PRENTICE-HALL CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING to Geotechnical Engineering NM, Newmark an WJ Hl, Etorsfour Clay Minerals and Soil Structure 4:1 INTRODUCTION [AL hs stage itis useful to again deine the tem oly. Cay can eer ‘o specific minerals such a katte rile ae dicted ip etal in ‘this chaper However, neil engineering. ly often means cl sll—a soi which contains some clay mineral ar well at her inca! con: ‘tents, ha plasticity, and is “cohesive” Clay sis ae fine gained, ab Indated in Chapter 2 (Table 22), but aot all fine-grained soi are ‘hese or clays. Silt are Both granular and fine grained. The individ Sit rain ike clays, are nv the naked ye, but sis ave moneshe- Sivetnd onplast. Rock four is another example ox very fine-grained fobesonles so ‘Also remember that certain characteristics of grenlarsis suchas the grain sae dstnbution and the grin shape fet the engineering ‘tutor ofthese sil. On the other sod, the presence of water with = few important exceptions is reatively uninportant in thle behavior, [a contrat, for clay Sis the grin sre dtbution has relainey lie infsene on the engnesng behavior, ut water markedly affects thie behavior. Sis ae an “in between” materia. Water ale their Behavior they are lotant—yet they have litle o no plasticity (PL ~ 0 and thet ‘angie sands, ae enemy independent of water coment ‘As we indicate inthis chapter, clay merle are vy sal patil hich re ven’ acne elecochemicaly. The presence of sven sal ‘mount of cay minerals ins ol mass can raed alec te engineering ‘roprts ofthat mass. AS the amount of ely increases the Scho of the wil inerensingly governed by the properties ofthe clay. When the lay contents about 507% te sand ant rns are sentaly tng ina cay matric and ave litle efet onthe enginctiag havin.4 this chapter, me briefly describe the important clay minerals, how {hey are denied, ad how they interact wih water and with eachother ‘We aio describe some of the latest thinking about soil tube and soe lure, concepts which ae fundamentally inpotant for «good understand ing of cobexve wil behavior. Finally, cohen solace ad the ‘concept of relative density are dusted ‘Only one new symbol i introduced inthis chapter Sais Dineen a a ‘ne 42 CLAY MINERALS. Clay mineral are very tiny eytalnesubetances evolved priily from chemical weathering of cerain rock forming minerals Chemscaly, ‘hey are fou aluminas plas oer metalic ons ll lay minerals ae very sal colloialized ery (ameter les han 1p) and they an only be seen with an electron microscope. Te nda etal ook like tiny plates o Makes, and from X-ray diction sade scents have ‘etermined that these flakes comsst of many cya sheets whch have & ‘repeating atom stractare In fac there ae aly two fundamental etal sheets the trad! or sco, abd the octahedra or lumina, sews The Daricular way in which these sheets ac sacked, topetier wth iret bonding and siferent metalic Sons inthe crystal late, Gnstte the Sieen lay mineral. “The tevaheral sheet is basicaly «combination of sil tetrahedral units which cont of four oxyaea toms atthe comer surrounding = ‘singe wlicon atom. Figure 4a shows a single silica tetrahedron, Fig 16 Shows how the oxygen stoma he bse ofeach erahedron ae combined to forma sheet srsctare. The onygens tthe base ofeach eraedron sre ‘in one plane, and the unjined oxygen corer all pint In the same ‘lection. A common schematic cepresetton of he tetahedral shel hich is wed Inter is shown in File. Atop view ofthe lcs sheet Showing how the oxygen atoms atthe base of ech teraedon belong fo {we letrahedrons and how adjacent silicon atoms are bonded i shown in Fig. 1d. Not the hexagonal “oles” inthe shee. “The octahedral shee is basicly a combination of cctabedea units consisting of i oxygen or bydroyls enclosing a alumousy magnesium, iton, or other atom. A single octahedron ir shown in Fig. 4, while Fig 4420 Shows how the octabedrons combine to frm 4 thet struts, The ‘ows of oxygens or hydroxyls the sheet ares two planes, Figute 42 Soca ce SoS Sm 4 schematic representation of he octaborl sect which we we later. Foe top view of the octahedral thet showing how the diferent atoms are ‘Shared and bonded tee Fig, 424, ‘Subatittion of aieent cations in the octahedral sheet is rather common and esto diferent clay minerals Since the ons subtted are spproxmately the same physical size, sich substation it elled omer ‘phous. Somtines no al th octahasron continu eatin, whi ret a 4 somewhat ferent eqstaline irscture wih sighly ferent phytic ‘Properties and dierent cay mineral all the anon of the octahedra ‘eet ae yong ad two-thirds of the eation positions ee filed wih ‘hmioum, then the mineral is called give I magnesium ic subsitehin‘ tnlt cones ms ve stan shew one Sr IRoonoSy oat ater son 85) () op the oan ‘Neate any 10. for the aluminum in the shet andi ls al the cation positon, then the ‘minerals ealled brite. The variations ia the basic het structures make Ap the douens of clay minerals whch have Been identified, Al lay ‘ners comust ofthe two basic shets which are stacked together in rain unique ways and with certain eatons present inthe octahedral and {evahedal short For engineering purpose itis ually sucent to ‘Sorte only few of the more common cay minerals which ae found in asin consis basicly of reenng lye of one tetabeea (sti) sheet and one cad! alvin bre) seee Bec of te Staci of on lpr echo he two be eet ein oe Ui ey miner! (ig. 43), The tn sess ve eld pete in uch ay tha the poh ia set and one of tele of tesa sheet forma sg yer shown in Fie 44 Ths yer waoat OTE am tack‘eroouen casted Ciseiarac donwe ne (Grogan Bon and extends indefinitely im the other two desis. A Kaolinite crystal, then, consists of a stack of several layers of the basi 0.72 am layer Succesive layers ofthe basic lnjer are held together by hydrogen bonds between the hyaorgls of the octahedral sheet and the oxygens of the lerabedralabec. Since the hydrogen bond is very song pretens 1jdration and allow the Iyer a ack upto take a rater large ctl 2A pial Lavin crystal can be 7 to 100 lyers thick, Figure 43 i a Scaningelecon micrograph (SEM) of kaolinite Kaolinite the primary coituent it shina clay it is alo wed a the paper, pula. and pharmaceatalindues. For etample as a phar ‘mace It wed in Kaopectate and Rola “Another :1 mineral elated to halite i allot. I ters trom Asotin in that when twas frre it somehow became hydrated between the lier cxusing a distortion ce random sacking in the cyst latices ‘hati is tubular in shape Fig 46). The water ean easly be deiven out from between the liyers by hesting or even at drying and the proces lieversible. That the aloste wl not ekydrate when wate Is added alloys, although not very common, eceasonally aye an important Slaswmnensrs i Ses 14 compaction tests made on aired samples can giv markedly diferent real than lesson samples et aural water content. fhe owl othe sr died inthe ld, cam be tremely imporant tht Inboratary tts be erred out the field wate ontents so that the resus wil have some validity Monimarilonie, abo sometimes called smectite, is an important ‘mineral composed of two slicashets and one slmion (bb) thet e 42), Thos montmorilonte is ealled 2:1 mineral The ocabedel sheet between the two sien sheets withthe tie of the ietrahedront ‘combining with the hydroryls of the octahedral set to form a sage layer, shown in Fig: 48. The thicknes of each 2:1 layer about 096 tm, and tke halite the layers extend indefinitely i the tet two ‘tetons. Because the bonding by van der Waal forces between the ope ‘the silica sheets is weak and ther «net agave charge deficiency fe (he octahedral sheet, water and exchangerble lms an ener an separte 47 Semele capa of ha srchee ot moninenonte (Bore aYs Qowmm Givirons @ At One the layer. Thus montmorilonite crystals cam be vry sll Fig. 49), but at the same time they have a very suoag atacton for water. Sols ontining montmorillonite are vey susceptible to sweling as they change (Grease) water conten, and the teling peut developed can any damage ght structures and highay pavements, Montmoroete aso the primary constituent i dig mull and Kity ter, and it bas tay 42 clayterte « ha 49. seeming econ ‘Ton vyonng Toon ut iss era een rn ‘otter important nda and phemacetcal applications Tis even used In chocolate bee! ‘Mie, scovted by Prot. RE. Grim ofthe Univesity of Minis, i another important constituent of say sll. It alan has 2-1 stuctare Similar to montmoelont, bu the iteajers ae bonded together with ¢ potssum stom. Remenber the hexagoal hole inthe alia sheet (Fig. ‘£1d) thas almost exacy the sight damater ro tat posi om Just ils hat hetagoal hole and rather stonly bonds the layers tog (Fie. 410, tn tddtion, hee ix some womorphou substation of ‘Mui for icon nthe sli set. ites havea crystal rte similar othe mica miners but with less potassium an ies somorphows rbetiton; tus they are ehemaly uch more active tha the oer mics, Figure #11 ea SEM of iit Chloe, relatively common i eay sil, t made of repeating layers of sin she a alumina set, another is ad then eter a gb (Al or braite (My) shot (Fig. 412) It could be eld 427.1 mineral Clore can also have considerable omorphour substuion and be rising an cecasional bret or gibt layer thu ema be susceptible to sweling because water can enter Between the sheets, General, how ter ts sigcany lative than montmorillonite. As mentioned prevouly, there ae Merl dans of clay minerals ith vial every conervablecombisation of wubstuted ons, intra rte, and exchangeable cations. Some of the more imports from an gincring viewpoint include vermcule, which similar to montmt Tonite a 21 mineral, but has ony wo interlayers of water, Atri i Ate thigh emperaure, which removes th interlayer water, “expended” ‘emit maker an excelleat iultion materia. Another tay miner, anpubi, Fg 13, doer no haves shet secure bat i chan sete, ‘consequently has neeleorrodike appearance. Miter mineralsa ly Mara nd sacs axe reatively common; they would iaclide, for example, montnorionite ined with corte or iit Beate allphane ls an alunos ten classi as a clay mineral However, tis amaphout, which men i has no regular cotline sractre, Under specilized conditions of ‘weathering it may bea lcally important constituent of cay si. 4.3 IDENTIFICATION OF CLAY MINERALS Since te clay mineral ares very sl ter dentition by the sua ote! intl technigues te gsony not pss Siher means most be employed to enti them Pn your engineering tates cours, you may remember th mater wih epunt oF fepeatng patterns of esa srctre wl ite Xeae. Dilleeat mine ats with diferent erysaline structures wil have diferent Xo diffraction Patterns, and in fact these feet paters were how te tee were ‘lente inthe fist pce. The patees Tor the common mines tre Published, and itis lately simple o compare the faction pater of ‘Jour unknown wih the pats of own minerals There problem, Rowever, wih ois wich are mixtures of cay mineral, sik which Lem eabe sex") specie srtace = Mt) Tem? the ce is 1 mm on side, the specie surface would be (1mm) Timm 1 the eae is 1pm ona sie, the specie surtace would be = 6/em = 08/cm jr ipa ena ea = 6/nmm = cnn ‘This ilustates that large particles, whether cubes o sil parts, have smaller surface area pr unit of volume and thu nals spe suaces ‘han smal parce. To obtain the specie surface interme of mat, you Jt vide the vale in tems of volume by the mast densi, unis ‘would thea be m/c mks. "Now, if slficient water was present to just dampen the surface area ‘ofthe aes inthe above example, it would tke ten times as rich valet {0 wet the surface of al the gai when the uber were | min on te than when th same volume occupied a single cube ‘of I en Note aso that if one wace trying fo remove water from the sullce wet sl thee ‘would be ten umes at mich water t remove fom the sale ens Specific surface is inversely proportional to the hin sae of tl We generally donot compat the spec surface for practical ees since ‘he sol gras are too iepular in shape todo s. But it should be Gear ‘at a soll mas made up of many small parce wil have onthe average larger spec surface than the same mae made up of ge pales From the concept of specie surice, we would expect ager moi ture content for fine-grained sos than for coursed soi al other things suchas void ratio and soil rate being equ, "You may recall rom your materi oures that specific surface is rimary factor in concrete and sapalt mix desge, In both cases ti necestry fo provide sft cement pate oe sahal 0 coat the aggre ste sree 4.5 INTERACTION BETWEEN WATER ‘AND CLAY MINERALS [As mentioned previously, water usually does have mach ees the behavior of ganar sols For example the shea stegth of «sand is spproximaely the same whether i is dry or saturate. Aa important exception to his fct isthe case of water present in lose deposits of sand subjected to dynamic loadiags such as earthquakes o Bast ‘On the other hand finegraind soi, especialy clay sol, ae strongly Inaenced by the presence of water. The varintion of water conten gies se to plasty, and the Atrteg limits are an indication of this in fives. Grain sie dstbation only rarely is governing Tactor is the ‘behavior of iene sl ‘Why is water important in fne- gained sols? Recall he discussion of ‘pectic surface, in the previous section, where the smaller the parte, the lager the specific srfce. Cay miner, bing flatly sll partes, have lige spec surfaces, and everything ese being equ, yOu might ‘expect that they would have very atv suze ‘The relative ses of Tour common clay minerals and their specito surfaces af sown ia Fig. 415, Kaoint, the largest ay mineral has foo] iain2 hy tan dt hace thickness or edge dimension of about 1m, while moatmerilonit, the smallest clay mineral, has a thickness of only few nanorete, Since the ‘ysas have roughly the sume average “ameter” a ea witha an ore ‘of magnitude, i not surprising that he specie surfaces are x ren. (F course, there are rather wide vaiatons in the ses of the cts depending on weathering and ter factors, but the values given are tveage values. Since suracescity i telted tothe prt za, you can fee why montnollont, for example, i more “active” than kaolinite. Similars, the surface atity of «sand oral arin ie pratclly zo. 1m See 28, we defined the acts of a lay as > aay tacos em where the lay Faction i sully taken asthe percentage ofthe sample est than 2pm (Skempion, 1953, We meadoned tht there was a pretty good ‘corelation between activi andthe (pe of cay mineral. This colton iS hown in Table 41 ‘Now, it seems that clay partes ae almost always hyde in satre; ha i hee are layers of water surrounding each ental of cy. ‘This wae called odrbed mater As cused inthe next section, the strctore of hy sols and thus thar engineering properties ulinstely ‘epend om the nate of thi adsobed water lye, "ow is water adsorbed onthe surface of 9 cay patie? Fit, you may recall fom chemistry or materials courses that water it dipalar oleae (ig. 416) Even though waters letclly petra it has two ‘eparae center of charge, one positive snd one negative. Thus the tae ‘molecule is lectrostatcaly attacted to the surface of the cay cota Secondly, water i held to the clay crystal by hedagen bonding (hyarogen Rite aipamay 83 Rye oroec” ‘tape ehu2 eh oe on . Ate Seno (195 Mil 70, 45 action Sane Waa hy rate . ofthe water is atracted othe oxygens or hydroxyls on the sulace of the flay). The third Tacor is thatthe negatively charged lay surface also ftwaceaton present inthe water, Since ll cations ae hydeted fo vome. fen, depending onthe on, cations alto cotibte fo the stacion of Water to the clay surface Of there three factor, hydrogen bonding probably the most important factor, “The atracion of water to the clay surface is very strong near the surface and diminises wth distance from that surface 1 sams tht the Sler molecaer abt atthe surface are very tightly eld and srgly Uriented, Meariements show that some thermodynamic and lectal Properties ofthe water next to the clay surace are ferent han tat of ire water” (Mitchel, 1976. ‘The source of the negative charge at the surface ofthe lay crystal results rom both isomorphous substitution, mentioned erie, and impr Feedone in he eral late, especialy atthe surface, “Broken” edges ‘conuibutegraty to unsaid valence charger athe eae ofthe ct Since the cyst wans to be eleccally natal cation nthe water may bersrongly aiacted to the clay, depending on the amount of nebatve charge present. Different clays have different charge defines and thar fave diferent tendencies to tract the exchangeable cttons. They are called exchorgeatie since one eation can easly be exchanged with one of {he sme valence or by wo of oneal the valence ofthe eigial cation. AAS might be expected fom their relative sizes and specie srfces, ‘monimorinite has a mochgreter charge delciency and thus mich [pester atescton for exchangeable eons than kale tea clo- ‘te ae iteemediate inthe rexpet. ‘Calcium and raagaesum re the predominant exchangeable cations in sis wheres potassium and sodium are les common. Atm and hydrogen are common in aide sols. The depostional environment wvell as subsequent weathering and leaching wil govern wht fon are ‘resent ins particular sll depos As might be expected marine clays are ‘redominaely sodium and stgeesum ace thew are the ot comin ‘tions in sen water. Cation exchange or replacment i frtber com Pleated by the presence of organi matter,“ ly tan nd cre ‘The eas of replacement or exchange of cations depends on several factors, primarily the valence ofthe eatin. Higher valence cations eal replace cation of lower valence Fr ion of the sume vlene, the size of the hydrated on tecomes important; the larger the io, the rate the replacement power. A farter complication isthe fact that pots, even {ough i is monovalent, its into the hexagonal hole ia the slice sheet ‘Tha it wil be very strongly hel on the clay surface, and it wil have seater replacement power than sodium, for example, which i aso moac- “alent. The cations cn be ised in apvoximate ore of ter replacement Abily. The specie order depends on the pe af cy, which ln beng ‘eplaed, andthe concentration of the varius fons in the wate. In ord increasing replacement power the fons are Lit cNat CHT CK? CNHY EMgt* Catt Alt? ‘There are several practical consequences of ion exchange. The wse of chemicals to subiize or suengthen sos is posible because of fon ex ‘change. For example, lime (CaOH) sablizer a sodium cay oil by e- Placing the sodium tons inthe elay snc cleum has «grater replacing [power than sediom, The swing of sod montnorionie day can be Sipiicanty reduced by the adiion of ine ‘What does a ay particle lok ike with adsorbed water on i Figure 4417 shows sodium fontmorogite and kaolinite eral with layer of SMaorbed water. Note thatthe Gickoess of the adsorbed waters ap: Proximately the seme, but because ofthe se diferenes the montnort- Tonite wil have much pater acti, higher plastic, and greater sel. {ng shrkage, and volume change duct losding. Inti section only 4 bref overew ofthe very comple subject of ‘he intercton between water and lay minerals has been presented. Foe Additonal information, you should consult Yong and Warkentin (1975) ‘hd Michel (1976) and felerence included therein, Datta da i at an 4.6 INTERACTION OF CLAY PARTICLES ‘The association of chy mineals and thee adsorbed water layer provides the physical basis for sol structive. The individual clay partes Interact through ther adsorbed water les, and thus the presence of “ietent ions, organic materia diferent concentaons, ete, affect of ‘ontbute othe multe of sol strtures found in natural sl depois ‘Cay pares ean repulse each other electrons, but the process ‘depends on the fon concenvato, interparticle spacing. and othe facies Similaiy. there can be ateaction of the indsdual parses dve to the tendency for hydrogen Bonding, van der Waal fore, and otber ype of ‘chemical and organic bonds The ‘interparticle fore or potential elds ‘decrease with increasing datance frm the minetlsulac, st shown in Fig. 418. "The acl shape of the potential curve wil depend on the valace and concentration of the dssaved Jon and onthe ature of the bonding force Pasir can ecu of be repeted (pene spate). Ty can facie n sever! psuble congas; edgeioiace the mt ‘Sinnon but egeredge tnd faceuacfsesaton ea pose ‘The tendene towards ecalaton wil dopend on inten on or ane Ft flowing Lambe, 19580) Concentration ofthe eestrlye Valeace ofthe on ‘Temperature or dereasing one oF mote of he following Dist constant ofthe pore Mid Sue ofthe bys‘Jus about all natural clay sis ar floeculated to some extent Only in vey dilute solutions (at very bigh water content is drpersion of clay fares posible, and this might occur In a sedimentary depot daring eposiion 4.7 SOIL STRUCTURE AND FABRIC a geotechnical engineering practic, the struc of soi taken 0 mean both the geometne arrangement ofthe parle or mineral grains 2s rll asthe interparticle fores which may act between them. Sol fabric Fefers only to the geometric atangement of Ihe puis In granular or ‘ohesonlese sls, the interparticle ores ae very smal 3 bah the fabs fan structure of gravels sands, and wo some ete slate the same. On the contary, however interparticle orcs are clatvly lage in fine-grained ‘obesv wo and ths both thse free and the far of uch sl ut be considered ae the stature ofthe soil The strate tong alec tome woud uy, gvern the engineering behavior of partieaar sl All the ay ststues found in natre and dened inthe next section rele from some combination of thee factory the geologic envronment at ‘epost, the subsequen geologic and engineering tess history, and he tre of the clay mineral. We uly thee very complicated factors becatse they fundamentally affect soll bbavir and the engineering Prop ete of so. Geotechnical engineers mist consider the sl sacred fabric a least qoltatively when cobenve sols are encountered in em “A complete deseipon ofthe structure of a in rned cohesive sil requires a Knowledge of both the interpre forest at well at the ‘srometicl arrangement (lab) of the pails. Since st i extremely Site if at impossible, wo dizely measur the iterpartile ore lds Surrounding clay aris, most studies of cohesive sa structure iavolve only the fase of these sland from the fabric certain inferences are ‘made about the interparticle forces 4.8 COHESIVE SOIL FABRICS ‘Cusfiation of cohesive wl fabrice into simple system involving only afew clay particles i not relly posible. Single gain or single parle unite occur only rarely im ature and then fn only very dia Elayatersstems unde special environmental conditions, From recent ‘dir of rel lay sis withthe sunning clecron microncope (SEM, the Snivideal cay particles seem to alays be agrepted of flocalted ‘opster in submicroscopc fabric uni called ma. Domaine then in ‘umm roup together to form chat, which ze lage enough to be scen ith vise light microscope. Claters prop together to form ped and ‘fen groupe of pes. Peds ca be seen without a mirecope, ad they ad ‘other macronrctral fentres suchas joints and fren consi the ‘macrolabri sytem. A schematic sketch ofthis sytem propaed by Yong ‘nd Sheeran (1973) is shown in Fg. 419: a microscope view of 4 maine ‘yi alo included (Pusch 1973). Coline sad McGown (1974) suggest somewhat more lborate system for describing microtabrie features ia atralsoi. They propose tre types of features 1. Elemenary parle arangments, which consist of single forms ot parle interaction at the level of individual ly, sl, or sand Dates (Figs 4201 and) or interaction betmeen sal roupe of flay platelets (Fig. 4205) or sated nit and sand partes (ip 4204}. Panicle asomblage, which are unite of patil organization bay ing definable physical boundaries and «specie mechaiealfane ton. Parte assemblages const of one or more forms of ckmen- {ary particle arrangements or seller parte tiemblagen, and they are shown fn Fir 421 13. Poe spaces within and between elementary particle arrangements tnd pail asemblages Collins and MeGown (1974) show micophotogapts of several natural sols which iusrate ther propoed sytem, 'A SEM phorographof «sty cay ped from Norway i shown in Fig. 4422, Note how complex the stuctare appears, which sugar thatthe ‘gacering beawor also probably ute compen ‘Macracre, including the sratgraphy of ingrained sil de- posi, has an important iafluesce on so behavior in engineering pact, Joints fire, stand sand seams, root holes waren, and oer “deere ‘fen contol the enginerngbetuvior of the entize nil mas. Usual the Strength of soil mass sipnifealy less along a rack or fsure than ‘trough the intact material, and theif the defect happens tobe unfaora. by oriented with respect tothe appli engineering seen, insaliy or failure may occur. As spother example the drainage of clay ayer eat be markedly affected by the presence of «st or sod layer ot seam Consequently, in any engineering problem involving sabi, retements ‘¢desnag, the geotechnical engineer mus investigate careful the clay Micostroctre is more iportant from a fundarentl than an a> [Bnering viewpoint, although an undestandig of the microsite idsit eengeani yet! Cay aes eon oe fn &geoeal understanding of sil bebsvioe. The microstructure of a cay feet the ene geologic and tes history of thet depos Vitaly ‘everyting tha ever happened to tha soll which wl aflet the eaginerng ‘response ofthe clay is priate in some manner onthe mironracine ‘The microntrocture reflects the depositional history and environment he epost, ts weathering history, Doth chemical and physi in tect fe ste hiskory, that ll change caused both geology and by maa. Recent ‘research on cay microstructure suggest that the presi, singe factor influencing the final srture ofa clay the claceocheneal ‘ects nome cur ot tre were eavronment existing atthe tine of resentation Posculatedsrcctsee ia sn proposes Oy ong. oF agzegaton can est during sedimentation in viral al depoional [remnoere ss one re tates “ ‘nvoamens, whether marine, bracih o in fresh water. The Gees of(GSe inact neaenin om propecies bat ts important forthe enact to have an appreciation of| The" compleity of the suctre of cobesve soi and thet relation 10 lacering Behavior. 4.9 COHESIONLESS SOIL FABRICS Grains of sl which can ele oxo iol sspeson indepen deny of ter las (eral ager than to GD min wl frm iat ced « single pened svar Thin the structure of for ps tnd ov pel land soe sand mises: The weight of {Boel ce them to Sele sad come to equilbsum i he bot of {Beal a oom asthe veloiy can longer ppt the particles in SSoeaion ‘Deposon mea insade both i (aes deposit, tad dunes; gin sine gnraly © 005 tm an water (ers, bates c=) Single alae srt, shown in Fig 424 ray e Towe™ igh ws it of io es) den” (om ol of en. sing on te gin se dans wl he acing wang Der the pala we enge of wou roe pe. Table 42 se ‘Rie peal rales fra vary of pana sdk 1 posble, under 1S8t Gein of depsion, for spun material achive «honey ‘Stabed nro (F425) whch can havea very igh void ao Such = ‘Suet mewsuble, Te pi arches an oppor state ons, but he structre avery sensitive to colape when vibrated of loaded dynamically The presence of water in very lose grin suucturs also can alter thle ‘agizevig behavior. Phenomena typical of lose gain stucttes, ich a bulking eapilry phenomenon and quicksand are dscssed in Chapters Sand “The greater posible void rato or loots posible condition of sil is called the masinnm eid ratio (6m) tis determined in the Iaborary by pouring dry sand very careflly with no vibration into a clleated ‘mold of known volume. From the weight of andi the meld, ne can Be {alclated Sury, the minimum eld ratio (oy) ite deer posable Sondton tht a piven sll an stain. Te value! eu determined by ‘rting = own weight of dry sand into a kaown volume and caleulatng {he void ratio. The range of posuble void ratio Tor some typical granule bol re thown in Table 42. The renive deat D, also called the deosiyinder Foy sed to compa the voi rato eof & piven aot withthe maximum snd minimem ‘ond aie, Relative deity defined a ee cm, a Dale sand i usualy expresed a a percentage. Relative density can ako be Veunis~ V0 TTA « 1008) ws) where ny dey density of the ti with void rato uc minimum ry dens of the vl with the Void 0 uy and Puce = enone Oy Sey ool wilt he aldo ona Dm tn= ‘The relative demity of «natural sil deposit very strongly affect ts cnpineering behavior Consequently tis important o condut laboratoryaR aR azas i 1 i en 1 4 J ee eei428 Honeeen abc 4.28 Pol angen pacing of ete! para the (Sins uve Sonery (2A. Lavras 978" personal commana {ess om samples of the sand a the same clave density asin the fil Sampling of lose granular materials, especlly at depth gener than & few metres, is very ileal. Since the materials are very seve to even the sighet vibration, ones never sue the sample ha hese deny as ‘he satura sil deposit. Therefore iffeent kinds of peetometers are ‘wed in engineering practice, and the ncn restance Value are oughly corrdated wih relative deny. For deposits at shallow dethe ere direct acces is posible ther techniques Ive been developed 19 ‘measure the inplace density of compacted sos, Tht techniques ate discs in detain Chapter 5. Finally it should be noted in this dicusion of the structure of ‘ranula soi that relive density slone isnot alice to characterize ther engineering properties. I is pole fortwo sandy for example, 19 ‘ave identical void ros and relative deste but sgnificuty diferent fabrics and thus significantly ilferentengnesng behaviors. Figure 26 ‘two-dimensional example of such fabric Both “sande” ae ietcl ~they have the sume ran sie dtbuton an the ene vid ration But hei fabri are obviously very diferent. Stree history a another factor ‘hat must be considered when dealing with sands and pals in cngiser Ing race, Deposits of granlar materi which have been prlonded by ‘ature or maa wll ave very ferent stress-rain propre tnd therefore ‘efferent setement responses (Lambrscts and coat 197), PROBLEMS: Calculate the speiic surface of « cabe (3) 10 mam, (6) 1 mm, (© 1 nm, and (@) 1m on a side. Calelate the spetic suace in {erm of both areas and m/hg- Asume fo the ltr ease that 9, = 265 M/m 442. Cateutate the specific surace of) tennis ball, ) ping pong bal, (6 ball earings 1 mm in dlameter, and (ly ath with apronsnately spherical particles of 80 pm in dame 443, The values of ea amd a fF 3 pure sca snd (, = 265 Me/m?) ere found tobe 046 and O66, respectively (a) What i he Come. sponding range in dry density!) Ihe in stv void rao 063, thas the density index?(@) Smecite ©) Brucite—() Gibbite (8) Atupalgte ——(@) Bentonite Allophane (q) Halloyste Mite (@ Mics ) Chlonte 45, Describe the following types of bonding agents found with clay sinerls (@) Hydrogen bond © Content bond (©) van der Waal forces (@ James bond 46. The wet density of « sand ia an embankment vas found 10 be 19 Ma/a and the fll water content was 10% Ia the laboratory, the density ofthe slide was found to be 265 Ma/m?, and the ‘maximum and minim wid rai were O62 and 44 respectively (Cleat the relative density af the sand in the ld 47, Which set sca or lumina, would you wear to a toga party? Why? “48, Given the particles in Fig. 426, i i reaite 1 show that all the pares are in contact with each other forthe given plane? Any {ven plane? Why?