegetables, fruits and bran (fibre in grains) is roughage. Roughage consists of dietary fibre which remains undigested. It remains unchanged through the gut. Roughage is very important because it provides bulk to the diet for satisfying appetite. Roughage gives exercise to the mouth and muscles of the alimentary canal for their proper functioning during peristalsis (Peristalsis is the successive waves of contractions in the walls of the intestine or another tubular organ, that force the contents of the organ to move through it). Roughage prevents constipation, because its bulk expands the gut and stimulates peristalsis to eliminate faeces. Tests for Foodstuffs Test for Glucose (Sugar) Take a little glucose in a test tube and prepare a solution by adding to it some Benedict's solution. Heat the solution and bring it to boil. The colour of the solution undergoes change from transparent blue, blue-green and finally brick red. Formation of red precipitate indicates presence of glucose. ‘The same test can be done to test sugar in urine or the suspected cases of diabetes. Sucrose (cane sugar), a disaccharide fails to react with Benedict's solution unless boiled with dilute hydrochloric acid and neutralised with sodium bicarbonate. Test for Starch Add a few drops of dilute iodine solution to either little starch powder or a food rich in starch e.g. a slice of potato. A blue-black colouration is obtained, which indicates the presence of starch. Test for Protein Take alittle piece of hard boiled egg in a test tube and add a few drops of dilute nitric acid to it. Now boil the mixture carefully. Then rinse off the nitric acid and add ammonium hydroxide. On mixing dilute nitric acid, colour changes from white to yellow and then dark yellow. This colour change indicates the presence of protein in foodstuft. Test for Fats and Oils A simple test to determine the presence of fats is to rub a food substance (such as groundnut, a piece of butter) on a piece of paper. The rubbing leaves a permanent greasy mark on the paper, which then becomes translucent when seen against light. BALANCED DIET A balanced diet is one which contains all the principal constituents of jood in proper quantity or @ diet which can provide materials for all the metabolic requirements of the body ive., energy, growth, replacement and physiological regulation. One important aspect of a balanced diet is the sufficient number of calories which it provides. Daily dietary requirements of an adult Indian is, given in Table 15.4. 134Table 15.4 (Balanced diet recommended by Indian Council of Medical Research, ICMR) Name of food Recommended amounts (a/day) Adilt Adult Man ___ Woman 1. Cereals (Wheat/Rice) ‘520 440 2. Pulses 50 45, 3. Milk 200 150 4, Meat/Fish or Egg 30 30 5. Fat (Oil, Butter, Ghee) 1 1 6. Sugar 45 25 7, Root and Tubes 35, 20 (Raddish, Potato} 8 Green-leafy vegetables 60 50 9. Other vegetables 70 40 ‘The energy or calorie requirement of different people depends upon physical labour, surrounding weather, age, sex, body weight and general health. An average person, not deing hard labour ie., leading a rather sedentary life needs about 2,500 kcal daily. An adult labourer doing heavy physical work needs 5000 kcal per day. An adult lying at rest requires about 1600 kcal per day and a woman at complete rest needs 1450 kcal. This is called the basal metabolic rate (BMR) which means the food which provides sufficient energy just to maintain the vital functions of the body. Ideal Diet. An ideal diet is one which contains a proper balance of protein, fat, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins. MALNUTRITION We have already seen how different nutrients— carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins are important for a healthy life. When we consume all these in required amounts we are said to have a “Balanced diet.” Sometimes. when a particular nutrient is not taken in sufficient quantities, over a period of time, the structure and functions of organ or body part that require it are affected in a negative manner. The condition where people become weak and sick due to insufficient and unbalanced diet is referred to as malnutrition. OVERNUTRITION Excessive consumption of a nutrient is termed as ‘overutrition. ieven this 1s harmful in many ways. Animal fats taken in excess may promote cardiovascular disease. Excessive consumption of animal proteins may cause cancer of the laree intestine. Hypervitaminosis (excess intake of vitamins) can be fatal sometimes. So, you sce nutritional imbalance of any sort is harmful in the long run, DEFICIENCY DISEASES Deficiency diseases are those that arise due to inadequate nourishment or due to an unbalanced diet. They are also called nutritional disorders. Malnutrition Results in Deficiency Diseases Poverty is the main cause of malnutrition and deficiency disorders. People in some Asian and African countries including India are too poor to even buy food let alone nutritious food. Deficiency diseases effect grown ups also but malnutrition has drastic effects on children. They become cripped physically as well as mentally. Such children become a liability. Sometimes, families even abandon such children, Deficiency diseases are of three types: 1, Protein Energy Malnutrition 2. Mineral Deficiency Diseases 3. Vitamin Deficiency Diseases. Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM). Let us now see protein energy malnutrition (PEM) in some detail. This generally affects growing children as they need more proteins for their actively developing bodies. PEM may lead to two major disorders as discussed below: (a) Kwashiorkor. It develops in children whose diets are deficient in proteins even if Fig. 15.1 Child suffering from kwashlorkor 335b) sufficient carbohydrates and fats are consumed. It is common in Africa, Asia, Central and South America. Common among infants and children upto 3 years old it affects some children when they are weened after a second child is born. The new diet may be deficient in proteins as compared to mother’s milk. ‘Symptoms. Children are underweight and show slurred growth. Poor brain development, loss of appetite, anaemia, protruding belly, slender long, thin curved legs—matchstick legs.’ Resistance to diseases is also lowered. Colour Loss in Hair and Skin ‘Thin Upper Aims Fig. 15.2 Symptoms of kwashiorkor Prevention/Cure. A protein rich diet obtained from animals or from soyabean or a mixture of corn, cotton seed, yeast, leafy ‘meal, combination of gram, peanuts, wheat, jaggery etc., can cure kwashiorkor. Marasmus. It is a form of prolonged protein energy malnutrition (PEM). It affects infants under one year of age. It is caused by an overall deficiency of nutrients in diet as well as protein deficiency. It is a severe wasting disease of childhood when mother’s Fig, 15.3 Child suffering trom marasmus milk is replaced too early with food having low protein content and calorific value. Children suffering from this condition burn up all body fats to fulfill their energy demands and then body protein is consumed as energy source. ‘Symptoms. Irreversible mental retardation, muscle degeneration {wasting of muscles) making child lean and weak. ‘Subcutaneous fat disappears, skin becomes dry thin and wrinkled. Ribs become prominent and limbs thin. The child becomes alert and irritable and a voracious, feeder. Fig. 15.4 Symptoms of marasmus Prevention/Cure. Marasmus can be easily prevented and controlled by taking sufficient proteins and carbohydrate in diet. Mineral Deficiency Diseases and Vitamin Deficiency Diseases. Deficiency or lack of various minerals in our daily diet can cause certain nutritional disorders. Some mineral deficiency diseases are anzemia, goitre, rickets and osteomalacia. (a) Anaemia This is caused due to deficiency of iron in the regular diet. An anaemic patient suffers from low percentage of haemoglobin or less red blood cells in his blood. Lack of haemoglobin means less availability of oxygen to the various organs because haemoglobin is the oxygen carrier of the body. Thus, all metabolic activities of the body are affected. Symptoms. (i) Person looks pale. (ii) Person gets tired easily. 136aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.DO YOU KNOW? Assimilation of Food + Anorexia is loss of appetite. This is the process by which digested monomers + Werld food day ie 16th October. reach into the cell protoplasm and are used to + Poison glands of snake are modified labial glands. | build up new tissues. Amino acids are used in I biadderis cbsent inaduit-lamprey, bieds,rats, | body building and excess amino acids are whale and horse, converted into glucose and finally into fat. * Weber's glands are present at the posterior border i i of tongue. Water is absorbed by the small intestine Monaeaccharides..are_ stored in! the form. of fin! iti in lange intestine by oomusis- Fructose | glycogen in the muscles and liver. Fat is is absorbed by facilitated diffusions deposited as fatty tissues. (0) Active Absorption. In this energy is used. NUTRITION IN ANIMALS Some amino acids, gelactose, glucose, Na*_ | ingestion: ‘To take food in the body is called are absorbed by this phenomenon. ingestion () Absorption of Fats. Monomers get | * Pest locd ae prken ine smaller ones oy converted into micelles. Many micelles the help of diferent enaymes, an jointly form chylomicron. Chylomicrone | + Absorption: In this procese digested food ie are absorbed by laceals. This absorbed fat | | Sbsorbed bs theslimentary canal reaches to blood stream through thoracic eeriiahvic. lymphatic ducts. + Egestion: Undigested food is thrown out by the bo EXERCISES 1, What do you mean by nutrition? Mention the different types. 2. Define with examples: (a) Autotrophs (b) Heterotrophs (c) Carnivores (@ Omnivores (c) Herbivores 3. State one difference in nutrition: (a) Parasite and Saprophyte (©) Autotroph and Heterotroph. (c) Holozoic and Saprozoic nutrition (a) Holophylic and Holozoic 4, Name different steps involved in animal nutrition. Explain. Name the types of teeth in human with functions. 6. Observe the diagram given alongside and answer the following: (a) Name the parts numbered 1-8. () Which parts shown in the diagram are non-living? (c) Is the tooth suited for cutting, tearing or grinding? (@) What is the function of parts 8 and 7? (c) What is the total number of tecth present in adult human beings? () Write the dental formula of human beings. 7. Describe the human alimentary canal. 8, State whether the following statements are True or False: (a) Trypsin coagulates the milk protein. (©) Enteropeptidase activates pepsinogen into pepsin. (6) Nat is absorbed in intestine by sodium pump. (a) Pancreatic amylase digests protein into amino acids Fig, 16.10 353aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EXERCISES Bones of which part are present in the axial skeleton? Name the longest and the smallest bone of the human body. How many vertebrae are found in human neck? Give their names. What is the role of the skeletal system in an animal? What are the two principal divisions of the skeleton in vertebrates? What are the various parts of a human skeleton? What are the various parts of a typical vertebra? 8. According to position, endoskeleton is divided into how many parts? Explain each part. 9. Describe the bones of vertebral column. 10. What are the five regions of the vertebral column? 11. What is the importance of pectoral and peivic girdle? 12, What is a joint? 13. Describe the following terms: flexor, extensor, levator, rotator 14, Explain exial and appendicular skeleton. 18. Describe the fore and hind limbs of men. 16. Name three types of levers found in the human skeleton. 17. Name any two types of movable joints found in the body of man. 18. What is the ball and socket joint and where are they present in the body? 19. Name the bones that make up upper arm and lower limb of man. 20. How do biceps and triceps work? 21, What are antagonistic muscles? Name any two of them. 22, State the functions of biceps and triceps. 23, Name the three types of muscle tissue, 24, Alongside (Fig. 17.20) is shown a diagrammatic skeletal of synovial joint {a) What is a synovial joint? (b) Where do you find such a joint? (e) What is the function of cartilages? (@) Name the parts 1 to 5. 25. The diagram below (Fig. 17.21) represents the forelimb of man. (a) Label the parts marked 1 to 8 (b) Mention the antogonistic muscles. () Which muscle will contract when the hand is bent? (@) Name the main bone of pectoral girdle. (e) Name the type of joint present in shoulder girdle. Ramage Fig. 17.20 Fig. 17.21 362aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ABOUT THE BOOK Frank Certificate Biology Part-1is a textbook for the students of Ciass IX. The book has been prepared according to the latest syllabus prescribed by the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations, for the ICSE Examinations to be held in and after the year 2013. As delineated in the Syllabus of 2013 and thereafter, the new chapters in Unit 4: Diversity in Living Organisms/Ecosystems and a complete new Unit 7: Waste Generation and Management have been included as per specifications of the syllabus. The salient features of the book are: © The prescribed syllabus is strictly followed with emphasis on the explanation of basic concepts and key facis. © The book is thoroughly revised and updated. © Throughout the text, interesting information about the living worlds given in boxes. This information will enhance the curiosity of the young students. © The text language is kept as simple as possible. The exercises comprise several types of questions such as multiple choice questions, fill in the blanks, true and false statements and match the columns. Every effort has been made to present the text in a simple form through which the students would become interested in the biological science. We are certain that the textbook will help students and teachers in effective learning and teaching of Biology and prove to be an indispensible aid on the loor of the classroom. ABOUT THE AUTHOR Dr Rajendra Sharma has been working as Professor of Botany at Department of Botany, School of Life Sciences, Dr B.A. Ambedkar University, Agra. Ho served in the Postgraduate and Research Departmont of Botany at St John’s College, Agra for 25 years, Dr Sharma is a prolific reader and writer. He has written several popular articles, research papers and especially authored several textbooks. 11 students were awarded the Ph.D. degree under his supervision. = 224.90 ip) 978-93-5037-082-7 ft i | i FRANK BROS. & CO. (PUBLISHERS) LTD. B-41, Sector-4, Noida-201301, Gautam Budh Nagar (U.P) I!