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Notes
Name: _____________________
Typically, a neutral atom has the same amount of protons (+) as it does electrons
(-).
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O
Chemical symbol
B
Al
Na
He
Ne
Ar
Kr
Xe
Rn
- shiny
- excellent thermal and electrical conductors
- malleable (easily deformed, reshaped or bent without breaking)
- many react with acids
- solid at room temperature (exception: Hg)
- dull
- poor thermal and electrical conductors
- half are gas and the other half are solid at room temperature
- those that are solid at room temperature are fragile
The elements that touch the staircase on either side are called metalloids, with the
exception of Aluminium which is a metal.
(Boron, Silicon, Germanium, Arsenic, Antimony, Tellurium, Polonium and sometimes
Astatine and Selenium.)
Properties:
3) Chemical Families
Each column of the periodic table is a chemical group or family. The elements belonging to a
chemical group, all have the same chemical tendencies.
* The chemical tendency of an element or family indicates what the atom will do in order to
become stable, meaning the number of electrons that it will gain or lose to complete its
outer layer.
1A 2A
6A 7A 8A
Transition Metals
B
Al
Na
He
Ne
Ar
Kr
Xe
Rn
Drawing
Ex: Sulphur is located in column 6 or 16. The closest rare gas is argon. To have a full valence shell
like that of Ar, a sulphur atom must gain two electrons.
Your example:
Element_______
gain
lose
The Lewis dot diagrams of lithium, carbon and fluorine are as follows:
We use the Lewis Dot Diagram show when atoms have become ions.
Sulphur must gain two electrons in order to become stable.
By taking on these electrons, sulphur becomes negatively
charged.
Sodium must lose its valence electron to become stable. In
doing this, sodium becomes a positively charged ion.
Chemical names and symbols to memorize
H
Li
Na
K
Mg
Ca
Cr
Mn
Fe
Ba
Ni
Cu
Hydrogen
Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
Magnesium
Calcium
Chrome
Manganese
Iron
Barium
Nickel
Copper
Zn
Ag
Au
Hg
B
Al
C
Pb
Si
N
P
O
Zinc
Silver
Gold
Mercury
Boron
Aluminium
Carbon
Lead
Silicon
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Oxygen
S
F
Cl
Br
I
He
Ne
Ar
Co
U
Sn
Be
Sulphur
Fluorine
Chlorine
Brome
Iodine
Helium
Neon
Argon
Cobalt
Uranium
Tin
Beryllium
Chemical Bonds
Compounds: a pure substance made up of two or more elements (Ex. H2O, NaOH)
Binary Compound: compound made up of two elements (Ex. NaCl, CO2)
Atoms gain, lose or share electrons to fill their outer shell and become stable. When a
compound is formed, even if the total number of electrons between the atoms remains
unchanged, the disposition of the electrons is modified.
Ionic Bonds
Ionic bonds result when electrons are transferred from metal atoms to non-metal atoms. The
non-metal atoms lose electrons to become positive ions, while the non-metal atoms gain
electrons to become negative ions. The ions are then held together by the attraction of
opposite charges in an ionic bond.
Properties of ionic compounds
Transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal
Combination of oppositely charged ions
Crystalline structure
High fusion point
Generally water soluble
Form electrolytes when dissolved in water (conducts
electricity)
Covalent Bonds
Covalent bonds result when non-metal atoms share electrons. By overlapping their valence
electron shells, the atoms share pairs of electrons. This increases the number of electrons in
each atoms valence shell, so that the atoms appear to have full shells.
Properties of molecules (covalent bonds)
Overlapping of valence shells
Sharing of electrons
Generally between two non-metals
Relatively low fusion point (melts easily)
Poor conductor of electricity
** Certain elements tend to form diatomic molecules (two
identical atoms ex. H2). The diatomic molecules can be remembered
by using the acronym HOFBrINCl.
Sometimes, atoms that form covalent bonds will share two or three pairs of electrons.
These bonds are referred to as double or triple bonds.
sodium
2. Name the non-metal ion next by dropping the last syllable(s) of the name of the
element and adding the suffix ide.
Ex. NaCl
SrS
sodium chloride
Strontium sulphide
Al3+ O2-
2. Determine subscripts that will produce a balance of charge. (Hint: Switching the
charges will usually produce a balance of charge.)
Ex.
3. As a check to ensure the formula is written correctly, multiply the charge for each ion by
the subscript for the same ion. The total positive charge should equal the total negative
charge and the net charge per ionic formula should be zero.
Ex. (3+) x 2 = 6+
(2-) x 3 = 6(6+) + (6-) = 0 (zero net charge)
4. Write the final chemical formula without the charges.
Ex. Final answer = Al2O3
** Note: The subscript 1 is not used. The chemical symbol alone (no subscript)
represents one of that specific atom.
** Note: Reduce and simplify the ratio.
Ex. Ca2+ O2- Ca2O2 will become CaO
A bit of practice
Write the names of the following compounds:
NaF _______________________________________________________
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CaCl2__________________________________________________________________________________
Write the formulas for the following compounds:
Lithium sulphide
Magnesium bromide
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Molecular Compounds
Binary molecular compounds contain atoms of two non-metal elements, covalently bonded
by sharing electrons.
Molecular compounds are named using a prefix system. A Greek prefix is used to indicate
the number of each type of atom in the molecule. The prefixes are as follows:
mono
1
di
2
tri
3
tetra
4
penta
5
hexa
6
dinitrogen petaoxyde
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Molecular Compounds
Mass is conserved in chemical reactions. Meaning that during a chemical reaction, the total
mass of the chemicals you begin with is always equal to the total mass of the resulting
chemicals (chemicals that you end up with).
In an open system, the mass can be lost, not because matter disappears,
but because particles, for example in a gas, can escape.
IMPORTANT:
Particles cannot be created or destroyed. They may change their position, for example in a
solid the particles move very little and are extremely close together, whereas in a gas the
particles move rapidly and a spaced out. In the end, the total number of particles has not
changed.
During a chemical reaction, the atoms in ionic and molecular compounds can separate into
individual atoms or recombine with other atoms in the reaction to form a new compound. A
chemical reaction creates new compounds.
Chemical reactions can be expressed in the form of balanced equations:
Ex. 2H2 + O2
2H2O
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H2O
Step 2: The chemical equation as written on the previous page is not yet balanced. In this
form it is known as the skeletal equation.
* Hang on. Do you remember the diatomic molecules? HOFBrINCl? Ok, these are elements
that always hang out in pairs when they are not yet in another compound. Thats why
hydrogen and oxygen have a subscript 2 on the left side of the arrow.
H2 + O2
H2O
2H2O
2H2O
**Reminder:
You may only modify the coefficient to balance an equation. Do not ever change the
subscript numbers.
You may only add compounds and/or atoms, you cannot remove them to balance the
equation.
(Method B)
___HCl + ____ Mg
____MgCl2 + ____H2
H:
Cl :
Mg :
H:
Cl :
Mg :
____MgCl2 + ____NaBr
Na :
Cl :
Mg :
Br:
Na :
Cl :
Mg :
Br:
1) Synthesis
Twoormoreelementscombinetoform
anewcompound.
Generallythechemicalsyoubeginwith
areelementsbuttheycanbecompounds.
A + B AB
Examples:
2H2+O22H2O
CaO+CO2CaCO3
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2) Decomposition
Acompoundisseparatedintotwoor
moreelements.Thereactantsare
compounds.
Watercanbeseparatedintooxygenand
hydrogen.
AB A + B
Examples:
2H2O2H2+O2
CaCO3CaO+CO2
3) Single displacement
Oneelementreplacesanotherina
compound.
A + BX B + AX
Examples:
Cl2+2NaBrBr2+2NaCl
Mg+2HClH2+MgCl2
4) Double displacement
Thepositiveionsintwodifferent
compoundsswitchplacestoformtwo
newcompounds.
Twotypes:
Precipitateoneofthecompounds
producedisinsolubleandformsa
distinctprecipitate(solid)inthesolution.
Neutralisationthereactionbetweenan
acidandabaseproduceswateranda
salt
AX + BY AY + BX
Examples:
Ba(OH)2+Na2(SO4)BaSO4+2NaOH
precipitate
HCl+NaOHNaCl+H2O
Acidbasesaltwater(H+OH)
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5) Combustion
Ahydrocarbonreactswithoxygento
producecarbondioxideandwater.
Ex)ethane,propane,butane
Organicsubstanceslikenaturalgas
containonlycarbonandhydrogen
atoms.Thesehydrocarbonsburninthe
presenceofoxygen.
Hydrocarbon+O2CO2+H2O
Example:
CH4+O2CO2+H2O
Mthane
Acids
The word acid comes from the Latin term acidus, meaning sour. Acids have a sour taste.
You will find that there are many acids at home such as: citric acid (lemon), vinegar, orange,
coke, etc.
In 1884, the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius defined an acid as: a substance that
produces hydrogen ions [H]+in a solution. For example, hydrochloric acid (HCl) is a
compound that separates into ions H+ and Cl- when dissolved in water. The resulting solution
is an electrolyte.
Ex. HCl
[H]+ + [Cl]Bases
A base is a bitter-tasting compound with a greasy or oily texture. Most soaps and window
cleaners are bases. The word alkali is often used to describe a basic solution.
Arrhenius defined a base as: a substance that produces hydroxide ions [OH] - in a
solution. For example, sodium hydroxide NaOH, is a base. It will form ions [OH] and
[Na]+.
Ex. NaOH
[Na]+ + [OH]
Most acids and bases are clear and colorless, making it difficult to distinguish them from
water. The easiest way to differentiate between acids, bases and water is by using an
indicator.
An indicator is a chemical product that changes color when the concentration of
hydrogen ions [H]+or hydroxide ions [OH] - changes.
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Common indicators:
Litmus paper: can be red or blue; a color change to blue indicates a base, while red
indicates an acid
Phenothaline: turns pink when added to a base; remains colorless for an acid or
neutral substance
pH paper: changes color according to the pH of a solution; the color is compared to
the pH scale
The pH Scale
The pH scale is a measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. The scale
ranges from 0 to 14. The pH of a neutral substance is 7, meaning the concentration of
hydrogen ions is equal to that of hydroxide atoms.
A pH of less than 7 indicates an acid. (More hydrogen than hydroxide ions.)
A pH of more than 7 indicates a base. (Les hydrogen ions, more hydroxide ions.)
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Acids
Sulphuric acid
H2SO4
Strong acid
Most used industrial chemical product
Car batteries
Used to clean metals and to make fertilizer
and detergents
Nitric acid
HNO3
Strong acid
Used to make fertilizer, explosives and dyes.
Acide carbonique
H2CO3
Weak acid
Present in rain water and soft drinks
Acetic acid
CH3COOH
Sulphurous acid
H2SO3
Sodium hydroxide
NaOH
Strong base
Used to make paper, glass and soap
Calcium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2
Strong base
Used to make cement and paper
Magnesium hydroxide
Ammonia
Bases
commonly known as heart burn or acid indigestion. (TV anyone?) This is a burning sensation
caused by stomach acid.
Heart burn happens when the acidic contents of the stomach are pushed
upwards toward the inferior part of the oesophagus. Because the oesophagus
is not protected with a special lining as the stomach is, you may feel a
burning sensation in the chest area.
Domestic Applications
If you take a look at the products in your house, you will likely find all kinds of cleaning
products. These products usually contain some very reactive compounds. It is for that exact
reason that these products are used. The reactivity of the compounds in a cleaner makes
cleaning much easier, but it also makes these products dangerous.
For example, pipe cleaners like Draino usually contain strong bases such as sodium
hydroxide. Because this base is extremely corrosive, it easily breaks the bonds that hold
together the molecules of the materials obstructing the pipe or drain.
Soap
Soap is produced through a reaction between a fat (solid or liquid) and a strong base (ex.
NaOH, KOH). A fat is a compound made up of two parts: fatty acids and glycerol. To make
soap, the fatty acids are separated from the glycerol and the metallic element of the base is
added to the fatty acid.
Another product of this reaction is glycerine; a softening agent generally used in hand
creams.
Reactivity with metals
When an acid reacts with metal, hydrogen is released and the metal dissolves. The metal
replaces the hydrogen ions. Hydrogen is released as a gas. The metal combines with the
negative ion (simple displacement!). The intensity of the reaction depends on the metal and
the type of acid used.
MgCl2 + H2
Ex. Mg + HCl
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Neutralisation
The reaction between an acid and a base is a special type of double displacement called
neutralisation. An acid will react with a base to produce a new compound, known as a salt,
and water.
Acid + Base
Salt + Water
A salt is an ionic compound produced through the reaction between an acid and a base. There
exists a multitude of different acids and bases and therefore there are a multitude of different
salts. Table salt that we put on food is a salt called sodium chloride. It results from the
reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide:
HCl + NaOH
NaCl + H2O
HCl + NaOH
NaCl + H2O
Atmospheric Pollution
When we burn fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas) in our cars, homes and in factories, we
produce gases that are released into the atmosphere. The gases produced are SO2, SO3, NO
and NO2. These gases combine with the water vapour in the atmosphere and produce:
Sulphurous acid SO2 + H2O
Sulphuric acid SO3 + H2O
Nitrous acid NO + H2O
Nitric acid NO2 + H2O
H2SO3
H2SO4
HNO2
HNO3
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The result is acid rain. The pH of normal rain is between 5.5 and 6.2. Rain is already slightly
acidic because it combines with carbon dioxide to make a weak acid called carbonic acid.
The pH of acid rain is between 4 and 5. During periods of intense industrial activities, the pH
can drop to as low as 3.
Acid rain has serious negative effects on the environment. When these rains fall on lakes, the
pH of the lake can change. If the pH approaches 6, insects and other aquatic animals die. The
larger animals die first as it is more difficult for them to adapt to the change. When the pH
approaches 5, many plant species and micro organisms die.
What do we do???
We need to reduce our gas emissions. Modern cars are now equipped with catalytic
converters which reduce greenhouse gas emissions. There are also regulations in place which
stipulate that factories must install purification systems in industries where coal is burned.
These purifications systems can remove up to 95% of sulphur oxides.
What can you think of?
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