ABUSE AGAINST CHILDREN

IN KENYA

Master Thesis, Childrens Rights, track Educational Sciences

Katalin Gl
ID#: 6125808
Email address: katalin.gal@hotmail.com
First Supervisor: Dr. Ernst Mulder
Second Supervisor: Kitty Jurrius
University of Amsterdam, July 2010

Dear God,
I really ask myself why I undergo these miseries. It is because
you want to reveal something to me? Why is all this happening
to me? Was I created to suffer like this? Please help me to
understand you because youve said in the Bible search and you
will find, knock and the door shall be opened unto you, ask and
it shall be given unto you. Ive really asked for your help many
times but I cant seem to get an answer. If my future is going to
be of being talked about all over then Id prefer if you just take
me now so that all my sorrow on this earth would end.
Amen.
(Johanna, 14, Nairobi)

This research is dedicated to all children who suffer from child abuse around
the world, especially the children in the most poverty affected areas of Kenya.
This research hopes to give all of you a voice, and is asking for action to
improve your lives. I would like to thank all the children I met: thank you for
welcoming me, showing me your world, sharing your feelings, and expressing
your thoughts. Special thanks to Joan, Helen, Vidi, Rose, Sam, Naomi, Ben,
Rachel, Pauline, Julie, Jennifer, Ibrahim and Shem.

I am grateful for the assistance of both IREWOC and PLAN Kenya, as well as my interpreters,
Fragrance and Victoria provided in carrying out this project.
I would like to thank everyone who supported me throughout my fieldwork and thesis writing process
thank all of my friends around the world whom I knew previously or whom I met during my
journey.
Special thanks to Peaches and Mangos.
I want to thank my Mom, Brother and Grandma for becoming more open to, understanding of and
curious about my interests, ideas and research.
Thank you, Scott for the continuous support in reaching for my dreams.
Finally, I am grateful to my supervisor, Dr. Ernst Mulder for his insightful feedback on my work and
trust in my ability to carry out this research.

Table of Content
Table of Content..4
Chapter 1: Introduction....5
Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework..7
2.1 Definition of Physical -, Psychological -, Sexual Abuse and Neglect against Children.7
2.2 Consequences of Experiencing Physical -, Psychological -, Sexual Abuse and Neglect
as a Child.....9
2.3 Cultural Relativism versus Universal Rights: Is Child Abuse Ever Justified?.10
2.4 Families in Kenya......11
2.5 Education in Kenya12
2.6 The Standpoint of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the African Charter
on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (The Charter)......14
Chapter 3: Research Methods.....16
3.1 Research Question..16
3.2 Conceptual Scheme and Operationalization......17
3.3 Research Location..21
3.4 Data Collection......22
3.5 Units of Analysis and Analysis of Findings.......29
3.6 Profile of Child Participants...29
3.7 Positioning as a Researcher and Mzungu, Ethical Considerations and Challenges...32
Chapter 4: Violence against Children at Home..36
4.1 Family Background36
4.2 Physical Abuse by Adults at Home ...40
4.3 Psychological Abuse by Adults at Home...43
4.4 Sexual Abuse by Adults at Home..44
4.5 Physical and Emotional Neglect by Adults at Home.46
4.6 Different Forms of Abuse by Siblings and Step-Siblings at Home...47
4.8 Conclusions48
Chapter 5: Violence against Children at Schools...50
5.1 School Situation.50
5.2 Physical Abuse by Teachers at School..53
5.3 Psychological Abuse by Teachers at School..55
5.4 Sexual Abuse by Teachers at School.56
5.5 Physical Abuse by Peers at School56
5.6 Psychological Abuse by Peers at School...57
5.7 Sexual Abuse by Peers at School...58
5.8 Conclusions59
Chapter 6: Effects of Violence on Present and Future of Children in Terms of Education and Reaching
Goals....62
6.1 School Attendance.62
6.2 School Performance...63
6.3 Future Education and Future Employment....64
6.4 Parental and Family Support..65
6.5 Feeling So Bad and Considering Suicide....66
6.6 Reporting System and Support Inside and Outside of Schools..67
6.7 Conclusions...68
Chapter 7: Final Conclusions and Recommendations...70
71. Conclusions70
7.2 Recommendations for Action....73
7.3 Recommendations for Further Research75
7.4 The Message of Children...76
Bibliography...77
Appendix I..81
Appendix II.82
Appendix III...85
Appendix IV...87
Appendix V92

Chapter 1: Introduction
The purpose of this research is to understand Kenyan childrens experiences and
perceptions of physical-, psychological-, and sexual abuse and neglect within their families
and their school environment, and to find out how these children perceive their present and
future in terms of education while reflecting on their experience with child abuse within their
homes and their school.
Worldwide, there are still at least 75 million children out of school and many who
attend school drop out before successfully finishing primary education. (International
Research on Working Children (IREWOC), 2009) One of the major reasons for low school
attendance and high drop-out rates is abuse, or in other words, violence against children
experienced at home and at school. (IREWOC) Currently there are about 40 million children
under the age of 15 whom experience some form of violence each year. Many of them are
children living in Africa, and many experience violence at home and at school. (African
Child Policy Forum, 2006) A family should provide a protective, nurturing and safe
environment for a child, and school should be a place where children are treated with respect,
protected from violence and receive an education in a safe environment. (United Nations
(UN), 2006; IREWOC, 2009) Instead of this safety and nurture, children undergo all forms of
abuse, including physical -, psychological -, sexual abuse and neglect both at home and at
school. They often have nowhere to turn for help and report their experience because of
shame, fear of repercussions from family members or teachers, and the lack of a reliable
reporting system. (IREWOC; Mildred and Plummer, 2009) Yet, experiencing child abuse is
destructive to childrens proper development; consequences include but are not limited to
psychological problems, social problems, and lack of concentration which affects school
performance. (IREWOC; African Network for Prevention and Protection Against Child
Abuse and Neglect (ANPPACAN), 2009)
The United Nations Secretary-General has been making a global effort to show a
detailed picture of the nature, extent, causes and consequences of violence against children.
This effort resulted in UN Violence against Children Study. Findings and recommendations
from this study were distributed in 2006. (UN, 2006) The Same year The African Child
Policy Forum published findings from a study called Violence against Girls in Africa
(2006). In spite of this increased global attention about violence against children and its
serious consequences, there is still limited existing research on child abuse in Kenya.
(Mildred and Plummer, 2009) Furthermore, even though violence is one of the main
problems hindering childrens education, most current development programs focusing on
education are not considering the dangerous effects of violence on it. Instead of considering
child abuse in educational policies and action, they ignore it or do not even know about its
effects. (IREWOC, 2009)
This research and thesis provides further knowledge to existing research by giving the
children who are victims of abuse a voice which may provide a profound understanding of all
forms of violence at home and at school against children taking cultural roles and
environmental circumstances into account. It examines how childrens experiences with
violence may affect and endanger their education, as well as their general well-being in life.
The goal of this study is not only to giving an understanding and overview of the situation,
but to lead to protective and preventative measures, interventions, policy changes in order to
eliminate violence in the life of children in Kenya and to better their chances to receive a
meaningful education free from violence.
Chapter 2 of this thesis presents the theoretical framework underlining the study.
Chapter 3 presents the research question, the conceptual scheme and operationalization
guiding the study, the research location, methodologies, and research methods used during

the research, and the sample of research participants, as well as ethical challenges faced in the
field. Chapters 4 through 6 discuss findings of the research. Chapter 4 focuses on the abuse
experiences of children at home. Chapter 5 discusses the abuse experiences of children at
school. Chapter 6 investigates how school attendance, school performance, future education
and future employment of children are affected by their abuse experiences and the support
they receive at home and at school. Finally, Chapter 7 provides a summary of all findings and
proposes recommendations for action and further investigations.

Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework

The goal of my research is to understand Kenyan childrens experiences and
perceptions of physical-, psychological-, and sexual abuse and neglect within their families
and their school environment. It aims to find out how the same children perceive their present
and future in terms of education while reflecting on their experience with child abuse within
their homes and at school. The research is exclusively focusing on children living under
substantial poverty in Kenya, therefore was carried out in slums of Nairobi and remote
villages of the Coast. Within the theoretical framework I will present background
information, existing research findings and theories on child abuse providing a close attention
to the situation in Kenya, education in Kenya, the status of girls in Kenya, and the viewpoint
of the CRC and The Charter related to the issues to be studied.
2.1 Definition of Physical -, Psychological -, Sexual Abuse and Neglect against Children
Child abuse [] is a widespread problem that affects all types of family structures
and all segments of populations. (Tzeng, Jackson, and Karlson, 1991: 4) It is a complex
concept that can be defined as the portion of harm to children that results from human action
that is proscribed, proximate, and preventable (Finkelhor and Korbin, 1988: 4). There are
several forms of abuse that can take place within families against the child. They include
physical-, psychological- or emotional-, sexual abuse and neglect. (UNICEF, 2009) Physical
and psychological abuse often occur together (United Nations (UN), 2006), and are accepted
as a norm within families and by community members. (Save the Children Sweden and
Global Institute to End All Corporal Punishment of Children, 2009) This research focuses on
all four forms of violence: physical -, psychological -, sexual abuse and neglect against
children. Throughout this thesis I will use the words abuse, violence, and maltreatment as
synonyms referring to the same issue.
Physical violence or abuse is the intentional use of physical force against the child
that either results or has a high likelihood of resulting in harm to the childs health, survival,
development or dignity (UN, 2006: 52) Physical abuse can also be defined as any [nonaccidental] physical injury to the child and can include striking, kicking, burning, or biting
the child, or any action that results in a physical impairment of the child (Child Welfare
Information Gateway, 2009). Physical abuse can be explained in terms of the abusers
intentions as a non-accidental injury of the child. (Tzeng, Jackson, and Karlson, 1991) It can
also be described by the actual behaviors and outcomes of the abuse (Tzeng, Jackson, and
Karlson). Forms of physical abuse may include but are not limited to hitting with a hand or
an object, kicking, punching, shaking, beating, biting, using a knife or a gun, burning,
poisoning or suffocating a child. (African Child Policy Forum, 2006)
Psychological abuse is more difficult to define as it is a less studied subject lacking
standard definitions. Nevertheless, it is a form of abuse many children suffer from along with
other forms of violence and it can even occur as a standalone form of abuse. (UN, 2006)
Psychological abuse is an injury to the psychological capacity or emotional stability of the
child as evidenced by an observable or substantial change in behavior, emotional response, or
cognition (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2009). Forms of psychological abuse may
include but are not limited to repeated insults meant to demean and erode self-esteem,
forced isolation from friends and relatives, threats to further violence (African Child Policy
Forum, 2006), name-calling or other forms of verbal abuse, belittling, isolation or rejection
(UN, 2006: 47).
Sexual abuse includes rape, unwanted touching or other acts of sexual nature, forced
prostitution (African Child Policy Forum, 2006: 11), exposure to pornography, molestation

and incest (African Child Policy Forum). It also consists of any forced sexual intercourse,
sexual assaults, other forms of sexual acts with physical contact, female genital mutilation
(FMG). Other than sexual acts that involve physical contact, sexual abuse also includes
verbal sexual harassments, sexual intimidation and flirtatious jokes. (UN, 2006)
Lastly, [n]eglect means the failure of parents or carers to meet a childs physical and
emotional needs when they have the means, knowledge and access to services to do so: or
failure to protect her or him from exposure to danger.(UN, 2006: 54) Neglect may or may
not be intentional. It is sometimes apparent (as in the unkept appearance of the child who
comes to school without adequate bath or clothing) and sometimes nearly invisible until it is
too late. (Myers, Berliner, Biere, Hendrix, Jessica, and Reid, 2002: 4) A failure to protect the
child from injury, malnourishment or accidents are forms of neglect that may leave physical
marks. But many types of neglect including emotional neglect often leaves no physical
marks. Neglect is often fatal, due to inadequate physical protection, nutrition, or health care.
(Myers, Berliner, Biere, Hendrix, Jessica, and Reid) Physical neglect is the failure to provide
the child with his or her basic physical needs, such as food, shelter, and clothing, as well as
the failure to protect from harm and danger, and the failure to take care of the childs health
conditions and provide education. (Myers, Berliner, Biere, Hendrix, Jessica, and Reid)
Emotional neglect often goes unnoticed as it does not leave visible marks. Emotional neglect
is the passive or passive/aggressive inattention to the childs emotional needs, nurturing or
emotional well-being (Bassard, 1987 in (Myers, Berliner, Biere, Hendrix, Jessica, and Reid,
6) and psychological unavailability (Myers, Berliner, Biere, Hendrix, Jessica, and Reid).
In Section 2.3 I will present my argument that every child should be treated with
respect and dignity, and have the right to be free from any form or extent of abuse regardless
of their culture, sex, environment, or other factors. Even the slightest form of abuse can
escalate into further violence, may cause physical harm, and can be detrimental to a childs
emotional well-being. (Save the Children Sweden and Global Institute to End All Corporal
Punishment of Children, 2009). For this reason I strongly believe that children should be
protected from all forms, and varying degrees of abuse. Therefore, for the purpose of the
research and thesis, I will consider a broad definition of physical -1, psychological -2, sexual
abuse3 and neglect4 considering the definitions presented above from mildest to most severe
forms, from in-frequent to frequent happenings, especially when children perceive abuse as
harmful to their well-being.

In the case of physical abuse I will consider anything from a small slap to severe beatings leading to dangerous
injuries or death, if the abuse was done with intent and/or the child reports physical or psychological
consequences of the incident.
2
In the case of psychological abuse I will consider anything from small jokes, insults, to on-going name-calling,
severe shouting, if the abuse was done with intent to emotionally hurt the child and/or the child reports
psychological consequences (including but not limited to low self-esteem, sadness, low concentration,
loneliness).
3
In the case of sexual abuse I will consider anything from pressuring love letters, sexual pressure, flirtatious
jokes, to unwanted touch, and rape if it was done without the consent of the child and/or the child reports
physical and/or psychological consequences of the incident.
4
In the case of neglect I will consider both physical and emotional neglect. I will consider neglect if it happens
without the intent of the parent but simply due to poverty (e.g. unable to afford food or clothing) and also if it
was done with intent. I will consider neglect of all extents, from one time lock-out of a child to never providing
the childs basic needs.

2.2 Consequences of Experiencing Physical -, Psychological -, Sexual Abuse or Neglect

as a Child
Experiencing physical -, psychological -, sexual abuse or neglect at home often results
in negative consequences for the present and future life of the victimized child. These effects
include immediate personal impacts on the childs life but also long-term damage that may
carry into adulthood. Longer term effects may include physical injuries, physical health
problems and psychological damage. (UN, 2006)
Physical abuse leads to minor and major injuries, often leaving scars and other
physical reminders of the abuse. Physical abuse may lead to physical disabilities and
sometimes even death. Sexual abuse may lead to reproductive health problems, sexual
dysfunction, sexually transmitted diseases and unwanted pregnancy. (UN, 2006)
Physical-, psychological- and sexual abuse and neglect can all lead to psychological
damage detrimental to the development of the child. Family and home should ideally be the
safest and most protective place for every child, however, when a child is abused at home by
a parent or other family member, by those they love and trust, it leaves them confused. When
experiencing abuse by a family member, a child may feel rejection or abandonment, fear and
sadness that lead to attachment problems, trauma, anxiety, insecurity and low self-esteem.
(UN, 2006; African Child Policy Forum, 2006) An abused child may experiences Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) or may minimally develop some symptoms of it, including
fear, anxiety, and reenactment of abuse, nightmares, depressive symptoms and aggression.
(Goodwin, 1988) Moreover, experiencing trauma, such as abuse, may affect the selfregulation of emotions, memory, mood and behavior, and therefore may lead to forgetfulness,
mood fluctuation, behavioral problems, and avoidance and depressive symptoms. Survivors
of trauma may suffer from night-terrors and flashbacks. (Weber, 2008) Experiencing physical
abuse in terms of corporal punishment often leads to negative self-esteem and emotional
distress, and it may also lead to future aggression, delinquent behavior, anti-social behavior
or further abuse. (Aucin, Frick, and Bodin, 2006) Additionally, there are long-term
consequences, including experiences stemming from physical and/or psychological child
abuse, which may lead to adult illness, alcohol and drug abuse, lack of ability to cope with
problems, depression and other mental illnesses. (UN)
Experiencing abuse can cause direct economic and social consequences in a childs
life, including the cost of medical care in the case of severe physical abuse as well as legal
and social welfare services. The physical and psychological damage can be detrimental to the
abused childs quality of life. (UN, 2006) Education is an important part of a childs present
and future life and every child should have a right to education according to the CRC and The
Charter. But experiencing physical and/or psychological abuse can greatly affect the childs
education. Physical and sexual abuse requiring medical care may keep the child out of school.
Physical -, psychological -, sexual abuse and neglect at home can lead to the disruption or
discontinuation of education, which affects a childs chances of future employment and
economical stability. (UN) Abuse experience is linked to lack of motivation, problems with
memory, such as forgetfulness and problems with concentration. (UN; Weber, 2008) These
are all problems that have negative effects on learning. Problems like anxiety, fear and
sadness are also linked to child abuse and may disrupt the childs focus on learning.
Moreover, experiencing abuse at home leaves the child feeling unsupported, distrustful and
having low self-esteem. (UN) But trust in oneself, support from others and a healthy selfesteem are often crucial to perform well in school, to have academic motivation and to
continue on with education.
As I explained above experiencing physical-, psychological-, and sexual abuse and
neglect can lead to various mild or severe, short term or long-term, physical, psychological

and socio-economical consequences in the child. These abuse experiences have direct effects
on the childs development as well as education. Therefore, the topic of physical-,
psychological-, and sexual abuse and neglect should be further studied in terms of risk
factors, characteristics, consequences, childrens experiences, and current practices so it is
better understood and appropriate action can be taken both in prevention and treatment.
(Lachman, 1996; Lachman, 2004; UN, 2006) Major issues that should be identified are the
reasons why child abuse is still happening, moreover why it is viewed as normal or
acceptable in some cultures. Should child abuse ever be an acceptable practice by any
culture? In trying to answer this question I will examine the issue of cultural relativism versus
universal rights in relation to abuse of children in Section 2.3.
2.3 Cultural Relativism versus Universal Rights: Is Child Abuse Ever Justified?
Physical and psychological abuse often occur because they are being looked at as a
normal form of child discipline without seeing another alternatives. Most of the time parents
were punished the same way, therefore they become defensive about the discipline of their
choice, and there is a great likelihood that they do not know better. Teachers have been using
the cane since the start of their career and were treated the same by their teachers as children,
hence it is not surprising that they are so hesitant to find another method of discipline. (Save
the Children Sweden and Global Institute to End All Corporal Punishment of Children, 2009)
Many women feel intimidated to report rape or other forms of sexual abuse cases due to
cultural attitudes and governmental inaction that these cases become invisible and acceptable.
Female genital mutilation (FMG) is still culturally accepted and many parents feel pressured
by other women to ensure their daughter undergo this procedure. (African Child Policy
Forum, 2006) Since society allowed justifying such abusive practices for so long, it is not
surprising that abuse is still happening and it is often looked at as a normal behavior. (Save
the Children Sweden and Global Institute to End All Corporal Punishment of Children, 2009)
But is child abuse even the lightest forms of it justifiable and the norm in Kenyan
families and schools? According to the United Nations (UN) Secretary General Every child
has the right to a life free of violence. Violence against children can never be justified.
(Violence Against Children, 2006). The African Child Policy Forum agrees that Violence
infringes fundamental human rights. It is unacceptable (2006) As the UN Convention on the
Rights of the Child (CRC) states in Article 19, children should be protected from all forms
of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment
or exploitation, including sexual abuse, while in the care of parent(s), caregiver(s) or any
other person who has the care of the child (CRC, 1989). Even though some might argue that
little slaps [or] corporal punishment administered in a controlled way by a parent (Save the
Children Sweden and Global Institute to End All Corporal Punishment of Children, 2009)
should be acceptable, I strongly believe that all forms of physical and mental violence
(CRC, Article 19) should include everything from the mildest to the most severe forms of
abuse because everyone, including children, has a right to respect for their human dignity
and physical integrity (Save the Children Sweden and Global Institute to End All Corporal
Punishment of Children, 2009). With small and fragile children even small slaps can be
dangerous and hurtful. Such little smacks often escalate into beating and serious abuse.
Experiencing violence and aggression may also feed aggressive behaviors in children in
school or later in life. Even the mildest forms of maltreatment can cause psychological
damage, including confusing love with anger and pain. (Save the Children Sweden and
Global Institute to End All Corporal Punishment of Children) For these very reasons, in this
research I will consider even the mildest forms of abuse such as the little smacks and
slaps as child abuse.

10

2.4 Families in Kenya

The family environment a child grows up in is crucial for the development and the
future of the child. Family factors are crucial for the educational outcomes of individual
children in developing societies. (Buchmann, 2000)
Family structures and family practices have been rapidly changing in Kenya, and
throughout Africa (Whiting, 1977; Bradley, Kilbride and Weiser, 1997) and they differ by
location and socio-economic status. Therefore, it is difficult to give a general overview of
structures and practices in Kenyan families and its effects on children, but this section aims to
give a short overview with special attention to the poorest areas of Kenya considering that
this research took places regions with extreme poverty.
Traditionally in Kenya the ideal form of marriage was polygamy. (Whiting, 1977)
Polygamist families are large, including several wives, children from the different wives,
possibly family members of the different wives, as well as husbands and wives and children
of the children of these wives. Due to the size of the family, resources are fewer and children
are facing more difficulties and more likely to be lacking education. (Buchmann, 2000)
Though polygamy still exists, especially in more traditional areas, it is rapidly
decreasing while monogamist families are on the rise. (Whiting; Bradley, Kilbride and
Weiser, 1997) Families are still often quite large with many children and extended family
members. There is often a great age gap between husband and wife as women reach the age
to marry as soon as they can bear children. While women are still responsible to take care of
children and domestic duties, there are fewer traditional functions being practiced by
families. The status of women is changing and there is more access to education for children.
The number of single parents is on the rise sometimes because of death, sometimes because
of separation and increasingly by choice. The number of households headed by grandparents
is also large. These single parent or grandparent headed households often unable to provide
adequate resources for the family resulting in an extra burden on children and placing them
into a disadvantaged situation concerning the completion of their education. (Whiting;
Bradley, Kilbride and Weiser; Buchmann)
Long-term family welfare is normally the central factor in educational decisions of
children. While parents generally genuinely care about the welfare of their children, the
family welfare is still valued over the welfare of the individual, therefore the welfare of an
individual child. Poor families are forced to think about the present (e.g. putting food on the
table) instead of future needs (e.g. a child furthering his or her education to a higher level).
The education of the girls is often not in the best interest of the maximum family welfare, but
marrying them off is more beneficial. Children often are being issued to more productive
activities, such as child labor instead of education that has no immediate benefits.
(Buchmann, 2000) In fact education is often viewed as a waste of time due to the lack of
availability of white collared jobs even for more educated individuals. Therefore parents feel
that children better spend their time on the field or completing domestic duties. Children
working at home or outside of home viewed as normal and beneficial for the welfare of the
entire family. (Leiten, 2009)
Families in the poorest areas of Kenya struggle a lot for daily survival. Consequently
children from these families struggle an incredible amount. They fight to meet every day
basic needs to bare big responsibilities at home and outside of home (e. g. child labor) and to
struggle for education. In Section 2.5 I will go into detail of the structure, availability and
effectiveness of the education system in Kenya.

11

2.5 Education in Kenya

At present, primary education is free and compulsory in Kenya. But this does not
mean that all children are in school or attend classes regularly (IREWOC, 2007). Attending
primary school does not always translate to finishing primary school and moving on to
secondary school. According to a 2005 UNESCO report, while the net enrollment ratio in
primary school was 75.5%, the net enrollment ratio in secondary school was only 41.3% quite a big drop. (Childinfo, 2008) One of many reasons for not attending school regularly or
discontinuing education is violence experienced at home and at school. (IREWOC, 2009)
Experiencing physical-, psychological-, and sexual abuse and neglect at home can lead to low
school attendance, lack of concentration, and low performance at school. Furthermore,
experiencing violence within the school discourages children even more from studying or
even attending school. (IREWOC, 2009; ANPPACAN, 2009)
Education System in Kenya: Reforms, Quality, Achievements and Challenges
Ensuring that every child in the world both boys and girls is able to complete
primary school by 2005 is one of the United Nations (UN) Development Goals (UN, 2007).
Achieving this goal is a process that involves policy changes, governmental and educational
reforms in many countries. Kenya is striving to achieve universal access to basic education
and training [that would ensure] equality for all children to enroll in schools including the
disadvantaged and vulnerable groups (Kenya Ministry of Education Science and
Technology, 2004:1). Improving the access to and the quality of education in Kenya would
raise the education level of Kenyan citizens, therefore it would not only benefit the future of
individuals but the entire Kenyan society by contributing to better employment opportunities,
poverty reduction and economic growth. (Kenya Ministry of Education Science and
Technology)
In order to achieve these goals and improve the education system, in 2003, the new
government implemented some major reforms across early childhood education, primary
education, secondary education, Technical, Industrial, Vocational and Entrepreneurship
Training (TIVET) and tertiary education. The government is committed to free, basic
education to every child and to provide a possibility to those who complete primary school to
transition to secondary school or to skilled training institutions. The government is dedicated
to increase opportunities for children with special needs and providing informal education to
those children who cannot be accommodated in formal education. (Kenya Ministry of
Education Science and Technology, 2004)
Throughout the past decades there has been substantial improvement in the Kenyan
education system. Enrollment in the primary school level has grown from 891,533 children in
1963 to 7.2 million in 2004. A 1.5 million increase in the enrollment of children in primary
schools took place between January 2003 and June 2004. The number of skills training
schools, including polytechnics, technical training institutes and teacher training institutes has
grown and enrollment has increased tremendously. (Kenya Ministry of Education Science
and Technology, 2004) Enrolment [sic] in universities has been increasing since the
establishment of the University of Nairobi in 1970 (Kenya Ministry of Education Science
and Technology, 2004:5) and by 2004 there were 6 public and 13 private universities across
Kenya. The total enrolment [sic] in public universities has increased from 3,443 in 1970 to
48,436 in 2002/03. [] By 2002, the total number of those enrolled in public and private
universities had increased to 72,000 (Kenya Ministry of Education Science and Technology,
2004:5) including enrollment in public, private and foreign universities. The teacher training
sub-sector has also expended. (Kenya Ministry of Education Science and Technology)

12

However, there are still challenges. Even though the enrolment in the university level
is increasing, only a low percentage of Kenyan children reach this level since the transition
rate from secondary school to university is low. Many children do not move on to secondary
school or are unable to finish primary school. Even though primary education in Kenya is
free and children generally attend school, drop-out rates are high at 37% and repetition rates
are at 14%. The transition rate to secondary education is low, only 47% of those graduating
from the primary level proceed to secondary education, and only about 12% of them are able
to continue with university education. Another problem is that the government is unable to
accommodate all children with special needs. About 10% of the Kenyan population has some
kind of a disability and 25% of them are children. However, only about 14,614 of children
are enrolled in programs for those with disabilities. The remainder over 90% of children
with disabilities is either at home or attending regular schools without special assistance.
Children in other high risk groups, such as orphans, street children, those involved in child
labor, and girls face difficulty in attending or completing school, often due to poverty (Kenya
Ministry of Education Science and Technology, 2004) and frequently due to experiencing
violence at school, at home or in the community (IREWOC, 2009).
Looking at these difficulties it becomes apparent that improvements are still needed.
To try to solve some of the difficulties, there are non-formal schools set up by nongovernmental organizations and communities for those children who cannot attend formal
schools. However, these schools are often not the best solutions as the linkage between
formal and non-formal education is often missing. Non-formal schools also experience
problems due to lack of resources and facilities. However, there are continuous efforts being
made through government partnerships with education providers offering non-formal
education to ensure quality. Ensuring quality is one of the priorities of the government for
both formal and in-formal educational settings in order to help children to gain skills and
knowledge for life and work, as well as the ability to move on with secondary education.
Recognizing the role teachers must play in the quality of education and the development of
children, the government has established increased job entry requirements for teacher
education including more regulations for teacher certification. (Kenya Ministry of Education
Science and Technology, 2004)
School feeding programs, advocacy about the importance of education and providing
free primary education are among the efforts to offer education to all children. The
government is making special efforts to increase the income of those in the poorest areas so
they can afford basic necessities and do not have to send their children to work at the expense
of their education. And since the participation of girls in education is still lower than that for
boys, special efforts are made to help girls attend school and to advance in their education.
The government is promoting a friendly learning environment and gender friendly teaching
methods. (Kenya Ministry of Education Science and Technology, 2004)
Nonetheless, there are still challenges in improving access, equability, quality,
relevance and better managed service delivery to the learner (Kenya Ministry of Education
Science and Technology, 2004: 22). But continuous efforts are made to keep improving the
education of the Kenyan society and to allow more Kenyans to complete basic education and
eventually further their education in the secondary and university level which will lead to an
increased ratio of employment and which will help contribute to the reduction of poverty.
(Kenya Ministry of Education Science and Technology, 2004)
Violence in Kenyan Schools
Kenyan children ideally spend a large amount of time at school. Those ones affected
by poverty or other issues might attend school less regularly. But regardless of how often or

13

scarcely children might be present in a learning environment school should always be a safe
and nurturing place where they are treated with dignity respect in order to encourage the
development of good study skills, and relationship building and social skills. Unfortunately,
in reality this is not always true. Many Kenyan children suffer from physical, psychological
and even sexual violence at school. (UN, 2006; African Child Policy Forum, 2006)
Corporal punishment is one of these main forms of violence girls and boys experience
in school grounds in Kenya. Even though corporal punishment is prohibited by law in Kenya
since 2001 (Human Rights Watch (HRW), 2008; UNICEF, 2007), it is not enforced
effectively and it is still practiced today (UN, 2006). The Committee on the Rights of the
Child defines corporal or physical punishment as any punishment in which physical force
is used and intended to cause some degree of pain, discomfort, however light (UN, 2006:
116), including but not limited to hitting, kicking, shaking, throwing children, pulling
childrens hair or boxing ears (UN, 2006; Save the Children Sweden and Global Institute to
End All Corporal Punishment of Children, 2009). In Kenya, children may receive corporal
punishment for being late to class, feeling tired, forgetting their homework, and performing
poorly on a test among varying other situations. (African Child Policy Forum, 2006)
Even though this subject is less studied and there are no specific laws against it, nonphysical forms of or in other words psychological abuse or punishment, including but not
limited to belittling, humiliating, threatening, or ridiculing the child, is also present in Kenyan
schools and often takes place together with corporal punishment (UN, 2006; Save the
Children Sweden and Global Institute to End All Corporal Punishment of Children, 2009).
Psychological forms of abuse may not lead to physical scars, but certainly may lead to painful
memories and often very serious psychological consequences. (UN)
Furthermore, it is crucial to mention that gender based and sexual abuse is present in
Kenyan schools. These types of abuse includes sexual harassment, flirtation, jokes and
teasing of sexual nature, unwanted touching, sexual assault or rape. Sexual abuse is often
committed by teachers against children, predominantly girls in school. To many Kenyan
girls, being sexually abused is unfortunately part of the school experience. (African Child
Policy Forum, 2006)
Experiencing physical-, psychological- or sexual abuse at school can have detrimental
outcomes on the education, development and psychological well-being of children in Kenya
which may lead to psychological distress, physical injuries, lack of social skills, lack of
motivation, low school performance, and drop-outs (UN, 2006).
2.6 The Standpoint of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the
African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (The Charter)
The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (The Charter) was
adopted by the Organization of African Unity (OAU) ten years after the Convention on the
Rights of the Child (CRC) was signed in 1989. Both documents intend to protect basic
universal rights of children around the world, and both are ratified by the government of
Kenya.
Physical -, psychological -, sexual abuse and neglect against children is in conflict
with the articles of both the CRC and The Charter as both these documents state that children
should be protected from all forms of violence and abuse. According to the CRC,
State parties shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and
educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental
violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or

14

exploitation, including sexual abuse while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s)
or any other person who has the care of the child. (CRC, Article 19(1), 1989).
The Charter agrees with this statement in Article 16(1) (1990). Both documents specify that
children should be protected from all forms of violence, and it is the States responsibility to
ensure the protection of these rights.
The focus of this research was on physical -, psychological -, sexual abuse and neglect
against children happening within the family and in the school environment. The CRC states
that State Parties recognize the right of every child to a standard of livening adequate for the
childs physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development, and parent(s) or others
responsible for the child have the primary responsibility to secure, within their abilities and
financial capacities, the conditions of living necessary for the childs development (Article
27, 1989). Ensuring an abuse-free environment is the responsibility of every parent.
Furthermore, The Charter specifically teaches on the issue of domestic discipline and states
that parents should ensure that domestic discipline is administered with humanity and in
manner consistent with the inherent dignity of the child (Article 20(1c), 1990). Physically or
psychologically abusing a child is not a humane nor an acceptable discipline (Save the
Children Sweden and Global Institute to End All Corporal Punishment of Children, 2009),
thus children should be protected from abuse according to The Charter.
Finally, the best interest of the child shall always be ensured (CRC, Article 3, 1989,
The Charter, Article 4, 1990). An abuse-free life and the access to education are in the best
interest of every child.
The CRC and The Charter are both legally binding international instrument[s] to
incorporate the full range of human rightscivil, cultural, economic, political and social
rights (UNICEF, 2008). Ratifying both the CRC and The Charter, the government of Kenya
has committed to protect and to ensure the rights of children in and from their nation.
Therefore the CRC and the Charter both should be important tools to develop national
policies to protect the rights of children in Kenya, including their rights to an abuse-free life.
The Kenyan governmental and non-governmental organizations should continuously strive to
expand and implement programs using policies developed by the CRC and The Charter.
(Violence Against Children United Nations Secretary Generals Study website, 2006)
With this theoretical framework I aimed to gain more informative understanding of
physical-, psychological-, and sexual forms of child abuse and child neglect and the situation
of Kenyan children in relation to these forms of violence in their homes and at their schools.
In Chapter 3 I will describe in detail the focus of my research and the methods I used to gain
deeper understanding of violence against children in Kenya.

15

Chapter 3: Research Methods

In this chapter I will explain the process and reasons that led me to my research
questions, how I conceptualized and operationalized this question, the location I chose for the
research, the research methodologies I followed and the challenges I faced.
3.1 Research Question
When I first started to brainstorm on the topic of my thesis research, I knew I wanted
to study and understand abuse against children in Kenya. At that time I felt the need to
narrow down my topic and only look at specific forms of abuse. I decided to focus on
physical and psychological violence because I wanted to find something new but relevant,
and I found less concentration on these forms than on sexual violence in my literature review.
I decided to focus on abuse at home as I was interested in violence done by guardians and
family members of the child versus strangers. Moreover I chose to direct my research interest
on girls to correspond with the enormous attention on violence against girls in current
academic research.
As a result, I left for the field with the following research question:
What are Kenyan girls perceptions of physical and psychological abuse within their homes,
and how do they perceive their present and future in terms of education and in reflection of
their own experience with child abuse within their homes?
On the field when meeting my first group of children, my research question and focus
immediately shifted back to my original idea of studying all forms of abuse directed against
children. Talking to them, I realized that Kenyan children in my research location experience
all forms of abuse and these forms are so interrelated that in my opinion they should not be
separated. I also noticed that children not only spend a large amount of time in school (8 to
10 hours daily and 6 days a week) but view school as their second home, often their safety
zone. I realized that both family and school are places where children expect love, care and
protection. Therefore I made the decision to focus on violence against children both at home
and at school. Lastly, speaking to some boys, I noticed that even though there is a vast
attention on the empowerment of girls both in academic literature and in NGO practices, and
while girls are certainly in more difficult positions in some areas of life for example, getting
access to education (Mbugua, 2007) that boys also experience a great amount of violence
and struggles at home and at school. Based on my talks with some boys and teachers, I found
that due to the great concentration on the empowerment of girls, boys are at a risk of
becoming the disadvantaged or ignored group. Consequently, I came to the conclusion tha I
needed to pay close attention to both sexes in my research.
After re-thinking and shifting my research focus, I re-formulated my research
question to the following:
What are childrens perceptions of physical-, psychological-, and sexual child abuse and
child neglect within their homes and within their school environment, and how do they
perceive their present and future in terms of education in reflection of their experiences with
child abuse in the poorest areas of Kenya?
Within this main research question, during my field work, I was aiming to answer the
following sub-questions:

16

1. What is the frequency of physical -, psychological -, sexual abuse and neglect within
Kenyan families and schools, its reasons and consequences according to children?
2. How is culture and environment affecting the acceptance or non-acceptance of different
forms of maltreatment and abuse within Kenyan families and schools according to children?
3. How is attendance and motivation in school affected by Kenyan childrens experience of
abuse at home and at school?
4. What are the hopes and perceptions of Kenyan children for their future in relation to their
experience with child abuse within their families and at school? What are their perceptions of
their future in terms of education and employment?
My three months research experience proved that changing my research question was
the right decision. As I will explain more in depth in the results section (Chapter 4, 5 and 6), I
found that both boys and girls go through an incredible amount of abuse and the different
forms of violence they experience are very much interrelated and affect their education and
future. This research corresponds with the UN World Report on Violence Against Children
(UN, 2006), and the study by the African Child Policy Forum on Violence Against Girls in
Africa (2006), but it is unique in a sense that no prior research to my knowledge has been
conducted focusing on all forms of abuse against children specifically in the poorest areas of
Kenya.
3.2 Conceptual Scheme and Operationalization
Before leaving for the field I presented the following conceptual scheme in my
research proposal.
Experience with
physical abuse
at home

Perception of
physical abuse
Present
Perception
of education

Culture

Future
Experience with
psychological abuse
at home

Perception of
psychological abuse

This scheme only considers physical and psychological abuse at home. As explained
in Section 3.1, I revised my research question in the early stages of the field work after
deciding to consider all forms of abuse both at home and at school. Originally I had not
planned to examine environmental factors (e.g. family income, living conditions) but after the
first workshops speaking to children the necessity of considering the effects of the
environment became apparent. In order to reflect the changes in my research question I used
the following conceptual scheme for my research.

17

E
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t

Perception of physical-,
emotional-, sexual abuse
and neglect at home

Experience with physical-,

emotional-, sexual abuse and
neglect at home

Present
Perception
of education

Culture

Future
Experience with physical-,
emotional-, sexual abuse and
neglect at school

Perception of physical-,
emotional-, sexual abuse
and neglect at school

This conceptual scheme is intended to give more clarity to my research question. This
child-centered study focuses on two important childrens rights issues: the right to an abusefree life and the right to education. The center of the conceptual scheme becomes the child
itself. The child may or may not have experience with abuse (physical -, psychological -,
sexual abuse and neglect) within the home and/or at school. This experience or lack of
experience will influence the childs life. Cultural and environmental factors can play a
crucial role both in the abuse itself and the childs thoughts. Abuse may happen (or not
happen) because of cultural practices.1 The child itself is also influenced by cultural practices
and beliefs which he or she observed during his or her development. The environment may
may not be poor, unsafe, and/or unfriendly. The childs experience or lack of experience
with abuse, culture, and environment may influence the childs perception of abuse. At the
combination of these factors may or may not influence the childs perceptions on his or
her education. This research intends to find out the childs perceptions of physical -,
psychological -, sexual abuse and neglect at home and at school and their perceptions of their
present and future education in relation to experience with abuse while taking into account
cultural and environmental factors. Definitions of the concepts used in the conceptual scheme
can be found in Appendix I.
Operationalization of major concepts
My operationalization in my research proposal only reflected upon my research
question, and therefore did not consider sexual abuse and neglect as a dimension,
environment as an indicator, and school as an indicator of the location of the abuse. These
new dimensions, variables, and indicators found during the research process are reflected in
Italic text in the operationalization presented next.

Some forms of child treatment might be considered abuse by one culture but is culturally accepted practice by
another (Korbin, 2003).

18

Concept
Abuse

Dimensions
Physical
Psychological
Sexual
Neglect

Variables
Number of abusers
Number of/frequency of
abuse
Who is/are the abuser(s)
Type of abuse

Severity of abuse

Location of the abuse

Who knows about the

abuse

How is the abuse being

accepted by the child

How is abuse being

culturally accepted by the
society

Environmental factors
playing a role in the
abuse

Physical consequences of
abuse

Indicators
Number of abusers
according to the child
Number of/frequency of
abuse according to the
child
Identification of abuser(s)
according to the child
Type of abuse as
perceived and described
by the child, for example
in physical: hitting,
kicking, other, and in
psychological: yelling,
name-calling, other
Severity of abuse as
perceived and described
by the child, for example:
mild, medium, severe,
other
Location of the abuse as
described by the child, for
example: at home, in the
house, at school, other
People who know about
the abuse as described by
the child, for example
other family members,
neighbors, teachers, other
The childs perceptions
and views on the abuse:
viewed as normal,
acceptable, unacceptable,
unsure, other
The child perceptions on
whether or not abuse is
culturally accepted within
society: accepted, not
accepted, depends, other
The childs perceptions on
environmental factors
affecting the abuse:
poverty leading to abuse,
violent environment leads
to further abuse, other
Physical consequences
described by the child, for
example: bruises, broken
bones, other
Psychological
consequences as
perceived and described
by the child, for example:
low self-esteem, sadness,
fear, lack of motivation,
other

Psychological
consequences of abuse

Education

Present

Opportunities

19

Opportunities to attend
school as described by
the child, for example:
available free
education, reasons why
prevented to attend
school by parents, other

Attendance

Motivation

Self-esteem

School performance

Future

Opportunities

Motivation

Self-esteem

3.3 Research Location

20

School attendance
described by the child
and/or teachers
Childs motivation
towards education as
described by the child,
for example:
motivation to attend
classes, do homework,
participate in class
Childs self-esteem as
described by the child,
for example whether or
not the child thinks
highly of
herself/himself,
believes in her/his
abilities to succeed
(especially in
educational settings),
other
Grades
Factors affecting
school performance as
perceived and
described by the child
Opportunities to
continue education as
described by the child
Motivation to continue
education as described
by the child
Factors affecting the
childs motivation to
continue education as
perceived and
described by the child,
for example: selfesteem, abilities,
encouragement from
others, other
Childs self-esteem as
described by the child,
for example whether or
not the child thinks
highly of
herself/himself,
believes in her abilities
to succeed (especially
in educational settings),
believes about the
ability to meet future
employment goals,
other

This research was conducted in Nairobi and Kwale District, Kenya.

Kenya, named after Mount Kenya (Kirinyaga, Mountain of Whiteness), lies around
the equator in East-Africa bordered by Tanzania, Uganda, Ethiopia, Somalia and the IndianOcean. It is a multi-ethnic nation with a population of approximately 34 million and
representing around 40 different ethnic groups. Christianity is the main religion in Kenya, but
up to 30% of the population is Muslim. (Mildred and Plummer, 2008; Barsby, 2007)
Despite recent outbreaks of violence following its contested election [2008], Kenya
has been considered one of the most democratic and peaceful countries in Africa. (Mildred
and Plummer, 2008: 603) Despite the fact that it seems to be stable and flourishing compared
to its neighbors, Kenya still struggles with serious economic and social problems, including
poverty and HIV/AIDS. (Mildred and Plummer) Historically and throughout prior
colonization, Kenya has been a land of many different people, with many outside influences,
including Persian, Indian and Portuguese. From the late eighteen hundreds, it was colonized
by the British, who imposed British policies and practices and forcefully suppressed Kenyan
struggles for independence. Kenya finally gained independence in 1964 and has been an
independent nation since. (Mildred and Plummer, Barsby)
I spent the first two months of my research in Nairobi, the capital of Kenya. It is also
the largest, most modern, youngest and fastest growing city of the country. (Trillo, 2006)
However, in Nairobi, Kenya, 60 percent of the population subsists in slums and squatter
settlements. That 60 per cent is crowded onto only 5 per cent of the land without adequate
shelter, clean water or decent sanitation. (UN Habitat, 2007)
The term slum first appeared in 1820 describing the poorest quality and most
unsanitary conditions of living. Slums are heavily populated areas, low-income settlements
characterized by poor human living conditions, substandard housing and squalor. Slums are
the most visible demonstration of urban poverty in major cities of developing countries. (UN
Habitat)

One the map above Nairobi can be easily located in the center. Kwale District can be found in the Coast just
South of Mombasa.
The photographs above illustrate my research location. The top left picture was taken at one of the primary
schools in Nairobi whereas the bottom left photograph pictures a primary school in Kwale District. The top right
photo presents a street at Gatina slum in Nairobi whereas the bottom right picture was taken on a street at
Lukore village in Kwale.

21

I completed my research in slums in the West side of Nairobi at Gatina Primary

School, Muthangari Primary School and Reruta Satellite Primary School, as well as in the
East side of Nairobi at Kayole One Primary School. About 60 percent of the entire population
of Nairobi is living under similar conditions as those at my four locations: in slums crowded
onto only 5 percent of the city and is trying to survive without adequate shelter, clean water
or decent sanitation (UN Habitat). Therefore my investigations may be relevant for the
situation of most children living in any Nairobi slum.
After my two months in Nairobi, I spent one month in the poorest and most remote
coastal villages in Moyeni, in Lukore and in Majoreni in Kwale District, located South of
Mombasa (another large city of Kenya) near the Tanzanian border and the Indian-Ocean.
(Eyes for East Africa, 2010) Access to electricity and running water at these villages is often
difficult or impossible. It is not an area of flourishing agriculture, families are living in
extreme poverty while children are struggling to get access to education. The schools I
carried out my research at Kwale District were Moyeni Primary School, Lukore Primary
School and Majoreni Primary School.
I gained permissions to the total of seven schools with the help of International
Research on Working Children (IREWOC), a Dutch research organization and PLAN Kenya1
(Nairobi and Kwale), an international child-centered non-governmental organization (NGO).
IREWOC and PLAN collaborate on a project called Fighting Violence to Ensure Education
for All that I was given the opportunity to take part of with this research.
3.4 Data Collection
This research aimed to understand the perception of Kenyan children on all forms of
child maltreatment (physical-, psychological-, and sexual abuse and neglect) within their
homes and their school environment and on their perception of their present and future in
regards to their experiences with violence at home and at school. To find answers for my
questions I used various qualitative methods, including individual semi-structured interviews,
focus group discussions, a participative method of using child researchers, informal
conversations, and informal observations.
3.4.1 Strengths of the Research Methods
The research design I employed had several strengths, including the success of using a
combination of multiple methods, as well as the representative nature of the research.
Using different types of methods (explained in Section 3.4.1, and 3.4.2) enabled me to
look at and understand the situation from different angles and in multiple layers. It made it
possible to identify hoax answers, potential biases or other data irregularities. The method of
child researchers achieved the sixth stage of Harts Ladder (being adult-initiated, shared
decision-making with children) while taking into consideration childrens views
corresponding with one of the core principles participation rights of the CRC (Article 12,
1989; Tisball and Liebel, 2008).
A combination of using focus group discussions and individual interviews allowed me
to see children behaving and responding in different setting. In focus group discussions I
gained a general understanding of the childrens view and their perception of their situation,
and also gained their trust. Focus group discussions, however, may hold the risk that children
influence each other, some children participate less, and there are less personal stories shared.
Individual interviews allowed me to give each child a chance to speak, to go beyond the
1

Throughout this thesis when I mention PLAN I am referring to PLAN Kenya

22

surface, and to find out the personal experiences, perceptions, and thoughts of each child.
Using anonymous essays I discovered experiences from children that I otherwise might not
have met, including stories that children may fear to tell in person, but are comfortable
sharing anonymously on paper.
Gathering information from a large group of randomly selected children gave me an
opportunity to gain a better picture of the situation, the frequency of abuse at my research
area, and the general perception of children. Interviewing and conversing with adults proved
important in order to obtain a broader overview of the abuse reality since children are still
depending on a world regulated by adults. My informal observations and informal
conversations added another layer by introducing me to the social structure, cultural norms,
and everyday life of children in an informal manner, as well as helped to open up the
opportunity for an individual interview.
Lastly, the data collected may be representative of the high percentage of Kenyan
children living in poverty in low socio-economic background as the research partook in
Nairobi slums and poor, remote villages with a large selection of children living under
extreme poverty. Therefore my results are relevant to the discussion on violence against
children in Kenya.
In next sections I will explain in detail how I utilized my research methods.
3.4.2 Informal Observations and Informal Conversations
During my research I had a large number of informal conversations with children,
teachers, parents, other professionals and community members. I made careful observations
in an informal manner wherever I went in Kenya. My observations provided valuable
information regarding cultural customs, activities and events, social structure and the
everyday life in Kenya. (Driskel, 2002) As I expected, informal conversation proved to be
essential help in both children and adults to be more at ease to talk about themselves while
allowing me to learn about their lives, hopes and dreams, and also about their personality,
their unique characteristics, and their family background.
3.4.3 Participatory Method of Involving Child Researchers and Individual Interviews
While informal conversations and observations gave me a general idea of the situation
and allowed me and my subjects to be comfortable, by employing the participatory method of
involving child researchers I was able to obtain a very in-depth information regarding my
research question.1 It gave me ground to give training workshops for children allowing
focus group discussions, as well as writing and drawing activities with the children, and to
have semi-structured individual interviews with them.
In my research proposal I did not consider involving child researchers, but only using
informal conversations, informal observations, individual interviews, focus group
discussions, and drawing activities. However one of the suggestions in order to gain
1

Many research methods performed with children such as interviews, surveys etc allow children to be
involved and express themselves by telling stories and giving their input. (The Education Alliance, 2004)
Participatory research methods where children are involved as child researchers are going a step beyond this by
involving children with the research process by not only giving their input, but by acting as researchers,
formulating questions, interviewing their peers and discussing results. This method is in line with the child
participation rights, one of the core principles of the CRC. (Clark, 2004) Children who are involved as
researchers are able to act as role models in the life of their peers, and gain knowledge, confidence, listening and
inter-personal communication skills. This method can be empowering for children. It allows them to give their
voice, be actively involved and make a possible impact on their lives. (Clark; Bevins, Thomson and Williams,
2007)

23

permission to PLAN-sponsored schools was to involve child researchers during the study
though I was given full freedom to decide how exactly to use this method.1 I saw this as an
opportunity not only to gain access to children for focus group discussions and individual
interviews according to my original plans, but also as a prospect to use my imagination and
creativity in deciding how to involve child researchers in a study, and a chance to provide an
empowering, positive experience for them.
Therefore I decided to employ the method of involving child researchers, and will
explain in the following how I accomplished this.
First Workshop: Get-Acquainted Games and Focus Group Discussions
In Nairobi I conducted research at four primary schools spending about two and a half
to three weeks at each location.2 I worked at two schools simultaneously each week, spending
one day at one school and the next day at the other one. At each school and with the help of
the school administration, I identified 6 children from Class 7 and Class 8 voluntary basis to
be child researchers.
After selecting the children, I held several workshops with them allowing time for
focus group discussions. Each workshop was held on the school grounds in an empty
classroom normally after school hours and on a few occasions during lunch break in order to
assure that children were able to attend class. This research setting had several pros and cons.
Teachers and other children knew that there was a workshop going on which raised their
curiosity and on a very few occasions workshops were momentarily disturbed by curious
children walking in to see the mzungu3. For the most part workshops were undisturbed and
held in a private setting. I always made an effort to ensure privacy, hence in case of any
disturbance I paused the discussion. Another positive aspect was that children felt
comfortable and safe being in a familiar environment at school.
During each workshop I played various get-acquainted games. These games served as
ice-breakers, allowed children to loosen up, to get to know me, and to make them feel
comfortable and trustful around me. Furthermore they helped me to get to know each child by
their name and to find out about their basic interests and ideas. It allowed me to ask questions
in an informal way regarding my research topic. (Youthwork Practice 2009) To allow
maximum participation, I asked children to choose the games they wanted to play.
I started the first workshop by asking children how they define violence or abuse
against children. Being hesitant to use the words violence or abuse, I also explained them
that we are talking about their experiences when someone at home or at school did something
to them that made them feel bad.4 With this activity I gained understanding of childrens
definition in their own words compared to the definition used by literature and this research. I
found that children were very knowledgeable about their rights. They defined abuse mainly in
by what they were taught in class. Their definitions were broad and for the most part in
agreement with my definitions as explained in the Theoretical Framework in Section 2.1.
When speaking about violence children brought up issues including poverty, child labor,
hunger, early pregnancies, forced marriages, and the issue of the not-so-free free education.
1

I was certain of my original goal to conduct my research at a PLAN-sponsored school and to contribute to the
PLAN project called Violence Against Children Fighting Violence to Ensure Education for All with my
results, and to ensure that my work serves a greater purpose than fulfilling my degree requirements, as I explain
in Section 3.6.
2
In Section 3.4.3 I will explain how I adapted the Same methods in Kwale.
3
Mzungu means white person in Swahili. I was often referred to as mzungu on the field.
4
I used the term made them feel bad because children constantly referred to negative experiences as a bad
thing and negative feelings as feeling bad, feeling so bad

24

These are issues of structural violence, and avoidable impairment of fundamental human
needs or, to put it in more general terms, the impairment of human life, which lowers the
actual degree to which someone is able to meet their needs below which would otherwise be
possible (Galtung, 1990 in Ho, 2007: 3) that I had not considered much before going on the
field. But during my research I found that poverty, hunger, child labor, and other forms of
structural violence are in fact very much affecting childrens lives, and often lead to physical
-, psychological -, sexual abuse and/or neglect at home and at school.1 I found that
considering structural violence is necessary to answer my research question, in the results
sections (Chapters 4, 5, and 6) I will give an overview of the home and school situation
children are living in with a special attention to structural violence and its effects in terms of
generic violence2. Lastly, when defining abuse a few children did include problems like
receiving bad marks on exams or accidentally hitting their knee when walking into a chair.
These are issues that were not done to the child by someone on purpose therefore I did not
consider this as a form of abuse for this research3.
After defining abuse, I led a discussion on violence affecting children in their
community specifically at home and at school. As I mentioned earlier, children were
knowledgeable about their rights. At first they only gave text book knowledge. They were
not afraid to use words rape or corporal punishment, but at first were hesitant to go into
details on their real thoughts. But I found that the group setting helped them to loosen up, and
they became more comfortable quickly and therefore more personal and specific. While
allowing them to see all their ideas in a big picture I wrote down everything said on a flipchart. I asked the children to think about everything written there, think about their personal
experiences, then if they feel comfortable to walk up to the large papers I previously posted
on the walls, and to express in writing or drawing how they feel about these experiences.
Children were very open towards this activity and I had to keep hanging more and more
papers at most schools while children were writing down very personal emotions. I gave
them the option to explain what they draw or write, and many of them were courageous
enough to share personal and painful stories with the group. From these activities I gained a
general understanding of children experiences with child abuse specific to the school. The
personal stories and emotions shared also gave me a base for later individual interviews.
Findings from these discussions were especially useful in my discussion in Chapters 4 and 5
on violence at home and at school.

Structural violence theorists define violence as the avoidable disparity between the potential ability to fulfill
basic needs and their actual fulfillment. (Ho, 2007: 1). Because it [structural violence] is less obvious and less
direct than physical violence, its magnitude is often underestimated. (African Child Policy Forum, 2006: 13)
Looking at gender inequalities, society defines roles for each gender and individuals tend to act accordingly.
Boys and men experience pressure to fulfill their dominant role where as girls and women accept a more passive
role. Therefore they experience discrimination, power-, social-, psychological- and sexual inequality which is a
form of structural violence that can lead to further generic form of violence, such as sexual harassment or
domestic violence. (African Child Policy Forum)
Looking at inequalities from an economic perspective children experiencing poverty are in a more
disadvantaged situation in meeting basic needs, accessing education and being exposed to different forms of
abuse. [S]evere or absolute poverty (according to the World Bank, people with an income of less than $1 per
day) will be considered a manifestation of economic inequality resulting from structural violence. (Ho, 2007:
5) Children from poor backgrounds often have difficulty accessing or completing education because the families
are unable to afford school uniforms, exam fees and other costs of education. (Leiten, 2009) These children are
often more vulnerable to child labor, another form of structural violence when it is forced, dangerous to health,
and/or interferes with education.
2
Generic violence or abuse: physical -, psychological -, sexual abuse and neglect
3
Since only about 2 or 3 children mentioned receiving bad grades or hitting a knee as a form of abuse, the
fact that I did not consider them as abuse did not cause conflict in my analysis and results.

25

First Workshop: Training Child Researchers

The first workshop also served as a training workshop on how to become a child
researcher. The goal was that every child would talk with up to six other children of similar
age during the week. I asked them to select children who they think or know are going
through a difficult situation and possibly experiencing some form of abuse. Child researchers
were talking to these children in private about similar topics covered in the workshop about
abuse, for example what kind of violence do children experience in their surroundings and
their general feelings and sense of safety. They also gave an envelope to each child with a
blank sheet of paper explaining that if they prefer to they can write down or draw about one
of their experiences with abuse at home or at school on this paper, close the envelop and
return it to the child researcher. The child researchers had five days to complete the
assignment.1 One of the purposes of this method was to gather information from a larger
number of children I otherwise would have not been able to meet. Another reason was to
stimulate further conversations during workshops with child researchers and to give them an
empowering activity. To allow child participation during the workshop I gave children space
to voice their opinions, ask questions, and allowed them flexibility in how they decided to
proceed with their project. I found that children were excited about the assignment and
discussed their suggestions with the group. I also handed out notebooks to the child
researchers that included a few questions about their lives and several empty pages as an
optional exercise allowing them to share anything about their lives if they chose to. The
completed notebooks I received in the end of the week provided an opportunity to understand
more about their family situations, their school life and abuse experiences of children in the
area.2
Second Workshop: Follow-up and Focus Group Discussion
During the second workshop which I held mid-week, first I discussed any problems or
challenges child researchers were facing. Secondly, I led a focus group discussion on how
different forms of violence experienced at home or at school could be affecting the school
work and general education of children. Similarly to the first workshop, first children
brainstormed regarding general and personal experiences and I wrote down their ideas on a
flip-chart. Then I asked them to think about their personal experiences and, if they felt
comfortable, to try to express how they felt about this by writing or drawing on blank sheets
of paper hung up on the walls. Most children shared personal feelings. This workshop
allowed me to get a general understanding of childrens attitudes towards school, their
educational goals, their educational challenges, and their feelings about it. These findings are
especially considered in my discussion in Chapter 6 regarding the effects of violence on
present and future education of children.
Third Workshop: Focus Group Discussion and Wrapping up the Research by Children
At the end of the week I returned for the third workshop to find out what the child
researchers learned from their talks with other children. I collected the envelops with the
essays. Originally I was not fully convinced whether this method would be useful or if I
would get any essays back. But the detailed stories children had written turned out to be an
important source of information giving tremendous insight about the forms of abuse children
1

I always specified that they did not have to finish all the six interviews if they did not have time or did not
want to. I always stressed that homework, anything school related, and parental tasks were more important.
2
Some child researchers also illustrated their stories and ideas by drawings that can be found in Appendix IV.

26

experience and how they feel about it at home and at school. I recorded all demographic data
(school, age, sex) and what type of violence children explained in their essays in order to give
statistical information to support my mainly qualitative research. Most children chose to write
down their stories, but a few chose to document their experiences by drawings. These
pictures can be found in Appendix IV.
I also handed out certificates to each child researcher for their work. I asked for
feedback about the research and their suggestions to improve the work of child researchers.
Children generally enjoyed the research and felt more empowered afterwards. One child said,
When I did the interviews, I felt so brave. I actually felt like an adult, [because] thats
something a pupil like me can do bravely. I was also happy. From the research I was
surprised to learn that the same pupil I sit with and learn with can go through such
harassments and challenges like that. All the other responses I gathered from the child
researchers were similar and they stated that they experienced our workshops and the
research as an empowering experience.
Support Workshop
Since the child researchers were concerned that the children they interviewed were
going through serious problems related to violence and because the essays I read supported
their findings, I chose to have a discussion with the child researchers on what they could do
about the situation of these children. Together with the active participation of the child
researchers, we decided to hold a support workshop during the second week where they
would invite all the children they interviewed. During this workshop, I first thanked all
children and commended them for being so brave to share their stories in writing, talking or
by talking to a child researcher. The child researchers and I encouraged them that in the
future they should not be afraid to express their problems and challenges and to ask for help
when necessary. After a group discussion on where children can get help, I handed out a
sheet to each child with important information about Child Helpline, guidance counseling and
peer education, and a booklet, called My Life, My Future donated by Child Legal Action
Network (CLAN) with information on violence and childrens rights1. Though this was
outside of my job as a researcher, I felt that it was important to acknowledge the childrens
support and to let these children know that their stories were heard, and to follow the
recommendation of the child researchers in encouraging these children to speak about their
experiences or to seek help, and to provide them with resources for support.
Semi-structured Individual Interviews
This support workshop provided opportunity to ask if any children wanted to talk to
me individually about their lives and experiences with abuse. Many children, including child
researchers, volunteered for individual interviews which I held during the rest of the week
which provided a systematic approach for getting input from young people [], as well as
opportunity for one-to-one interaction (Driskel, 2002: 103).. Most children I talked to only
once, but I followed up with some two or three times. During these interviews, keeping in
mind my research question and sub-questions, I asked questions about their families, their
time in school, their daily lives, their relationship with family members, teachers and peers at

During the first week of my field work I had several meetings with PLAN Kenya and also a visiting staff
member from PLAN Nederlands. During one of these meetings I was shown this booklet. Since I found it
interesting, therefore I visited CLAN and they gladly donated me about 100 booklets to hand out during my
research.

27

school, their experiences with violence, its effects on their education, their dreams and their
struggles.
I used my operationalization to develop my interview questions in an interview guide
(this guide can be found in Appendix II), though due to the semi-structured nature I did not
fully follow my list of questions. Since most children volunteered to talk to me after the
support workshop, I opened most interviews with the question: What do you want to talk
about?. This gave an opportunity to children to share what was most important for them.
This technique helped me gain trust by showing true interest in their lives. At first some
children only wanted to chat, perhaps ask me about my life. In these cases and after an initial
small-talk I jumped right into my interview questions. Most children did want to share
personal experiences regarding abuse or poverty or a combination of the two. I always
allowed children to explain everything they wanted to, and asked further clarifying questions
to better understand the specific situation in relation to my research topic. I investigated other
topics based on my interview guide and the childs responses to find out as much as possible
on their experiences with abuse and their perceptions on abuse at home and at school and its
effects on their lives. I chose to do semi-structured interviews over structured interviews,
because semi-structured interviews provide more flexibility to both me and my subject to
explore different topics. By not looking at a sheet of paper with a set of questions and moving
on from one to the next helped to make children feel that they were only having a
conversation, and allowed me to explore relevant topics in detail. I often discovered very
interesting or very personal pieces of information when the children decided to share
something with me outside of my planned questions.
Other than workshops and individual interviews with children, I also conducted
several semi-structured individual interviews with head teachers, depute teachers, guidance
counselors, Community Based Organization (CBO) members and parents asking them about
their observations and opinions on violence against children within their responsibilities. This
helped to understand the adult perspective better and also to learn more about the school
system and policies in Kenya. For adult interviews I also developed an interview guide
(which can be found in Appendix II) based on my research question, sub-question, and
operationalization in similar manner as I did with the child interviews. Interviews with adults
were also semi-structured in nature. But they were more structured than with children, as I
found that unlike children, most adults were willing to answer questions, but were less
willing to share information without specific questions.
I visited four families and one social hall for street children for first-hand observation
of life situation of the children. During At the family visits I did not conduct an interview, but
engaged in informal conversation allowing family members to share their life with me. It was
an excellent opportunity for informal observations of the living conditions, family structure,
and the interaction between family members. At the social hall I mainly gathered information
on the admission procedures of that specific social hall, their services (more information on
the circumstances and reasons for my visit can be found in Section 3.7) and observing the
situation at the particular hall. These visitations to families and this particular social hall
provided additional supportive information to my study.
3.4.4 Differences in Kwale
My research methods in the Kwale District villages were very similar, but I did have
to make a few adaptations. I had less time to spend at each school as I stayed four
consecutive days at each village. Because the children had school holidays, and in order to
meet more children I held workshops for a group of ten child researchers (instead of six in
Nairobi). Also, I found that in Kwale children were less empowered and less open to talk

28

about their experiences. I gave them role playing activities, where they played out situations
with violence against children. These role plays opened them up to discuss their lives more
freely1. Still, I had less opportunities for individual interviews as only a very few children
were open to talk to me individually. Therefore, I decided to hold longer workshops and more
focus group discussions.
3.5 Units of Analysis and Analysis of Findings
This research has three units of analysis. All units of analysis are related to Kenyan
children between 10 and 18 years of age in the Nairobi slums and Kwale District villages.
The first unit of analysis is the perception of Kenyan children on physical-,
psychological-, and sexual abuse and neglect experienced at home.
The second unit of analysis is the perception of Kenyan children on physical-,
psychological-, and sexual abuse and neglect experienced at school.
The third unit of analysis is the perception of Kenyan children on their present and
future in terms of education and in their perception on how their education is affected by
their experiences with physical-, psychological- and sexual abuse and neglect at home or at
school.
Analysis
During my field work I kept a journal where I wrote down my observations,
impressions, and thoughts, especially regarding workshops and interviews. I recorded some
of my interviews, but opted for note taking during most of them because children were
distracted by technology2 and I also felt more comfortable and better able to engage children
without a recorder. I finished all transcribing and note taking while on the field. I kept
statistical information regarding the essays and interviews in an Excel worksheet 3 to see the
relevance and frequency of each form of abuse in percentages supporting my qualitative
findings, interpretations, and conclusions. I have also developed a code sheet for individual
interviews and essays keeping in mind my research question and sub-questions, units of
analysis, and using my operationalization (Section 3.2) as a guide. I sorted, highlighted, and
analyzed my interviews based on these codes. To illustrate the process of my analysis I will
give a short example and explanation of it in each chapter of the results section (Chapter 4, 5,
and 6).
3.6 Profile of Child Participants
The research was conducted at four primary schools at different slums of Nairobi East
and West and at three primary schools at various villages of Kwale District. I learned about
the general experiences and thoughts of children from seven groups of child researchers
through 24 workshop sessions. I gained in depth information from individual children and
adults through a total of 95 interviews4 with 66 children and 24 adults not including informal
conversations with the same and other children and adults. I talked only once with most of
1

Pictures from one of the role playing sessions can be found in Appendix V.
Seeing a camera, a recorder, or even a phone made them excited, less focused on the research and some of
them saw it as money contributing to power-imbalance.
3
Demographic information (location, school, sex, age of respondent), what form(s) of abuse was explained,
who was the perpetrator (teacher, peer, or what kind of family member), location of the abuse (school, home)
4
Some interviews lasted only 10-15 minutes, where as some lasted for an hour. On average, interviews were 25
to 40 minutes in length.
2

29

my informants, and with a few I had one or two follow-up interviews and with the child
participants, and a few others I developed an even deeper connection through workshops and
informal conversations. I also received a great deal of information from 148 anonymous
essays children handed to the child researchers. Some of the stories were only a few
sentences explaining a basic issue, but others went into great detail over one or two pages and
were at times accompanied by drawings. I have interviewed several of the children who
wrote down their stories, but I was unable to identify most writers due to the anonymity of
the essays. My research sample was made up of the following:

Child Researchers in Nairobi

Number
Boys

School 1
School 2
School 3
School 4

of Number
Girls

2
2
3
2

of Average Age

4
6
3
4

13
13
13
13

Number
of
Notebooks
Filled out with
Personal
Stories
3
2
3
6

Children Interviewed in Nairobi

School 1
School 2
School 3
School 4
Out-ofschool
Children1

Number of Number of Average

Boys
Girls
Age

Youngest

Oldest

1
3
3
11
0

10
13
12
12
9

14
15
14
14
12

6
8
3
20
3

13
13.5
13
13
13.6

Number of
child
researchers
interviewed
2
6
6
6
0

Adults Interviewed in Nairobi

Before going into the field I had not considered talking to out-of-school children, but after learning about high
drop-out rates I became more curious. At one of the primary schools child researcher were telling me about their
friends who were forced to drop out, explaining the situation of these children, and suggesting me to visit them.
Therefore, I decided to spend an afternoon interviewing a few out-of-school children. During the interviews I
mainly spoke about their reasons for not attending school, including the lack of uniform and money for school
fees, and only touched briefly on the issue of abuse experiences. I find it valuable to speak to these children in
order to better understand the bigger picture of life in the Nairobi slums.

30

School 1
School 2
School 3
School 4

Head
teacher/Depute
Head teacher
(number)

Guidance
counselor
(number)

2
1
1
1

1
2
0
2

Child
Officer/CBO
member/Social
worker
(number)
1
0
0
1

Parent

3
1
0
1

Essays Received from Children in Nairobi

Number of Number of Average
Boys
Girls
Age
6
14
13.5
6
14
13
10
15
13
7
15
14

School 1
School 2
School 3
School 4

Youngest

Oldest

10
9
10
12

15
14
14
15

Child Researchers in Kwale

Number
Boys
2
5
4

School 1
School 2
School 3

of Number
Girls
4
5
6

of Average Age
About 14
About 15
About 16

Children Interviewed in Kwale

School 1
School 2
School 3

Number of Number of Average

Boys
Girls
Age

Youngest

Oldest

1
1
1

About 14
13
16

About 14
13
18

4
0
1

About 14
13
17

Adults Interviewed in Kwale

31

Number of
child
researchers
interviewed
5
1
2

School 1
School 2
School 3

Head
teacher/Depute
Head teacher
(number)

Guidance
counselor
(number)

0
1
1

0
0
1

Child
Officer/CBO
member/Social
worker
(number)
2
1
1

Parent

Youngest

Oldest

13
12
10

17
17
16

0
0
0

Essays Received from Children in Kwale

School 1
School 2
School 3

Number of Number of Average

Boys
Girls
Age
4
11
15
13
13
15
9
11
13.5

3.7 Positioning as a Researcher and a Mzungu, Ethical Considerations and Challenges

Being a Mzungu (white person)
Initially I was anxious about traveling to Kenya and positioning myself as a
researcher in relation to locals. Previously, I have never been to Africa. To minimalize
culture chock, I was reading about Kenyan history and culture while preparing for my
research. But I was aware that my ideas about the culture were based on readings and
assumptions, therefore I decided to fully immerse myself in the culture to learn on the field.
I had to be aware that my status as a mzungu influenced peoples behavior towards
me. I tried to gain childrens and adults trust and understanding in order to treat me as an
equal partner and share their lives with me. Even though it was impossible to change my skin
color, as an attempt to diminish differences between myself and Kenyan children and adults, I
dressed respectively and like locals around me and tried to quickly learn the cultural customs.
In Nairobi I did not experience language barriers, but most children in Kwale did not speak
English. Getting down to the childrens level, playing and laughing with them, and engaging
with them in small talk in Kiswahili to the best of my abilities also allowed me to gain their
trust and to be accepted among them.
Working with a Research Interpreter
Both in Nairobi and in Kwale Villages I was working with a research interpreter. In
Nairobi I worked with Fragrance, a recent graduate with a degree in nutrition, and in Kwale I
worked with Victoria, who holds a degree in sociology, both with previous research
experience with children. I mostly relied on Fragrance to understand cultural costumes, and
to explain the research to school officials and to gain the trust of children, and with
translation when necessary. On the contrary, in Kwale since children did not speak much
English1, ultimately, Victoria supported extensively by talking directly to children.
1

At two of the schools in Kwale all workshops, conversations, and interviews were done in Kiswahili as
children did not speak English at all. At one of the schools, however, children spoke English very well (as I later
found out, they were severely punished if caught speaking anything but English on school grounds). Therefore,
at that school as in Nairobi for the most part, English was used.

32

The methods of interpretation differed by situation and location. In Nairobi when

translation was necessary it only happened at certain segments of the interview, therefore
Fragrance only needed to translate or explain certain words, expressions or sentences. When
a child was speaking mixed English-Kiswahili, she clarified the meaning. With interviews
done in Kiswahili (mostly in Kwale) I initially used the traditional method of direct
translation when the interpreter translated every single sentence right away. I found that this
method interfered with the childrens concentration, therefore they quickly lost interest. Then
I decided to give an interview guide to the interpreters and discussed the goal of my research,
the goal of my interview, and the interview techniques I was planning to use. This way they
were able to carry out a successful interview independently while summarizing after larger
segments. I asked for clarifications and for further information through additional interview
questions. After the interview I discussed the child words in detail with the interpreter. Since
I was present at the interview, made small talks and played with the child I was able to gather
the feeling of the child even without understanding Kiswahili. Workshops were always
done in English, except at two schools in Kwale where I used direct translation after each
sentence or idea. Since workshops were interactive I felt that translations did not break the
flow of ideas and children remained engaged during the entire time. Essays written in
Kiswahili were translated by the interpreters while in the field.
I continuously learned from both Fragrance and Victoria about cultural rules and I
trusted their guidance on how to interact with children and adults according to these cultural
norms. They also trusted my judgment on research methods, and welcomed my guidance on
reducing power imbalance between us, adults and children. I found that a trusting relationship
with both interpreters went to great lengths in developing a relationship with my research
participants and it ensured the ability to answer my research question.
Purpose of Research
Besides maintaining a good relationship with my interpreters and research participants
I had to ensure my research to be ethical. According to Cordbridge ethical research should
not only do no harm, but also have potential to do good, to involve empowerment
(1998 cited in Scheyvens and Storey 2003: 139). My goal was not only to fulfill my Masters
degree requirements and write a thesis, but to make an impact on the lives of Kenyan children
and to ascertain that this research would allow their voices to be heard and to contribute to
the improvement of their lives and specifically their experiences related to violence. I am
grateful that I was able to conduct this research with the assistance of IREWOC and PLAN
Kenya; therefore my findings will contribute to their project Violence Against Children Fighting Violence to Ensure Education for All and their efforts to reduce violence against all
Kenyan children.
Informed Consent, Anonymity and Confidentiality
When doing social research with children it is important to be certain not to harm
them, therefore I made sure to always be honest and respectful to them. (Fraser, Lewis, Ding,
Kellett and Robinson, 2004) As a researcher one must also guarantee the following ethical
considerations: informed consent, anonymity and confidentiality. (Scheyvens and Storey
2003) Under all circumstances I always explained clearly and honestly to all my child
researchers and all of my child and adult interview subjects about the nature and the reasons
for my research. I asked their permission to participate in my research explaining that they
were not required to take part and answer all or any of my questions, and that they were free
to terminate their participation at any point. To ensure anonymity and confidentiality, I

33

explained all participants that I will not use their real name in my report, hence in this thesis I
changed the names of all individuals mentioned. Furthermore, in order to assure
confidentiality during focus group discussions, I stated in the beginning of each workshop
that any personal stories or issues shared during the discussion would not be shared with
anyone else.
Dealing with a Sensitive Issue and Childrens Need or Request for Help
Conducting research on and with children is already brought up a lot of challenges,
but researching on the subject of child abuse a very sensitive and tough subject provided
even more questions.
First I was asked to sign PLANs Policy on Child Protection ensuring that I will be
acting ethically and in the best interest of children during my research.
While dealing with children who experienced violence I realized the possibility that
some of my subjects would need to be directed to further help and would need to be pointed
out to guidance counselors, teachers, social workers or childrens officers. Since almost every
single child I met described some form of violence they were experiencing and all children
I met were living under extreme poverty it was difficult to recognize where to draw the line
regarding who needed help. The most difficult cases I learned about were already addressed
by the guidance counselors or other professionals and therefore I had nothing more to do.
There was one particular case, however, that needed my attention and direct help.
1
Renee , a 13-year-old girl from Class 5 at one of my Nairobi school locations, explained her
frequent situation of being severely physically and psychologically abused by her mother,
then unexpectedly told me after the interview that she was not planning on going home but
staying on the streets. Fragrance, my interpreter and I felt that this was a case we could not
leave unnoticed. With the permission of the girl I notified the guidance counselor. The
counselor decided to take Renee home arguing that the best place for Renee was home.
When I returned to school to follow-up with Renee, she expressed fear of her mother, and a
wish to leave home and to move to the near-by social hall for street children. As a researcher
I was not in the position to remove her from her family, but I promised her to look into the
admission process of the social hall for her. I gave her my phone number for a case anything
were to happen. The Same afternoon I visited the social hall talking to the manager regarding
the admission procedures, the services and activities they provide2. After leaving the social
hall, I received a phone call from Renee. She was crying while telling me that her mother just
chased her away from home3. I advised her to immediately go to the Social Hall and also
called the hall manager to ensure that Renee would be admitted. The same week I visited the
Social Hall to see if Renee was safe and to follow-up (interview) with her experiences. But I
understood that as a researcher my role had to stop there. To this day I do not know how
Renees story continued. This was the only case that needed my direct intervention while in
the field.
1

I will refer to Renees case in Chapter 4: Violence against Children at Home.

This particular social hall is a governmental institute specifically for girls who are street children. Children are
provided with shelter and meals. They do not have to perform work other than washing their own clothes. They
are provided counseling. This social hall makes an effort to re-integrate children to their families involving both
children and family in counseling when possible. When the family is fully rejecting the child she may stay at the
hall until the age of 18. The hall provides counseling to children and families outside of the hall. The problem I
personally saw is the accessibility to children: the hall is not accessibly to any street child or child who does not
feel safe at home. Managers working in the field find these children randomly, sometimes by a lead from a
community member. Children are normally not admitted just by knocking on the door and asking for
permission to be let in. (Renee was only admitted because of my special notice after my visit.)
3
It was not unusual to hear from children that they were chased away from home by their parents.
2

34

But still I felt the necessity to discuss with PLAN Kenya the most significant abuse
issues and those which needed attention specific to each school (without mentioning names
of specific children). PLAN asked me to write an interim report regarding the most important
problems affecting children at these schools.1
Lastly, several children approached me requesting help for their specific situations. In
these cases I informed them to whom they can turn to for assistance (e.g. guidance
counselors, childrens officer, Childline), and also explained that I am in the field as a
researcher with the purpose is to write a report to PLAN in the hope to improve the life of all
children in difficult situations. The most difficult decision to make was whether or not to give
them food or money. In a few cases when children explained about their poverty and neglect
and that they often go without food for days I did decide to give children enough money just
for lunch. In these cases I gave them the money at the end of the interview. I never raised
expectations of any form of compensation, money or gift, in order to avoid the risk of fake
responses.
In Kwale, children were on school holidays going without school lunch, therefore
PLAN asked me to provide them bread and milk during the workshops and this allowed me
to make small talk and make them more comfortable around me. I believe that I did not
receive fake responses from children as a result of providing food or for other reasons. I
base this belief on the childrens body language (e.g. covering face when talking), tone of
voice (e.g. whispering, shy voice, at time emotional outbursts), looks (e.g. very depressed
look, struggling with tears), sudden cries, and in my judgment, honest, personal, and detailed
stories. Overall, I felt comfortable with the amount of food and money I gave to children and
the interpreters I worked with also agreed that this was appropriate considering the culture.
After understanding my research methods, in the next three Chapters I will discuss my
findings on childrens experiences with abuse at home and at school, and its effects on their
education.

This report also helped me to summarize my impressions and thoughts after the Nairobi experience, and was
used as a basic guide for the beginning stages of this thesis.

35

Chapter 4: Violence against Children at Home

4.1 Family Background
In the theoretical framework I explained what can be found in published sources
about the families and family structures in Kenya. In this section I will discuss my research
findings in the field about family situations and general circumstances under which the
children live in the Nairobi slums and Kwale villages.
The first phase of the research was carried out in four different slums of Nairobi East
and West and the second phase took place in remote villages of Kwale District. What makes
the slums of Nairobi and the remote villages of Kwale District comparable is that at both
locations families and children live under extreme poverty and according to childrens words
this makes them face challenges in all areas of life. While many similarities can be drawn
between the two areas there are also a lot of differences. Throughout the following chapters I
will demonstrate my findings both in Nairobi and Kwale. In cases I found differences I will
explain the specific differences specifically1.
Most children live under incredibly difficult and complicated family situations. At
both locations, families are often large and having five to ten children is not uncommon,
often including step-siblings. At the Nairobi slums a large percentage of children are coming
from broken families, living with single parents, step-parents or even given away to live
with relatives. Divorce is common and often unofficial as marriages are frequently
unendorsed. Many parents often cohabit or never request official papers after the church
ceremony. In Kwale, although some children I talked to are coming from broken families,
most children reported living with both parents. Extended family members live closer
together than in Nairobi. Children bring their spouses and children into the family and other
relatives live close by. With the exception of one child, all children reported that their father
was in a monogamist marriage.
In both Nairobi and Kwale there are many orphan2 living with grandparents, aunts and
uncles, siblings, other relatives, other guardians, at social homes, or even alone or on the
streets. One day my mother decided I should live with my father who had married another
wife. The wife could leave me all the chores to do and I felt so lonely. (girl, Nairobi)
Children living with step-parents or guardians are usually living under the most difficult
conditions and are most vulnerable to child labor and all forms of violence.
All children I encountered are living under significant poverty. In Nairobi, whereas I
did meet children whose parents are both employed, these jobs are low-paying and/or not
steady. In the majority of the cases at least one parent is unemployed (normally for years). I
feel very bad that my parents dont have jobs. (Julia, 12, Nairobi) Some of the households
are headed by unemployed older siblings or cousins. In Kwale, most families try to survive
by farming, despite lacking rich soil and this does not provide sufficient income. Adults and
youth in the family are often unemployed, and are leaving much of the work to their children.
I often wonder why goes through such problems. I really want to find a job for my dad. I am
planning on asking a neighbor to give him a job. It will be a surprise. Just like Julia,
children generally feel stressed out about the employment situation of their parents, and put
the responsibility on themselves to help their family.
Another prominent problem is dealing with illness in the family, most often with
HIV/AIDS, but also with other diseases, including cancer, TB, and intestine problems. Not
only parents, but children also suffer from various illnesses, predominantly HIV/AIDS, but
1
2

otherwise it is to be assumed that the situation found is the same in both areas.
orphaned often due to the parents death from HIV/AIDS, other illnesses or murder

36

also other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), stomach aches, possibly from being
malnourished, headaches, and even needing glasses. Dealing with one or multiple cases of
health problems put several strains on the entire family and the children themselves who were
already living under poor conditions to begin with. We are depending on our mother who is
HIV+. Due to her situation we constantly go beg for food. We sleep on torn blanket. I am
very much disturbed by this situation. (Pamela, 12, Nairobi) Due to financial difficulties
caused by health problems many children are forced to drop out of school or attend school
only very sporadically in order to take care of ill relatives, and to engage in different forms of
child labor to help the family survival.
Child labor is dominant in both Nairobi and Kwale which is important to mention
because about half of the children in my research indicated having to work too much as one
of the main reasons they feel sad at home. In both locations, children are always expected to
part-take in domestic duties. In Nairobi, many, but certainly not all children are also involved
with child labor to make money, including begging, selling vegetables, or even dealing with
drugs or prostitution. In Kwale child labor is even more predominant issue affecting almost
all children I observed children working anywhere I went. All children reported having to
perform some or all of the following: domestic duties, fetching water, working on farms,
hording animals, burning firewood for charcoal, selling charcoal, taking care of younger
siblings, and girls being sent away to become domestic workers. Children generally reported
negative feelings towards work, especially when it greatly affected their education (e. g. no
time for homework, no opportunity to attend class) or when siblings had much less work.
Furthermore, girls and women in Kwale are less empowered than in Nairobi.
Gender roles are much more traditional as I observed in the clothing, quiet and passive
attitude of girls during workshops. Girls are less likely to be supported to continue on there
education. Due to the lack of empowerment, the lack of education and the lack of concern
and knowledge about sexual violence, they are more vulnerable for early pregnancy. At the
schools I visited there are 3 to 4 pregnancies each term 1. Most of these girls drop out of
school and in most cases get married. Some girls also try to abort their child risking their
health and life2. Girls are often encouraged by family members to get married early and
through a dowry, through a wealthier husband, or simply through an extra working-hand
earn money for the family. According to children, by many families the age of 12 to 14 can
be considered a normal, even ideal time for marriage.
In both Nairobi and Kwale the majority of children are malnourished, eating only one
meal a day either lunch at school or dinner at home, but it is not unusual for many to go
without food for days. Being denied food is one of the top reasons that children reported
feeling bad at home, not only because of hunger but for the lack of love experienced.
Children generally associated love with meeting basic needs, and those who regularly
experienced hunger were more likely to feel unloved and uncared for as well. Even though
most of these children are very motivated and dedicated to their studies, are struggling to
attend school and get a proper education. When meeting basic needs like having food on the
table is a struggle the right to education becomes secondary to parents and therefore this right
is often denied or limited. In Kwale, children struggle even more for education as they get
less support from parents and more likely to be forced to drop out of school, engage in child
labor and to marry early. I will discuss this issue of educational support further in Chapter 6.

There are three terms in each academic year in Kenya.

Abortion is illegal in Kenya and abortion is usually not performed under proper and hygienic conditions by a
qualified professional, especially not in the poorest areas.
2

37

Violence in Families
A number of children I talked to come from a supportive home environment. Even
when the parents are struggling financially and emotionally, they lack resources, often
including food, they still try to provide the best and most supportive family environment to
their children. I found that these children who experienced parental love, trust and support
had an easier time to cope with violence experienced elsewhere, such as at school or even on
the streets by strangers.
Many children are living in a less supportive family environment and reported a few
different forms of violence at home. According to the child researchers, at least one-third of
children reported to them only negative feelings experienced at home (fear, sadness, and
stress), and the rest of the group explained both negative and positive (happiness, safety) at
home.
As explained in the Research Methods section (Chapter 3), I have collected essays
from children through the child researchers where they could explain their experiences with
child abuse. From the 148 essays collected about one third was written on some form of
violence at home. During individual interviews over three-forth of children reported abuse at
home. The reason for the significant difference between percentages is that in the essays
children were able to choose their topic (home or school experience), but in individual
interviews I asked about both their family and school situation. However, during individual
interviews I did not ask all children specifically about corporal punishment. During
workshops and informal conversations children agreed that physical punishment is commonly
used in all families, I suspect that in reality the number of children who suffer from some
form of maltreatment at home is even higher than the interviews reflect. I found that children
who experienced abuse at home usually felt more sad, desperate, and anxious.
Because this research is a qualitative, the aim is not to represent the whole population
with quantitative data, but to dig deeper and to discover more personal experiences and life
stories of some children who may or may not represent the entire population of the research
location. But despite the research being qualitative I still achieved to collect data from a
rather large amount of children (interviews with 66 children and essays from 148 children1)
therefore I decided to record some statistical information in an Excel spreadsheet regarding
abuse experiences based on the talks and essays by collecting the child respondents answers
regarding what forms of abuse they experienced and where they experienced it in a
spreadsheet. Even though this cannot qualify as quantitative research, this quantitative
representation of the findings still provides an idea of how important and relevant the
research questions are. In the following sections I will give estimates of how many children
experienced what form of abuse, and the exact statistical information calculated based on
interviews and essays can be found in Appendix III.
STORIES
Although there is not enough space in this thesis to include every single childs life
story I heard, I did consider every single interview, conversation, discussion, writing, and
drawing I came across in my analysis. But after hearing, reading, re-reading, and analyzing
my data I chose five children to describe their situation in detail in Chapters 4 and 5 as I
believe their cases highly represent the situation of other child participants regarding abuse at
home and/or at school. Additionally throughout Chapters 4, 5, and 6, I will also provide
1

Since there was an overlap between children who wrote essays and children who spoke during an interview, I
estimate that data was collected from about 100-110 children. Due to the anonymity of the essays it is difficult
to tell the exact number.

38

quotes from other children to represent the reality more authentically, to support my results,
and to use the real voices of children.
Here I present three stories of children that represent different forms of child abuse at
home that I will refer to throughout this chapter.
Story 1: Steve, 13, Nairobi
Steves case was brought to my attention by the depute head teacher of one of
the Nairobi primary schools. Steve came to school that morning after being severely
beaten by his father, having bruises and marks on his back, hands and head, open
wounds and cuts on his hand, and swollen fingers.
I got beaten by my father yesterday. Because in my book we had problems up
to 46. But I only done them up to 15. We only had to do the problems up to 15, but my
father didnt care at all and said I am lazy for not finishing it. When he saw this I was
actually studying and revising for exams. He didnt care, just started beating me. He
took a wood and beat me. , he explained. This was not the first time it happened. The
previous time was only three days before this incident for unclear reasons. He has
been experiencing beatings on a regular basis (at least once a week) by the father in
the past four years. When I am beaten I also get insulted. He calls me names.
Though the mother does not beat him, she does not protect him either, in fact verbally
insults him every day. When they insult me they say things like I am foolish and they
cant believe I was born as a first born.
They never listen to me and dont care. I have a brother who is 2 years old.
He never gets beaten. The only time I am happy at home when I am with my little
brother. [He has a two-year-old brother who is not abused by the parents.] But
otherwise I am only unhappy and afraid at home. Sometimes he is also denied food
as a form of punishment along with beatings and insults. I dont think my parents
love me. And I dont like them.
Steve is sad and disturbed about the situation. His physical health, emotional
well-being and education are being damaged. When I get beaten in the head and
back I cant sleep properly and I get bad headaches too. Being beaten is worst than
verbal insults. I also cannot focus on studies. Cannot revise, cannot think and cannot
concentrate. I dont think it will ever stop.
He believes that his case is extreme, not many children experience such
violence at home. He never feels safe at home. However, he feels secure at school
because of his friends and teachers. I am afraid. I just want to be in a safe place.
Taken away to a childrens home I think would help me, I would be somewhere safe.
Story 2 (part 1) 1: Jessica, 14, Nairobi
Jessica lives with her mother, sister and brother. The father is uninvolved since
the parents divorce. They divorced when I was little partially because my father was
also sexually harassing and doing things to me. I dont see my father.
Though Jessica is safe from the father, she is not safe from sexual harassment
by others. All her uncles often try to touch her or give her money while asking for
sexual favors. She rejects their offer but feels upset and offended about her situation.
Her mother shrugs off the situation saying, This is just their nature. Dont mind
them.
1

Jessicas story will continue in Chapter 5.

39

Men and boys on the street and boys in class harass her by making comments
of a sexual nature. Several older men have visited their house before to try to date or
marry her. Jessica is upset about the sexual harassment by men and boys, she ignores
and rejects them. Even though she has no interest in being involved with any men, her
mother still gets angry at her for it. When my mum sees me with a boy [even if he is a
friend or classmate] she starts saying that I have a spirit of prostitution and I feel like
running to a place where I will never be found, she shared during a workshop, then
later during an interview explained, My mother tells me that I am a prostitute and I
wont care about anything but men. She says bad things. It makes me feel bad. I cant
tell her how I feel, it is useless. I just take it. She harasses me other ways too. Like
tells me I am a burden and I should just leave.
Verbal harassment from her mother is daily and normal and it rarely happens that her
mother does not insult her in some way. Jessica is always sad around her mother. I
always tell myself I wont cry but I do end up crying a lot because of my mother how
she hurts me. She often feels like killing myself and sometimes felt like I was a
burden to this world especially to my mother. But she still tries hard to go on, I go
through things that I just try not to mind, I try not to think and go on. Lets say my
mom says bad things and makes it hard for me to concentrate, but I know I am not a
prostitute so I just try to move on. I also pray. And try to imagine that my life is better.
Also I have good friends I can talk to always.

Story 3: Christy, 16, Kwale

Christy is 16 years old and is in Class 8. Her father has two wives, and he
brought her to live with the other wife, not the real mother.
Christy looked sad and lonely during our interview and workshops. She feels
that the step-mother does not love her because she gives her a lot of work and so she
has no time to study after school. She [also] calls me abusive names. She tells me to
go to my real [biological] mother because she doesnt want to raise someone elses
child. The step-mother also often neglects Christys basic needs (e.g. denial of food).
Christy is very disturbed that her step-mother does not provide her with sanitary pads1
pads1 and therefore she has to use pieces of kangas2 or other clothes.
Christy usually feels lonely and hated by her step-mother, and has never felt
up to sharing her feelings with her father. I feel that if I was given more time [to
study, instead of working] I would get more marks and perform better in school.
Though she is motivated to learn, she feels that she will not achieve her goals in the
situation she is living in.
4.2 Physical Abuse by Adults at Home
My research findings show that physical violence is widespread in Kenyan families
both in Nairobi slums and in Kwale villages. In anonymous essays 48.3% of children choose
to describe a situation involving violence at home when asked to write about home or school
violence. Of these essays half of the children reported physical abuse within their families.3
1

During menstruation
Kangas are colorful pairs of fabric worn by women
3
In the essays children had a choice about the type of experience with abuse to describe. Therefore these
percentages only represent those children who chose to write about physical abuse at home. In reality it is
possible that a higher percentage of children suffered from the same.
2

40

In individual interviews one-third of children mentioned physical abuse. I did not ask most
children about corporal punishment specifically, as after many workshops and interviews I
had reached the point of data saturation early on. Of the children I asked during interviews,
workshops, and informal talks about corporal punishment, only two said they were never
being beaten at home. For this reason, I estimate that in reality at least 80 - 90% of the
children at my research location experience some form of physical violence at home, at least
as a form of punishment.
Results reported in this chapter are based on analyzing individual interviews, essays,
focus group discussions and informal conversations. While I was in the field I have already
grouped all interviews and essays based on different forms and locations of violence
described. In order to analyze my data, first I developed a code sheet using my research
question, units of analysis, and Operationalization. For example, when I looked at the forms
of violence experienced (code: forms of violence) I developed sub-codes, including beating,
hitting, caning, punching, cutting, pulling ears, burning, etc. I developed these sub-codes
based on childrens descriptions and words. Using my codes and sub-codes I highlighted
transcriptions of interviews, focus group discussions, and essays where these codes appeared.
Grouping them together gave me the ability to see the frequency and relevance of each form
of abuse, as well as feelings and consequences regarding these forms of abuse from which I
draw my interpretations and conclusions. For example when analyzing physical abuse at
home I found that beating was the most frequent form of abuse. I also found forms relevant I
have not considered before going on the field, such as beating a child with a hot burner. I
found that most children reacted to physical abuse by feeling unloved, always sad, and afraid.
Furthermore, during my analysis I also highlighted the most representative and powerful
quotes to use throughout the chapter. I analysed my data in a similar way for all results
presented in this chapter.
In most situations, children reported being beaten, hit or caned, and some described
being kicked, punched, cut or having their ears pulled by their parents. In many cases, beating
is done by an object, in more severe scenarios, by a hot heater, a metallic object or a knife
causing bleeding and injuries. A girl in Nairobi wrote in her essay:
It was one night I was cooking supper. When we were eating my step-mother started
to beat me with a knife and telling me that the food was not prepared and cut my hand in the
joint. When I was screaming for help she picked a metallic belt and hit me with it at the head
and I started bleeding and told me not to tell anyone cuz if I did she cut off my hands. I felt
very bad emotionally and physically.
These situations were described to me surprisingly often. Five children reported broken bones
due to beatings by a parent. Children are not only physically hurt after such incidents, but
also feel unsafe, unloved, afraid, and sad at home. They fear the incident will happen again.
My father beats us. I am afraid to tell about this to my relatives because my father would
quarrel or beat me that I am telling about these personal situations. (Marisha, 14, Nairobi)
They also consider themselves powerless to change their situation. Especially in the villages,
I found that children were not empowered to even think about how they feel about such
physical violence, let alone to talk to someone and seek help. If parents are asked by
childrens officers or teachers they would defend their actions saying that they only
disciplined their child.
Most children reported physical punishment by parents or caregivers for mistakes and
misbehavior, and even without understanding any reason behind it. Some children did say
that this physical punishment was light, structured, and not causing much pain. These
children knew why they were being punished. However, at least two-thirds of children were

41

not sure of the reason of punishment, explained cases where discipline goes beyond just a
small slap or light spanking causes a lot of pain, and in several cases takes place in such a
dangerous and uncontrolled manner as described above.
About half of the children said that they considered physical punishment as acceptable
because they learned from the Bible1 and from adults that this is the only way to raise and
discipline a child. But when going deeper into the issue and asking about particular
experiences, at least 80% of the children felt terrible about being caned, spanked or
physically punished in any other way. As described by a girl in Nairobi, She used to cane me
with a hooked cane. I felt so bad; you should not be disciplined so badly. [] she should not
treat me like a donkey. Children become confused with how they feel about physical
punishment. Joy, a fourteen-year-old girl from Nairobi, when asked about her opinion
corporal punishment (at home or at school) said, I think being beaten is necessary. Because
of spear the rod, spoil the child. I read it in the Bible and learned it. Without it you wont
learn and change behavior. It helps to be disciplined. When asked what she thought about
being beaten at home, she continuously defended her parents explaining it is the only way to
learn discipline. But when asked about her feelings, she contradicted herself by describing
anger, sadness and pain: she shivered and was fighting tears. During our conversation, even
without me asking about it, her bad feelings regarding physical punishment at home were
persistently coming up.
I dont like to be beaten. []The one thing I would change is that I dont want to be
beaten. Yes, I think it is necessary. But I dont like it. I hate being beaten. (shivers) I hate it. It
hurts. It makes me think my parents dont love me. It makes me hate my parents. I dont like
that. [...]When I am an adolescent I dont want to be beaten as much. It can hurt so much and
make me feel sad.
Most children feel emotionally and physically hurt when they are physically punished. But
they were taught that this is the way it has to be because it is written in the Bible and this is
how every other child is treated. Therefore, they are afraid to voice their feelings, thoughts
and opinions about their experiences with corporal punishment.
Often the physical punishment was experienced along with psychological violence,
such as insults or shouting, which makes children feel sad, angry, and lonely. Most children
described recurring beatings that prove that they did not learn their lesson, therefore
physical punishment did not work as a proper form of discipline, which only left emotional
and physical scars.
Whereas some forms of physical violence at home are experienced by most children,
only a few of those whom I interviewed reported extreme cases. As Steves case shows,
physical violence that goes far beyond punishment about which is severe physical abuse
occurring on a daily basis often leaves permanent physical injuries and emotional scars. In
these severe situations children feel lonely, cannot concentrate and perform in school, feel so
angry and hopeless that they desperately want to leave their families. Many of these cases are
not noticed or helped by adults in the area and children are often afraid to look for help. I
personally believe that in such cases immediate action is necessary and the child should be
taken out of the family situation as soon as possible and placed in a safe environment.

He who spares his rod hates his son, but he who loves him takes care to chastise him. (Proverb 13:24, New
American Bible)

42

4.3 Psychological Abuse by Adults at Home

Feeling loved, cared for and protected by parents or other caregivers is crucial for the
well-being of children I spoke with. Though many adults I encountered believed that to
provide or to give the best attempt to provide for the basic needs of children is enough and a
sign of good parenting, the voice of children and academic literature both support
additionally that showing respect, support, and love towards the child is just as important.
Children who experience verbal and emotional harm in the families are just as disturbed as
those who suffer physical forms of maltreatment.
According to the findings of this research, not only physical violence, but
psychological violence is also extensive in Nairobi slums and Kwale villages of Kenya often
present along with at least one other form of abuse. In the essays where children chose to
write about psychological abuse within their families, over one-third reported some form of
psychological abuse within their families.1 This corresponds with the fact that during
individual interviews almost one-third of children mentioned psychological violence at home.
Keeping in mind that perhaps some children did not want to share such experiences from
family members, in reality I suspect this number may be even higher.
The most common form of psychological abuse in these essays was shouting,
insulting and name-calling. Children are often being shouted at for not finishing their house
chores, homework or misbehaving, and even for no apparent reason. Insults are often
frequent and happening daily. Insults can be harsh and un-called for leaving children feeling
unloved.
Like Jessica, many girls are being called prostitutes by their mothers or step-mothers.
The reason for these offenses is usually the fear from the parent that the daughter will get
pregnant, married, drop out of school, and fail to make a good future. These insult,
however, do not stop girls from engaging in emotional and sexual relationships with boys.
Instead, girls feel upset that their parents do not trust their judgment regarding boys.
Contradictory to reasoning behind the insults, as a way of rebellion, some girls do start a
relationship with boys thinking I was insulted for chasing boys for no reason and now I will
give my parents a reason. Girls are not alone with this problem. Parents also fear that boys
would impregnate a girl, focus too much on girls and drop out of school. Simon, a 13-yearold from Nairobi, heard so much about HIV/AIDS that he asked his mother to take him to a
test. Instead of being praised for being responsible, as he hoped to be, or knowledgeable
about HIV/AIDS, his mother accused him of having sex and yelled at him for engaging in
sexual activities at such an early age. Simon said he felt very bad for not being trusted. He
explained that when being blamed falsely or insulted by his mother, I feel like I was not to
exist in this world. This is something that many children feel after psychological abuse at
home.
Having relationships with members of the opposite sex or dropping out of school is
not the only area that parents try to control in the life of their children. Parents are also often
trying to control their friendships. My aunt started telling me that I am stealing the girls
boyfriend [falsely] and I should not be friends with her. I had to break the relationship with
this girl. My aunt often tells me who to be friends with and controls my friendships.
Sometimes I listen but sometimes I just ignore her that she should not tell who to be friends
with. (Vicky, 14, Nairobi) Again, children feel upset for not being trusted and being forced
1

In the essays children had a choice on what type of experience with abuse to describe. Therefore these
percentages only represent those children who chose to write about psychological abuse at home. In reality it is
possible that a higher percentage of children suffered from the same.

43

to break a friendship. Often they go behind their parents back and still keep in touch with the
friend they were advised to break with. Since these friendships go on in secret, the parent has
no control anymore to supervise and protect the child from bad influence; therefore the child
has a higher risk of getting into trouble.
Insulting a girl for talking to or being chased by boys, or insulting a boy for
hanging around girls, or any child being told to break a friendship happens more frequently
in Nairobi than on the Coastal villages. In Kwale, children are often so neglected by their
parents (as I will explain in Section 4.5) that step-parents do not even take time to insult their
children. In the villages parents also often promote and force early marriages on children and
therefore mingling with an older boy can be viewed as positive and provide hope for
marriage of the child and money for the family. On the other hand, being insulted for small
mistakes happens equally frequently in the Nairobi slums and in the Kwale villages. Harsh
abuses, when children are being accused of being burden to their families also commonly
happen in both Nairobi and Kwale.
According to children, when insulted, yelled at or when suffering from other
psychological abuse at home, they often feel lonely and unloved. In many cases they have a
reason to feel this way because they were actually told that they are unwanted. When my
mother gets angry at me she yells at me. She also tells me that I wish you were never born
and I am a burden on her life. It makes me feel really bad and angry. (Jen, 14, Nairobi)
Many children are being told that they are a burden to their family. This especially happens in
the poorest families, where parents wish they did not have children and feel they would have
an easier time without their children. As Christys (Story 3) example shows, this especially
holds true in case of step-parents, grandparents and other guardians. For example, Dave (14,
Nairobi) was placed with his grandmother after his mothers death (the father is uninvolved
since birth). Though the grandmother provided for his basic needs if she is annoyed she
insults me, even tells me to follow my mother to the grave. This makes me very sad, so bad
that I even rather sleep on the street than at home. Telling a child that he is unwanted,
should never have been born or should die, not only makes children feel unwanted, but also
puts them at the risk of running away.
Some parents react to poverty in a different way however. They believe that their
child is their only hope and only way out of poverty, and therefore they push their children
too hard and insult or punish them for any mistake or possible mistake. 1Either way, children
feel guilty and responsible for their families problems. They put tremendous pressure on
themselves to succeed and change their life-situation. When experiencing failures along with
insults at home, they become desperate, sad and sometimes wish they were not born.
Children who experience psychological abuse at home reported low self-esteem. Most
of them are shy, emotional, sad, and often have struggles to motivate themselves in school.
They are craving parental love, and appreciate any small amount of affection received by
family members or others.
4.4 Sexual Abuse by Adults at Home
Only about one-seventh of girls in Nairobi, no boys in Nairobi, and no children in
Kwale described sexual violence experienced at home from those who chose to write about
home violence. I predict the actual number of sexually abused children in their homes is
higher than this but children were not comfortable to share due to sexual abuse stigma which
children and adults described to me. Generally sexual abuse is a taboo subject, especially at
the villages it is something that children and adults do not talk about. Most teachers I spoke to
1

I will discuss the topic of parental pressure and parental hope towards their children further in Chapter 6.

44

denied its existence or relevance. Sexual abuse at home is a subject that is especially hidden.
Therefore children have difficulty opening up about this type of abuse.
Furthermore, in villages, the idea that boys could be sexually violated is unthinkable.
In Kwale, when asked, children categorically replied boys cannot be raped, whereas in
Nairobi children frequently talked about boys being touched or sodomized by adults. Still,
children had an easier time opening up about sexual abuse by peers or strangers than by
family members.
The day was the saddest day of our lives. Me and my friend. [] [My best friend]
lived with her father and her mother died long ago. Her father was a very angry man. Every
time you see him he looked like someone who can beat you so badly. So on Saturday her
father came home when he was drunk. It was 12 am and he told my friend to lie down and my
friend refused to lie down. Her father forced her and raped her and the girl became pregnant.
So the father regret that day and sent her away so the girl became a prostitute. (essay by a
girl, Nairobi)
The few girls who chose to write about sexual violence at home in their essays, all
told a story that happened to a friend. Considering the close details of these paragraphs it is
possible that it was actually their own experience but they felt more comfortable sharing it
written from a third persons point of view.
During focus group discussions, children were more open to discuss the subject of
sexual abuse within their families, I suspect this was because they were stating their opinions,
and speaking from a third persons point of view rather than sharing their personal
experiences. During these discussions, children talked more about sexual harassment or rape
by uncles or older cousins than by fathers. Possibly because it is more difficult to admit that
such a close family member as a father would rape his child. Children in Kwale explained
that if rape happens within the family that the abuse would be kept in the family, remain
unspoken of, unsolved and often ongoing, because making the issue public would bring
shame on the family.
During personal interviews, only three girls from Nairobi were willing to open up
about sexual abuse within the family. In one case a girl explained how she used to be sexually
harassed and improperly touched by her uncle whom she was living with. She shared her
story because it was a past situation only because she was taken away by another relative.
Another girl, Jessica (Story 2 above) who shared past sexual abuse by the father, and ongoing unwanted touching by her uncles and she is very embarrassed about this. As her case
shows, many mothers advise their daughters to keep quiet, tolerate or not mind the
situation. The mothers often went through the same, accept it as normal, or as something that
a girl must tolerate instead of empowering their daughters, they often teach them to endure
the situation. Lastly, Megan, shared a rape experience by her uncle. This was a past
experience from the time when she was three years old and has not been repeated since
according to Megans explanation. She, however, expressed being terrified from the uncle
who still visits their house and beats her mother. She is also still afraid that the rape would
happen again. Megan described not only emotional scars but the fact that she also contracted
an STD by this rape experience that was untreated for a long time. She feels embarrassed
about some of the symptoms rashes on her skin , and is afraid she will never have children
or a family because of her rape experience. Even though the rape happened when she was a
small child, she still often thinks about it and experiences nightmares,
I am afraid alone and afraid at night. I have bad dreams. About the rape. Very very
bad dreams. I cry and I cant sleep. I read the Bible then. Sometimes it helps but sometimes it

45

cant make me calm. I dont tell anyone about the bad dreams. I told my teacher and you but
I never tell anyone what they are about. They are bad. Makes me sad. And afraid.
Even these few cases show that sexual abuse within the family has harmful
consequences, including shame, sadness, low self-esteem and nightmares. It can drive girls to
contract an STD, become pregnant, to engage in further promiscuous sex, or to turn to
prostitution. Considering that sexual violence within families is a taboo subject and children
are discouraged to talk about it or turn to help, I predict that many children are living with the
secret of an experience of sexual violence, develop all forms of emotional and physical
problems but are unable to explain the reasons for these issues to others. This can cause
loneliness and can also lead to the acceptance that sexual abuse is normal.
4.5 Physical and Emotional Neglect by Adults at Home
Similarly to psychological abuse, both emotional and physical neglect leaves children
feeling unloved and unwanted and consequently sad and disturbed. In the essays where
children wrote about home violence, over two-fifths described physical neglect (e. g.: denial
of food, clothes, being locked out of the house, etc) and one-fifth described emotional neglect
(being ignored, not receiving love) at home.1 In Nairobi, girls were more concerned about
emotional neglect whereas boys felt worst about physical neglect. In Kwale, both sexes
showed more concern about physical neglect and boys were more likely to choose to write
about neglect than girls. From the children whom I interviewed individually, over half of
Nairobi and 100% of Kwale children were neglected. Most or all children I encountered goes
through physical neglect at some level due to the poverty level they live under.
Many children I came across throughout this research are experiencing physical
neglect in part due to poverty as parents were unable to provide proper clothes or food every
day. At times emotional neglect also happens as a consequence of poverty, when parents are
so overwhelmed trying to meet living expenses that they have no time or energy to show love
and care for their children. When parents want to provide for basic needs, but cannot I
consider it as an un-intentional form of neglect. It is still a serious problem for children. Not
only because they feel physical pain, including hunger (At home I am denied food and
clothing. When I lack food and clothing I feel very bad, explains a boy in Kwale), but
because they do understand what they do not have. They watch television and also look
around and see the big mansions right next door to their slums. Coming from the slums to a
school next to beautiful houses makes me feel useless, like I am nothing [] the big houses
and inequality makes me feel bad. (Joy, 14, Nairobi2) Even in the slums, some children live
under slightly better circumstances, for example those who do not have to work every day or
those who can afford food on a daily basis. Being in such unequal situation, and not meeting
basic needs let alone bigger dreams and desires in life often puts children in a hopeless
situation. But at least when neglect is un-intentional, they know that their parents are at
least trying and hoping to meet their needs and provide them with a better future.
On the other hand, Christys (Story 3) case shows that neglect not only happens due to
poverty but also because of uncaring parents or a lack of love from parents or other
caregivers. Like Christy who is often denied food, some children are being denied a meal just
as a form of punishment when not finishing work, misbehaving or without reason at all.
1

In the essays children had a choice o what type of experience with abuse to describe. Therefore these
percentages only represent those children who chose to write about neglect at home. In reality it is possible that
a higher percentage of children suffered from the same.
2
the primary school she goes to is a school for poor children from slums, but is located in one of the richest
areas just a few kilometres away from several slums

46

Many are being overworked and are lacking sleep. As Christy explains, not being provided
sanitary pads is a tremendous problem for girls. They are forced to use pieces of clothes
instead of pads which makes them feel uncomfortable and ashamed to an extent that they fear
to leave the house. This practice is also unsanitary and hence puts girls into a higher risk of
receiving an infection. Many mothers and step-mothers argue that pads are not only
expensive but are unnecessary because they have been using pieces of clothes in their entire
lives, and do not see a reason for their girls to do otherwise. This problem is more prominent
in the villages as women are less empowered to even think about changing their situation.
Furthermore, child labor and ignoring a childs right for education can also be viewed
as a form of neglect, a neglect of rights and desires of a child. Again, this is more prevalent in
Kwale villages since most adults there do not value or understand the value of education and
believe that putting a child to work is more beneficial than letting them learn. Conversely, in
Nairobi, I found that most parents did value education and in the case that they allow their
children to attend school was the sole result of poverty distressing both children and parents.
Just like physical - and psychological abuse, neglect is often done by a step-parent,
aunt or other guardian that is not a biological parent. But in cases when at least one biological
parent is present not protecting the child from neglect or other harm done by a step-parent,
aunt, uncle or other relative, children feel even more sad. A boy in Nairobi told me that one
day he came from school late, was not given supper, instead his father forced him to wash the
dishes, shouted at the boy, beat him and sent him to spend the night outside without food. The
next day he decided to tell his mother (who was not present during the incident) and she
ignored him. He felt angry, disappointed and felt like running away. I felt that even my mom
betrayed me. They hurt me emotionally and physically and it is against the law. I heard
similar stories over and over: children being chased away or locked out of the house, denied
food, and being emotionally ignored by one or both parents. Some children are being told that
their parents or guardians do not love them. The effects I observed were the same: anger,
sadness, disappointment, loneliness, and the urge to run away.
Neglected children whose physical and emotional needs are not met feel disappointed,
sad and isolated. They usually have more problems in school, since they are overworked,
overtired, or hungry. Neglected children feel lonely and believe that they can only count on
themselves.
4.6 Different forms of Abuse by Siblings and Step-siblings at Home
In the previous sections I described violence at home done by parents. But in some
cases abuse occurs also by siblings and step-siblings. In this research I was more interested in
violence by adults in the family and rarely asked specifically about incidents between
siblings. But some children have shared such situations; therefore I will dedicate this short
section to describe violence between siblings and step-siblings.
I dont like when my sisters are fighting at home. They always fight and pick on each
other. And me. Sometimes they fight physically but mostly they just call each other names,
yell and say bad things. I am afraid to tell them to stop Sometimes I get beaten by my sisters.
I dont fight back just take it. (Molly, 13, Nairobi)
Siblings often insult each other verbally or engage in physical fights, which can
sometimes become so bothersome to children that they feel sad, unsafe at home and often
cannot concentrate on their studies. Girl siblings regularly engage in verbal abuse, insults,
name-calling, and experience jealousy between each other. Boys describe physical abuse,
such as beating and hitting. One boy described that his older brother has been bringing girls

47

home and engaging in sexual activities in front of him which makes him feel ashamed and
embarrassed. Older siblings and step-siblings often make children work. Step-siblings also
often insult and discriminate against children who are not their real sibling. Usually this
happens due to a learned behavior copied from step-parents or care-givers in the case of
orphans.
In most cases children looked at violence between sibling as normal. Siblings have
arguments and fights. It is normal. You cant always agree with your brother [or sister].
Sometimes you get annoyed. (boy, 15, Kwale) But there are times (e.g. Mollys case) when
children feel so disturbed or sad about the situation that they are always sad, find it difficult
to concentrate on school work, or even afraid to go home. However, I found that abuse by
parents or guardians was much more distressing than abuse by siblings.
4.8 Conclusions
This chapter reveals that children at my research location desperately want safety and
love at home, but many do not receive it. These children come from complicated family
situations (divorced families are common; many children live with step-parents, aunts,
uncles, other extended family, or other guardians), and they experience high level of poverty,
hunger, malnourishment, often health problems, and in most cases some form of child labor.
Moreover, most of my research participants have reported some generic form of abuse
experienced within their families.
With a very few exceptions, all children experience physical abuse at home. In most
cases this abuse is labeled as physical or corporal punishment. Children are confused
regarding their feelings and opinion on physical punishment. They argue that it is a necessary
form of discipline because it is written in the Bible, but at the same time show extreme
sadness talking about their personal experiences with corporal punishment while detailing
physical pain, sadness, feeling unloved, and angry. In some cases physical abuse clearly goes
beyond punishment but is a consistent extreme form leading to physical marks, broken
bones, and other injuries making children feel even more hopeless.
Psychological abuse is often present along with physical abuse but also as a standalone form of violence. Children get shouted at and insulted by parents for no reason and
simply out of parental frustration. Children are not being trusted and their friendships are
being controlled. Psychological abuse leads to sad children who are missing love and support
from their lives.
Sexual abuse is a taboo subject, and especially when it happens within a family
environment it remains hidden and not talked about. Based on a handful of stories, this
research holds evidence that even if children and parents do not talk about it sexual abuse
within families still exists creating shame, low-self-esteem, and unhappiness in child victims.
Moreover, almost all children I have talked to experience some form of neglect from
being denied their basic rights (food, shelter, clothing), denied their right for education, or
denied love and support. These children feel alone because they have to be the ones who take
care of their own needs. They are under risk of dropping out of school, and running away (if
they have not already done so) due to desperation.
According to Article 27 of the CRC, parents or guardians must ensure the physical,
mental, spiritual, moral and social development of their child (1989). This right is being
denied to children who are experiencing abuse within their families, and instead leaves sad,
confused, lonely, and desperate children. This research adds to prior research by showing that
child abuse is a wide-spread problem, and a complex issue in the poorest areas of Kenya.

48

Remarks and Recommendations Based on Conclusions

When children are growing up in an unsafe, insecure, unsupportive, and unloving
family environment, they are often unable to concentrate in school, may not develop social
skills needed for life, and likely carry their unhappiness and desperation into adulthood.
Because this is such a prevalent problem in Kenyan slums and rural areas it calls for
immediate action. Parents must be educated on the rights of their children, taught positive
parenting skills, and encouraged to listen to their children. Since children feel physical and
emotional pain from the experience of physical punishment, and because harsh physical
abuse is being excused for being punishment, corporal punishment within families should
be banned by law and eliminated in action1. Therefore parents should be taught on to use
other forms of discipline without physical means and without harming their childrens health.
Children must be educated about their rights (especially in rural village areas), and
encouraged to speak up and seek help. Most importantly, children must always be treated
with respect and dignity, must be listened to, and must be involved in any process or action
related to them within their families.

Corporal punishment in Kenya is only prohibited by law in school, but is legal at home. (Global Initiative to
End All Corporal Punishment, 2007) It is also difficult to monitor corporal punishment and other forms of
maltreatment at home.

49

Chapter 5: Violence against Children at Schools

5.1 School Situation
After understanding childrens life and experiences with child abuse at home, I will
discuss the violence they experience at school in this chapter. Before going into details on
maltreatment, first I will explain their general situation at school as I observed it.
In Kenya primary school1 runs for eight years and children should be enrolled
approximately between age 6 and 14. Judging by the children I met and the explanation of
teachers I talked to, in reality this is not the case, because children join school late, repeat
classes, or attend school irregularly. In Kwale, it is more difficult for children to attend and
finish school at the proper time, proven by how the average age of participants 2 was higher
there. According to teachers I interviewed, drop-out rates are also higher in Kwale and
already evidence in Class 4.
Children spend an extensive amount of time in school, attending classes from around
7:30 to 4:30 pm. Children in higher classes attend after-school classes until as late as 7 pm.
Being in school for ten hours a day indicates to me that children are able to learn an excessive
amount. But I found that the learning environment is less than ideal. The schools are not wellequipped. Teachers complained a great deal about this problem and children mentioned it on
occasions as well. Children often do not have text books, either because they cannot afford
them or because they get stolen by a classmate or a parent3,which as children explained
makes learning difficult and causes general irritation among them. Teachers are generally
frustrated with their situation and claim that they are under-paid, over-worked, and undereducated. There is a shortage of approximately 60,000 teachers in Kenya, and at some
schools, especially in villages parents have to hire so called PTA teachers4 who normally
do not hold teaching certifications. Due to this teacher shortage, classrooms are overcrowded, holding anywhere from 60 to 100 children. On the top of this many children cannot
even afford education.
Despite the fact that the government has gone milestones of bringing children into
school by providing free primary education and bringing more children to school as result,
my findings led me to believe that there are other challenges to overcome: like making
education actually free. Public primary schools are not free according to children and
teachers I spoke to. Students are reminded, sometimes on a daily basis, to pay for lunch,
school-fees, uniforms (including shoes) and other necessities.
The World Food Programme (WFP) provides free lunch to most public primary
schools in poor areas. But as I learned from head teachers the schools are supposed to pay for
firewood and cooks. These expenses are paid by parents 5. There is a missing link between the
intentions of WFP and the practice of the free lunch at schools. I believe that it is not enough
to provide free food when there is nobody to prepare it because in the end, children who are
1

This research was conducted at four primary schools in Nairobi slums and three primary schools in Kwale
villages. All schools are public and they are sponsored by PLAN Kenya. All school are receiving some form of
help from PLAN Kenya, either by painting the school, developing programs or sponsoring individual children.
2
Research participants both in Nairobi and Kwale were from Class 7 and Class 8, but their ages were rather
different. In Nairobi, the average age of child researchers was 13, whereas in Kwale it was 15. The oldest child I
met in Nairobi was 15, whereas in Kwale the oldest was 18. In Kwale most children in Class 7 and Class 8
should be in secondary school based on their age.
3
Parents, relatives and other adults often steal childrens books in order to sell them.
4
PTA (Parents-Teachers Association) teachers are not certified teachers, but parents or community members
who are being paid by parents and the PTA a minimal amount of salary.
5
Prices of lunch vary by school and even class, and run between 3 and 6 Kenyan Schilling (KSH) per day. This
is about 3 to 6 Euro Cents.

50

in need of free lunch the most are the ones who cannot afford to get it and go hungry. At
some schools I visited the administration is lenient and allows children with the most need to
receive the lunch for free. More than half of the schools, however, do not bother to pay
attention to the circumstances of the children, and insist on the payment. Some teachers
exploit children by asking for more money than necessary. Based on what teachers and
children told me I speculate that teachers are keeping some of the lunch fee in their pockets.
Children explained that hunger and the lack of lunch can lead to severe consequences:
children become malnourished and ill, they cannot concentrate in class, they drop out because
they need to find food in other ways, or as in Kwale, they go home to eat and miss important
classes that makes us sad to miss the opportunity to learn (child researchers, Kwale).
In case parents could afford lunch and these school fees, the issue of uniforms still
remains. NO government law exists that requires children to wear uniforms, and uniforms are
expensive1 for families to afford. Yet, I found schools and teachers are still very strict and
require a proper uniform for their school. They go as far as verbally insulting, caning, or
sending them home for not having proper uniforms. During this research I have not observed
a single child in different clothes or uniforms than what was enforced by each school.
However, I saw many children wearing a uniform that was torn, too small (still from previous
years) or too large (donated by a relative). Most children reported that their shoes were too
small, hurting their toes and are worn-out with holes on them. Some children I met switched
schools because a relative gave them a uniform of a different color than their institution.
Other children dropped out because of lacking a uniform. Children are trained to value the
importance of interruption of education according to my interviews with children. I will
examine these generic forms of violence in schools in the next sections.
Violence in Schools
Schools are intended to be an institution which not only providing a place to learn but
which provide a place to feel safe, especially for those children who experience violence at
home (and possible on the streets). Ideally, teachers should not only be teaching academics
but be there as a support system for the children, and teach them to respect each other.
At my research locations this was not truly the case. About half of the children I
encountered reported mostly negative feelings, including fear, nervousness, and sadness at
school. The most prominent reasons for these negative emotions are insults, punishment,
beating, fighting, stealing, being disturbed by peers when studying and peer pressure
according to child researchers based on what they learned from children whom they talked to.
In anonymous essays when children were asked to explain one particular experience
with violence at home or at school, about one-eighth of children chose to write about some
form of abuse by a teacher, and three-fifths of children wrote about some form of abuse by a
peer. These fractions are on the lower end of the scale and only reflecting what children
decided to write about. In individual interviews a quarter of children mentioned an experience
with abuse by a teacher, and two-fifths mentioned an abuse by a schoolmate. In focus group
discussions children talked about all forms of violence at school in a way that it seemed to me
that almost all children experience some form of abuse by someone at school. Most children
seemed to be more distressed about violence by peers and since they are so eager to learn,
they are more willing to tolerate maltreatment by teachers. From peers all they want is
friendship. They become distressed when receiving the opposite.

It costs approximately 500 KSH for a uniform, and 500 KSH for proper shoes, or about 1000 KSH (10 Euros)
in total

51

In the following sections I will give estimates on how many child participants
experienced which forms of abuse by teachers or peers in order to provide a quantitative
representation of my findings. More detailed statistical information can be found in Appendix
III.
STORIES
Here I illustrate three stories of children who represent examples of different forms of
child abuse at school which I will refer to throughout this chapter. Additionally I will use
quotes throughout the chapter from other children to allow better insight into the situation by
using childrens authentic words.
Story 4: Holly, 14, Nairobi
Holly is hard-working, serious, and very motivated about her education. But physical
abuse by her teachers, and physical - and psychological abuse by her peers makes her
feel often unhappy in school.
I came to school early so I wont be late. My teacher came and told the person who
was writing pupils to only write the pupils who are in class. She counted 30 pupils. I
told the one who was writing not to forget to write me. Later the day the teacher said
I call your name stand up and if I dont it means you were late. I was not called I
told her I came to early she said I dont want to know and I was beaten.
I felt really bad because I really came early. Teachers should be fair and do justice.
Holly says this happens frequently that teachers treat the children unfairly and beat
them. She gets caned if she does not understand a problem right away, or makes a
mistake in an assignment. She feels she cannot do anything about this and feels sad.
At school children also treat Holly badly. Sometimes other children [verbally]
abuse me. I just tell them things back to leave me alone. I try to just keep to myself,
deal with it quickly, move on, move for myself. She also feels that children betray
her often, therefore she tries not have close friends in order to to avoid getting hurt.
She sad and upset about her situation. To cope with things sometimes I cry. Crying
helps. But she tries to cope by ignoring the problems. But then I just try not to
mind. And move on. You just have to cope and care for yourself.
Story 2 (part2): Jessica, 14, Nairobi
In Chapter 4 I explained how Jessica goes through psychological abuse by her
mother, experienced sexual abuse by her father, and is experiencing sexual violence
by classmates, and boys and men on the streets. During our interviews Jessica also
explained physical and psychological abuse by her teachers.
I am saddest at school when I am beaten. She and her classmates
experience physical punishment by teachers when they are late for class, have
incomplete homework or look bored. She has problems especially with one teacher
who is picking on her since the beginning of the year.
She [my class teacher] was new after class 7 and from the first day on she hated
me. She picked on me, she told me why am I here and I am a bad girl. She says bad
things to me for no reason and canes me for nothing. She favors others and doesnt

52

like me. It is difficult to concentrate, understand and study when she is so

discouraging and the way she looks at me. She caned me for no reason today. I even
cried even I try not to.
Jessica told me that she always tries to hold back her tears, but ends up crying most
days, either because of her teachers, her mother or the boys harassing her.
Story 5: Megan, 10, Nairobi
In Chapter 4 Section 4.4 I already explained that Megan was raped by her uncle. She
contracted an STD that was not treated for a long time1 she has rashes all over her
skin. It is not only that the rashes are itching and make her feel uncomfortable, but
children in school, especially boys, psychologically and physically abuse her for it.
Children throw stones at me. They say I have HIV. I dont, the doctor checked. But
they still say. Some kids make fun of me. They say I have HIV. They say I am not a
child anymore but a prostitute. But I am a child. I want to be a child.
Megan desperately wants to be loved, cared for and treated nicely. She is so
thankful to anyone who says even one kind word to her (she said thank you over
and over during and after our interviews and was so happy someone listened to her).
She is overly appreciative of her teachers who care to take her to a doctor and who
ask how she is doing. She did not experience such nice treatment from teachers at her
other school, instead she experienced beatings and sexual harassment. A teacher
tried to rape me in Class 2. But I said no and ran away. It was at another school. I
told my mother and she took me to this school. I feel safe here.
Experiencing so many forms of abuse by different individuals2 puts Megan
into a desperate and lonely situation thinking I am the only one going through this
and nobody else.
5.2 Physical Abuse by Teachers at School
Of the essays where children chose to write about abuse by a teacher, almost threefifth of children reported physical abuse, in most cases in the form of caning or beating. 3 In
individual interviews I did not specifically asked all children about corporal punishment, as I
reached data saturation after about a quarter of the interviews. But in one fifth of interviews I
did raise the question to all children who reported experience with corporal punishment.
During focus group discussions, children agreed that physical punishment is frequent, and
happens to everyone at least sometimes.
Results presented throughout this chapter are based on the analysis of individual
interviews, essays, focus group discussions and informal talks with a large number of
children as well as some teachers. When analyzing my data regarding abuse at schools I used
the same technique which I described in Chapter 4 Section 4.2. After already grouping the
interviews and essays in the field by content I developed a code sheet. For example, to
1

Few weeks before the interview a teacher took Megan to the hospital and started paying for medication from
her own pocket.
2
She used to be physically punished by her mother. Though the beatings stopped after a teacher spoke to the
mother, psychological abuse (insults, yelling) and neglect (not providing medication for anSTD, making Megan
cook supper at all times, not showing love) is still ongoing.
3
In the essays children had a choice on what type of experience with abuse to describe. Therefore, these
percentages only represent those children who chose to write about physical abuse by teacher. In reality it is
possible that a higher percentage of children suffered from the same.

53

analyze the situation of corporal punishment at schools I developed codes, including

experience, reasons, method, level, feelings, and attitudes. Within these codes I
developed sub-codes (e. g. in the case of code feelings: sad, happy, indifferent, angry, etc),
based on the words children used. Then using these codes and sub-codes I highlighted
information in the transcribed interviews, discussions, and essays to guide me in organizing
the information and drawing my interpretations and conclusions. Furthermore I highlighted
quotes from children whom I believe can illustrate relevant abuse situations in a powerful
manner and which represent the majority of children in order to support my findings.
Even though corporal punishment is banned by law, children at each school still
reported physical punishment on a regular basis by teachers. 1 As Holly explains (Story 4),
teachers are intolerant with children on when they dont understand an assignment right away
or make mistakes. Instead of practicing patience and giving further explanation, they
immediately reach for physical measures. Today our entire class was caned. We failed an
exam. Even the best pupils did bad. So we all got caned and beaten. I felt bad. I dont like
being caned. As Agatha (13), one of the child researchers in Nairobi shared that it often
happens that an entire class is being caned. Children get caned for being late for school, not
having the proper uniform, not paying attention, but sometimes even for no apparent reason.
Hollys case is typical that a child is punished for a false reason. Just like in the home
environment, physical punishment at school often goes along with psychological violence,
which gives the child a feeling of humiliation and sadness along with the physical pain. As
Jessicas story shows, teachers often practice favoritism, meaning that in each class there are
children who get punished much more and children who get punished much less than others.
Children often dont know why one child is being favoritized or picked on by teachers over
others.
Opinions on corporal punishments are mixed. This practice has been going on for a
long time. Even though it is banned, teachers find it difficult or wrong to change. I am for it.
I believe in the Bible. Spare the rod, spoil the child. (Annie, Nairobi) I only met one teacher
who proudly declared that she is against physical punishment, If they grow up being beaten,
they get used to physical pain and grow up in hatred. (Mrs. Rosanne, Nairobi) and therefore
she does not beat even her own children. Most teachers said that they are trying to change this
practice but it is difficult because caning seems necessary when a child is very disruptive.
Sometimes spanking is quicker than explaining or other ways of discipline. (Mrs. Tammy,
Nairobi) On the other hand, several teachers, especially in Kwale, argued endlessly about the
necessity of corporal punishment, Caning is a way of correction. Otherwise children get out
of hand. They think they can do whatever they want. (Head teacher, Nairobi) and openly
admitted practicing it.
Alternatives practiced by teachers are not better. Children are often being sent home
or have to clean the school ground as a punishment. Whereas in theory this could teach
children discipline, in practice it often interrupts their studies and endangers their health.
Students are often enforced to clean the grounds during class hours, which results in missing
important materials, having a difficult time catching up, doing poorly on exams, and feeling
distressed. [The teacher] on duty told me I was late but in the real I was on time. I felt very
bad about this. He told me to go clean the toilets. The toilets were messed up and I did not
have shoes on so I had to get in without shoes., wrote a boy in Kwale, explaining a method
of punishment that may put children in the risk of catching diseases.
Furthermore, all forms of punishments currently practiced in schools leave children
with emotional scars. Children report anger, sadness, frustration and shame when explaining
1

A situation of corporal punishment was presented by Kwale child researcher in a role playing activity. Pictures
from this activity are found in Appendix V.

54

their experiences with physical abuse by teachers. They are more willing to state these
feelings than they are to state their feelings about parental physical punishment, possibly
because they know that it has been banned by law. Most children say that corporal
punishment is necessary in some harsh cases of misbehavior, because it teaches discipline
according to the Bible, but when asked about what is acceptable as physical punishment
children agree that it should not be more than one or two strokes of light caning, and should
never cause significant pain, visible marks or injuries.
But even though children suffer from negative effects of physical abuse by teachers,
education is so important to them, that they rather tolerate any form of maltreatment from
teachers than losing the chance to learn. Therefore, I argue that since children greatly value
their education, and are eager to learn that they deserve the opportunity to study in a safe
learning environment without experiencing acts of violence by teachers.
5.3 Psychological Abuse by Teachers at School
Psychological violence, such as shouting, name-calling and insults by teachers happen
on a daily basis in school. They often happen along with physical violence: children are not
only being beaten for not having their homework done, but being yelled at and called
stupid. In the essays on violence by a teacher nearly half of the children wrote about
psychological abuse by a teacher.1 In individual interviews far less children (less than onetenth) were concerned with the same.
Like Jessica, some children are being picked on, being yelled at, called names,
insulted and discouraged for no reason. These children feel discriminated against seeing that
their classmates are treated better. Just like with physical abuse, psychological abuse also
may happen for not understanding a problem, not finishing an assignment, being late for
school, being loud in class, or for no reason at all. An entire class can be shouted at or
insulted for a mistake of one child or simply because of a teachers personal frustration.
Since the official instruction at Kenyan schools is English, most schools are strictly
enforcing children to speak English. Many go to such an extent that they enforce children
speaking English even during break times. One day my teacher called me and told me I had
done something wrong. I asked him what. He said I used Swahili instead of English in the
school compound. He yelled at me and gave me punishment to work in the school compound.
I felt very helpless and sad. At one particular school in Kwale, teachers go to such an extent
enforcing this rule that they insult and scream at children and punish them for speaking
Kiswahili. Especially in Kwale, children are used to speaking Kiswahili outside of school as
most people, including their family members and even non-school-going friends, do not
speak English. These children may not even notice when they use Kiswahili between each
other during play time. Children believe that being maltreated just for using Kiswahili or their
mother tongue2, especially outside of class is unfair and unnecessary.
Other common reasons for insults from teachers are not having a proper uniform,
shoes, or books. Not having a proper uniform or books is normally not the childs fault but is
caused by poverty in the family. For example, Jacinta (13, Nairobi) does not have a book-bag
and carries her books in a paper bag. Even though it is not obligatory to have a proper bag,
her teacher frequently insults her for it insisting that a book-bag is necessary. One time she
threw my books on the floor, torn the paper bag apart yelling paper bags are inappropriate. I
1

In the essays children had a choice on what type of experience with abuse to describe. Therefore these
percentages only represent those children who chose to write about psychological abuse by a teacher. In reality
it is possible that a higher percentage of children suffered from the same.
2
In Kwale, Kiswahili is not the first language of many children. They use their tribal language at home.

55

felt very sad that time. I felt humiliated. She knows that since she cannot afford a bag1, the
situation will go on as long as she is in school.
Since school is the second home for most children, they crave love and support. No
matter what the reason is, psychological abuse leads to emotional harm in children. It creates
unhappiness, frustration, anger, and feelings of discouragement, a lack of motivation, and
even a fear to come to school.
5.4 Sexual Abuse by Teachers at School
As I discussed in Chapter 4, sexual violence is a taboo subject, and people know it
exists but do not talk about it. In general discussions and informal conversations people admit
that sexual abuse by teachers does exist and yet, all teachers I spoke to denied that it happens
at their school. During the research process only four children openly reported sexual
violence by teachers. Two cases of sexual violence by a teacher which I learned about were
among the anonymous essays: one from Nairobi, one from Kwale, and both from girls. A girl
in Kwale wrote,
One of the teachers calls me in the office. He asks me seductive questions, gives me
goodies, money and good food. He adds extra marks on my exams. He asks me Has anyone
ever penetrated things into your vagina? He started demanding sex but I refused. He turned
hostile to me,
Only one girl spoke about a similar experience during an individual interview My teacher
also said that he would pay my fee for the exam if I go to his house and (Joyce, 14,
Nairobi) Though others did not speak out about their personal experiences, during focus
group discussions children agreed that teachers often ask for sexual favors (anywhere from a
touch to regular sexual intercourse) from girls in return for giving better marks, helping
with food or exam fees.
Megan (Story 5) is the only one who mentioned a rape attempt by a teacher. Even in
her case, during the interview, I felt that she was holding back on the topic, and suspect that
she did not actually escape but was raped by a teacher.
Since less than a handful of children admitted to personal experiences with sexual
abuse, I can only base my argument on general focus group discussions, and informal talks
with Kenyans. I believe that the reason that children are so un-willing to speak about this
topic has to do with the shame associated with the issue, and the fear of potential
consequences. But even if my findings were true, and only few children experienced sexual
violence by teachers, it is still an issue that I strongly believe should not be overlooked
because no children should experience this.
5.5 Physical Abuse by Peers at School
As I mentioned in Section 5.1 regarding violence in school children tend toput a
higher emphasis on abuse by peers than by teachers. I believe the reason for that it that
children want to learn so badly that they are willing to tolerate anything from teachers, but
when it comes to other children, they crave friendship, a play-mate, respect, and support. And
when they do not receive this they become lonely and isolated.

A bag costs 300KSH (3 Euros)

56

In anonymous essays where children talked about maltreatment by peers, one-third of

children reported physical violence by other children.1 In individual interviews only a handful
of children reported physical abuse by a peer, they rather showed concern for psychological
violence. Physical abuse in most cases included beating, kicking, punching, and frequently,
as Megans (Story 5) case shows, throwing stones. In almost all cases physical abuse is
present at the same time as psychological abuse, in fact during personal interviews children
put a much higher emphasis on psychological violence and emotional consequences resulting
from all types of abuse over physical violence.
Still, physical abuse happens and often leads to physical injuries. As Peter (13,
Nairobi) explained, he was my desk mate. I came with my new exercise books. He stole
them. When I was telling him these are my books he started beating me. He was beating me
until I was bleeding. Fights and beatings often happen as a consequence of structural
violence (explained in Section 5.1). Children are jealous of those who have more and can
afford a book or lunch, and they express their anger through stealing and/or physical
violence. As Megan experiences daily, children with HIV/AIDS, other health conditions, or
disabilities are often being harmed by other children. Small and weak children also get picked
on and are being physically harmed, Many children at school beat me up because I am
young and tiny. (girl, 14, Kwale) And as the following story explains structural violence can
lead to violence between children, and experiencing physical, or other forms of abuse, can
lead to further physical violence.
I had the list of the people who paid and who had not paid the lunch. Jane took the
food illegally to class [without payment]. Because I was faithful I went to the reception and
first cleared the bill. When I came back to class I found that Jane had not kept any food for
me. I felt very bad and threw the paper to her. In return she threw a book with hard cover
hitting me under the eyes. I started crying. I was bleeding. Immediately I went to Janes seat
and started beating her. It created a lot of tension and the whole class was trying to stop me.
By the time the fight had stopped Jane was bleeding very bad. (Norah, 15, Nairobi)
Evidently, physical abuse between children leads to tension, trauma, and disruption in the
childs life and other childrens lives. Because psychological abuse is also present, it not only
leads to physical pain, bruises, and injuries, but emotional consequences. In the following
section I will describe the situation of psychological abuse between children.
5.6 Psychological Abuse by Peers at School
At both Nairobi and Kwale extensive amount of children suffer from psychological
abuse from their peers. In essays written about abuse peer violence at school, over three-fifth
of children described psychological violence by peers.2 The majority of children expressed
concern about the same problem during individual interviews. Children experience a variety
of psychological abuses, including threats, belittling, rejection, insults, name-calling, and
other types of psychological abuse

In the essays children had a choice on what type of experience with abuse to describe. Therefore these
percentages only represent those children who chose to write about physical abuse by a peer. In reality it is
possible that a higher percentage of children suffered from the same.
2
In the essays children had a choice on what type of experience with abuse to describe. Therefore these
percentages only represent those children who chose to write about psychological abuse by a peer. In reality it is
possible that a higher percentage of children suffered from the same.

57

One time I fell and broke my hip. Children tease me, you walk like a fish, said
Agatha (13, Nairobi). Children often get insulted for a disability (or even a disability of a
family member) or, as in the case of Megan (Story 5), for an illness. These children not only
suffer from a health issue they cannot change, but are also rejected by their peers who label
the as outcasts
Other than health problems, poverty is another reason children insult each other. He
tells me I am useless and dumb cuz my parents cannot even afford food for me. It feels very
angry and sad. (Josie, 14, Nairobi) She used to call me poor and when she saw me with a
new pen she started spreading gossip that I stole it from others. [] That thing made me feel
miserable and made me spend all day crying. [] It is still in my heart up to now. I felt bad
because she was a good friend and then she called me a thief and hurt me and my friends
abandoned me. I felt lonely. (girl, 13, Nairobi) All children were living in a high poverty
level where I conducted my research at all, but children still make fun of the poorest ones. As
a consequence, the poorest children feel sad and ashamed to a point that sometimes they
would rather stay at home than to go outside or to school because of the fear of being insulted
for their torn clothes.
Orphans and children from broken families are under high risk of psychological
violence by peers as well. And they insult and abuse me and my family. I wish I could insult
them back. How can my friends do this to me? I really feel bad about this, I think they hate
me. (boy, 16, Kwale) Boys are especially upset when their friends insult their family, in
particular when they abuse them with their mothers name. Children want to be proud of
their family. When there are problems at home, or in the case of orphans, there is no family,
and they feel ashamed and insecure. They need love and support from real friends, and when
they receive the opposite, they become lonely.
But even children who have a slightly better background are not safe from
psychological violence by schoolmates. As Holly (Story 4) explained, children often bother
others in school not allowing them to concentrate. Children who are hard-working and/or do
well in school are being disturbed, insulted, and discriminated for doing better than others.
Whereas children with disabilities, illness, or extreme poverty are receiving abuse due to their
disadvantaged position other children doing well in school are receiving similar abuse for
their advantages (e.g. better chance of continuing their education). Both groups end up
feeling discriminated and lonely.
Furthermore, there is a lot of mistrust and jealousy involved in friendships
especially in the case of girls and that friendships are often breaking up. For real the girl
told me that I was in love with all the boys in school. I almost beat her up but I controlled my
anger. (Collette, 16, Kwale) Most often jealousy and insults between girls happen because
of relationships with, feelings towards, and gossips around boys. While it may seem like a
minor issue that is normal during teenage years, it is an enormous problem for girls. They not
only have difficulties understanding and handling feelings and situations related to boys, but
are also at risk of losing their friends as a result.
My findings show that all forms of psychological violence leads to negative effects in
children. Instead of being supported by friends, they end up feeling unloved and lonesome.
This leads to further problems in their general well-being and their education.
5.7 Sexual Abuse by Peers at School
Sexual violence has not been reported by as many children as physical or
psychological violence, probably because, as explained earlier, it is a taboo subject causing
children to feel ashamed and isolated. Still, about one-tenth of children in both in individual
interviews and in essays described sexual abuse by peers. Children described receiving

58

comments on their bodies, verbal invitation of sexual activities, jokes and teasing of a sexual
nature, unwanted touch, attempted rape, and rape.
The major difference between Kwale and Nairobi was that in Kwale boys and girls
agreed that boys never go through sexual harassment, whereas in Nairobi children openly
admitted that there is sexual violence against both sexes. In Nairobi, both boys and girls
talked about unwanted touching by the other, or even the same sex.
I was alone in the school and the girl came alone. []I screamed but nobody heard.
I felt very bad and I could not walk on the road because I was ashamed. [] She tried to
touch my private parts. She tried to touch and rape other boys too. All the boys are afraid. I
am scared to come to school.,
explained Roger (13), a boy at one of the Nairobi schools, where a girl from Class 8 had been
molesting boys. The situation was well-known in the entire school. Both boys and girls
mentioned it during focus group discussions and individual interviews. Boys were
tremendously distressed about the situation, afraid of the girl, and ashamed about the
situation. The reaction and feelings of girls towards sexual abuse from peers is similar to
those reported by boys regarding harassment from this girl, but sexual abuse against girls is
still viewed as more usual. But as Jessicas (Story 2) and Rogers description shows, both
boys and girls are distressed about sexual abuse. They feel shame; sometimes they blame
themselves, and are often afraid to come to school.
Unwanted touching, rapes, and rape attempts affects both sexes, but sexual pressure
seems to affect mostly girls. Boys keep pressuring girls with love letters, sexual verbal
remarks, and touching even when the girls said NO, I do not want to multiple times. This
leaves girls frustrated, confused, and stressed and they do not know how to handle the
situation, and many eventually give in. It seems to me that it is a societal problem that no is
never accepted as no. In my opinion this attitude shows the lack of sex education and girl
empowerment, and also carries onto adulthood.
Because sexual abuse is such a taboo subject and people are not encouraged to talk
openly about their experiences, children have difficulty talking about this type of abuse, and
likely statistics1 are only reflecting a small part of the actual reality. Research and
preventative action often focuses on the situation of girls. This research is unique in terms of
giving a voice to boys and its findings present more boys who experienced rape, sexual
molestation, and unwanted touch than girls. On the other hand, this research shows that girls
do experience more verbal sexual harassment and sexual pressure than boys do.
Consequently it is important to empower both boys and girls, encourage them to speak about
their experiences and to seek help.
5.8 Conclusions
This chapter reveals that instead of being a safe place for learning, in actuality school
is a place where children are facing all forms of abuse from teachers and peers. These
negative experiences leave children feeling sad, embarrassed, discouraged, lonely, afraid and
sometimes even so scared that they fear to come to school.
This chapter reveals that even though corporal punishment has been banned at school
since 2003, in reality, it is still being practiced. In fact many teachers still proudly use the
cane. Current alternatives to corporal punishment are not better either. Adults can endanger
childrens health for example by forcing students to clean toilets in order to punish them.
1

In prior academic research, as well as this research

59

Childrens performance becomes compromised when teachers do not allow them to attend
class or to take an exam as a form of punishment. Besides physical punishment this research
reveals that countless teachers psychologically abuse children by shouting, belittling, making
fun, or discriminating against them. Experiencing physical and psychological abuse, children
become sad, angry, and frustrated, and sometimes are even afraid to come to school.
Furthermore, even though most children were not open to talk about sexual abuse by
teachers, a few did, therefore this research proves that sexual abuse does exist at least to a
certain extent
This research also uncovers the fact that violence between peers in school happens
frequently, and is a very distressing experience for all children. Children become jealous of
those who have more (e. g. can afford lunch or books) and express their frustration through
physical or psychological violence. Children who are different from the rest of the group (e.g.
by being poorer or richer, having a disability, being shy or small, or performing significantly
well in class) are at the highest risks of being targets of physical and/or psychological abuse.
Furthermore, this research found that sexual abuse by peers in school is quite frequent. It
found that boys are victims of sexual molestation, unwanted touching, and rape just as much
as girls are. However, girls more frequently experience sexual pressure from boys, and find
that it is rarely accepted when they say no to sex or even dating. According to the research
findings, most children experience some form of violence from peers, and most children
experience loneliness, sadness, and frustration as result.
Overall, I found that many children experience abuse by teachers and/or peers on a
regular basis which risks childrens psychological (e.g. sadness) and physical well-being (e.g.
bruises). As I will discuss in Chapter 6, abuse at school affects childrens educational needs
in a negative way.
Remarks and Recommendations Based on Conclusions
Results of this research suggests that there is an enormous amount of improvement
needed to provide an effective and safe learning environment at schools in Nairobi and in
Kwale.
First and foremost, I believe it is crucial that the free primary education becomes truly
free and available to all children. Free lunch must be provided to encourage children to come
to school and nourish them to help their bodies and brains to function properly and to allow
maximal learning. Children should not be punished or sent home for not having uniform.
Uniforms, and school materials should either be provided by the school or programs should
be set up to help those who cannot afford them. Children must not be charged to attend
remedial classes or take exams. Therefore, the government needs to step up, and help schools
to provide free education.
I find it crucial that children not only receive a free education, but a quality education
to. This requires qualified teachers who treat children with respect. Teachers should not only
to be told not to use physical punishment, but should be provided free training on how to use
better disciplinary alternatives. Teachers should also be taught to treat children with respect.
Teachers must become positive role models teaching children social skills and role modeling
a source of trust and support. Furthermore, it is essential to inform teachers on the existence
of sexual abuse and sexual advances by teachers.
Furthermore, since the collected date show that peer violence within schools is a
widespread issue, I argue that it is important for teachers to step in. Instead of ignoring the
problems between children or punishing them for it, teachers should educate children social
skills. Programs should be developed to teach them to treat each other with respect without
the means of violence. Recently a class called Life Skills has been introduced to schools.

60

Currently, it mostly teaches children about their rights and general problems in life. I suggest
that this class should focus specific attention on relevant problems in childrens lives,
including peer violence. Again, children should always be encouraged to speak up and seek
help when needed. This research reveals that boys are as much under the risk of sexual abuse
by peers as girls are. This finding along with others calls for the empowerment both boys
and girls, and encouragement of speaking about their experience and seek help.
In theory school shall be available to all children and should provide a safe learning
environment. This research reveals that childrens education is hindered by abuse from
teachers and peers. This chapter calls for action to make education free, and to provide
teacher training, and resources to ensure safety and effective learning at all schools.

61

Chapter 6: Effects of Violence on Present and Future of Children

In Terms of Education and Reaching Goals
6.1 School Attendance
In spite of all of the previously discussed problems at all seven primary schools I
visited, both in the Nairobi slums and Kwale villages are experiencing, most children are still
hopeful and struggling to make a better future. These children are eager to learn, and want to
receive a good education more than anything because they see it as the only way out of
poverty and an avenue to a more secure life. I am afraid I wont be able to go to school
because my grandmother wont be able to pay the school fees. There is also a lot of work for
me to domy grandmother does not force me but I feel obligated to help taking care of my
family. (Rita, 13, Nairobi) Yet, they face so many set-backs, challenges, and
discouragements that many children do not meet their current educational goals, therefore
risk their future dreams and goals.
Attending school is the first and foremost important task in order to receive an
education. Children at both of my research areas, but especially in Kwale, had difficulties
meeting this goal for several reasons.
Results presented throughout this chapter are based on the analysis of interviews,
essays, focus group discussions and informal conversations. After grouping my data together,
I developed a code sheet keeping my research question and units of analysis in mind. For
example, when looking at attendance my codes included level of attendance (sub-codes:
always, often, half time, rarely, never), reasons for not attending (sub-codes: poverty, child
labor, etc), and feelings about attending/not attending school (sub-codes: happy, sad,
frustrated, content, etc). I developed the code-sheet based on the words of the children. I
highlighted my data based on these codes and sub-codes in order to to enhance my analysis,
and also selected quotes from children that I believe would illustrated and support my
findings well.
One of the main reasons for sporadic attendance and drop-out is poverty. A high
percentage of the drop-out occurs simply because not having uniform. Local social workers I
spoke to assume that all drop out street children are drug-addicts, prostitutes, or gang
members, and believe that there must be something causing children to a drop-out besides
only the lack of uniforms. In some cases, however, children do come from a supportive
family, they want to learn, and their parents wish to send them to school. However, they
cannot afford a uniform and therefore the school does not accept them. During my field work
I have talked to a few street children at one of the slums in Nairobi. One of them, Mandy, is
out of school for two years already. She does nothing all day except play on the streets before
going home to sleep. She wants nothing else but to be back in school. She hopes someday she
will be lucky to have a uniform, hence be back in school. Of course, children may not have a
uniform for other reasons besides poverty. One of the street-girls I spoke to in Nairobi
dropped out, because her father left the mother and took everything, including the uniform
from the house and the mother cannot afford to buy a new one. Regardless of the reasons for
not being able to buy a uniform, I believe that a uniform should not be a reason for a child to
be out of school.
Child labor is another issue keeping children out of school. Again, child labor is often
product of poverty and unintentional neglect of the child. But it is not always the case. Peter
(15, Nairobi) lives with his father and step-mother who neglect him to a great extent: they
deny him food, often lock him out of the house, and do not pay for his education. Anything
Peter eats or does, he has to make money for it. Education is so important for him that he
pushes himself to come to school as much as possible. But in spite of his intentions he often

62

has to miss class because of working, therefore he is already behind a year, which leaves him
annoyed and unhappy. Peter is not the only one in this situation in Nairobi. However in
Kwale being forced to skip classes, falling behind in school or dropping out due to neglect
and child labor is even a more prominent of a problem based on what I learned during focus
group discussions with the children.
Moreover, marital problems, and other family violence may hinder a childs ability to
attend school. My father used to kick us out. My mother and brother and I used to have to
leave and go to my uncles. I couldnt go to school. Then my father came and asked for
forgiveness. So we went home and I could go to school. I missed a lot. My grades suffered.,
explained Kevin (14, Nairobi) when describing the time when his parents had marital
difficulties. He not only experienced stress, sadness, and anger for being put into the middle
of parental fights, but as a result he had to miss school frequently, hence his performance was
compromised. Kevin is considered lucky because his parents worked on their marriage and
do not fight anymore. Therefore he is able to go to school again, and receive better grades.
For most children, however, marital fights and violence within the family is on-going, and
children are often out of school.
One of the goals of this research was to find out how different forms of abuse affect
the education of children. As shown earlier, throughout this research I learned how structural
violence (poverty and child labor), child neglect, and conflict between parents may influence
childrens school attendance. As I will further discuss in Section 6.4, I also found that when
children are being discouraged from learning and are unsupported their attendance rate drops.
Finally, I learned that children experience so much abuse from teachers and peers that they
often fear to come to school. However, based on my findings and childrens responses I am
unable to give a clear answer to how physical-, psychological-, and sexual abuse at home
affects school attendance.
Primary education is mandatory in Kenya. It is the responsibility of every parent
allowing their children to go to school according to the CRC (1989), instead of neglecting
them, beating them, and forcing them to work. Furthermore, as discussed in Chapter 5 (5.1),
primary education is supposed to be free, and uniforms are not enforced by law, hence in my
opinion poverty should never be a reason or an excuse to keep a child out of school.
6.2 School Performance
It is not enough for a child to be able to attend school. They need to perform well in
order to reach their goals. Due to structural and generic violence, childrens performance in
Kenya also suffers.
Just like in the case of attendance, poverty and child labor cause children to drop in
academics. Children often cannot afford books, notebooks, and pencils, which clearly puts
them into a disadvantaged situation, and disables them to learn to the best of their ability.
Even when they can afford school materials, they may not be able to pay the tuition fee for
remedial classes. During these classes teachers should not teach new materials, but some do
and therefore children who cannot attend these after-school classes miss out on the new
material. Some children may need extra help to understand the material, but lacking tuition
fee they cannot receive extra support. Moreover, the conditions they live under are not ideal
for revising school material. They live in small overcrowded homes that are often too noisy to
focus. Many children do not have electricity at home, and reading by kerosene lamps or
candles hurts their eyes and makes reading difficult. Most children are also asked to complete
domestic duties and some are forced to work long hours or work for money. When it comes
to child labor, homework becomes secondary in importance in the eyes of the parents or
caregivers. Children believe that they have no voice in this matter and have to put off

63

homework. When a child makes time to study after working, he or she will not get the proper
amount of sleep, and will be unable to concentrate the next day. Furthermore, many children
reported that they go hungry at night and/or are unable to afford school lunch. Hunger and
malnourishment leads to a lack of energy and low concentration resulting in poor grades.
It is not only structural violence that hinders childrens performance, but also generic
forms of abuse. Children are often so overwhelmed with family problems that they are unable
to concentrate in school. When children go through severe abuse they have no energy to
focus on school work. His teacher explained that Steve (Story 1, Chapter 4) is always
looking down, looks depressed, being somewhere else, and not paying attention. In such
cases, children often lose motivation. I cant concentrate in class because I always think
about my mother what she says to me. I feel that my grades wont improve if my situation
remains the same. (Stephen, 13, Nairobi) Children in similar situation have only issue on
their mind is how to escape their terrible situation.
But abuse at home is not the only one preventing them from performing well.
Children who do well are being discriminated, and sometimes feel the pressure to make a
mistake once in a while. My friends tell me that I should not study for KCPEs1 but I want to
study. It makes me confused: I want to go to a national school but want my friends too.
(Linda, 14, Nairobi) Children constantly bother each other, and steal each others books
(especially in Kwale) preventing one another from learning. Teachers are also not acting as
motivating role models, but they rather cane and punish children. Consequently, many
children dislike or are afraid to come to school due to fear from peers and/or teachers. If they
miss school or do not enjoy being there, they usually fall behind in their studies as well.
Again, according to the CRC education is the right of each child (1989). Therefore,
regardless whether it is structural or generic violence, I argue that violence should not be the
reason to hinder a childs performance. Parents and teachers should be role models and
protective of children, and children should be taught to respect each other, to ensure effective
learning and maximum performance of one another
6.3 Future Education and Future Employment
Children I met through this research have big dreams and goal in life. When I asked
them to describe what they want to become all of them came up with professions requiring a
higher education, such as being lawyers, pilots, doctors, and teachers. Most of them are eager
and motivated to achieve their potential and reach their goals. But when children are unable
to attend school regularly and/or perform well, they are handicapped to go further in
education, and to follow their dreams.
Children are willing to do anything to be able to go to school. Jake (Kwale) is 18
years old. He lives with his mother who is unable and uninterested in supporting his
education and therefore he has to work to support himself. At 18 he is still in Class 8 and
even if he does not have much hope to continue on to secondary school, he is incredibly
happy that he finally soon graduating from primary school. Jake is not alone. I met countless
children who explained various reasons which prevent them from attending school regularly
performing well, and who expressed their fear that they will not be able to go on to secondary
school due to poverty, and discouragement from their families. Yet, these children are still
struggling to come to school whenever they have a chance. They are still hoping that
somehow they will continue on.

KCPE is the final exam at the end of primary school. High scores are essential to continue onto secondary
school.

64

Disabling children from achieving their goals, not only hurts the children themselves,
but hurts the entire society. When children dont have the opportunity there wont be people
who are going to replace doctors, pilots, engineers, etc and so the children wont be people
in the future. (boy, Nairobi) According to my interviews and workshops of this researcher,
children know that their country needs more educated people, and more skilled professionals.
Children know they want to succeed in life, want to have a better future, and want to help
their families. They are motivated and ready to work for it. All they ask for is the chance to
receive an education. They ask to receive not only primary education. But beyond primary
education, they need secondary or even higher education to make their lives, their families
lives, and even the situation of their country better.
6.4 Parental and Family Support
I found that supporting a childs right and desire to receive education is one of the
most important factors in a childs attendance, performance, and success in future educational
goals. I found that some parents are overly supportive, whereas some parents are shockingly
unsupportive towards their childs education. I did not find many parents in the middle
regarding support for education, and I found that both extremes can be harmful to childrens
development. Regarding this parental attitude, I also found great difference between Nairobi
and Kwale.
In Nairobi, about half of the children explained that their parents are exceedingly
supporting their education which causes pressure, according to children to finish school, to
get a good job, to succeed in life, and to support in the family. She tells me I should study
hard and I am her hope. (Jessica from Story 2, Chapter 4) Parents see their children as their
only way out of poverty so they push them hard. If I do bad on a test, or get a bad grade, I
can get beaten at home. (Holly from Story 5, Chapter 5) Often children are beaten or
verbally abused if they do not perform well. These children are in a difficult position. They
do not have the ideal circumstances to study well (e.g. they live under poverty, and they still
experience violence at home and/or at school like other children), but they feel the pressure
from their parents to help them out of poverty by studying and making it in life. Michael
(14, Nairobi) said my parents want me to succeed. I study hard to make it for them, but
when I asked him if he wants to make it for himself as well, he hesitated and replied with
yes, for myself too, I guess. Children under parental pressure to succeed are confused when
trying to differentiate between their own, and their familys dream. They also worry
enormously of failing and letting their family down.
The other half of the children in Nairobi, and almost all children I met in Kwale
experience the opposite problem. They are being discouraged by their parents from learning,
are constantly told that they will not succeed, and are told that even if they pass their classes
they will not get jobs. Some parents actually punish their children if they pass their exams.
According to children and some teachers I talked to if a child fails a parent has an excuse to
say see, you were not good enough, now you need to work, but if a child passes they do not
have many excuses to prevent them continuing on. Therefore they do everything to stop them
from doing well in school. In Kwale, parents actually take children who do well in school to
the witch craft hoping that magic will make them do poorly next time. Children have to
have a lot of faith and spirit to keep going with all this discouragement. It takes a lot off
inner-motivation to come to school every day. (Head teacher, Nairobi) And many children
do have a lot of inner-motivation, like Jake (section 6.3) who even at age 18 is struggling to
finish at least primary education. But when parents are not encouraging, it is difficult for
children to go to school. Children feel sad and discouraged, and often feel hopeless that they
can never succeed.

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From the interviews with children and adults I learned that the reason for the
discouragement is often that parents did not make it far in school either and therefore they do
not value education. Especially in Kwale, according to childrens perception and the
explanation of childrens officers, parents believe that putting a child to work and marrying
them off is far more beneficial for the family than educating their child.
Looking at the two parental attitudes towards education, whether encouraging o or
discouraging I found one common characteristic about them. A child should study because
their education is the way out of poverty for the family or a child should drop out, work and
get married because that is the best for the family. Both types of parents look at what is best
for the family and not what is best for the child. But considering Article 3 of the CRC (1989)
and Article 4 of The Charter (1990), regardless of what is best for the family as a whole, the
best interest of each child should be kept in mind and rights of the child should be met.
Education is a basic right and is in the best interest of every child. Therefore based on
international childrens rights it should be ensured and encouraged by all parents.
6.5 Feeling So Bad and Considering Suicide
When talking about their experiences with violence at home and/or at school or even
just about their general struggles with daily life and poverty, children express extreme
desperation, sadness, anger, guilt, shame and unhappiness. Children often feel like running
away from home, and like Dave (Chapter 4, Section 4.3) many do run away from home for a
few days or even permanently.
But some children go beyond that. Many children actually mentioned feeling so
1
bad that they thought about killing themselves. Jessica (Story 2, Chapter 4) mentioned
multiple times during our interviews and workshops that she thinks about ending her life.
When my mom quarrels with me I feel like I am going to the shop and buy rat & rat 2, and
take it when my mom isnt around. She was not the only child who thinks about methods of
ending his or her life.
At first, I was confused about whether it was only an expression or whether they were
seriously talking about suicide. But when I asked them to specify their seriousness, it turned
out that some children truly thought about ending their lives. In fact some of children came
close to attempting suicide.
I went to the road and was just waiting that a car will go over me and I will die. A
woman came to me and told me that I should keep going no matter what happens. She
stopped me. I guess I didnt want to die, but I was just so angry wanting things to stop. I just
want the bad to stop. (Shannon, 14, Nairobi)
Most children who think about or attempt suicide do not actually want to die but feel
exceptionally desperate about their situation. They see no other way out but to kill
themselves.
Children who experience abuse everywhere they go to whether at home, or at school
by teachers and peers, and possibly even on the streets are lacking a proper support system.
They are the ones who most likely will go nowhere, feel extremely lonely, hopeless, and
1

Children used the expression of so bad to give a voice to their negative feelings, including sadness,
desperation, and unhappiness. Though often their words did not specify what they meant by so bad, their
voice, facial expressions and body language told more than words could explain: they shook their head down,
struggled with their tears, or even started crying, and covered their face. Their voice often suggested a
tremendous emotional pain, and even a cry for help.
2
Rat and rat means pesticide.

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desperate, and believe that suicide is the only way out. These children, like all children,
deserve the right to a life (CRC, 1989) where dying is not an alternative. I believe this is
when a good counseling and reporting system becomes very necessary.
6.6 Reporting System and Support Inside and Outside of Schools
In 2008 after the strikes and burning at schools, the government saw the need of
guidance and counseling, therefore made it mandatory at schools. (Los Angeles Times, 2008;
Allafrica, 2008) In theory, this is an excellent idea and is much necessary; however, in
practice I found that there are still improvements needed.
Several guidance counselors I learned they receive their salary for teaching
guidance counseling is done voluntarily out of their good will. Since they are hired as
teachers, they are required to teach a full class-load. Therefore they lack time and energy to
perform their role as guidance counselors properly and effectively.
Lacking proper education in counseling also hinders the efficiency of their job. Most
guidance counselors at I spoke with either had no training at all in counseling, or had only
taken a few classes in the subject. The highest degree a guidance counselor has is a higher
diploma1. Those who have partial training or a diploma did not receive compensation from
the government for their education, but paid for it from their own pocket.
Furthermore, guidance counselors having conflicting roles causes difficulties. As
teachers they represent a source of knowledge, authority, and discipline. As counselors, they
represent a person whom children can trust and receive support from without judgment and
discipline. Counselors say they have difficulty separating their roles, and children have
trouble knowing which role the counselor is playing.
Lastly, whereas some guidance counselors are passionate and ethical about their role,
others are not. As I learned from children many counselors do not keep problems
confidential, but instead speak about them in front of an entire class while teaching or share
them as gossip in the staff room. For this reason, guidance counselors or other teachers
generally fail to gain the trust of children.
But this research has revealed that guidance and counseling is necessary. All children
I encountered through interviews, workshops, essays, and informal conversations explained
abuse experiences and other struggles due to poverty and their environment. Many children
explained extreme cases of violence, including continuous neglect, severe neglect resulting in
bruises and injuries, frequent insults, and sexual harassment. Children said that they would
welcome someone whom they could trust and who is willing to listen, guide and support
them. In fact children who encountered trusting counselors were grateful about it and found
their work useful. This conclusion is based on 62 interviews, 24 workshops and 148 essays,
and shows a severe frequency of extreme violence among children at each school. I wonder if
I had spoken to every single child, what I would have found.
In addition to the lack of guidance counseling, children do not receive effective
support and do not have reporting system outside of school. Whereas CBOs, organizations,
childrens officers, and other authorities are somewhat available, most children do not know
about them, or do not know how to reach them, and are simply not encouraged to advance
them or afraid to approach them. Also, these children live in an environment, where everyone
is experiencing problems therefore troubles are treated as normal. It is commonly believed
that the best place for a child is home even if he/she is going through abuse. Extreme
cases of physical abuse are being excused as punishments. Parents argue that they can do
whatever they want with their child, and believe nobody should interfere even if the child is
1

A degree between a high school diploma and a Bachelors degree

67

in danger. Children are often being punished for what is not their fault. Without support,
encouragement, and attention I wonder where a child would get confidence to say I am
going through a serious problem. I am experiencing violence. I have the right to talk about it
and receive help. Instead, children with severe problems do not know where to go. They
would rather run away, live on the streets where there is more danger and less support, or
even consider dying. Children have the right to receive support and counseling
While I learned in the field that the government still has to overcome the challenge of
a high shortage of teachers, I believe part of the process should be hiring paid guidance
counselors, and providing salary and training to the existing counselors due to the intense
need for more trained professional guidance counselors. Furthermore, I argue that children
need to be able to trust their counselors and know where to turn for help. Guidance
counselors, teachers, and parents should all encourage children to speak up and seek help if
needed. Children should not only be aware for they of their right to meet basic needs, receive
education and be free from all forms of violence, but they should be empowered to claim
these rights and to receive help, guidance, assistance or even a listening ear when needed.
6.7 Conclusions
My findings prove that education is not only a right of children according to the CRC
(1989), but that it is very important for them to improve their lives. Children participated in
this research are eager to learn, and distressed when their educational needs are not met or are
in danger. But these children experience a lot of obstacles to reach their current and future
educational goals.
In theory school should be a secure second home for children providing a safe and
productive learning environment. Instead of enhancing a childs chances of getting a good
education, schools in the Nairobi slums and Kwale village provide numerous barriers towards
this goal. Children are being sent home or punished for not having uniform or not
understanding an assignment. As a consequence children fall behind for missing important
material. Not providing free lunch not only leaves children hungry and unable to concentrate,
but also discourages them from going to school because finding food becomes a priority over
learning. Furthermore, children are often afraid to come to school due to fear of punishment
from teachers or abuse received from peers at school.
Children also face difficulties at home that hinder their chances to learn. Many
children are forced into child labor to help the family or because parents are not encouraging
their education. Children involved with child labor do not have the time to finish their
homework, revise for exams, attend school every day, or even to attend school at all. Even
though children have high hopes and goals for their future, they do see experience and many
obstacles and difficulties in reality and therefore feel very desperate.
When considering their childrens education, parents normally place the best interest
of the family over the best interest of the child. Half of the parents push their children so
much because they see them as the in only hope out of poverty, this leaves children confused
about their true goals and carrying a high responsibility to save their family. On the other
hand, the other half of the parents believe that education is useless and it is better for
everyone if the child starts working and gets married early on. In this situation, children
become frustrated because they believe that education is better for them. In both cases,
children stress so much about their education which often hinders their concentration in
school.
Lastly, I found that experiencing abuse not only affects childrens education, but
negatively affects their emotional well-being often to such an extent that they feel like
running away, or are even contemplating suicide. This research is unique compared to prior

68

studies in finding that children considering suicide is a very wide-spread among children in
the poorest areas of Kenya. However, according to this research, even though children suffer
from serious physical, psychological, and educational consequences of abuse, the support
systems for children (guidance counselors, NGOs, CBOs, social workers, etc) are often not
effective, unavailable, and not encouraged.
Overall, throughout this research I found various negative consequences of violence
against children at home and at school, and I found multiple faults in the reporting and
support system, therefore I have several recommendations based on my findings.
Remarks and Recommendations Based on Conclusions
First of all, in my opinion the government and schools must ensure that children get
free lunch at school, and are able to attend school without a uniform on. It should be ensured
that the ban on corporal punishment is practiced and not replaced by other forms of
punishment where a childs health is endangered (e.g. cleaning the toilet without shoes on) or
where their learning is hindered (e.g. sending them home). It is necessary that school
administration and teachers are good role models to teach children to respect each other, and
to solve misunderstandings without the use of any violence. It is crucial that children can trust
teachers, especially guidance counselors. For this, the government also has to step in by
hiring more teachers and qualified paid guidance counselors with the sole role of being a
guidance counselor. In addition, the school administration, teachers and guidance counselors
must work together not only with children, but with CBOs, NGOs, social workers, childrens
officers, and other authorities in the area, as well as with parents, and other family members.
Moreover, I believe that changes have be made in the family environment of the child.
Parents should be directed to organizations where they can get financial, medical or
educational support to reduce the need for child labor. Parents should be educated, especially
in Kwale, to value and encourage the education of the child. But they should not put too
much pressure on them either. Childrens educational goals should always be considered first
rather than the familys wants. Most children experience some form of abuse at home that
distresses them. They think about these problems so much that they cannot concentrate in
school, consider running away, or even killing themselves. Therefore, it is important to for
governmental and non-governmental organizations to develop programs educating parents on
treating their children with respect without the means of any violence. Parents should be
encouraged to seek counseling to resolve marital or other family difficulties to ensure a safe
home environment. Children need to be encouraged to seek help when needed. The
government and non-governmental organizations should put in place supporting programs for
parents and children, and should support by funding the existing programs.
Overall, I argue that education of children needs to be easily accessible and
encouraged. It is crucial that governmental, and non-governmental organizations, school
administrations, teachers, counselors, other appropriate professionals, parents, and other
family members work together to reach this goal. This research gives a voice to children
regarding their struggle for education especially in the context of violence and abuse. This
research also calls for action to provide opportunities to all children to access to free and
quality education by working towards eliminating both structural and generic violence
against them.

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Chapter 7: Final Conclusions and Recommendations

7.1 Conclusions
My problems are these:
I dont learn tuition1 because of lack of capital.
I dont perform well because of stresses.
I dont have enough clothes for a lack of money.
My mother likes abusing me.
I lack shoes for school.
My uniform is torn and we dont have money to buy another uniform.
My mother is jobless so she told me if I finish class she wont take me to secondary school.
I dont have school bag so I keep feeling bad because my classmates laugh at me.
(girl, Nairobi)

This essay above indicates that children in the poorest areas experience difficulties
and violence in all areas of life that endanger their education and well-being. Children know
what these problems are, they understand the consequences, and frequently even have ideas
for solutions. But children are often not heard by adults, and therefore their situation remains
the same. This research and thesis is attempting to give voice to children: to allow them to
share all the abuse they experience, and to explain how it affects their lives.
There has been limited prior research carried out on abuse against children in Kenya
(Mildred and Plummer, 2009). To my knowledge, there is no previous research on all forms
of violence2 in Kenya. Therefore this research is unique by covering all forms of abuse
(physical -, psychological -, sexual abuse, and neglect) against children at their homes and at
their schools and by taking into account the role of environmental and cultural factors as well.
The findings are in line with previous research, and confirming the relevance and seriousness
of abuse against children in Kenya.
Childrens Experiences with and Perceptions of Abuse at Home and at School
To answer the first part of my research question3 and sub-question 14, Chapter 4
discussed the situation of violence at home and Chapter 5 the state of violence at school.
Analysis was done based mostly on interviews, essays, focus group discussions, and informal
talks with children to understand their perceptions regarding their experiences with violence.
Additional information was gathered from some adults through interviews and informal
conversations.
As Chapter 4 discusses, almost all children at my research locations experience some
form of maltreatment at their homes. Physical abuse is prominent. Practically all children
experience corporal punishment to some extent, and though they often accept it due to
cultural and religious norms, they certainly do not appreciate it, but rather hate and fear it.
1

Tuition refers to remedial classes after regular classes or during school holidays. Whereas by law there are no
school fees for regular classes, there is no policy preventing schools from collecting money for remedial classes,
classes during school holidays, or other school activities, such as sports. Due to these fees many children cannot
attend tuition even though it is often crucial in order to perform well, especially for those in Class 7 and 8
close to graduation.
2
Physical-, psychological-, sexual violence and neglect
3
childrens perception of physical -, psychological -, sexual abuse and neglect within their homes and within
their school environment
4
frequency, reasons, and consequences of abuse as stated in Chapter 3, Section 3.1

70

Some children suffer from even more extreme cases of physical abuse leading to not only
physical and emotional pain, but serious injuries and permanent marks. Psychological abuse
is also common, often accompanying physical abuse making children sad and feeling
unloved. Sexual abuse though, is a topic that is taboo and never talked about, it certainly does
take place and leads to shame, unhappiness, and medical problems. Moreover, some form of
child neglect was also experienced by close to all children, since their basic needs were not
met and as they were uncared for by guardians. Child abuse at home in all cases results in
unhappiness, loneliness and desperation, and had negative effects on school attendance and
performance.
As Chapter 5 discusses, school is not a safe zone either as children experience abuse
by teachers. Teachers still turn to the method of corporal punishment. And when they select
alternatives to corporal punishment they still harm the childs health, keep the child out of
school, or choose harsh forms of psychological insults. Both physical and psychological
punishment by teachers leads to frustration, sadness, and anger in children that sometimes
causes them to prefer to stay out of school. However, the interviewed children want to learn
as much as possible in most cases and they would rather suffer from any extent of
maltreatment just to be able to be in school. Sexual abuse by teachers is also something taboo
and hidden, it takes place in terms of sexual harassment, asking for sexual favors, and even
rape. Victims are afraid to say no to teachers, and are scared to seek help; therefore teachers
get away easily with sexual harassment. Furthermore, Chapter 5 also discusses that there is a
tremendous amount of violence among children in schools. Children constantly abuse each
other physically and psychologically. There is a lot of hatred, jealousy, fights, and breaking
up of friendships happening which leads to lonely children and further violence. This
research also confirmed that sexual abuse is prevalent between children (including verbal
harassment, unwanted touching, and rape). The results are showing that boys are just as
vulnerable to sexual abuse as girls are. Any abuse experienced by peers at schools not only
leads to loneliness and violence, but keeps childrens concentration level low, and sometimes
keeps them out of school due to fear of abuse.
Sub-question 2 (Section 3.1) looked at how culture and environmental factors affect
whether children accept or not accept certain forms of abuse. Based on this research I can
only provide partial answer to this question. Regarding corporal punishment and physical
abuse children felt confused. On one hand they are taught and trained by teachers, parents,
and Bible-studies to believe that it is the only way to discipline and treat a child. On the other
hand, looking at their experiences they feel sadness, anger and fear. Therefore they are
confused whether or not they find this practice acceptable. Regarding sexual abuse, children
generally found it wrong when speaking about it in general terms. Whether or not this feeling
was influenced by culture and environment, I am unable to answer. But I did find that
children are greatly affected by the fact that their culture views sex and sexual abuse as a
taboo subject to experience of sexual abuse as a stigma. As a result children are
uncomfortable to talk about their personal experiences and are afraid to report cases. Lastly, I
did not find information from children on whether or not the perception of psychological
abuse and neglect is affected by cultural and environmental factors. But since the majority of
children experience many forms of abuse, I learned that children often feel that this is the
normal way to be treated and that they have no choice but to tolerate it.

71

Childrens Perceptions of Their Present and Future in Terms of Education in Reflection of

their experiences with Abuse
In answering the second part of my research question1, sub-question 32 and subquestion 43 (Section 3.1) I found that my answers mostly are mostly based on the influence of
poverty, neglect, and the lack of support rather than the affect of other forms of abuse.
Chapter 5 and Chapter 6 discussed multiple structural problems in schools that lead to
child abuse, poor performance, low attendance, and drop-out. First of all, school is not free.
On the contrary children have to pay fees for remedial classes, exams, school materials, and
lunch. When children do not pay they are either being physically punished, insulted, or sent
home (or all three). Not receiving lunch keeps them hungry and therefore they cannot
concentrate in class, and even leave school because finding food or money for food becomes
their priority. Consequently, children fall behind in their studies and often drop-out due to
simple structural reasons. Children also do not have a support system in school: they often
feel like they cannot even trust guidance counselors. In the current system, guidance
counselors are hired as teachers, are not being paid for acting as counselors, and are not being
properly trained as counselors either. Therefore they are unable, and sometimes not
motivated to perform their job to properly listen to, support, and advice children. With lack of
appropriate support children remain alone and their problems go unheard.
Poverty, Abuse, and Education The Cycle
As I discussed throughout Chapters 4, 5 and 6, I originally did not plan to focus on
how poverty plays a role in childrens experiences with abuse and education. But as my
results show, I found that poverty and other structural problems play an enormous role in
both abuse and education. Furthermore, I found at my research locations that poverty, child
abuse, educational resources and educational experiences are very much interrelated.
The issue of violence is clearly demonstrated by looking at the issue of physical abuse
by teachers. Due to lack of government funding each school I visited suffered from a great
teacher shortage. As a result teachers have to handle classes of anywhere from 60 to 100
children. Teachers explained that they find it to be a challenge to discipline such number of
students and believe that the easiest and most effective method is still corporal punishment.
Furthermore, as explained in the earlier section, children can be punished just for being poor,
or for not having books, proper uniforms or lunch fees due to poverty. Even though corporal
punishment is banned and there are positive methods of discipline of children, teachers are
not educated nor trained about different methods. This is a result of poverty and lack of
funding for workshops and therefore teachers resort to using corporal punishment. Children
explained that corporal punishment has negative effects on their well-being. They may not
able to concentrate on their school work they may leave school in fear of being beaten
The issue of violence is similar when it comes to psychological abuse by teacher as
well as physical - and psychological abuse by peers. Teachers often insults students for torn
clothing or lack of fees even if it is not directly the childs fault but rather a result of poverty.
Children also psychologically and physically harass those who live under the poorest
1

How do children perceive their present and future in terms of education in reflection of their experiences with
child abuse at home and at school?
2
How is attendance and motivation in school affected by Kenyan childrens experience of abuse at home and at
school?
3
What are the hopes and perceptions of Kenyan children for their future in relation to their experience with
child abuse within their families and at school? What are their perceptions of their future in terms of education
and employment?

72

conditions, those who have torn clothes, or no notebooks or no pencil, or who look
malnourished. Children who experience psychological and physical violence often due to
their poverty level described that they often feel embarrassed to come to school or are so
frustrated and sad that they cannot focus and perform well in class.
Moreover, this research shows that children at my research location tolerate a
tremendous amount of abuse by family members as well mostly often due to their poverty
level. Most children I collected information from were forced to perform some form of child
labor. When they are unable to finish all of their work or when they are choosing to do
homework instead they are being physically punished and/or verbally insulted by their
parents. As children explained, parents sometimes abuse children for small or no apparent
reasons and likely due to daily struggles and frustration caused by poverty. Furthermore,
some parents encourage children, especially girls, to provide sexual favors to men in order to
earn money for the family or in the villages marry their children off early in the hope of
money. But I found that children are not always forced but sometimes choose to engage in
paid child labor, to provide sexual favors, to prostitute, or to even get married in order to
receive money. Many children explained that they have no time and/or energy to prepare
their homework, study or attend school regularly. Furthermore, many feel so sad about their
situation that they cannot even concentrate and focus on their studies. Moreover, a large
number of children drop-out of school due to lack of resources (e. g. school fees, uniform,
books etc) for school, parental pressure, lack of time due to child labor, pregnancy or
marriage.
This creates a difficult cycle. Children who do not perform well or drop out of school
due to abuse experienced as result of poverty have a low chance to finish primary school, to
start and to finish secondary school, to eventually find a job that will help them and their
families out of poverty. Therefore there is a high likelihood that their children will grow up in
poverty and I speculate that their future children would experience similar abuse at home, at
school, and on the streets that these children do now. Hence, I believe that there is further
research, and major governmental changes are necessary to fight not only child abuse, but
considering their interrelated nature of these issues to tackle poverty, abuse and challenges
regarding education as a whole in order to provide a better future to children.
This research comes to the conclusion that children living in the poorest areas of
Kenya are not only living under extremely difficult conditions and struggling just to meet
basic needs every day as result of severe poverty, but are experiencing an enormous amount
of abuse both within their homes and within their school environment, and consequently they
are not meeting their educational rights and goals. These children are desperately unhappy,
and are praying for help. The situation this research revealed calls for urgent attention,
immediate action, drastic changes, and further research in order to start making the life of
these children safer and better today. The next sections will describe my recommendations
for action and suggest further research.
7.2 Recommendations for Action
What will we, The Childrens Club do?
1.conduct mass education: tell our facilitator about our ideas who can tell the chief, the
head master, and parents etc
2. report bad cases to counselor
3. talk to parents, siblings, friends, relatives that we can trust
4. self-control, abstinence, being honest to oneself

73

5. give advice to victims of abuse

6. hold bi-weekly meetings to discuss issues, present it to appropriate adults
7. keep our eyes open whats happening, be aware of our surrounding
8. approach sad children
9. be role models, children should admire us and follow our steps
This list of actions was created during one of the workshops at one of the primary schools
in Kwale1. During this focus group discussion I raised the question: how can those children
children who face any form of abuse be helped. During brainstorming among many
standard ideas children listed The Childrens Club. This is when Shawn suddenly walked
up in front of the group, We listed The Childrens Club as a support system. But we are
The Childrens Club! And we dont do anything! How can we expect others to help? It has
to start with us! So tell me: what can we do, and will we do as Childrens Club?
Achieving Stage 7 on Harts Ladder of Child Participation (child led and initiated) (Tisball
and Liebel, 2008), children came up with the list above together. They discussed each
action, and by raising hands they agreed and promised that they will follow these steps to
improve their own lives and the life of their peers.
Children are aware of their situation, and know the problems they are facing. They
need and want immediate action for their lives to improve. Children do not only demand
help, but they are willing to participate and act themselves. All they ask for is the support of
adults, including their parents, their teachers, their guidance counselors, school
administrators, CBO members, childrens officers, social workers, NGOs, and the
government.
First and foremost, since all children reported their desire to receive quality education,
it is inevitable to make primary education truly free. Children should not be forced to pay
fees for remedial classes, exams, and school material if they cannot afford to do so. Lunch
should be provided for free to everyone to encourage children to come to school, to keep
them nourished allowing them to be healthy, to be motivated, and to focus in class. Teachers
must be prevented from exploiting children by asking for extra money (which ends up in a
teachers pocket), sending children home if they have not paid, or giving children money
asking for sexual favors in return. Eliminating all fees and making education free would limit
the chances of teachers exploiting children.
Next, it is not enough that corporal punishment is banned by law. It should be fully
eliminated in practice. Teachers and school administrators should be provided free training
by the government and/or NGOs on how to use positive alternatives of punishment, without
the use of physical means, and/or causing health and/or psychological harm to children.
Teachers and school administrators must become positive role models to children teaching
social skills in order to eliminate violence between children on the school grounds. The
system of guidance counselors must be improved. Counselors must be paid and trained to
maximize their potential to help, support, and guide children.
Problems are not only coming from the school but also from families where children
experience a lot of abuse. Therefore, parents also should be educated, provided training and
encouraged to attend training on how to treat their children in a positive manner without
physical and/or psychological harm. Corporal punishment at homes should be banned by law
and eliminated by action. Parents should also be educated on the value of education and
1

About 20 children were present at the workshop in Kwale: 9 child researchers and the remaining hildren were
authors of some essays. All children were from class 7 and 8, between ages 13 and 17. About half of the group
was also part of The Childrens Club at their school.

74

encouraged to allow their children to attend school. To eliminate physical neglect of children,
parents and children should both be both educated on where to go to seek help regarding
different problems (e.g. lack of food, HIV/AIDS).
Lastly, I must emphasize that children should be further educated about their rights,
empowered, and encouraged to speak up, seek help, and take (or suggest) action to improve
their personal lives and their peers lives.
The problems children are facing are numerous, complex, and interrelated. Solutions
needed for education of adults and children, changes in law, and changes in action. The
government needs to pay attention to these problems and invest money into solutions.
Changes will take time and money, but according to children I encountered they are
necessary, and need to start immediately. Governmental and non-governmental action, as
well as personal willingness and deed by adults and children, and the cooperation between all
these parties are necessary to change the life of children.
7.3 Recommendation for Further Research
The nature of all research is that it not only brings discoveries, but brings up more
questions. This research revealed a lot about the hidden lives of children in Nairobi slums and
Kwale villages, and gathered tremendous information on the kinds and amount of abuse
Kenyan children experience. Yet, a lot of questions remain and there is still enormous room
for further research.
Throughout this study I used a variety of qualitative methods gathering massive
amount of qualitative information along with some statistical data regarding the participants.
The strength of this research is that it reveals detailed experiences, feelings and opinions of a
large amount of children. But I find it important that in further research quantitative data are
also being gathered including statistics among an even larger randomly selected group, as
well as drawing correlations between experiences and consequences of abuse.
This research was carried out in various Nairobi slums and Kwale villages. Therefore
the information gathered is relevant to the poorest areas slums and remote poor villages of
Kenya. Kenya, however, is a country of inequalities: next to the extreme poverty, there is also
extreme wealth, and somewhere in between there lays the middle class. I recommend further
research on childrens experiences with violence in middle-class and upper-class areas of
Kenya, both in the capital, Nairobi, as well as smaller towns and districts.
Furthermore, children spend time on the streets walking to school, to the market, to
home, or playing with friends. My research gave a great overview of all forms of violence
and life situation experienced at home and at school. But it did not focus on maltreatment by
those children may not know well or may not know at all, including drunkards, drug addicts,
drug dealers, idlers, and other strangers on the streets. Experiencing violence on the street
may have negative consequences on their lives therefore further research should be done on
this topic.
Moreover, in the previous section I listed a number of recommendations I find
necessary to reduce and eventually eliminate all forms of child abuse, as well as support
survivors of abuse. However, I feel that it is not enough to understand childrens experiences
with abuse, their perceptions, feelings, and the negative consequences they suffer from, but it
is crucial to understand why are different forms of violence happening in the first place. My
research was not intended to find the reasons why abuse against children is occurring,
therefore I did not cover this topic in my theoretical framework, and did not emphasize this
during my interviews either, but rather asked children about their experiences and perceptions
on abuse. In spite of not aiming to find the causes of violence, I still found some factors
playing a role into it, including poverty, cultural practices, religious beliefs, lack of

75

empowerment, lack of support system and lack of knowledge on positive alternatives. I

speculate there are further factors may play in role in different forms of abuse, for example
abuse experience of parents and teachers, personality of the child, mental illness of the
violator. Therefore, I strongly recommend further research to understand the reasons behind
abuse of children.
Overall, I had success with using participative methods of involving child researchers,
as it helped to gather a great amount of information through understanding the situation from
different angles. Using these participative methods allowed me to collect information from a
great number of children from various school while giving ground to multiple research
methods of focus group discussions, essays, and individual interviews. Conducting research
on violence against children generally brings up the concern that children may not be willing
to open up about such personal topics. I found that the method of engaging child researchers
gave confidence to children to voice their experiences. It encouraged them to think and speak
up, and proved to be an empowering experience for them. For this reason, I suggest to use the
same or similar methods for further research on abuse against children.
7.4 The Message of Children
The goal of my research was to understand Kenyan childrens experiences and
perceptions of physical-, psychological-, and sexual abuse and neglect within their families
and their schools, and their perceptions of their present and future in terms of education.
My purpose is not only to fulfill my Master degree requirements by writing thesis, but
to allow Kenyan childrens voices to be heard and to contribute to the improvement of their
lives which are greatly affected by violence. Therefore I will submit my research results to
IREWOC and PLAN Kenya in the form of this thesis in order to contribute to their project
called Violence Against Children - Fighting Violence to Ensure Education for All and their
efforts to reduce violence against all Kenyan children. My aspiration is that my research will
stimulate further research and further action to improve the situation of children affected by
violence in Kenya.
The main object of this research is to allow the voices of children to be heard 1. In my
belief children understand their situation and realize what their needs are and therefore they
deserve the opportunity to speak up and be listened to.
I want my family to understand me, stop taking me like a grown up and start treating me like a
teenager. (Andrea, 13, Nairobi)
I wish our teachers didnt beat us very much. And gave us the right to study. (Dan, 13,
Nairobi)
I wish I could continue my education somehow. I want to be a policeman in order to help
improving security of my village. (Jake, 18, Kwale)
I would like my family to respect and trust each other. And most of all love and cherish each
other. [] The one thing I want the most in the future is for God to give me courage, wisdom
and strength that will enable me to finish my studies, to achieve my goals and be happy. [] I
want corruption and poverty to end. (Jessica, 14, Nairobi)
1

Throughout this thesis I share experiences of children through childrens quotes and stories in Chapters 4, 5, 6
and 7, through childrens drawings on violence in Appendix VI and through photographs from a childrens role
play activity in Appendix V in order to allow their authentic voices to be heard.

76

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80

Appendix I
Definitions used in the conceptual scheme
Child: anyone under 18 years of age (CRC, 1989); for this research the group of children
used were mainly from class 7 and 8 of primary school, the age group used was between 10
and 18 years of age
Culture: shared, learned, symbolic system of values, beliefs and attitudes that shapes and
influences perception and behavior -- an abstract mental blueprint or mental code."
(Eastern Oregon State University, 2010) in relation to children, child rearing, discipline of
children, physical -, psychological -, sexual abuse and neglect
Environment: the circumstances, objects, or conditions by which one is surrounded
(Merriam-Webster, 2010); in this research: home and school situation, family structure,
living conditions, family income, qualification of teachers, school facilities, cost of school,
poverty level in the area, safety of the area, health problems, etc
Physical abuse: the intentional use of physical force against the child that either results or
has a high likelihood of resulting in harm to the childs health, survival, development or
dignity (UN, 2006: 52); for example but not limited to: hitting, kicking, beating, biting,
burning, etc (African Child Policy Forum, 2006); even if used and/or viewed as a form of
discipline, the above explained intentional physical harm is viewed as physical abuse for this
research; even the mildest forms are considered physical abuse
Psychological abuse: injury to the psychological capacity or emotional stability of the child
(Child Welfare Information Gateways); for example but not limited to: insults demeaning the
childs self-esteem, forced isolation, threats to violence, name calling, belittling and rejection
(UN, 2006; African Child Policy Forum, 2006)
Sexual abuse: rape, unwanted touching or other acts of sexual nature, forced prostitution
(African Child Policy Forum, 2006:11), exposure to pornography, molestation and incest
(African Child Policy Forum), sexual intercourse, sexual assaults, other forms of sexual acts
with physical contact, female genital mutilation (FMG), verbal sexual harassments, sexual
intimidation and flirtatious jokes. (UN, 2006), witnessing sexual acts
Neglect : physical neglect the failure to provide the child with his or her basic physical
needs, such as food, shelter, and clothing, as well as the failure of protection from harm and
danger, failure to take care of the childs health conditions and provide education (Myers,
Berliner, Biere, Hendrix, Jessica, and Reid, 2002); emotional neglect - the passive or
passive/aggressive inattention to the childs emotional needs, nurturing or emotional wellbeing (Bassard, 1987 in (Myers, Berliner, Biere, Hendrix, Jessica, and Reid, 2002: 6) and
psychological unavailability (Myers, Berliner, Biere, Hendrix, Jessica, and Reid)
Perception of physical -, psychological -, sexual abuse and neglect: the childs thoughts and
feelings about physical-, psychological and sexual abuse and neglect: the definition of
physical-, psychological and sexual abuse and neglect, whether or not these forms of abuse
are right or wrong, necessary or unnecessary, culturally acceptable or not, and its short- and
long-term consequences on the childs life
Perception of education: the childs perceptions on education: how important education is,
current motivation, concentration, dedication and attendance in school, future educational
hopes and goals; the childs perception on how is his or her education influenced by the
experience or lack of experience with physical and/or psychological abuse: whether or not
it leads to motivational problems, does it have positive or negative or no influence on future
goals, does it or does not prevent these future educational goals from happening

81

Appendix II
Interview Guide for Interviewing Children:
Basic Information
Can you tell a little bit about yourself?
Name? Age? What class are you in? What do you like to do? What do you want to be
when you grow up?
How about your family? Who do you live with?
General Experiences
What is the first thing that comes to your mind when you think about violence (abuse)
against children?
What kind of violence/abuse do children suffer from in your area? At home? At
school?
What is the worst case of violence you heard at home or at school?
Now, how about you? Do you experience anything at home or school that makes you
feel bad?
Abuse/violence at Home
Do you experience any abuse/violence at home?
What kind of abuse/violence do you generally experience? How often? By whom?
How does it make you feel?
Could the situation be avoidable? Could the person act differently?
What is your worst experience? How does it make you feel?
Does it affect your mood/studies/concentration?
Abuse/violence at School
Do you experience any abuse/violence at school?
What kind of abuse/violence do you generally experience? How often? By whom?
How does it make you feel?
Could the situation be avoidable? Could the person act differently?
What is your worst experience? How does it make you feel?
Does it affect your mood/studies/concentration?
Caning/Spanking
We know that caning/spanking is experienced by most children? What is your
experience with this?
How are you being disciplined at home? At school?
How does it make you feel? Do you think it is a good method of discipline or not?
Present/Future Education
What class are you in? Do you like school? What grades are you getting?
What do you want to be when you grow up? (So education is important?)
How do your experiences with violence/abuse at home affect your studying? Are you
able to study enough? Able to concentrate?
Is your family/community being supportive about your education? How do you feel
about it? Is support important for you?
How do your experiences with violence/abuse at home affect your studying? Are you
able to study and learn? How about concentration? Are you experiencing a safe
learning environment? Are you teachers supportive of your studying? Are they
motivating? Is support and motivation important?
How is violence/abuse affecting your present and future?

82

If you could change something about your present life what would you change?
How would you like to imagine your future? What do you want from life? Do you
think it is possible to achieve this? What could help you to achieve this and live the
life you want to?

Other
Is there anything else you would like to tell me?
How did you enjoy this interview?
Interview Guide for Interviewing Teachers:
Personal
Can you introduce yourself? What is your role at the school? What classes are you
teaching or counseling?
General
What is the first thing that comes to your mind when you think about violence or
abuse against children?
What kinds of violence do children at your school generally experience at home/at
school/in the community?
What are the general forms of abuse children experience? What is the worst form of
violence they experience?
What are the general signs that you see that show that children experience abuse?
Can you explain a few cases?
Physical abuse cases? Emotional abuse cases?
How did you find out about these cases?
How these situations did affect the child? In specifically mood, behavior and school
performance?
What was done about the situation? Did the situation improve?
Other cases?
Are any of these forms of abuse usual in the community of the children? Are any of
them viewed as normal or acceptable?
How about violence at school?
What are you views on caning and spanking?
Do you find it acceptable? Why? Why not?
If you find it acceptable, at what extent is it acceptable?
Do you practice it yourself? In what situations?
Do other teachers at your school share your viewpoint?
Did the situation change at all since it was banned by law?
What effects does spanking/caning have on the child (emotions, quality of life,
education, development, present, future)?
Improvements
What do you think can be done at the school or outside of the school to reduce
violence that affects children?
How could we ensure a better future of the children?
Other
Any other cases you would like to share?
Anything else you would like to share?
How do you feel about this interview?

83

Interview Guide for Interviewing Community Members:

General/Community
What comes to your mind when you first hear the phrase violence/abuse against
children?
What kind of violence do children in your neighborhood experience?
Are there any specific cases you observed or heard about that you would like to
share?
How do you think it affects the childrens present and future life?
Own Children
Do you have children of your own?
Are they in school? Why/why not?
Do you worry that your children experience any violence at school or in the
community?
Do they experience any form of violence in the school/community? How does it make
them feel? How does it make you feel?
In many schools caning/spanking children is a common method by teachers. Is this
true for your childrens school? What is your opinion about this?
How about discipline at home? How do you discipline your children? Do you believe
in spanking? Why? Why not? Do people in your community share the same feelings
about this?
Future
What do you wish for your children? How to achieve this?

84

Appendix III
Statistics on Abuse within the Family Based on Anonymous Essays
* out of the 148 anonymous essays on violence at home or at school 39.2% was written about
violence within the family

Nairobi Boys
Nairobi Girls
Kwale Boys
Kwale Girls
Total
Children1

Physical
Abuse
62.%
59.3%
18.2%
33.3%
48.3%

Psychological
Abuse
37.5%
48.1%
18.2%
41.7%
39.6%

Sexual
Abuse
0
14.9%
0
0
6.9%

Emotional
Neglect
25%
59.3%
36.4%
25%
43.1%

Physical
Neglect
62.5%
22.2%
50%
50%
39.6%

Statistics on Abuse within the Family Based on Individual Interviews

*77.3% of children I interviewed reported experience with some form of abuse at home

Nairobi Boys
Nairobi Girls
Kwale Boys
Kwale Girls
Total
Children

Physical
Abuse
22.2 %
29.2%
0
60%
36.4%

Psychological
Abuse
33.3%
29.2%
0
80%
31.8%

Sexual
Abuse
0
4.2%
0
0
3%

Emotional
Neglect
33.3%
25%
0
20%
33.3%

Physical
Neglect
50%
43.75%
100%
100%
57.6%

Total
55.5%
82.5%
100%
100%

Statistics on Abuse at School by Teachers - Based on Anonymous Essays

* out of the 148 anonymous essays on violence at home or at school 12.8% were written
about violence by a teacher
Nairobi Boys
Nairobi Girls
Kwale Boys
Kwale Girls
Total Children

Physical Abuse
50%
25%
62.5%
80%
57.9%

Psychological Abuse
50%
50%
62.5%
20%
47.4%

Sexual Abuse
0
25%
12.5%
20%
10.5%

Statistics on Abuse at School by Teachers - Based on Individual Interviews

*25.8% of children I interviewed reported experience with some form of abuse by a teacher
Nairobi Boys
Nairobi Girls
Kwale Boys
Kwale Girls
Total Children

Physical Abuse
11.1%
12.5%
0
80%
18.2%

Psychological Abuse
5.6%
8.3%
0
0
7.6%

Sexual Abuse
0
6.3%
0
0
4.5%

Total
22.2%
22.5%
0
80%

Total Children in all tables refers to the total number of children: Nairobi Boys, Nairobi Girls, Kwale Boys
and Kwale Girls all together. Therefore percentages reflect total abuse experiences of all children I interviewed
or received essays from.

85

Statistics on Abuse at School by Peers - Based on Anonymous Essays

* out of the 148 anonymous essays on violence at home or at school 59.5% was written about
violence by a peer (at school)
Nairobi Boys
Nairobi Girls
Kwale Boys
Kwale Girls
Total Children

Physical Abuse
42.1%
15.6%
41.7%
44%
33%

Psychological Abuse
47.4%
90.6%
66.7%
52%
65.9%

Sexual Abuse
15.8%
3.1%
0
12%
8%

Statistics on Abuse at School by Peers - Based on Individual Interviews

*40.9% of children I interviewed reported experience with some form of abuse by a peer at
school
Nairobi Boys
Nairobi Girls
Kwale Boys
Kwale Girls
Total Children

Physical Abuse
5.6%
6.3%
0
0
6%

Psychological Abuse
22.2%
37.5%
0
60%
37.9%

86

Sexual Abuse
16.7%
6.3%
0
0
9%

Total
22.2%
47.5%
0
60%

Appendix IV
The following pictures are drawn by children to tell about their personal experiences or
personal definition of abuse or violence against children.
Abuse at Home

Michael, 14, Nairobi (a child researcher drawing on his experiences with child labor and
corporal punishment)

Anna, 14, Nairobi (her drawing illustrates the following essay)

One day after closing school I went to visit my aunt. She was a mean person . I did not think
she will be evil to me. When I went there she made me very sad because she has bigger girls
than me. She told me that I must work while her girls went to play outside. I did all the house
chores. I felt sad and I was happy. I felt sad and I was unhappy.

87

Boy, Nairobi (drawing illustrating his experiences with corporal punishment)

Boy, Nairobi (drawing by a child researcher to illustrate a general experience with corporal
punishment
at
home
in
the
community
he
is
living
in)

88

Abuse at School

John, 13, Nairobi (a child researcher illustrating his personal experience with corporal
punishment at school)

Boy, Nairobi (illustrating his experience with corporal punishment at school)

The text above means: Someday I will beat this teacher, and he will know who I am because
I tell my parents and they will do nothing. In his essay along with this drawing he explains
that he gets caned often which he feels bad about.

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Further Difficulties and Abuse Children are Facing Outside of Home and School that May
Affect their Education and General Well-Being

Girl, Nairobi (illustrating childrens experiences with drugs and drug-trafficking in her
community; child researchers explained to me that many children drop-out or consider
dropping out of school due to taking or selling drugs)

Girl, Nairobi (illustrating difficult situations girls are facing that may force them to drop out
of school; children explained to me that girls often drop-out of school as a result of early
pregnancy or child labor or the combination of both)

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Girl, Nairobi (illustrating her experience with sexual abuse on the street; child researchers
explained to me that girls are often victims of sexual abuse on the streets: strangers offer
them sweets or money in return for sexual favors, or yell out jokes of a sexual nature, or walk
up to them to touch their private parts, or even rape them)

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Appendix V
Role Play on Physical Abuse at School
The following pictures were taken during a role playing activity at one of the Kwale school
locations. Children decided to play out a situation of corporal punishment at school as it
frequently happens.

Above a boy is being beaten because he only partially completed his homework.

After the boy tells his father what happened, the father decides to speak to the teacher. The
teacher downplays the situation and promises he will never cane or physically punish the boy
ever again.

After the father leaves, the teacher pulls the boy the classroom, then beats and canes him for
speaking to his father about the situation.
Children explained that they often get caned for small reasons like not having their
homework completed. They said if a parent questions the teacher about the incident, teachers
often lie and then punish the child for speaking up.

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