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Science 20G

Notes

Name: _____________________

Atoms and their elements


Element: a pure substance made up of only one type of atom
The Bohr-Rutherford Atomic Model:
The nucleus of the atom
is incredibly small but
contains the greatest part
of the mass. It is
comprised of protons
(+) and neutrons (no
charge).

The electrons (-) orbit


the nucleus on electronic
shells or layers. The
electrons occupy a great
deal of space, however
their mass is negligible.

Typically, a neutral atom has the same amount of protons (+) as it does electrons
(-).

The Roles of Subatomic Particles


Every atom can be identified by an atomic number. This number is unique to the element
and specifies its nature. The atomic number of an element indicates the number of protons
in the nucleus of its atom.
Due to the positive charge of protons, a force of repulsion exists between them. Neutrons
prevent protons from repelling one another, thereby keeping the nucleus intact.
Electrons specify the reactivity of a substance. These subatomic particles orbit the nucleus
on electronic layers or orbits. Each layer can contain no more than a certain number of
electrons and the chemical properties are related to how nearly full or empty a layer is. The
order goes as follows: 2e, 8e, 8e, 18e, 18e, 32e. The number of electrons on the last
(outermost) orbit determines the reactivity of an element.
The periodic table gives us important information about each element.
Atomic mass (sum of the masses of protons and neutrons)
Atomic number
(number of protons)

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O
Chemical symbol

The Periodic Table


The periodic table is an indispensable tool that enables us to organise the elements. The
periodic table is organised in four different ways:
1) Atomic number
The elements are organised in crescent order from left to right and from top to bottom by
their atomic number. This number tells us how many protons the atom contains and is
unique for each element.
2) Metals, Non-metals and metalloids

B
Al

Na

He
Ne
Ar
Kr
Xe
Rn

The table is divided by a zigzag or a staircase.


Metals are located to the left of the staircase.
Properties:

- shiny
- excellent thermal and electrical conductors
- malleable (easily deformed, reshaped or bent without breaking)
- many react with acids
- solid at room temperature (exception: Hg)

Non-metals are located to the right of the staircase.


Properties:

- dull
- poor thermal and electrical conductors
- half are gas and the other half are solid at room temperature
- those that are solid at room temperature are fragile

The elements that touch the staircase on either side are called metalloids, with the
exception of Aluminium which is a metal.
(Boron, Silicon, Germanium, Arsenic, Antimony, Tellurium, Polonium and sometimes
Astatine and Selenium.)
Properties:

- the majority are semi-conductors


- possess properties of both metals and non-metals

3) Chemical Families
Each column of the periodic table is a chemical group or family. The elements belonging to a
chemical group, all have the same chemical tendencies.
* The chemical tendency of an element or family indicates what the atom will do in order to
become stable, meaning the number of electrons that it will gain or lose to complete its
outer layer.
1A 2A

6A 7A 8A
Transition Metals

B
Al

Na

He
Ne
Ar
Kr
Xe
Rn

Column 1A alkali metals


Column 2A alkali earths
Column 6A chalcogens
Column 7A halogens
Column 8A noble gases
4) The Periods
Each row of the periodic table is classified as a period and indicates the number of
electronic layers or shells that the atoms possess. The number of shells in an atom plays a
role in the reactivity of the atom.
(Ex.: Each element in the third period had three shells.)

Chemical Families and Their Properties


Vocabulary: stability, neutrality, ion
Stable: ________________________________________________
Neutral: _______________________________________________
Ion: __________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Alkali Metals (positive ion 1+)
These elements are found in the Earths crust. They are the most reactive metals. Alkali
metals are so reactive that (in their pure forms) they must be conserved in oil to prevent them
from reacting with the air. (They can spontaneously combust.) Chemical tendency: lose one
electron.
Common compounds: table salt, bleach, soap
4

Alkaline Earths (positive ion 2+)


These elements are often used in the field of pyrotechnics such as fire works. Alkaline Earths
are very reactive; however they are less reactive than the alkali metals. Chemical tendency:
lose two electrons.
Halogens (negative ion 1- )
The elements of this family are the most reactive of the non-metals. They often form
compounds used for cleaning. (Ex: glass cleaner, bleaching agents, antiseptics) Chemical
tendency: gain one electron.
Chalcogens (negative ion 2- )
The chalcogens are also non-metals and are less reactive than halogens. Chemical tendency:
gain two electrons.
Noble, Rare or Inert Gases (no ion)
The rare gases are non- reactive or inert as their valence shell is complete. They are both
neutral and chemically stable. Inert gases are used as insulation in double pane windows,
some incandescent light bulbs and lasers.
Hydrogen (positive ion 1+, negative ion 1- )
Hydrogen is in its own family due to its unique properties. It can combine with metals or with
non-metals to become a positive ion or a negative ion. Hydrogen is the most abundant
element in the sun. Chemical tendency: gain or lose one electron.
Theatomsinthedifferentchemicalfamiliescancombinewitheachothertoform
compounds.Thepositionofanelementintheperiodictableindicatesitscombination
capacity.Iftheouterorvalencelayerisnotfull,theatomwillattempttogainorlose
electronsbyunitingwithotherelementsinordertofillthatlayer.
Ex: Sodium (Na) is an alkali metal (first column). It has one electron orbiting on its valence
shell. In order to become chemically stable, sodium needs to lose that electron. Chlorine (Cl)
is a halogen (7th column). It has seven electrons on its outer shell. To become chemically
stable, chlorine must gain an electron. Sodium and chlorine can combine to make NaCl or
sodium chloride which is table salt.
Reactivity: Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids
Metals
Generally, metals tend to lose electrons and become positive ions. The reactivity of metals
increases as you descend the columns of the periodic table. This is due to the fact that the
outer shell of the lower metals is farther from the nucleus. The higher the number of
electrons in an atom, the more shells that atom will have and consequently, the distance
between the valence shell and the nucleus shall be greater. The force of attraction between
the valence electrons and the protons decreases as distance between them increases.

Drawing

Non-metals and Metalloids


Non-metals and metalloids have the tendency to gain electrons and become negative ions.
The reactivity of non-metals and metalloids decreases as you descend the columns of the
periodic table. The distance between the nucleus and the valence electrons increases with the
quantity of shells. A greater distance will make it more difficult for the nucleus to attract
supplementary electrons as the force of attraction will be lessened.
Drawing

Drawing ions and determining the charge


How can one determine if an element must gain or lose an electron to fill its valence shell?
*Hint: Find the element in the periodic table and compare its valence electrons
to that of the closest inert gas. For metals it will be one period higher (rows),
for non-metals and metalloids it will be in the same period.
Then determine how many more or less electrons does you element have.

Ex: Sulphur is located in column 6 or 16. The closest rare gas is argon. To have a full valence shell
like that of Ar, a sulphur atom must gain two electrons.
Your example:

Element_______
gain

lose

Nearest noble gas________


______ electrons to become stable

Lewis Dot Diagrams (Electron Dot Diagrams)


As we have seen, the position of an element in the periodic table indicates its combination
capacity, certain chemical properties and its atomic structure. However, to fully comprehend
the behaviour of atoms during a reaction, it is necessary to understand the layout of the
valence electrons. The Lewis Dot Diagram is a convenient, shorthand method to
represent an element and its valence electrons.

The Lewis dot diagrams of lithium, carbon and fluorine are as follows:

Note: * Each dot represents one valence electron.


* The chemical symbol of the element represents the centre of the atom, meaning the
nucleus and the interior shells.
* With the exception of helium, which has but two valence electrons, the Lewis
diagram of the elements in the same chemical family are similar.
Draw the Lewis dot diagram for one element in each of the chemical families of the elements
above. (You should have three diagrams.)

We use the Lewis Dot Diagram show when atoms have become ions.
Sulphur must gain two electrons in order to become stable.
By taking on these electrons, sulphur becomes negatively
charged.
Sodium must lose its valence electron to become stable. In
doing this, sodium becomes a positively charged ion.
Chemical names and symbols to memorize
H
Li
Na
K
Mg
Ca
Cr
Mn
Fe
Ba
Ni
Cu

Hydrogen
Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
Magnesium
Calcium
Chrome
Manganese
Iron
Barium
Nickel
Copper

Zn
Ag
Au
Hg
B
Al
C
Pb
Si
N
P
O

Zinc
Silver
Gold
Mercury
Boron
Aluminium
Carbon
Lead
Silicon
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Oxygen

S
F
Cl
Br
I
He
Ne
Ar
Co
U
Sn
Be

Sulphur
Fluorine
Chlorine
Brome
Iodine
Helium
Neon
Argon
Cobalt
Uranium
Tin
Beryllium

Chemical Bonds
Compounds: a pure substance made up of two or more elements (Ex. H2O, NaOH)
Binary Compound: compound made up of two elements (Ex. NaCl, CO2)
Atoms gain, lose or share electrons to fill their outer shell and become stable. When a
compound is formed, even if the total number of electrons between the atoms remains
unchanged, the disposition of the electrons is modified.
Ionic Bonds
Ionic bonds result when electrons are transferred from metal atoms to non-metal atoms. The
non-metal atoms lose electrons to become positive ions, while the non-metal atoms gain
electrons to become negative ions. The ions are then held together by the attraction of
opposite charges in an ionic bond.
Properties of ionic compounds
Transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal
Combination of oppositely charged ions
Crystalline structure
High fusion point
Generally water soluble
Form electrolytes when dissolved in water (conducts
electricity)
Covalent Bonds
Covalent bonds result when non-metal atoms share electrons. By overlapping their valence
electron shells, the atoms share pairs of electrons. This increases the number of electrons in
each atoms valence shell, so that the atoms appear to have full shells.
Properties of molecules (covalent bonds)
Overlapping of valence shells
Sharing of electrons
Generally between two non-metals
Relatively low fusion point (melts easily)
Poor conductor of electricity
** Certain elements tend to form diatomic molecules (two
identical atoms ex. H2). The diatomic molecules can be remembered
by using the acronym HOFBrINCl.
Sometimes, atoms that form covalent bonds will share two or three pairs of electrons.
These bonds are referred to as double or triple bonds.

Chemical names and formulae


The following rules for naming compounds are universal.

Rules for naming binary ionic compounds


1. Name the positive ion first by writing the full name of the metallic element.
Ex. NaCl

sodium

2. Name the non-metal ion next by dropping the last syllable(s) of the name of the
element and adding the suffix ide.
Ex. NaCl
SrS

sodium chloride
Strontium sulphide

Rules for writing chemical formulas for binary ionic compounds


1. Using the name of the binary compound, write the symbols and charge for the ions
involved. Write the ion charge as superscript.
Ex. Aluminium oxide

Al3+ O2-

2. Determine subscripts that will produce a balance of charge. (Hint: Switching the
charges will usually produce a balance of charge.)
Ex.

3. As a check to ensure the formula is written correctly, multiply the charge for each ion by
the subscript for the same ion. The total positive charge should equal the total negative
charge and the net charge per ionic formula should be zero.
Ex. (3+) x 2 = 6+
(2-) x 3 = 6(6+) + (6-) = 0 (zero net charge)
4. Write the final chemical formula without the charges.
Ex. Final answer = Al2O3
** Note: The subscript 1 is not used. The chemical symbol alone (no subscript)
represents one of that specific atom.
** Note: Reduce and simplify the ratio.
Ex. Ca2+ O2- Ca2O2 will become CaO
A bit of practice
Write the names of the following compounds:
NaF _______________________________________________________
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CaCl2__________________________________________________________________________________
Write the formulas for the following compounds:
Lithium sulphide
Magnesium bromide

The Stock System


(ionic bonds only)
Certain metals have more than one charge. The Stock System is used to indicate which ion is
used in the compound. (Example: Iron can form ions that have a charge of 2+ or 3+.)
In this system, the valence of the metal element is indicated by using Roman numeral in
parenthesis following the name of the metal.
(Ex. Iron (II) for a valence of 2+ and Iron (III) for a valence of 3+)
Simple steps: (example Fe2O3)
1. From the formula, we can see that there are 3 oxygen ions (the non-metal). Oxygen ions
have a charge of 2-. So we know that the total charge of the non-metal ions in this formula is
(2-) x 3 = (6-)
2. Fe2O3 In order to have a net charge of zero for this compound, the metal ions, in this case
iron, must equal to 6+. ((6+) + (6-) = 0) We can see from the formula that there are two iron
ions. To find the charge of the iron ion, simply use a bit of algebra:
6+ = ? x 2
? = 3+
3. If you look at iron in your periodic table of the elements, you will see that it can have a
valence of 2+ or of 3+. In this case its 3+. To apply the Stock System to the name, write the
name of the compound as per usual, but the name of the metal will be followed by Roman
numeral indicating the charge used.
Ex. Iron (III) oxide
**Hint: If youll notice in the above example, Fe2O3 the charge of the iron was the same as the
subscript for the oxygen. Remember on page 10 when we looked at the example of Al2O3?
Take a look, Ill wait Ok, see how the charges of the ions swapped to become the subscripts
in the formula? Try it with Fe2O3.
It worked didnt it? See? BUT WAIT! It doesnt always work. Be careful with simplified
formulas. FeO is Fe2O2 reduced. The name is iron (II) oxide. And PbO2 is lead (IV) oxide.
ALWAYS CHECK YOU PERIODIC TABLE FOR THE POSSIBLE CHARGES AND CHECK
YOUR NON-METAL FOR ITS CHARGE.
**One more thing, alkali metals and alkaline earths always form ions of 1+ and 2+
respectively. In those cases you dont need the Stock System.

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Try this one: PbS2

Molecular Compounds
Binary molecular compounds contain atoms of two non-metal elements, covalently bonded
by sharing electrons.
Molecular compounds are named using a prefix system. A Greek prefix is used to indicate
the number of each type of atom in the molecule. The prefixes are as follows:
mono
1

di
2

tri
3

tetra
4

penta
5

hexa
6

Rules for naming binary molecular compounds


1. The first non-metal name is written in full
Ex. CO2 carbon
2. The second non-metal element is named with the suffix (ide).
Ex. CO2 carbon oxide
3. Assign a prefix to each element* expressing the number of atoms present in the molecule. *
The prefix mono is used only with the second element in the compound. When the second
element is oxygen, the vowel o in mono is dropped and the name becomes monoxide rather
than monoxide. Similarly, the a in tetra, penta or hexa is also dropped.
Ex. CO2 carbon dioxide
N2O5

dinitrogen petaoxyde

Rules for writing binary molecular compounds


1. Both non-metal symbols are followed by a subscript indicating the number of atoms
present. The number 1 is not written, as it is understood to be present.
Ex. carbon tetrchloride = CCl4
silicon hexafluoride = SiF6
2. When determining which non-metal element to place first in the compound, the general
rule is to read across the periodic table from left to right. The element that appears first is
usually written first There are exceptions to this general rule.
Ex. H2S = hydrogen sulphide
NF3 = nitrogen trifluoride

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Summary: naming and writing formulas of binary compounds


Ionic Compounds

Molecular Compounds

Mass is conserved in chemical reactions. Meaning that during a chemical reaction, the total
mass of the chemicals you begin with is always equal to the total mass of the resulting
chemicals (chemicals that you end up with).
In an open system, the mass can be lost, not because matter disappears,
but because particles, for example in a gas, can escape.

In a closed system, the particles remain within. If a gas is formed,


the particles cant get out. The mass at the end would then be
identical to the mass before the reaction.

IMPORTANT:
Particles cannot be created or destroyed. They may change their position, for example in a
solid the particles move very little and are extremely close together, whereas in a gas the
particles move rapidly and a spaced out. In the end, the total number of particles has not
changed.
During a chemical reaction, the atoms in ionic and molecular compounds can separate into
individual atoms or recombine with other atoms in the reaction to form a new compound. A
chemical reaction creates new compounds.
Chemical reactions can be expressed in the form of balanced equations:
Ex. 2H2 + O2

2H2O

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Methods for balancing chemical equations


(Method A)
Step 1: It is important to understand the relationship between the word equation and the
chemical equation.
Word equation: Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to produce water.
Chemical equation: H2 + O2

H2O

Step 2: The chemical equation as written on the previous page is not yet balanced. In this
form it is known as the skeletal equation.
* Hang on. Do you remember the diatomic molecules? HOFBrINCl? Ok, these are elements
that always hang out in pairs when they are not yet in another compound. Thats why
hydrogen and oxygen have a subscript 2 on the left side of the arrow.
H2 + O2

H2O

Now, if you count the number of each atom on each side of


the equation (or just look at the handy image that I put
over to the right), youll notice that they are not equal.
Right? WELL, if youll remember the Law of Conservation
of Mass, it tells us that this is impossible, if we start with a
certain number of each atom, we must end with the exact
same number of each atom even if they have switched partners.
This is why you must balance chemical equations. At this point, we have the same number of
hydrogen on each side, but we are short one oxygen atom on the right. So we have to add
one
Step 3: The almost-balanced equation
So, we must add an oxygen atom but as you can see in my
second handy image, you cannot simple throw an oxygen atom
anywhere in there. You must add the entire compound. This is
done by adding a coefficient in front of the compound.
H2 + O 2

2H2O

Now the oxygen atoms are balanced but the hydrogen


atoms are off. So lets fix that
Step 4: The balanced equation
Finally, well add two hydrogen atoms to the left
side of the equation (using a coefficient once
again) to balance the equation. **Dont forget!!!
HOFBrINCl. Because hydrogen is diatomic, that
is how you have to add it!
2H2 + O2

2H2O

Now count your atoms to make sure. (4H + 2O = 4H + 2O)


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**Reminder:

You may only modify the coefficient to balance an equation. Do not ever change the
subscript numbers.
You may only add compounds and/or atoms, you cannot remove them to balance the
equation.
(Method B)

___HCl + ____ Mg

____MgCl2 + ____H2
H:
Cl :
Mg :

H:
Cl :
Mg :

___NaCl + ____ MgBr2

____MgCl2 + ____NaBr

Na :
Cl :
Mg :
Br:

Na :
Cl :
Mg :
Br:

Classification of Chemical Reactions


Indicators of chemical reactions are:
Color changes
Production of light or heat
Production of a gas
Production of a solid
Production of a new substance

1) Synthesis
Twoormoreelementscombinetoform
anewcompound.
Generallythechemicalsyoubeginwith
areelementsbuttheycanbecompounds.

A + B AB
Examples:

2H2+O22H2O
CaO+CO2CaCO3

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2) Decomposition
Acompoundisseparatedintotwoor
moreelements.Thereactantsare
compounds.

Watercanbeseparatedintooxygenand
hydrogen.

AB A + B
Examples:

2H2O2H2+O2

CaCO3CaO+CO2

3) Single displacement

Oneelementreplacesanotherina
compound.

A + BX B + AX
Examples:

Cl2+2NaBrBr2+2NaCl

Mg+2HClH2+MgCl2

4) Double displacement
Thepositiveionsintwodifferent
compoundsswitchplacestoformtwo
newcompounds.

Twotypes:

Precipitateoneofthecompounds
producedisinsolubleandformsa
distinctprecipitate(solid)inthesolution.

Neutralisationthereactionbetweenan
acidandabaseproduceswateranda
salt

AX + BY AY + BX
Examples:

Ba(OH)2+Na2(SO4)BaSO4+2NaOH
precipitate

HCl+NaOHNaCl+H2O
Acidbasesaltwater(H+OH)

15

5) Combustion
Ahydrocarbonreactswithoxygento
producecarbondioxideandwater.
Ex)ethane,propane,butane

Organicsubstanceslikenaturalgas
containonlycarbonandhydrogen
atoms.Thesehydrocarbonsburninthe
presenceofoxygen.

Hydrocarbon+O2CO2+H2O

Example:

CH4+O2CO2+H2O
Mthane

Acids
The word acid comes from the Latin term acidus, meaning sour. Acids have a sour taste.
You will find that there are many acids at home such as: citric acid (lemon), vinegar, orange,
coke, etc.
In 1884, the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius defined an acid as: a substance that
produces hydrogen ions [H]+in a solution. For example, hydrochloric acid (HCl) is a
compound that separates into ions H+ and Cl- when dissolved in water. The resulting solution
is an electrolyte.
Ex. HCl

[H]+ + [Cl]Bases

A base is a bitter-tasting compound with a greasy or oily texture. Most soaps and window
cleaners are bases. The word alkali is often used to describe a basic solution.
Arrhenius defined a base as: a substance that produces hydroxide ions [OH] - in a
solution. For example, sodium hydroxide NaOH, is a base. It will form ions [OH] and
[Na]+.
Ex. NaOH

[Na]+ + [OH]

Most acids and bases are clear and colorless, making it difficult to distinguish them from
water. The easiest way to differentiate between acids, bases and water is by using an
indicator.
An indicator is a chemical product that changes color when the concentration of
hydrogen ions [H]+or hydroxide ions [OH] - changes.

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Common indicators:
Litmus paper: can be red or blue; a color change to blue indicates a base, while red
indicates an acid
Phenothaline: turns pink when added to a base; remains colorless for an acid or
neutral substance
pH paper: changes color according to the pH of a solution; the color is compared to
the pH scale
The pH Scale
The pH scale is a measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. The scale
ranges from 0 to 14. The pH of a neutral substance is 7, meaning the concentration of
hydrogen ions is equal to that of hydroxide atoms.
A pH of less than 7 indicates an acid. (More hydrogen than hydroxide ions.)
A pH of more than 7 indicates a base. (Les hydrogen ions, more hydroxide ions.)

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Acids

Sulphuric acid

H2SO4

Strong acid
Most used industrial chemical product
Car batteries
Used to clean metals and to make fertilizer
and detergents

Nitric acid

HNO3

Strong acid
Used to make fertilizer, explosives and dyes.

Acide carbonique

H2CO3

Weak acid
Present in rain water and soft drinks

Acetic acid

CH3COOH

Weak acid (vinegar)

Sulphurous acid

H2SO3

An acid found in acid rain

Sodium hydroxide

NaOH

Strong base
Used to make paper, glass and soap

Calcium hydroxide

Ca(OH)2

Strong base
Used to make cement and paper

Magnesium hydroxide

Mg(OH)2 Strong base, not very soluble


Active ingredient in antacids
Weak base
NH3
Used to make fertilizer and cleaning
solutions

Ammonia

Acids in your body


Chemical reactions transform the food that you eat into
substances that your body can use as a source of energy, for
growth and maintenance and to repair cells and tissue.
When you eat a big dinner in particular foods containing
caffeine, such as coffee, tea or chocolate your stomach
secretes more acid to help the chemical reactions. Stomach
acid is hydrochloric acid which has a pH of 1 or 2. This excess acid can cause what is
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Bases

commonly known as heart burn or acid indigestion. (TV anyone?) This is a burning sensation
caused by stomach acid.
Heart burn happens when the acidic contents of the stomach are pushed
upwards toward the inferior part of the oesophagus. Because the oesophagus
is not protected with a special lining as the stomach is, you may feel a
burning sensation in the chest area.
Domestic Applications
If you take a look at the products in your house, you will likely find all kinds of cleaning
products. These products usually contain some very reactive compounds. It is for that exact
reason that these products are used. The reactivity of the compounds in a cleaner makes
cleaning much easier, but it also makes these products dangerous.
For example, pipe cleaners like Draino usually contain strong bases such as sodium
hydroxide. Because this base is extremely corrosive, it easily breaks the bonds that hold
together the molecules of the materials obstructing the pipe or drain.
Soap
Soap is produced through a reaction between a fat (solid or liquid) and a strong base (ex.
NaOH, KOH). A fat is a compound made up of two parts: fatty acids and glycerol. To make
soap, the fatty acids are separated from the glycerol and the metallic element of the base is
added to the fatty acid.
Another product of this reaction is glycerine; a softening agent generally used in hand
creams.
Reactivity with metals
When an acid reacts with metal, hydrogen is released and the metal dissolves. The metal
replaces the hydrogen ions. Hydrogen is released as a gas. The metal combines with the
negative ion (simple displacement!). The intensity of the reaction depends on the metal and
the type of acid used.
MgCl2 + H2

Ex. Mg + HCl

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Neutralisation
The reaction between an acid and a base is a special type of double displacement called
neutralisation. An acid will react with a base to produce a new compound, known as a salt,
and water.
Acid + Base

Salt + Water

A salt is an ionic compound produced through the reaction between an acid and a base. There
exists a multitude of different acids and bases and therefore there are a multitude of different
salts. Table salt that we put on food is a salt called sodium chloride. It results from the
reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide:
HCl + NaOH

NaCl + H2O

HCl + NaOH

NaCl + H2O
Atmospheric Pollution
When we burn fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas) in our cars, homes and in factories, we
produce gases that are released into the atmosphere. The gases produced are SO2, SO3, NO
and NO2. These gases combine with the water vapour in the atmosphere and produce:
Sulphurous acid SO2 + H2O
Sulphuric acid SO3 + H2O
Nitrous acid NO + H2O
Nitric acid NO2 + H2O

H2SO3
H2SO4
HNO2
HNO3

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The result is acid rain. The pH of normal rain is between 5.5 and 6.2. Rain is already slightly
acidic because it combines with carbon dioxide to make a weak acid called carbonic acid.
The pH of acid rain is between 4 and 5. During periods of intense industrial activities, the pH
can drop to as low as 3.
Acid rain has serious negative effects on the environment. When these rains fall on lakes, the
pH of the lake can change. If the pH approaches 6, insects and other aquatic animals die. The
larger animals die first as it is more difficult for them to adapt to the change. When the pH
approaches 5, many plant species and micro organisms die.

When the pH drops below 5, all forms of life die.


Birds and mammals that are nourished by this ecosystem must find other means of
nourishment or die of hunger.
Acid rain dissolves metal and these metals infiltrate underground waters. These waters
empty into lakes and rivers that are often a source of drinking water for humans. In strong
concentrations, these metals are dangerous for most organisms, humans included. These
metals can cause health problems and even death.
Acid rain contributes to the decomposition of buildings and monuments made of marble or
stone because these materials are easily dissolve by the acid. Acid rain also contributes to the
corrosion of metal structures.

What do we do???
We need to reduce our gas emissions. Modern cars are now equipped with catalytic
converters which reduce greenhouse gas emissions. There are also regulations in place which
stipulate that factories must install purification systems in industries where coal is burned.
These purifications systems can remove up to 95% of sulphur oxides.
What can you think of?

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