SUMMER B 2013

McNair Scholars Program

ENC 3254
RESEARCH WRITING
Syllabus and Course Material

Course Pack Table of Contents

ENC3254 Syllabus and Schedule

Scholarly Research
The Scholarly Journal Article
Proper Documentation
Punctuation Made Simple (Gary Olson)
Grammar Tips (Pronoun Usage)
Style Tips: Steps to Effective Academic Writing
Revising Drafts

ENC 3254 Research Writing Summer B, 2013

Place/Time:
Instructor:
Email:

WEIL408A MWF: P 2: 9:30-10:45 am

Jamie Lee Marks
jamielm@ufl.edu

Office Hours:

MWF 302 Tigert 11:00-12:00

and by appointment

Website:

E-Learning/Sakai: https://lss.at.ufl.edu/

Course Objective
ENC 3254 is an upper-division applied writing course that focuses on professional communication relevant to all
aspects of scholarly writing. The goal of the course is to help students communicate effectively about the
research they undertake as McNair Scholars. To this end, students are required to attain a B or higher in the
course to remain in the McNair Program.
Course Description
ENC 3254 emphasizes written presentation of research. During Summer B, you will complete drafts of the
Introduction and Methodology sections for your research paper. The purpose of this class is to help you prepare
to write your final research paper (Final research paper, when completed, will be about 4,000 words). ENC 3254
counts as a 6,000 word University Writing Requirement class or as a Composition credit.
Assignments for ENC 3254 Summer B 2013
Assignment
Due Date
Draft Introduction
Wednesday, July 9

Grade Distribution
75 points

Pages
1200 words (4 pages)

Final Introduction

Wednesday, July 16

130 points

1200 words (4 pages)

Peer Review of Methodology

Monday, July 21

10 points

n/a

Draft Methodology

Wednesday, July 23

130 points

Analysis:
Results OR Discussion Section
Abstract

Monday, July 28

55 points

Monday, July 28

55 points

Class Participation and In-class

Exercises
Proposal Due: Entire Project
up to this point
Summer A: Oral presentation
of Proposal
Total

Throughout Semester

45 points

Wednesday, July 30

No point value

900 1200 words

(3 4 pages)
600 words
(2 pages)
100 300 words
(1 page)
1500 words
(5 pages)
n/a (already counted)

Monday, August 5

50 points (Summer A)

n/a

500 Points

6000 words/ 20 pages

Turning in Assignments/Late Work: Students must post their assignments on SAKAI by the beginning of class on
the day the assignment is due. Students must also turn in a paper copy of each assignment, also due at the
beginning of class. You must do both of these tasks in order to have your work graded. Doing either one of
these tasks on time saves your work from being considered late. Late papers will be penalized 10% for each
calendar day your work is late.
Final Grade Scale
930-1000
A
730-769
C
900-929
A700-729
C870-899
B+
670-699
D+
830-869
B
630-669
D
800-829
B600-629
D770-799
C+
0-599
E
Mode of Submission: All papers will be submitted as MS Word (.doc) or Rich Text Format (.rtf) documents to Elearning/Sakai and as hard copies. Final drafts should be polished and presented in a professional manner. All
papers must be in 12-point Times New Roman or Calibri font, double-spaced with 1-inch margins and pages
numbered. You must choose and use a format appropriate for your topic/knowledge area. Be sure to staple
papers before submitting hard copies. Unstapled papers will not be accepted. Papers without word counts will
not be accepted. Papers without page numbers will be docked points. This is not because I am a grading ogre,
its because Id like to make comments on your work, know whether or not it meets the word count
requirements, and not lose random sheets of your printed work while Im grading. Help a lady out.
Paper Maintenance Responsibilities: Students are responsible for maintaining duplicate copies of all work
submitted in this course and retaining all returned, graded work until the semester is over. Should the need
arise for a resubmission of papers or a review of graded papers, it is the students responsibility to have and to
make available this material.
Attendance Policy: Because this is a writing class and much work is done during class time, attendance is
required. For each unexcused absence, your final grade will lowered one full letter grade (A to B, or B+ to C+,
etc.) per day missed. Excused absences will require written documentation from a doctor, the clinic, or the
McNair program director. Work missed during unexcused absences cannot be made up and late papers will not
be accepted without an excused absence.
Participation: Participation is worth 45 points of your final grade. These points will be earned for outstanding
attendance to class and punctuality, working hard for the entire class period, bringing all materials to class each
day, participating in meaningful class discussions, paying close attention in class, (i.e. not talking, using
computers for off-topic purposes, texting, sleeping, etc.), productively working with your peers or individually on
in-class exercises and working to produce quality in-class work as a result of the in-class exercises.
Plagiarism: Cheating of any kind, including plagiarism, will result in automatic failure of the course; additional
consequences are possible.
Cell phones and computers: During class, turn cell phones to silent and do not text during class. Furthermore,
do not use computers unless directed to by the instructor. Participation points will be lost for failing to comply
with this policy.
Contacting Me: I look forward to learning with and from you in this class. Please do not hesitate to contact me
with any questions or concerns you might have. I have an open door policy and mean thatreally. It is very

important to me that you feel comfortable meeting with or e-mailing me when you have questions or feel that
you need additional assistance. I usually check my e-mail at least once a day through the week and will make
every effort to get back to you quickly (usually within 24 hours M-F).
Please use the email provided on the syllabus or my gmail address (you will see this address in your inbox over
the course of the semester). Those addresses are linked. If you message me using Sakai, please check the box
that allows you to send a copy to my email address. Checking Sakai mail is not part of my daily routine and I
cannot guarantee as speedy a response if you choose to contact me in that way. If its urgent, and youve
already looked at the syllabus and course materials for guidance, please text me.
Students with Disabilities: The University of Florida complies with the Americans with Disabilities Act. Students
requesting accommodation should contact the Students with Disabilities Office, Peabody 202. That office will
provide documentation to the student whom must then provide this documentation to the instructor when
requesting accommodation. Please do let me know as soon as possible as well, and we will make every attempt
we possibly can to make the necessary accommodations.
Schedule
Key: SYLL: Information found in the syllabus packet
SAKAI: Information found on SAKAI in Resources Section
Week 1
Monday, June 30
Lecture: Introduction to course
Scholarly Research (SYLL)
In-class: Introductions/Formation of exercise groups
Your biggest concerns about writing
Discussion of Summer A accomplishments/remaining tasks
HW: Read: The Scholarly Journal Article (SYLL)
Read Introduction Section of Childrens Perception of Corporal Punishment (SAKAI)
Read Introduction Section of Cause and Effect Beliefs and Self Esteem of Overweight Children (SAKAI)
Wednesday, July 2
Lecture: Research Reports Introduction Section
In-class: Group Exercise: Compare and contrast Introductions of reports Childrens and Cause and Effect
HW: Skim section on Proper Documentation (SYLL)
Read the Introduction Section of The Effect of Galacto-oliosaccharide Supplementation on Intestinal
Microbiota (UF JUR 13.3 (Summer 2012) or SAKAI). and Education, Genetic Ancestry, and Blood
Pressure in African Americans and Whites, Non et al (SAKAI)
Friday, July 4- NO CLASS. Off for Independence Day. Have fun!
Week 2
Monday, July 7
Lecture: Proper Documentation answering remaining questions about this issue already covered in Summer A
Scholarly article overview
In-class: Group Exercise: Critique the Introduction of The Effect of Galacto article.
Begin writing your introduction
HW: Prepare your own Introduction First Draft
Skim Punctuation Section (SYLL)

Read: Introduction section of Willing to Work (SAKAI)

Wednesday, July 9
Due: First Draft of Introduction Due (75 points)
Lecture: Punctuation
In-class: Group Exercise: Evaluate Introduction section of Willing to Work
Individual Exercises: Punctuation Practice
HW: Read: Introduction and Methods sections of Moved by music: A typology of music listeners.
and The collective circle PP. 246-248 (up until the section Relationship Songs) (SAKAI)
Skim: Grammar Tips and Style Tips (SYLL)
Friday, July 11
Lecture: Grammar/Style
Methods Section
In-class: Group Exercise Evaluate Intro sections of Moved by Music and The collective circle
In-class: Style and Grammar Practice
HW: Read Methods Section of Childrens Perception of Corporal Punishment (SAKAI/Resources)
Read the section on Revising your Drafts (SYLL)
Week 3
Monday, July 14
Lecture: Review of First Drafts of Introductions
Revising Drafts
In-class: Work on final drafts of Introduction section.
HW: Work on your Final Draft of Introduction
Read: Methods Section of The Effect of Galacto-oliosaccharide Supplementation on Intestinal Microbiota
(UF JUR 13.3 (Summer 2012)).
Wednesday, July 16
Due: Final Draft of Introduction Due (130 points)
Lecture: Methods Section
In-class: Group Exercise: Evaluate Methods section of The Effect of Galacto
Group Exercise: Evaluate Methods Section of Childrens Perception.
Group Exercise: Write out methods section to describe making a PBJ sandwich.
HW: Read Results and Analysis Section of The Effect of Galacto
Friday, July 18
Lecture: Results and discussion sections/Peer editing
In class: Complete work on evaluating Methods sections of Galacto and Childrens Perception
HW: Complete Methodology rough draft for peer editing
Read results and Discussion Section of The collective circle and Education, Genetic Ancestry, and Blood
Pressure
Week 4
Monday, July 21
Lecture: Results and Discussion Sections
Due: At end of class: your peer edit of your peers methodology section 10 points
In-class: Peer edit rough draft of Methodology section
Group Exercise: Evaluate Results and Discussion Sections
HW:
Continue working on First Draft of Methodology Section
Read remaining sections of Willing to Work
Wednesday, July 23

Due: First Draft of Methodology Section (130 points)

Lecture: Abstracts
In-class: Group Exercise: Prepare an Abstract for an article weve reviewed.
HW: Work on your Analysis (of Results or Discussions) Paper and your Mock abstract

Friday, July 25
Lecture: Abstracts
In-class: Work on your own mock-up Abstract and Your Analysis paper
HW: Complete your Mock-Up Abstract
Week 5
Monday, July 28
Due:
Analysis Paper Results OR Discussion Section of Research Report (55 points)
Mock-up Abstract (55 points)
Lecture: The oral presentation/Project Proposal
In-class: Workshop on oral presentation and/or edit your proposal for final submission
Wednesday, July 30
Due: Proposals of your project due for Dr. Barnes (upload your Abstract/Introduction/Methodology Sections and
your References) on SAKAI. (no grade)
Practice oral presentations
Week 6
Monday, August 5
Final Presentations (last 50 points from Summer As 500 points) dont forget to upload your PowerPoint

Scholarly
Research

TYPES OF SOURCES

Non-Academic

Academic

Print

Electronic

Print

Magazines (such as
Time, Newsweek,
Discover, Scientific
American)
Newspapers
Brochures
Pamphlets

dot.com
information
sites
(such as
healthwatch.
com or
WebMD)

Journals,
periodicals,
books

Electronic
Scholarly
databases,
university
research sites, online academic
(peer-reviewed)
journals

ACADEMIC SOURCES
Databases
Results
Data
Advantages: A quick
way to get data when
you need it
Disadvantages: Not
acceptable as
methodology for all
the research that you
do

Journal Article/Report
Very specific info
Bibliography
Advantages: You can find
exactly the info you need (lit
review, survey*,
methodology, quote for a
specific purpose)
Disadvantages: Timeconsuming to hunt through
numerous journals
Types of Journals:
1. Individual copy
(most recently
published)
2. Bound (a whole year
within one volume)

*Survey: An article or
chapter with an extended
literature review extremely
useful when you first begin
researching a topic!

Books/Conference Collections
In-depth information
Background info
Bibliography
Advantages: Much info in one place
Disadvantages: A single authors
viewpoint (book); time-consuming,
although informative
Types of Books/Collections:
1. Anthologies
a. collections of
articles on a single
topic
b. different authors,
different viewpoints
c. extremely useful for
research
2. Conference Collections
a. Like anthologies,
but printed versions
of conference
papers
b. Up-to-date info
c. Not as polished
(both PhD and grad
student authors)

EVALUATION OF ACADEMIC LITERATURE

Use critical evaluation to help you decide what to read
and whether it is appropriate for your purpose.

1. Pick your sources carefully.

Think about the communication pattern and use the type of literature sources that are
geared toward your purpose: Do you want background information from an
encyclopedia? Current developments in basic current periodicals? Research level
information in research journals and reports?
Ask for advice from someone in the field or a librarian.
Do a quick evaluation of the author and source: Does the author hold a graduate degree in
the field? Is the author's place of employment an institution you know to be doing good
work in this field? Have you generally found quality work by this publisher? Is it a
respected journal? Are articles peer-reviewed? Are references listed for each article?

2. Evaluate each piece of literature.

Read the abstract or summary- to see if the conclusions have application to your needs.
Look over the work to get an idea of its organization or outline. what is the scope of the
work? Are the language and approach suitable? Are their any special features such as
an index, bibliography illustrations and so forth?
After you have read the work, analyze it: Are the methods appropriate for the research?
Are they used correctly? Are there biases or other weaknesses in the methodology? Do
the results seem adequate for the purpose? Are there enough data. and are statistical
tests used appropriately? Are the conclusions clearly stated? Do the conclusions follow
from the results?
Think about the work as a whole: Is the language clear and the tone appropriate? Can you
understand it? Do all parts follow clearly and consistently? How does this work fit into
the subject as a whole and how does it fit with other articles on this particular subject? Is
there anything unique about this work? What contribution does it make?
You may want to get an outside evaluation of the work: Bibliographies and citation
indexes will tell you what other works have cited this work.
3. Use special criteria for evaluating World Wide Web resources.
AUTHORITY- Who is responsible for the information on this page? What are the
qualifications of the author or sponsoring agency?
ACCURACY- Are the sources for factual information clearly listed? Is it obvious who has
ultimate responsibility for the information on the page? Can the same information be
found in another reputable source?
OBJECTIVITY- Is there a bias to the information provided? Is there advertising on the
page?
CURRENCY- When was the page posted? When was the page last updated?
SCOPE- What is included in this web site? What is not included? Look closely at the
informational content. If there is a print equivalent, can you determine if the online
version is as comprehensive?
PURPOSE- Why was this web page created? What can a viewer get out of it?
Remember that when you surf the web you may find anything put out there by anybodyan
authority in the field or a kook!
You will find reliable sources when you use the UF databases. Many of the databases UF makes

available to you are resources that are either produced by the UF Libraries or paid for through
licensing agreements and are not free to everyone. These proprietary databases, delivered on
the web to you as part of the UF community, are produced or marketed under the exclusive legal
right of the producer, and have been carefully chosen for their consistently excellent quality,
authority, accuracy, and currency. Thus, you can better rely upon their credibility.
4. Evaluate the body of literature you have found.
Is it relevant?
Is it appropriate to your needs?
Is it on target for your topic?
Do your sources cover the specific issues within the topic?
Do your sources cover the correct time period?
Do you have up-to-date information?
Is the literature you have found biased towards one point of view (yours or that of specific
authors)?
Do you understand it? Does it make sense?
Do you need more information?

The Scholarly
Journal Article

PARTS OF THE JOURNAL ARTICLE/RESEARCH PAPER

Title
The title serves two main purposes: (1) to attract the potential audience and (2) to
aid in indexing and retrieval. The title should, therefore, contain keywords and enough information for
a computerized title search. Thus you should designate a title that is brief, informative, and
descriptive of the subject matter.
Assign the title of an article or paper after you have completed the paper, so that the title accurately
and clearly reflects the content and emphasis of the work. If possible, choose a keyword for the first
word of the title.
The title must be brief and grammatically correct but accurate and complete enough to stand alone.
Spell out all terms in the title and avoid jargon, symbols, formulas, and abbreviations. Whenever
possible, use familiar words rather than expressions containing superscripts, subscripts, or other
special notations. Do not cite company names, specific trademarks, or brand names of chemicals,
drugs, materials, or instruments. Remove unnecessary words such as "on the, a study of, research
on, "report on," "regarding," and "use of."

Abstract
The abstract is a short summary of the article or paper that potential readers will use to see if they
want to read the entire paper. The abstract may also help index the work into subject categories and
keywords and may appear in indexing journals such as Physics Abstracts. Most journals require an
informative abstract, which summarizes the main findings in 100-200 words. The abstract contains a
summary of the problem, methods used, results, and conclusions and/or discussion.
In an abstract, you should write economically but not telegraphically. That is, do not omit articles such
as "a," "an,,' and "the," and make sure you use complete sentences.
Although the abstract does not substitute for the paper itself, it must be concise, self-contained, and
complete. Do not refer the reader to parts of the paper or to other publications. Do not include
equations, schemes, or structures that require display on a line separate from the text.
Use abbreviations and acronyms only when it is necessary to prevent awkward construction or
needless repetition. Define abbreviations at your first use of them in the abstract and again at first use
in the body of the paper. You should write formally, avoiding the use of first person (`T" and "we")
Instead, use "the author(s)" or other constructions. Try to avoid passive voice.

Introduction
Make the precise subject of the paper clear to your reader as soon as possible in the introduction.
Scientific papers often seek to solve a problem or answer a question. Depending on what you expect
your typical reader knows on the subject, you may or may not find it necessary to include historical
background. Include information only to the extent necessary for the reader to understand your
statement of the subject of the paper.
Somewhere in the introduction, indicate the scope of coverage of the subject. That is, state the limits
within which you treat the subject. This definition of scope may include such things as the ranges of
parameters, any restrictions made upon the general subject covered by the paper, and whether the
work is experimental or theoretical.
State the purpose of the paper. Every legitimate scientific paper has a purpose that distinguishes it

from other papers on the general subject Make clear in the introduction just what this purpose is. You
should inform your reader of the point of view and emphasis of the paper, and what you intend to
accomplish with it.

Materials and Methods (Procedures)

Depending on the particular scientific field (or journal) for which you are writing, you might also see
this section referred to as Experimental Methods, Experimental Section, Experimental Details, or
Theoretical Basis. The aim of this section is to give enough information so that someone in the field
could replicate the study or research experiment, reproduce derivations, or verify numerical results.
Describe the equipment used. Describe apparatus only if it is not standard or not commercially used.
Giving a company name and model number in parentheses is non-distracting and adequate to
identify standard equipment. If appropriate, refer to any preliminary experiments or to references
where the equipment or experimental design has already been discussed.
Include information on any substances or materials used; for example, indicate the purity of
chemicals and their preparations. Use correct names; for example, refer to chemical names. Use
meaningful nomenclature; that is, use standard systematic nomenclature where specificity and
complexity require, or use trivial nomenclature where it will adequately and unambiguously define a
well-established compound. Avoid trade names unless doing so is impractical.
Describe the procedure and conditions of the experiment or study. If writing the steps of new
procedure, be sure you have placed them in the correct, operational order. For example, instead of
"The urn was dated after restructuring, write, "The urn was reconstructed and then dated. You
should also describe the methods used so that others can repeat the experiment. You must be
concise, yet you must not omit essential detail.. If you used "alcohol," say which alcohol. If you filtered
a suspension, say which part was retained.
Note and emphasize any hazards, such as explosive or pyrophoric tendencies and toxicity, in a
separate paragraph introduced by the word "Caution." Include precautionary handling procedures,
special waste disposal procedures, and any other safety considerations in adequate detail so that
workers repeating the experiments can take appropriate safety measures.

Results
The results section describes findings and/or observations. Authors often effectively use graphics
(tables and figures) to display the data collected during the research study or experiment. While
graphics play an important role in the results section, the narrative (or text) should be more than a
thin thread of sentences connecting the data displayed in the tables and figures. Fully summarize in
words the data collected and their statistical treatment. In this summary, you should reference and
explain each table or figure in the text. Point out the important points about the graphic.
In the results section, include only relevant data, but give sufficient detail to justify your conclusions.
(Your conclusions will appear in the next section; thus, do not interpret your data in the results section
but wait until the discussion in the conclusions section). Authors often find themselves tempted to
explain why they got the results they did before the discussion section. However, you should merely
report the data in the results section; do not interpret or explain them.
Each journal has its own set of rules regarding the use of graphics, so be sure to refer to these
guidelines and carefully adhere to them when writing for publication. You should also consult the style
manuals within your field to design, incorporate, and explain any tables and figures in your paper.
Some general rules regarding graphics include the following:
1. Reference and explain each graphic by number in the narrative of the paper.
2. Number tables consecutively throughout the paper. Also number figures consecutively.
(Generally, tables present large quantities of numerical data that can best be illustrated in a
format using columns and rows; figures include anything that is not a table: drawings,

diagrams, charts, graphs, photos, etc.)

3. Any graphic taken out of context should make sense to the reader; that is, you will want to
carefully craft the title, legends, footnotes, and the construction of the graphic so that the
reader will find it understandable.
4. All graphics should enhance and clarify the presentation of the data.

Discussion and Conclusions*

The discussion section interprets and evaluates the data contained in the results section. Conclusions
are convictions based on evidence. Make certain that your conclusions flow logically from the data
presented in the paper. In this section, you should guide your reader through a logical path between
the data you collected and the conclusions you have drawn from them.
Be objective; point out the features and limitations of the study or experiment. Relate your results to
current knowledge in the field and to your original purpose in undertaking the project. Have you
solved the problem? What exactly have you contributed? Enlarge upon the significance of your new
results and explain how they wilt add to existing knowledge. Briefly state the logical implications of
your results and suggest further study or applications.
You will gracefully conclude your paper if your final sentence introduces no new thought but
satisfactorily rounds off all that has gone before. Especially, avoid triteness, rote repetition, or clichd
phrases in this final section. Remember that you will leave your reader with these final words, so
avoid duplicating large portions of the introduction in the conclusion. Most readers find verbatim
repetition boring, falsely pat, and even insulting.
* Some journals include separate Discussion and Conclusions sections.

Proper
Documentation

Documentation
Reasons for Documentation
1. To avoid plagiarism
2. To aid other researchers
3. To establish credibility for your own work
Kinds of Documentation
In-text citations
References (or Works Cited)
Characteristics of Scholarly articles (i.e., refereed or peer-reviewed)
Abstract at the beginning
In-text citations
References at end

Proper Use of Sources for ENC 3254

When you write a research paper, you must acknowledge the people who wrote the articles and
other sources that you use in your paper. If you don't acknowledge, or cite, your sources, you are
guilty of plagiarism, a serious academic offense.
Plagiarism usually occurs in one of the following ways:
1. Writers fail to cite quotations and borrowed ideas (the source is not acknowledged),
2. Writers fail to put quotations marks around direct quotes, and
3. Writers fail to put summaries and paraphrases in their own words (they use phrases and
words directly from the source).
Summarizing
When you write a summary, you restate the author's main ideas in your own words. Summaries
of long passages or even entire articles are commonly used in research writing. A summary of a
passage may be several sentences, whereas a summary of an article might be several
paragraphs.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Include only the author's main points.

Keep your own ideas out of the summary.
Do not change the author's meaning in any way.
Use your own writing style and wording.
Use quotation marks around key words and phrases that are the author's own words.
Use present tense with the author's name (Peterson says... or The author believes. . ).

Paraphrasing
When you paraphrase, you also use your own words to restate the author's ideas. However, short
passages are usually paraphrased, and the paraphrase contains all the ideas in the passage, not
just the main ideas. Your paraphrase of a passage would be approximately the same length as
the author's original passage. (In a summary, you would leave out many of the details, and you
would produce a summary much shorter than the original passage.)
Writers must be careful not to use word phrases that are too close to the original source when
paraphrasing. The following examples show an unacceptable paraphrase and an acceptable
paraphrase.

Original source:
Caspers Wilderness Park was closed to minors in 1992 after the family of a girl severely mauled
there in 1986 won a suit against the county. The award of $2.1 million for the mountain lion attack on
Laura Small, who was 5 at the time, was later reduced to $1.5 million.
-Reyes and Messina, "More Warning Signs," p. B 1
Unacceptable paraphrase:
Reyes and Messina report that Gaspers Wilderness Park was closed to children in 1992 after the
family of a girl brutally mauled there in 1986 sued the county. The family was ultimately awarded
$1.5 million for the mountain lion assault on Laura Small, who was 5 at the time (B1).
[Too many phrases have been lifted word-for-word; this paraphrase is considered plagiarism.]
Acceptable paraphrase:
In 1992, officials banned minors from Caspers Wilderness Park. Reyes and Messina explain that
park officials took this measure after a mountain lion attack on a child led to a lawsuit. The child, fiveyear-old Laura Small, was attacked by a mountain lion in 1986, and her parents sued the county.
Eventually, they received an award of $1.5 million (B1).

Quoting
When you quote, you use the author's exact words. Direct quotes should not be overused.
Generally, no more than 10% of your paper should be comprised of quotes. Save quotes for
material that the author has expressed especially well and which will make a strong impact
on your reader. Use summary and paraphrase to communicate the majority of the information in
your report.
Rules to remember when quoting:
1. Direct quotes must be enclosed with quotation marks.
2. Direct quotes must be attached to a signal phrase (some of your own words).
3. The signal phrase and the quote must flow together to make grammatically correct
sentence.
4. The author's name and the page number must be included (in-text citation).
The following passage illustrates the MLA format for using a direct quote:
California law prevents the killing of mountain lions except for specific lions that have been shown
to be a threat to humans or livestock. Wildlife officer Tony Perry points out that, ironically, "The
Fish and Game Commission is even blocked from keeping mountain lions from killing the
endangered desert bighorn sheep" (B4).
[Think of the underlined phrase as the signal phraseit signals that a quotation will follow.]
In-text citations
You must cite all information used in your report. When summarizing, paraphrasing, or
quoting, include the author's name (or authors' names) and the page number(s) for MLA;
the author's name or names and the year for APA; or the number the s ource refers to in
your reference list for the hard sciences. In the example above, the author's name is in
the signal phrase, and the page number is in parentheses at the end of the sentence.
If the author's name does not appear in your signal phrase, the name is included in the
parentheses with the page number. The following is an example of a paraphrase where
the author's name is placed in the parentheses because it is not included in the sentence
itself:

Though the number of lion attacks on humans is low, the rate of increase of attacks since the
1960s is cause for serious concern (Rychnovsky 43).
[MLA style]
Pay close attention to the punctuation of quotes and parenthetical citations. There is no
comma between the author's name and the page number within the parentheses, and the
end punctuation for the sentence comes after the closing parenthesis.
References
When you use sources in a paper, at the end of your paper you include a reference list of
all the sources used, listed alphabetically according to the authors' last names, or listed
numerically in the order in which the reference is cited in your paper. This list includes
the complete bibliographic record of each source: author(s)' name or name, title of the
book or article, magazine or journal title, publisher (for books), and date.

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revision by Karl Stolley. Last edited by Karl Stolley on September 28th 2006 at 2:44PM)

Avoiding Plagiarism
Summary: There are few intellectual offenses more serious than plagiarism in academic and
professional contexts. This resource offers advice on how to avoid plagiarism in your work.
1. Overview and Contradictions
Research-based writing in American institutions, both educational and corporate, is filled with
rules that writers, particularly beginners, aren't aware of or don't know how to follow. Many of
these rules have to do with research and proper citation. Gaining a familiarity of these rules,
however, is critically important, as inadvertent mistakes can lead to charges of plagiarism, which
is the uncredited use (both intentional and unintentional) of somebody else's words or ideas.
While some cultures may not insist so heavily on documenting sources of words, ideas, images,
sounds, etc., American culture does. A charge of plagiarism can have severe consequences,
including expulsion from a university or loss of a job, not to mention a writer's loss of credibility
and professional standing. This resource, which does not reflect any official university policy, is
designed to help you develop strategies for knowing how to avoid accidental plagiarism. For
instructors seeking a key statement on definitions and avoidance on plagiarism, see Defining and
Avoiding Plagiarism: The WPA Statement on Best Practices.
[University of Florida students will want to make sure that they are familiar with UF's official
academic dishonesty policy as well as with any additional policies that their instructors have
implemented.]
Intellectual Challenges in American Academic Writing
There are some intellectual challenges that all students are faced with when writing. Sometimes
these challenges can almost seem like contradictions, particularly when addressing them within a
single paper. For example, American teachers often instruct students to:

Develop a topic based on what has already been said and written but write something
new and original
Rely on opinions of experts and authorities on a topic but improve upon and/or disagree
with those same opinions
Give credit to researchers who have come before you but make your own significant
contribution
Improve your English or fit into a discourse community by building upon what you hear
and read but use your own words and your own voice

2. Is It Plagiarism Yet?
There are some actions that can almost unquestionably be labeled plagiarism. Some of these
include buying, stealing, or borrowing a paper (including, of course, copying an entire paper or
article from the Web); hiring someone to write your paper for you; and copying large
sections of text from a source without quotation marks or proper citation.

But then there are actions that are usually in more of a gray area. Some of these include using
the words of a source too closely when paraphrasing (where quotation marks should have been
used) or building on someone's ideas without citing their spoken or written work. Sometimes
teachers suspecting students of plagiarism will consider the students' intent, and whether it
appeared the student was deliberately trying to make ideas of others appear to be his or her own.
However, other teachers and administrators may not distinguish between deliberate and
accidental plagiarism. So let's look at some strategies for avoiding even suspicion of plagiarism in
the first place
When Do We Give Credit?
The key to avoiding plagiarism is to make sure you give credit where it is due. This may be credit
for something somebody said, wrote, emailed, drew, or implied. Many professional organizations,
including the Modern Language Association and the American Psychological Association, have
lengthy guidelines for citing sources. However, students are often so busy trying to learn the rules
of MLA format and style or APA format and style that they sometimes forget exactly what needs
to be credited. Here, then, is a brief list of what needs to be credited or documented:
Words or ideas presented in a magazine, book, newspaper, song, TV program, movie,
Web page, computer program, letter, advertisement, or any other medium

Information you gain through interviewing or conversing with another person, face to
face, over the phone, or in writing
When you copy the exact words or a unique phrase
When you reprint any diagrams, illustrations, charts, pictures, or other visual materials
When you reuse or repost any electronically-available media, including images, audio,
video, or other media

Bottom line, document any words, ideas, or other productions that originate somewhere outside
of you.
There are, of course, certain things that do not need documentation or credit, including:

Writing your own lived experiences, your own observations and insights, your own
thoughts, and your own conclusions about a subject
When you are writing up your own results obtained through lab or field experiments
When you use your own artwork, digital photographs, video, audio, etc.
When you are using "common knowledge," things like folklore, common sense
observations, myths, urban legends, and historical events (but not historical documents)
When you are using generally-accepted facts, e.g., pollution is bad for the environment,
including facts that are accepted within particular discourse communities, e.g., in the field
of composition studies, "writing is a process" is a generally-accepted fact.

Deciding if Something is "Common Knowledge"

Generally speaking, you can regard something as common knowledge if you find the same
information undocumented in at least five credible sources. Additionally, it might be common
knowledge if you think the information you're presenting is something your readers will already
know, or something that a person could easily find in general reference sources. But when in
doubt, cite; if the citation turns out to be unnecessary, your teacher or editor will tell you.
3. Safe Practices
Most students, of course, don't intend to plagiarize. In fact, most realize that citing sources
actually builds their credibility for an audience and even helps writers to better grasp information

relevant to a topic or course of study. Mistakes in citation and crediting can still happen, so here
are certain practices that can help you not only avoid plagiarism, but even improve the efficiency
and organization of your research and writing.

Best Practices for Research and Drafting

Reading and Note-Taking

In your notes, always mark someone else's words with a big Q, for quote, or use big
quotation marks
Indicate in your notes which ideas are taken from sources with a big S, and which are
your own insights (ME)
When information comes from sources, record relevant documentation in your notes
(book and article titles; URLs on the Web)

Interviewing and Conversing

Take lots of thorough notes; if you have any of your own thoughts as you're interviewing,
mark them clearly
If your subject will allow you to record the conversation or interview (and you have proper
clearance to do so through an Institutional Review Board, or IRB), place your recording
device in an optimal location between you and the speaker so you can hear clearly when
you review the recordings. Test your equipment, and bring plenty of backup batteries and
media.
If you're interviewing via email, retain copies of the interview subject's emails as well as
the ones you send in reply
Make any additional, clarifying notes immediately after the interview has concluded

Writing Paraphrases or Summaries

Use a statement that credits the source somewhere in the paraphrase or summary, e.g.,
According to Jonathan Kozol, ....
If you're having trouble summarizing, try writing your paraphrase or summary of a text
without looking at the original, relying only on your memory and notes
Check your paraphrase or summary against the original text; correct any errors in content
accuracy, and be sure to use quotation marks to set off any exact phrases from the
original text
Check your paraphrase or summary against sentence and paragraph structure, as
copying those is also considered plagiarism.
Put quotation marks around any unique words or phrases that you cannot or do not want
to change, e.g., "savage inequalities" exist throughout our educational system (Kozol).

Writing Direct Quotations

Keep the source author's name in the same sentence as the quote
Mark the quote with quotation marks, or set it off from your text in its own block, per the
style guide your paper follows
Quote no more material than is necessary; if a short phrase from a source will suffice,
don't quote an entire paragraph
To shorten quotes by removing extra information, use ellipsis points (...) to indicate
omitted text, keeping in mind that:
o MLA style requires ellipsis points to appear in brackets, e.g., [...].
o three ellipsis points indicates an in-sentence ellipsis, and four points for an
ellipsis between two sentences

To give context to a quote or otherwise add wording to it, place added words in brackets,
[]; be careful not to editorialize or make any additions that skew the original meaning of
the quotedo that in your main text, e.g.,
o OK: Kozol claims there are "savage inequalities" in our educational system,
which is obvious.
o WRONG: Kozol claims there are "[obvious] savage inequalities" in our
educational system.
Use quotes that will have the most rhetorical, argumentative impact in your paper; too
many direct quotes from sources may weaken your credibility, as though you have
nothing to say yourself, and will certainly interfere with your style

Writing About Another's Ideas

Note the name of the idea's originator in the sentence or throughout a paragraph about
the idea
Use parenthetical citations, footnotes, or endnotes to refer readers to additional sources
about the idea, as necessary
Be sure to use quotation marks around key phrases or words that the idea's originator
used to describe the idea

Maintaining Drafts of Your Paper

Sometimes innocent, hard-working students are accused of plagiarism because a dishonest
student steals their work. This can happen in all kinds of ways, from a roommate copying files off
of your computer, to someone finding files on a disk or pen drive left in a computer lab. Here are
some practices to keep your own intellectual property safe:

Do not save your paper in the same file over and over again; use a numbering system
and the Save As... function. E.g., you might have research_paper001.doc,
research_paper002.doc, research_paper003.doc as you progress. Do the same thing for
any HTML files you're writing for the Web. Having multiple draft versions may help prove
that the work is yours (assuming you are being ethical in how you cite ideas in your
work!).
Maintain copies of your drafts in numerous media, and different secure locations when
possible; don't just rely on your hard drive or pen drive.
Password-protect your computer; if you have to leave a computer lab for a quick
bathroom break, hold down the Windows key and L to lock your computer without logging
out.
Password-protect your files; this is possible in all sorts of programs, from Adobe Acrobat
to Microsoft word (just be sure not to forget the password!)

Revising, Proofreading, and Finalizing Your Paper

Proofread and cross-check with your notes and sources to make sure that anything
coming from an outside source is acknowledged in some combination of the following
ways:
1. In-text citation, otherwise known as parenthetical citation
2. Footnotes or endnotes
3. Bibliography, References, or Works Cited pages
4. Quotation marks around short quotes; longer quotes set off by themselves, as
prescribed by a research and citation style guide
5. Indirect quotations: citing a source that cites another source
If you have any questions about citation, ask your instructor well in advance of your
paper's due date, so if you have to make any adjustments to your citations, you have the
time to do them well.

4. Safe Practices: An Exercise

Read over each the following passages, and respond on your own or as a class as to whether or
not it uses citations accurately. If it doesn't, what would you do to improve the passage so it's
properly cited?
1. Last summer, my family and I traveled to Chicago, which was quite different from the
rural area I grew up in. We saw the dinosaur Sue at the Field Museum, and ate pizza at
Gino's East.
2. Americans want to create a more perfect union; they also want to establish justice,
ensure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare,
and secure the blessings of liberty for everybody.
3. I find it ridiculous that 57% of high school students think their teachers assign too
much homework.

Numbers 4, 5, and 6 all refer to the following passage from Martin Luther King's "Letter from the
Birmingham Jail":
You deplore the demonstrations taking place in Birmingham. But your statement, I am
sorry to say, fails to express a similar concern for the conditions that brought about the
demonstrations. I am sure that none of you would want to rest content with the superficial
kind of social analysis that deals merely with effects and does not grapple with underlying
causes. It is unfortunate that demonstrations are taking place in Birmingham, but it is
even more unfortunate that the city's white power structure left the Negro community with
no alternative.
4. Martin Luther King was certain that nobody would want to be contented with a surfacy
type of social analysis that concerns itself only with effects and doesn't deal with root
causes.
5. Martin Luther King wrote that the city of Birmingham's "white power structure" left
African-Americans there "no alternative" but to demonstrate ("Letter from the Birmingham
Jail" para. 5).
6. In "Letter from the Birmingham Jail," King writes to fellow clergy saying that
although they "deplore the demonstrations taking place in Birmingham, your statement
fails to express a similar concern for the conditions that brought about the
demonstrations."
7. My friend Kara told me that she loves living so close to the ocean.
8. Americans are guaranteed the right to freely gather for peaceful meetings.

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HOW NOT TO PLAGIARIZE

You've already heard the warnings about plagiarism. Obviously it's against the rules to buy essays
or copy from your friends homework, and it's also plagiarism to borrow passages from books or
articles or websites without identifying them. You know that the purpose of any paper is to show
your own thinking, not create a patchwork of borrowed ideas. But you may still be wondering how
you're supposed to give proper references to all the reading you've done and all the ideas you've
encountered.
The point of documenting sources in academic papers is not just to avoid unpleasant visits to the
Dean's office, but to demonstrate that you know what is going on in your field of study. Get credit
for having done your reading! Precise documentation is also a courtesy to your readers because it
lets them look at the material you've found. That's especially important for Internet sources.
The different systems for typing up references are admittedly a nuisance. See the handout
Standard Documentation Formats for an overview. But the real challenge is establishing the
relationship of your thinking to the reading you've done. Here are some common questions and
basic answers.
1. Can't I avoid problems just by listing every source in the reference list?
No, you need to integrate your acknowledgements into your own writing. Give the reference as soon as
youve mentioned the idea youre using, not just at the end of the paragraph. Its often a good idea
to name the authors (X states and Y argues against X) and then indicate your own stand (A
more inclusive perspective, however, . . . ). The examples on the next page demonstrate various
wordings for doing this. Have a look at journal articles in your discipline to see how experts refer to
their sources.
2. If I put the ideas into my own words, do I still have to clog up my pages with all those names
and numbers?
Sorryyes, you do. In academic papers, you need to keep mentioning authors and pages and dates to show
how your ideas are related to those of the experts. It's sensible to use your own words because that
saves space and lets you connect ideas smoothly. But whether you quote a passage directly in
quotation marks, paraphrase it closely in your own words, or just summarize it rapidly, you need to
identify the source then and there. (That applies to Internet sources too: you still need author and
date as well as title and URL. The handout Standard Documentation Formats gives examples for a
range of types.)
3. But I didn't know anything about the subject until I started this paper. Do I have to give an
acknowledgement for every point I make?
Youre safer to over-reference than to skimp. But you can cut down the clutter by recognizing that some
ideas are common knowledge in the fieldthat is, taken for granted by people knowledgeable
about the topic. Facts easily found in standard reference books are considered common knowledge:
the date of the Armistice for World War I, for example, or the present population of Canada. You
dont need to name a specific source for them, even if you learned them only when doing your
research. Theyre easily verified and not likely to be controversial. In some disciplines, information
covered in class lectures doesn't need acknowledgement. Some interpretive ideas may also be so
well accepted that you don't need to name a specific source: that Picasso is a distinguished
modernist painter, for instance, or that smoking is harmful to health. Check with your professor or
TA if you're in doubt whether a specific point is considered common knowledge in your field.
From the Code of Behaviour on Academic Matters:
It shall be an offence for a student knowingly:
(d) to represent as one's own any idea or expression of an idea or work of another in any
academic examination or term test or in connection with any other form of academic work,
i.e. to commit plagiarism.
Wherever in the Code an offence is described as depending on knowing, the offence shall
likewise be deemed to have been committed if the person ought reasonably to have known.
4. How can I tell what's my own idea and what has come from somebody else?
Careful record-keeping helps. Always write down the author, title and publication information (including the URL
and other identifying information for web pages) so you can attach names and dates to specific ideas.

Taking good notes is also essential. Dont paste passages from web sources into your draft: thats
asking for trouble. As you read any textonline or hard-copysummarize useful points in your own
words. If you record a distinctive phrase or sentence you might want to quote, put quotation marks
around it in your notes to remind yourself that you're copying the author's exact words. And make a
deliberate effort as you read to notice connections among ideas, especially contrasts and
disagreements, and to jot down questions or thoughts of your own. If you find as you write that youre
following one or two of your sources too closely, deliberately look back in your notes for other sources
that take different views; then write about the differences and why they exist.
5. So what exactly do I have to document?
With experience reading academic prose, you'll soon get used to the ways writers in your field refer to their
sources. Here are the main times you should give acknowledgements. (Youll notice many different
formats in the following examples; see the sheet "Standard Documentation Formats" for advice on these
systems.)
a. Quotations, paraphrases, or summaries:
If you use the authors exact words, enclose them in quotation marks, or indent passages of more than
four lines. But its seldom worthwhile to use long quotations. In literary studies, quote a few words at a
time and comment on them. In other disciplines, quote only when the original words are especially
memorable. In most cases, use your own words to summarize the idea you want to discuss,
emphasizing the points relevant to your argument. Be sure to name sources even when you are not
using the exact original words. As in the examples below, it's often a good idea to mention the author's
name. That gains you some reflected authority and indicates where the borrowing starts and stops.
e.g. As Morris puts it in The Human Zoo (1983), we can always be sure that today's daring
innovation will be tomorrow's respectability (p. 189).
[APA system]
e.g. Northrop Frye discusses comedy in terms of the spring spirit, which he sees as representing
renewal and integration (Anatomy 163). The ending of The Tempest fits this pattern.
[new MLA system]
b. Specific ideas used as evidence for your argument or interpretation:
First consider whether the ideas you're mentioning are common knowledge according to the definition
in point 3 above; if so, you may not need to give a reference. But when you're relying on ideas that
might be disputed by people in your discipline, establish that they're trustworthy by referring to
authoritative sources.
e.g. In September 1914, more than 1300 skirmishes were recorded on the Western Front.8
[traditional endnote/footnote system]
e.g. Other recent researchers (4,11,12) confirm the finding that drug treatment has little effect in the
treatment of pancreatic pseudocysts. [numbered-note system for biomedical sciences]
c. Distinctive or authoritative ideas, whether you agree with them or not:
The way you introduce the reference can indicate your attitude and lead into your own argument.
e.g. In 1966, Ramsay Cook asserted that Canada was in a period of instability (174). That period is
not yet over, judging by the same criteria of electoral changeability, economic uncertainty, and
confusion in policy decisions.
[new MLA system]
e.g. One writer (Von Daniken, 1970) even argues that the Great Pyramid was built for the practical
purpose of guiding navigation.
[APA system]

(Prepared July 2006 by Dr. Margaret Procter, U of T Coordinator of Writing Support, for use at the University of
Toronto. This handout and many others giving advice on academic writing are available online from the list at
www.utoronto.ca/writing/advise.html. )

Punctuation

 1999 Gary A. Olson

Available online at http://lilt.ilstu.edu/golson/punctuation/
(The site is hosted by: The College of Arts & Sciences at Illinois State University)

INTRODUCTION
Some people write well but allow themselves to be disabled by a fear of punctuation and grammar. They
know how to prewrite, organize, and revise, but proofreading for punctuation and grammar causes them
difficulties. Theres no need to fear these conventions of standard written English. In fact, these
conventions can help you become a more effective communicator.
Punctuating Your Prose
Before discussing specific punctuation marks, we want you to know one important fact: punctuation is
simple. Many people believe that punctuation rules are rigid commandments and that only the experts
know all the rules. You may be surprised to learn, however, that it is not the experts but rather
educated speakers and writers, such as yourself, who have established the practices that have come to
be known as the rules of punctuation. In other words, over the years good writers have used
punctuation in ways that have made their messages especially clear to their readers. Writers have
agreed to follow these practices because they have proven to be so effective.
As an analogy, think of the traffic signs that govern the rules of the road. When you see a red blinking
light or an octagonally shaped red sign, you bring your vehicle to a full stop; when you see a blinking
yellow light, you proceed with caution. These traffic rules help make driving safe and efficient. But
theres no reason why a red blinking light signifies a complete stop; it well could have been any other
color. The caution light, too, could very well have been another color. The important fact to remember is
that drivers have agreed to follow these signals and to do certain things when they come upon them.
The same is true with punctuation marks: writers have agreed that certain marks will signify specific
things in written communication.
The rules of punctuation are not static; they have changed throughout the years and will continue to
change. What once might have been considered improper punctuation may now be considered correct.
The rules of punctuation are created and maintained by writers to help make their prose more effective,
and their exact meaning changes over time, just as traffic rules evolve with time. (For example, in many
states it is now acceptable to make a right turn at a red light if no oncoming vehicles are in sight.) At
any point in time, a particular punctuation mark means what writers agree it means; as consensus
shifts, so will its meaning.
If you approach punctuation with this understanding of its origin and flexibility, you will not be
intimidated by the conventions of punctuation.
In Punctuation Made Simple, we discuss several of the most useful punctuation marks that you will
use as a communicator. Instead of listing many rules, as a grammar book does, we discuss these
various marks in general so that you can get a sense of how to use them in your own prose. Of course,

every communicator should own and use a grammar handbook as a reference tool. You will still want to
refer to such a book when you come upon a particularly difficult punctuation problem. Here, however,
we are most concerned with helping you develop a feel for the way punctuation works.

The Colon
You might be surprised to learn that the colon is one of the most helpful and easiest to use of all the
punctuation marks. You dont need to remember six or seven rules to understand how a colon works. In
prose, a colon really does only one thing: it introduces. It can introduce just about anything: a word, a
phrase, a sentence, a quotation, or a list. Youll notice that weve used colons in the two preceding
sentences to introduce a sentence, in the first case, and a list, in the second case. This is how simple
the colon is. Lets look at some other examples:
Joe
Joe
Joe
Joe

has
has
has
has

only one thing on his mind: profit.

only one thing on his mind: his stock portfolio.
only one thing on his mind: he wants to get rich.
three things on his mind: stocks, bonds, and certificates of deposit.

We have used a colon in these four sentences to introduce various kinds of things: a word, a phrase, a
sentence, and a list. You can use a colon in your prose in any place where you must directly introduce
something. A colon gives special emphasis to whatever youre introducing because readers must first
come to a stop, and so they pay more attention to it. For example, lets say you are writing a letter
describing a product, and you want to emphasize above all that this product, the Jacobsen lawn mower,
is reliable. You could very well write:
The Jacobsen lawn mower beats its competitors especially in the key area of reliability.
While this sentence gets the point across, it doesnt place much emphasis on reliability. A sentence
using a colon is much more emphatic:
The Jacobsen lawn mower beats its competitors especially in one key area: reliability.
Notice that the second example places clear emphasis on the point that the writer is trying to
communicate to his or her reader: that the Jacobsen lawn mower is above all reliable. The writer of this
sentence has used the colon effectively.
Perhaps the most common way to use a colon is to introduce a list of items, as in this sentence:
This report reviews five main criteria to determine whether to purchase the IBM PC: hardware,
software, maintenance agreements, service, and customer support.
If you arent sure whether you need a colon in a particular sentence, here is a handy test: read the
sentence, and when you reach the colon, substitute the word namely; if the sentence reads through
smoothly, then theres a good chance that you do need a colon. For example, you can read any of the
example sentences above with the word namely in the place of the colon:
Joe
Joe
Joe
Joe

has
has
has
has

only one thing on his mind [namely] profit.

only one thing on his mind [namely] his stock portfolio.
only one thing on his mind [namely] he wants to get rich.
three things on his mind [namely] stocks, bonds, and certificates of deposit.

This test may not work 100 percent of the time, but it is a fairly reliable indicator of whether you need a
colon.
One word of caution: do not place the colon after the verb in a sentence, even when you are introducing
something, because the verb itself introduces and the colon would be redundant. For example, you
would not write:
My three favorite friends are: Evelyn, Marlyne, and Ronni.
The colon is not necessary in the sentence above because the verb does the work of introducing the
three friends. You can check this sentence by using the test we just mentioned. It would seem awkward
to read this sentence, My three favorite friends are, namely, Evelyn, Marlyne, and Ronni. The fact that
the sentence is awkward when you read it with namely is an indication that the colon is unnecessary.
Remember, the colon shows emphasis and, therefore, you want the reader to stop at the colon before
proceeding on to whatever it is you are introducing.

The Semicolon
The semicolon is another important tool you can use when you write. There are two ways to use this
punctuation mark: as a connector between two sentences and as a supercomma.
1) To Connect Two Sentences
The semicolon is most often used to connect two sentences. Obviously, the sentences ought to be
relatively close in content, but other than that you can connect any two sentences with a semicolon.
The diagram below may help you remember this usage:

SENTENCE

SENTENCE

As a communicator, you are always putting together complex items in your prose and showing how they
relate to one another. A semicolon is an economical way to join two sentences, and therefore two ideas,
so that your reader sees the relationship. For example, you may write any of the following sentences:
Jim is a good typist; he makes few mistakes.
The AFC Corporation is an excellent company to invest in; its investments have risen sharply
and steadily over each of the last ten years.
Ms. Sanchez is a successful real estate salesperson; however, she was unable to sell her own
house.
Each of the three examples above contains two sentences glued together by a semicolon. The second
part of each sentence makes a comment on the first. Certainly, each sentence could be written as two
sentences, but you wouldnt be expressing the close relationship between the two parts that you do
when you use a semicolon. With two separate sentences, the reader must stop at the period of the first
sentence and then begin to read the second; with two sentences connected by a semicolon, the reader
does not come to a full stop and, therefore, the relationship seems that much closer. Also, this type of
sentence allows you to express your ideas economically.

The important point to remember is that you must have a complete sentence on both sides of the
semicolon. If your second sentence begins with a conjunction (and, but, or, etc.), you do not need a
semicolon because the conjunction and the comma that usually goes with it are equivalent to a
semicolon. Instead, combine two full sentences with the semicolon.
Sometimes a sentence may begin with words like however, therefore, and nevertheless. If your second
sentence begins with one of these words, and if it is indeed a full sentence, you still must use a
semicolon to connect the two. The sentence about Ms. Sanchez illustrates this use.
A word of caution: never glue two sentences together with only a comma. Grammarians call this
sentence error a comma splice. Here is an example of two sentences connected with only a comma:
The banking community became quite upset at the rise in the prime rate, bankers felt that they
would ultimately lose a considerable amount of money.
A comma splice is considered ungrammatical because the reader begins reading the second sentence
before realizing that the first sentence is completed. Readers are used to stopping at the end of a
sentence, and they become disoriented when they find that they have unknowingly left one sentence
and entered a new one. This is why effective writers avoid the comma splice. Here are two additional
examples of comma splices:
Ms. Linccini is a fine worker, she meets all her deadlines.
Our sales have increased by twenty percent, our inventory has been reduced by thirty percent.
Each of the examples above constitutes two sentences glued together with a comma. You can correct a
comma splice by inserting a semicolon between the two sentences, by adding a comma to your
conjunction, or, of course, by punctuating them as two sentences. Whichever way you choose, however,
you must make sure your final drafts do not contain comma splices.
There is one instance in which a comma splice is considered acceptable. Occasionally, you may have a
list of items that could stand alone as full sentences. You may use commas to attach these items so long
as it is clear to the reader that this is a list of relatively equal items. Here is an example:
I opened the safe door, I took out the money pouch, and I concealed it in my desk drawer.
The example above shows a list of three items and illustrates a step-by-step process. Even though the
items all constitute full sentences, it is acceptable to use commas to attach them but only because they
are members of a larger list. If you are unsure about using commas to connect sentences in a list,
perhaps it is best to rewrite the sentence. Do, however, stay alert for any two sentences in your prose
that are connected by only a comma.
Related to the comma splice is the run-on sentence. Run-on sentences, often called fused sentences,
are two sentences punctuated as if they were one. In other words, a run-on is a comma splice without
the comma--two sentences smashed together with no punctuation between them. Here are two sample
run-ons:
Chu Lie is the foreman Joseph Garcia is the line boss.
I knew that the new personnel policy would cause problems the union is reacting quite
vehemently.

As you can see, each of the two samples above is composed of two sentences. The writer should have
connected the sentences with a semicolon or punctuated them as separate sentences. Again, you dont
have to worry about such matters until the proofreading stage, but you must make sure your final draft
doesnt contain run-on sentences.
2) As Supercomma
As you know, you normally separate the members of a list with commas, as in this sentence:
I have just bought shares in IBM, USAG, and ITT.
The commas let the reader know where one item ends and the next begins. Sometimes, however, you
have a list of complex items and one (or more) of the items already contains a comma. In such a case,
the reader is likely to get confused about what is really a member of the list and what is not. You can
avoid this confusion by making the semicolon a sort ofsupercomma.Look at the sentence below to see
how the supercomma works:
Suncom Corporation has subsidiaries in four cities: New York, New York, Wilmington, Ohio,
Houston, Texas, and San Francisco, California.
This sentence contains so many commas, both between the members of the list and within them, that
readers are likely to become confused. Instead, you can make the semicolon a supercomma between
each of the members so that your meaning is clear:
Suncom Corporation has subsidiaries in four cities: New York, New York; Wilmington, Ohio;
Houston, Texas; and San Francisco, California.
The second sentence is clearer than the first because the reader knows exactly where members of the
list begin and end. You probably will not need to use a semicolon as a supercomma often, but if your
sentence contains a list of items, one (or more) of which already contains a comma, you can clarify your
meaning by using the supercomma.

The Commas
The comma tells the reader to pause, just as the blinking yellow light tells a driver to slow down and
proceed with caution. Some writers can tell where a comma is needed by reading their prose aloud and
inserting a comma where there seems to be a clear pause in the sentence. This may work much of the
time if you read the sentence carefully and accurately. However, this procedure is not the most precise
way to approach comma usage. Below are four general ways to use commas with a reasonable degree
of certainty.
1) Between Items in a Series
When you are listing three or more items in a sentence, simply place a comma between each member of
the list. Here are two examples:
Mr. Sanchez used the money that he won from the sweepstakes to buy a house, a car, and a
small yacht.
We will purchase the stock if the price is lowered to $30 per share, if we are allowed to buy a
block of over 10,000 shares, and if we receive a guarantee that no new shares will be created in
the next fiscal year.

The commas above clearly mark where one member of the list leaves off and the next one begins. There
is no mystery in how to use the comma in these kinds of sentences. What is often unclear, however, is
whether to include the comma between the last and second-to-last items in a list. In the past, it was
considered improper to omit the final comma in a series, but modern writers believe that the
conjunction (and, but, or) does the same thing as a comma: it marks the place between two items in
the set. These writers have argued that a sentence is more economical without an unneeded comma. As
a result, you now have the option to choose whether to include the final comma.
Nevertheless, many people still follow the old rule and expect to see the final comma. Also, if your list is
rather complex, omitting the comma may confuse the reader about where the second-to-last item
leaves off and the last begins. In this case, of course, you would want to include the comma in order to
avoid confusion. Perhaps it is best to get into the habit of always using the comma between the last two
items in order to avoid all controversy. You do, however, have the option to omit it.
2) Between Two Sentences
Youll remember that a semicolon is used to connect two sentences. However, more often we glue two
sentences together with a comma and conjunction (such as and or but). In fact, if you examine a
document you have written recently, you are likely to find many such sentences; theyre so common
that you dont even realize you are writing them. When you do put two sentences together with a
conjunction, you must also include a comma. That is, the conjunction and comma are equivalent to a
semicolon when youre connecting sentences. Here are three examples:
The Suncom Corporation has just acquired the OILCO company, and it has agreed to sell
OILCOs oil-drilling rights in Texas as soon as possible.
I knew that the price of IBM stock would increase after it entered the home computer market,
but I had no idea that the price would skyrocket.
I first conducted a thorough audit of the company, and I then interviewed the manager to try to
determine how much money was missing.
Each sentence above is made up of two sentences glued together with a comma and conjunction. For
example, the first sentence is made up of the following:
The Suncom Corporation has just acquired the OILCO company.
It has agreed to sell OILCOs oil-drilling rights in Texas as soon as possible.
All you need remember is this: when youre connecting two sentences with a conjunction, you must also
include a comma because the conjunction and comma work together as a team. Perhaps this diagram
will help you remember:

SENTENCE

conjunction

SENTENCE

Often you may use a conjunction but not have a complete sentence on both sides of it. In this case you
do not need a comma. For example, you could easily rewrite the above sentences so that one part of
each sentence is not a full sentence:

The Suncom Corporation has just acquired the OILCO company and has agreed to sell OILCOs
oil-drilling rights in Texas as soon as possible.
I knew the price of IBM stock would increase after it entered the home computer market but
had no idea that the price would skyrocket.
I first conducted a thorough audit of the company and then interviewed the manager to try to
determine how much money was missing.
Because in the above examples you do not have full sentences on both sites of the conjunction, theres
no need to include a comma.
One last bit of advice: if your sentence is very short (perhaps 5 to 10 words), you do have the option of
omitting the comma if you wish. You have this option because your reader can usually understand a
short sentence more readily than a long one, and therefore you would not need a comma for readability.
Here is an example:
Mr. Santana is old and he is wise.
This sentence is so short that you may omit the comma. Remember, punctuation is meant to help the
writer and the reader, not to make their jobs more difficult. Thats why you may opt to omit the comma
between these two short sentences.
3) To Attach Words to the Front or Back of Your Sentence
Most of the sentences we compose really consist of a short core sentence with many details added to
that core sentence. Frequently, we add information to sentences by attaching one or more words to the
front or back of the core sentence. You dont need to memorize seven or eight rules naming each of the
different structures you can add to your sentence. Instead, remember that when you add information to
the front or back of a sentence, you will want to alert your want readers in order to help them clearly
understand your message. Here are four examples:
Certainly, Joan is a successful salesperson.
Although she flunked chemistry and barely passed math, Joan is a good student.
In order to help save the company from bankruptcy, we sold shares in the company at discount
prices.
Joan is a good student, although she flunked chemistry and barely passed math.
If you examine the sentences above, you will see where the writer has attached words to the front or
back of each core sentence. Even when you add one word, such as certainly in the first example, you
want your reader to know where the real sentence begins. This is why you place the comma there. If
you read the sentences carefully, youll also notice a natural pause where the comma is situated.
4) On Both Sides of a Nonessential Component
The three uses of the comma just discussed are quite easy. You should be able to tell when those
commas are needed or not. When you are proofreading your own prose, it will be clear to you whether
you have a list of items or not, whether youre attaching two sentences with a conjunction or not, and
whether you are tacking words onto the front or back of your sentence or not. The fourth use of the

comma, however, is a little more complex because you must make a judgment call. Nevertheless, even
this fourth way to use a comma is relatively simple.
Often, you will insert a group of words into the middle of a sentence. Sometimes this group of words will
need to be set off by commas from the rest of the sentence, and sometimes you will not need commas.
In order to tell whether you need commas, you must make a judgment about whether the added words
are essential to the meaning of the sentence or whether they simply provide extra detail. Lets use an
analogy to illustrate this concept. The modern stereo system is what we call a component system in that
it is made up of many different components: an amplifier, receiver, CD player, tape deck, and various
speakers. With most stereo systems, you have the option of removing certain components and adding
new ones. For example, you may decide to unplug your tape deck but retain the CD player. The various
components are optional or nonessential to the system itself. Similarly, you often add or delete
components from your sentences. If a component (a group of words in this case) is added to a sentence
but does not affect the meaning of the sentence when it is removed, then that component is not
essential.
In order to tell a reader that a group of words is a nonessential component, you place commas in front
and in back of the group of words. However, if omitting the group of words would drastically change the
meaning of the sentence, then those words are not a component; rather, they are essential to the
meaning of the sentence. In that case, you would not want to put commas on either side of the
component so that the reader knows that those words are absolutely important to the meaning of the
sentence. For example, look carefully at the following sentences:
Ms. Johnson, who is the company president, will present the award at our annual dinner.
Banks which hold over a billion dollars in assets are rare.
In the first sentence, the information about Johnson being the company president has no bearing on the
main idea of the sentence: that she will present the awards at the annual dinner. Since this information
is added or extra, we let the reader know it is an interchangeable component (like the stereos tape
deck) by placing commas on either side of it. In contrast, the second sentence contains information that
is absolutely essential to the meaning of the sentence: which hold over a billion dollars in assets. If
you were to place commas around these words, you would be erroneously telling the reader that the
words constitute a nonessential component. For example, look at this sentence:
Banks, which hold over a billion dollars in assets, are rare.
This sentence tells the reader that the main idea is that banks are rare. Certainly, banks are far from
rare, but by enclosing the information in commas you have said that they are.
Although weve spent some time discussing this use of the comma, it isnt very difficult to master.
Simply remember that when you are proofreading you should check your sentences for essential and
nonessential components.

The Dash
The dashoften typed as two hyphens side by side with no space between the dash and the words on
either side of itis used to connect groups of words to other groups. Generally, the dash does this in

two ways: it separates words in the middle of a sentence from the rest of the sentence, or it leads to
material at the end of a sentence.
1) Separating Words in the Middle of the Sentence
As described in our section on commas, writers often place a component in a sentence and set the
component off with commas. Sometimes, however, you might wish to place special emphasis on the
component, but commas are too weak to serve this purpose. If this is the case, you may wish to use
dashes for added emphasis. For example, look at these two pairs of sentences:
1. Linda Simpson, the presidents most trusted economic advisor, will resign her office during
todays press conference.
2. Linda Simpsonthe presidents most trusted economic advisorwill resign her office
during todays press conference.
3. Simpsons prescription for the economy, lower interest rates, higher employment, and less
government spending, was rejected by the presidents administration.
4. Simpsons prescription for the economylower interest rates, higher employment, and
less government spendingwas rejected by the presidents administration.
All four examples are correct, but numbers 2 and 4 place more emphasis on the component within them
because of the dashes. Also, you have probably noticed that number 4 is much clearer than number 3
because the dashes clearly mark where the component begins and ends, whereas the reader might
become confused by all the commas in number 3. In other words, you can use the dash to make sure
your reader clearly understands your point.
In addition, you have an added advantage when using dashes over commas: you can use a full sentence
as a component. For example, examine these sentences:
Linda Simpsonher enemies call her the author of our nations economic woeshas resigned
her office with the present administration.
The present economic conditionLinda Simpson calls it an economic disasterwill require
stringent fiscal measures before improving.
Notice how economical your sentence is when you can interject another entire sentence into the middle
of it. Combining sentences in this way accentuates the relationship between the ideas and helps you
draw attention to the component within the dashes.
2) Adding Words to the End of a Sentence
You can also use a dash to attach material to the end of your sentence when there is a clear break in
the continuity of the sentence. Here are two examples:
The president will be unable to win enough votes for another term of officeunless, of course,
he can reduce unemployment and the deficit simultaneously.
Generally, the presidents economic policies have proven ineffectivealthough, its true that he
has lowered inflation considerably.
These two samples show how you can attach added material to the end of your sentence.
Use dashes sparinglyonly for those occasions when you wish to show special emphasis. They can help
you communicate effectively in certain situations, but you dont want to clutter your prose with too
many of them.

The Apostrophe
An apostrophe is a signal telling the reader that a word is either a possessive or a contraction.
1) To Form Contractions
As you know, a contraction is simply two words collapsed into one. You use contractions most often in
informal or personal types of writing but usually not in more formal types. When you speak, you use
contractions every day. Here are some common contractions:
cannot --> cant
will not --> wont
do not --> dont
we are --> were
it is --> its
you are --> youre
The apostrophe in the contractions above tells the reader that you have omitted a letter or two from the
wordthe letter o in three of the cases above. Undoubtedly, you have already mastered contractions,
so we wont go into detail. However, we will mention one common mistake. Remember that the
apostrophe marks the missing letter. Dont make the common mistake of placing the apostrophe
between the two words, such as in these cases: shouldnt, dont, etc.
2) To Form Possessives
The apostrophe is also used to mark the possessive. The possessive tells the reader that someone or
something owns or possesses the thing that comes after the possessive. Here are five examples:
Ronnis word processor
the bankers log book
the banks holdings
the nations GNP
the years end
The possessive noun in each of the examples above (Ronnis, bankers, banks, nations, years)
indicates to the reader that something is owned by something or someone else. In most cases, to make
the possessive you simply add an s to the end of the noun. This is quite easy. The problem arises when
a noun is both plural and possessive. Certainly, there can be more than one Ronni, and they both can
own the word processor. Or more than one banker can own the log book. In such cases, you simply
place the apostrophe after rather than before the s:
Ronnis
bankers
banks
nations
Some writers become confused when they must make a possessive of singular nouns that already end
in s. As usual, you make the possessive by adding s to the word; however, some writers and editors
argue that the two s are redundant and that therefore you can eliminate the second s, ending up with
the s. That is, they argue that there is really no need to include an s after the apostrophe, since the
apostrophe already tells readers that the word is possessive. Others argue that you should drop the final

s only on words of several syllables but retain it on short words. Since there is no agreement on this
difficult problem, you must make your own choice. However, regardless of which option you choose, do
remember to be consistent. Here are three nouns which already end in s and their corresponding
possessive forms:

James

Jamess

James

Jones

Joness

Jones

class

class

class

Finally, the apostrophe is used in one other way. Although the apostrophe is never used to make a word
plural, it is used to make letters and numerals plural:
Although I received Cs and Ds in many of my college classes, I always received As in my
business classes.
My sister received straight As throughout her college career.
My score sheet showed that I had six 5s and three 4s.

Grammar Tips

PRONOUN AGREEMENT
General Guidelines
Pronouns are words that substitute for nouns. Examples include: he, she, it , them, they, her,him, me,
etc. Pronouns are useful to us because instead of saying Mary saw Mary's father when Mary went
home. We can say Mary saw her father when she went home.
Problems arise with pronouns when they don't agree with the nouns (or antecedents or referents) to
which they refer. Singular pronouns (he, he, him, she, her, it, I, me, myself, and oneself; for example)
should refer to singular antecedents. Plural pronouns (we, us, they, them, and their, for example)
should refer to plural antecedents.
In the following sentences, the pronoun and its antecedent agee:
The doctor finished her rounds.
The doctors finished their rounds.

Watch out for these tricky situations:

1. Indefinite pronouns
Indefinite pronouns refer to nonspecific persons or things. Even though some of the following
indefinite pronouns may seem to have plural meanings, treat them as singular.
anybody
anyone
everyone
either
everybody
none
everything
neither
someone
no one
somebody
something
each
Example: In this class, everyone performs at his or her fitness level.
Example: Each of these neighborhoods has its own traditions and values.

2. Generic nouns
A generic noun represents a typical member of group, such as a student, or a teacher, or a musician.
Although generic nouns may seem to have plural meanings, they are singular.
Example: Every runner must train rigorously if he or she wants (NOT they want) to excel.
Try one: A medical student must study hard if (he or she wants, they want) to succeed.

3. Collective nouns
Collective nouns such as jury, committee, audience, crown family, and team name a class or group.
Collective nouns are usually singular because they emphasize the group functioning as a unit.
Example: The planning committee granted its permission to build.
Try one: George scored in the final two seconds, and the crowd roared (their, its) approval.
Sometimes the members of the group that the collective noun refers to function individually. Then you
may use the plural pronoun to refer to the collective noun.
Example: The family put their signatures on the document.
Better though: The family members put their signatures on the document.

4.

Compound nouns
A. Use a plural pronoun to refer to two or more nouns (or antecedents) connected by arid.
Example: Mormonism and Christian Science were similar in their beginnings.
However, use a singular pronoun when a compound antecedent is preceded by each or every.

Example: Every programming language and software package has its limitations.
B. Use a singular pronoun to refer to two or more singular antecedents connected by or or nor.
Example: Neither Thoreau nor Whitman lived to see his work read widely.
5. Pronoun case
Pronoun case refers to the function or role of the pronoun in the sentence. There are three pronoun
case forms which correspond to the role that the pronoun is playing in the sentence. These forms are
subjective, objective, and possessive. When the pronoun acts as the subject of the sentence, choose
the subjective case; when the pronoun acts as the object of the sentence, choose the objective case;
and when the pronoun must indicate possession, choose the possessive case.
You should choose the correct form of the pronoun, depending on its role in the sentence.
SUBJECTIVE CASE
I
we
you
he/she/it
they
Who (whoever)

OBJECTIVE CASE
me
us
you
him/her/it
them
Whom (whomever)

POSSESSIVE CASE
my, mine
our
your
his/her/its
their
Whose (whosever)

A. Pronouns functioning as the subject or subject complement use the subjective case.
Example: They left for the movie and hour ago.
Example: We voters must learn to vote in our own self interest.
Example: John and I found the lost car keys.
Example: The student with the highest grade was he.

B. Pronouns functioning, as the object of a verb or the object of a prepositional phrase use the
objective case.
Example: This year Stan wants to paint Sarah and me.
Example: The teacher gave him the test.
Example: Did you see Derek and her at the game?
Example: This is a matter for you and me to decide.
Example: According to Alvira and him, this is the best course at UF.
Example: Between you and me, this politician cannot be trusted.
Example: Mom gave the best pieces to Julie and me.

C. Pronouns which show possession use the possessive case.

Example: That coat is aline.
Example: Their car had a flat tire.
Example: The house had its roof blown off in the storm.
6. The pronouns who and whom
When deciding whether to use who or whom, check the function of the pronoun in the sentence. If it is
functioning as the subject, use who.
Example: Who is responsible for this mess?
Example: Who is going with you?
If the pronoun is functioning as the object of the verb or the object of the preposition, use whom.
Example: You will work with our senior engineers, whom you will meet later.
Example: To whom do you wish to speak?

Style Tips

Style Tips for Effective Academic Writing

Effective writing exhibits the following characteristics:

Clarity

Conciseness

Order

CLARITY
Clarity or clearness in writing makes the reader feel comfortable about what he or she is reading.
Unfortunately, for a variety of reasons, such as protecting our subject knowledge from outsiders, or
trying to make simple ideas seem impressive, we lapse into "academese" and lose sight of the
reader's needs and the "story" we are trying to tell.
One of the two sentences in the following pairs of sentences is clearer. Which is the clearer of the two
in each pair?
1. The current estimate is of a 50% reduction in the introduction of new chemical products in the
event that compliance with the Preliminary Manufacturing Notice becomes a requirement
under proposed Federal legislation.
If Congress requires that the chemical industry comply with the Preliminary Manufacturing
Notice, we estimate that the industry will introduce 50% fewer products.
2. Though the Governor knew that the cities needed new revenues to improve the schools, he
vetoed the budget bill because he wanted to encourage cities to increase local taxes.
Despite his knowledge of the need by the cities for new revenues for the improvement of their
schools, the Governor executed a veto of the budget bill to give encouragement to the cities
for an increase of local taxes.
These pairs of sentences tell the same "story," but one version is clearer because it changes abstract
nouns into verbs expressing actions, arranges the events chronologically, and makes actors the
subjects of the verbs. The weaker versions rely on abstract nouns and missing characters, and
missing, weak, or separated verbs. Here, then, are two key principles of clear writing:

The subjects of the sentences name the cast of characters.

The verbs name the crucial action that these characters perform.

Sentence structure also affects the clarity of writing. Consider the beauty and the efficiency of the
simple declarative sentence (as used in the first sentence of this paragraph) for communicating
information. Use the simple sentence freely but not exclusively. The simple sentence (one subject
and one verb) works particularly effectively for stressing major points or your most important
information. In general, avoid long, meandering sentences which obscure the meaning by
complicated constructions and multiple clauses that separate the subject from the verb.
You will want to use a variety of sentence structures in your writing:
1. Simple (one subject and one verb)
2. Compound (two independent clauses, each with a subject and verb)
3. Complex (one independent clause and one dependent clause)
4. Compound-Complex (two independent clauses with one or more dependent clauses)
Remember: Use the simple sentence for your most important ideas.

CONCISENESS (or CONCISION)

Effective writing is concise as well as precise. As you write, avoid vague and inexact usage of words.
Be as quantitative as possible. Avoid idle words, and make every word count. Choose each word
carefully. Avoid abstract words such as many, some, good, bad, exciting, poor, better, worse, etc.
Use precise times, quantities, numbers, and measurements whenever possible.
Example: The Robotics group is several weeks behind schedule.
Revision: The Robotics group is six weeks behind schedule.
Example: The CF553 runs faster than the RG562 but is more expensive.
Revision: The CF553 runs 84% faster than the RG562 but costs $4,320 more.

Tips for writing concisely

1. Use active rather than passive voice.
In addition conveying information more clearly (see previous section on Clarity), the active voice
communicates more concisely, using fewer words than its passive equivalent.
For example, consider this sentence: It was thought that the magnetoresistance could
provide an answer.
No actor (or character) performs the action in the sentence. This passive construction weakens the
sentence grammatically. Furthermore, it shields the writer from the critical gaze of his audience. Its
vagueness tends to spread credit or blame, implying that someone other than the writer had this idea.
By naming an actor in the example above, the author eliminates confusion about who had the
thought: McCray believed that magnetoresistance could provide an answer.
With the above revision, the reader knows which scientist the sentence references, and the writer
sets the work in the context of human endeavor. Therefore, the revision achieves more clarity as well
as more concision.

Stylistic Advantages of Actively Constructed Sentences

Because active voice sounds more dynamic and forceful while passive sentences can seem static,
wordy, or even evasive, your readers often perceive YOU as more dynamic when you choose
active voice.
Compare His attempt was considered a failure to He failed at his attempt or His
parents considered him a failure.
When to Choose Passive Voice
Many of us rely upon passive constructions out of habit, not because weve made conscious
stylistic choices. However, you may prefer to use a passive voice in certain contexts.
1. For example, in scientific writing, you may choose a passive construction to draw attention
toward the process or results and away from the experimenter:
A superior heat-resistant coating has been developed.
2. You may not know the agent, or the agent may be unclear:
This problem has been investigated intensely since 1934.
3. Similarly, you may select a passive construction to avoid identifying an agent:
The house was trashed while my parents were out of town.
4. You may choose a passive voice because you want to create the sensation of stasis or
unknown agency:
I have been instructed to take punitive action.
5. Finally, you may choose a passive voice to produce a particular flow or connection
between sentences:
Certain directors create wonderful films by stringing together collections of beautiful
cinematic moments. Such beautiful moments have been strung together by this
director, too.

2.

Replace verb-noun phrases with simple verbs.

make a decision
decide
experience failure
fail
place under consideration
consider
perform an experiment
experiment
present a discussion of
discuss
make an attempt to
try (or attempt)

3. Avoid "the fact that" phrases. (We call these kinds of unnecessary phrases expletives.)
owing to the fact that
because
despite the fact that
although
he was unaware of the fact that
he was unaware that

4.

Avoid "the reason... is that" and variants of this construction. (Also expletives)
Wordy: The reason for solving the Cauchy problem first is that...
Better: We solve the Cauchy problem first because...
Wordy: The main theme of this section is to tell why we have chosen to generalize.
Better: This section presents our reason for generalizing.

5.

Combine ideas to achieve conciseness.

Wordy: The accountant's report contained 50 pages, and it was carefully illustrated.
Better: The accountant carefully illustrated her 50-page report.

6. Avoid weak verbs such as versions of to be or to have. Choose stronger, more

active verbs instead.
Weak: The problem with the administration is too often they do not see things from the
students perspective.
Better: The administration often fails to understand the students perspective.
Weak: The purpose of this report is to examine the reasons for the bridge collapse.
Better: This report examines the reasons for the bridge collapse.
Weak: Our company has a medical plan and a retirement program.
Better: Our company provides a medical plan and a retirement program.

ORDER
Effective writing reflects a sense of order. From the organization of each sentence, to the unity of a
paragraph, to the structure of an entire report, establish a sense of order to present your ideas most
effectively and to communicate your thoughts successfully.
You may choose from among several techniques to achieve order:
1. Provide forward momentum. Place general information before specific information, and place
old (familiar) info before new (unfamiliar). Since readers use information they've already encountered
to project forward and begin to process new information as they encounter it, you're providing them
with a familiar context first before you move them into the unknown.
Example: The development of nanofabrication techniques for thin metallic wires has renewed interest
in one-dimensional electron systems. Such systems differ fundamentally from those in three
dimensions, where electron-electron interactions can be absorbed into a local Fermi-liquid description
of weakly interacting quasiparticles. [The general idea in the first sentence is followed by a specific
example in the second.]
Also, by placing the newest and most significant information at the end of the sentence, you place it in

the most stressed position, where your readers are most likely to remember it.
4. Use transitions. To link ideas, sentences, and paragraphs, use transitional words and phrases
(and, or, but, therefore, as a result). Some transitional words can also indicate how readers should
process the information (perhaps, unfortunately, allegedly, it is important to note, under these
circumstances). As some of the words and phrases reflect bias on the part of the writer, you should
choose them carefully when you wish to remain objective in your work.
The following passage contains effective transitions:
A significant disadvantage of the 125-H CRT is its high power consumption. This tube
requires substantial power to produce the high voltages and currents that are necessary to
drive and deflect the electron beam. In addition, the 125-H is inefficientonly about 10% to
20% of the power used by the tube is converted into visible light at the surface of the screen.
Thus, the 125-His poorly suited for portable display devices that run on batteries where lower
power consumption is necessary. Because of this drawback, we should consider other
options before committing to purchase the 125-H.
3. Use internal connections. Use linking pronouns (its, your, their, and so on) when referring to
other nouns or pronouns to keep your subject in focus. They will maintain the line of thought while
also advancing the argument:
In 1912, the German chemist von Laue hypothesized that in a crystal x-ray, scattering
patterns are related to atom spacing. A (His) series of experiments demonstrated the wave
nature of x-rays and the periodic arrangement of atoms. Spots on a photographic plate
provided the proof for the (his) hypothesis.
4. Repeat key words (use hook-and-eye construction).
Internal coherence can also be achieved by relating one sentence, often the beginning of it, to the
preceding sentence by repeating a word or phrase from the preceding sentence, or by referring to a
word directly or indirectly.
Carbohydrate loading on the High Performance Diet was developed in the United States
based on studies by a team of Swedish physiologists. These studies show that the average
concentration of glycogen stores is 1.75 g/100 ml with a normal diet. If this diet is then
changed for 3 days to one of high fat and high protein, then the glycogen level drops to .6
g/100 ml. If the diet is modified again to include large amounts of carbohydrates for 3 days,
then the glycogen stores will increase to 3.S g/100 ml. If this carbohydrate phase is
accompanied by strenuous exercise, then the glycogen level will rise to 4.7 g/100 ml. This is
almost a three fold increase in glycogen stores compared to those in a normal diet.
4. Use coordination and subordination purposefully. Coordination (using for, and, nor, but, or,
yet, so) indicates equality between ideas joined in a sentence. The writer does not give emphasis to
one of the ideas but rather treats them with equal stress:
Fred redesigned the RIST circuitry on Thursday, and he reworked the logic diagrams and
rewired the controller arm.
On the other hand, subordination (making one part of the sentence dependent on the other part) puts
more emphasis on the part of the sentence that can stand alone. Show hierarchical relations between
ideas by using subordinating devices such as relative pronouns (which, that, who) and demonstrative
pronouns (this, these, that, those):
The fibers were long truncated cells, which showed secondary thickening of the wall but no
lignification.
The kestrel, which is the smallest falcon, has a wingspan of 21 in.

ADDITIONAL TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE WRITING

I. Use an affirmative sentence rather than a double negative:
Confusing: This reaction is not uncommon.

Better: This reaction is common.

This reaction is not rare.
This reaction occurs about 40% of
the tune.

II. Be sure that the antecedents of the pronouns "this" and "that" are clear. If there is a
chance of ambiguity, use a noun to clarify your meaning.
Ambiguous: The photochemistry of transition-metal carbonyl complexes has been the focus
of many investigations. This is due to the central role that the metal carbonyl complexes play
in various reactions.
Clearer: The photochemistry of transition-metal carbonyl complexes has been the focus of
many investigations. This interest is due to the central role that metal carbonyl complexes
play in various reactions.

III. Use "between" with two named nouns; use "among" with three or more named or implied
nouns:
Communication between scientists and the public is essential.
Communication among scientists, educators, and the public is essential. Communication
among scientists is essential.

IV. It is acceptable to use split infinitives to avoid awkwardness or ambiguity.

Awkward: The program is designed to assist financially the student who is considering a
career in chemistry.
Better: The program is designed to financially assist the student who is considering a career
in chemistry.
Ambiguous: The bonded phases allowed us to investigate fully permanent gases.
Clearer: The bonded phases allowed us to fully investigate the permanent gases.

V. For good parallel structure, use coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and
so), correlative conjunctions (either... or, neither... nor, both... and, not only... but also, not...
but), and correlative constructions (as. . .as, as well as) to connect words or groups of words
of equal grammatical rank.
Incorrect: The product was washed either with alcohol or acetone.
Correct: The product was washed with either alcohol or acetone.
Incorrect: Not only have I excelled academically during the last four years, but assisted in
research as well.
Correct: I have not only excelled academically but also assisted in research during the last
four years.

B. Maxey-Billings

More Pointers for Advanced College Writing

1. TENSE: When writing about text (whether literary or non-fiction), follow convention by using
present tense.
Example: (1) Shakespeare writes about a full range of social situations, and though many of
his plays are tragic, he often uses comedy as counterpoint to tragedy.
2. COLON: Use the colon only to separate a complete sentence from a full-sentence quotation or a
list (containing one or more items) that follows or precedes it. (Use a colon when introducing
bulleted lists, too, but it should follow an independent clause, that is, a full sentence.)
Examples: (1) You will want to pack all necessary clothing: A parka, jeans, socks,
underwear, and t-shirts.
(2) A parka, jeans, socks, underwear, and t-shirts: These are the important items.
(3) Polonius spoke one piece of valuable advice: To thine own self be true.
(4) Use a colon for these specific cases:
To introduce an indented quotation.
To introduce a single or multiple-item list.
To follow listed subheadings.
3. SEMI-COLON: Use the semi-colon instead of a comma:
To link two strongly related independent clauses (i.e. complete
sentences).
To separate complex listed items.
Examples: (1) John must have forgotten his promise; he attended the party without me.
(2) We should vote on the management, budget, and tax issues; the election and
campaign funding; the arrangements for transportation, refreshments, and hotel
expenses; and the funding for the publicity campaign.
4. PARALLEL STRUCTURE: When listing items, keep the grammatical structure of the items
parallel. Consider the following sentence:
The couple argues for three reasons: first, Toms drinking, second, because they dont have
any children, and also Tom hates his wifes mother.
To correct the parallel structure well need to rewrite the sentence. Two possible revisions follow:
The couple argues for three reasons: Toms drinking, their childlessness, and Toms hatred of
his mother-in-law.
The couple argues because theyve been unable to conceive children, Tom drinks too much,
and he hates his mother-in-law.
Examples:
Poor: Jack works as a sports announcer, an alcoholic, and as a husband he is very disloyal.
Better: Jack works as a sports announcer, suffers from alcoholism, and betrays his wife.
Poor: Rebecca knew her fianc had problems with substance abuse, to lose one job after
another, and his temper is bad, too.
Better: Rebecca knew her fianc had substance abuse problems, difficulty maintaining a
job, and an inability to manage his temper.
Poor: Learning the knack of writing a good business letter is easy:
Keep it short and sweet.
To avoid clichd phrases.
Sounding friendly is good.
Better: Learning the knack of writing a good business letter is easy:
Keep it short and sweet.
Avoid clichd phrases.

Use a friendly tone.

5. OBJECTIVE CASE: Learn when to use the objective case of pronouns.

Examples:

1. Use between you and me, NOT between you and I.

2. Whom did you invite? NOT Who did you invite?

6. EASILY CONFUSED VERBS: Some verbs are transitive; they take an object, which means
they directly act upon an object. Distinguish between which verbs take an object and which do not.
Examples:
1. SET: John should set his book on the table. (past tenseset; past participleset)
2. LAY: You should lay your papers on the desk. (laid, laid)
3. RAISE: Please raise your hand if you know the answer. (raised, raised)
These verbs often confuse people, however, because of their similarity to intransitive verbs that do
not take an object.
Examples:
1.
SIT: John should sit in the chair. (sat, sat) (NOT John should set in the chair.
2.
LIE: You should lie down if youre tired. (lay, lain) (NOT You should lay down.)
3.
RISE: When you rise, you face a new day. (rose, risen)

7. COMMON ERRORS: Avoiding common errors will enhance your credibility.

Its means It is, while its indicates possession.
The car is red. Its red. Its color is red.
2. There refers to place, their indicates possession, and theyre means they are.
There is their house into which theyre now moving.
3. Youre means You are, while your indicates possession.
Youre just pressing your luck, arent you?
4. Avoid confusing affect and effect. Normally use affect when referring to action, effect
when referring to an end result.
The constant noise affected us all, and eventually produced the effect of irritability.
1.

8. REDUNDANCY: Avoid redundancies such as each and every, every single one, and personal
opinion.
Examples:
(1) Redundant pairs: personal favorite, fundamental truth, true fact, necessary requirement,
resounding commitment, gradually diminish, very (often useless as an intensifier; try
a stronger adjective), progressively improve, personal confession, unique individual,
already exist, at the present time.
(2) Redundant names: ATM machine, CD disc, SAT test, NAACP association, RPG game,
HIV virus.
9. AMOUNT & NUMBER: Use amount with mass nouns or bulk quantities that dont consist of
separate items, number with count nouns and individual items.
Examples: a large amount of asphalt, a large number of speed bumps, an amount of oil, a
number of elk, a large amount of compassion, a large number of faults.
10. THIS, THAT: When you use this or that to refer back to something youve already mentioned,
pair the word with an identifier to help your reader understand the reference.
Example:

NOT: The foreman reported that he had put out a small fire in the warehouse. Other
problems stemmed from poor ventilation, and, in addition, the facility was infested with rats.
This got managements attention.
[What got managements attention? The report, the fire, the problems, the ventilation,
or the rats?]
BETTER: The foreman reported that he had put out a small fire in the warehouse. Other
problems stemmed from poor ventilation, and, in addition, the facility was infested with rats.
This infestation got managements attention.
11. PLURALIZING DATES & ACRONYMS: When you make these items plural, do not use an
apostrophe.
Examples: in the 1920s, sometime in the 80s, purchase several DVDs, use the ATMs.
BUT
Use an apostrophe to indicate possession: 1929's stock-market crash, the 80s' fashion
trends, the DVDs plastic case, the ATMs buttons.
12. HYPHENATING ADJECTIVES: If two or more consecutive words make sense only when
understood together as a single idea modifying a noun that follows, hyphenate that
compound adjective.
Examples: a well-prepared plan, special-interest money, credit-card application, highfrequency sounds, minimum-height requirement, used-record store, 250-square-mile area, 5ton truck, short-term solution, little-known man, better-qualified woman, long-range plan,
know-it-all attitude, pilot-testing schedule, that you-think-you-know-more-than-anyone-else
expression, the talk-to-the-hand gesture.
13. EXCESS VERBIAGE: Avoid wordiness and expletive phases such as there is, it is this is
because, etc.
NOT:

One of the most troublesome habits in student writing is the tendency to substitute
long phrases full of little words for short phrases which will help the sentence to go
where it wants to go and avoid the byways which direct a sentence from its true
meaning into something really insignificant.

BETTER: Student writers should tighten up their prose.

14. EXPLETIVES: Use them sparingly. Sometimes defined as "empty words" or fillers, expletives
act as operators, allowing us to manipulate sentence patterns, and so, poets make use of
them. A common expletive is the word it or there used to introduce a sentence in which the
subject follows a form of the verb to be: there is, there were, it is, it was. Other expletives take
the form: It is a fact that, it is my opinion that, the truth is that, etc. Expletives often push
sentences into passive voice, and when overused, they can make your writing sound singsong and amateurish.
Examples:
NOT: There are significant trade-offs to be made between runtime performance and data
security.
BETTER: The contention between runtime performance and data security requires significant
trade-offs.
NOT: It is my experience that Product X outperforms Product Y in a "live" environment.
BETTER: In my experience, Product X outperforms Product Y in a "live" environment.
NOT:

There is a way that student writers can express themselves more clearly and that is
by writing directly.
BETTER: Student writers can express themselves more clearly by writing directly.

15. ACTIVE/PASSIVE VOICE: Use active voice instead of passive voice to increase your writings
power. Passive voice places the object of the verb in the subject position, uses some form of to be
plus the past participle of the verb, and can either omit the real subject or embed it in a prepositional
phrase beginning with by.
Examples:
Passive: A new experimental liver-transplant operation was performed successfully.
Active: Surgeons successfully performed the experimental liver-transplant operation.
Passive: Police are being notified that three prisoners have escaped.
Active: The dispatcher is notifying police that three prisoners have escaped.
Passive: Rules are made to be broken.
Active: Authorities make rules to be broken.
16. TO BE VERBS: While to be verbs are not passive, they are also not active. These verbs
indicate the state or essence of a person, place, thing, or idea. The problem emerges with the
difference between speech and writing. Because essay writing calls on you to craft each of your
sentences with care, and because great sentences require great verbs, look for stronger verbs to
replace forms of to be (is, are was, were, am, be, being, been). Not only do these verbs lack the
energy to engage your reader, but they also tend to make sentences flabby.
1. This article is a summary of Nigeria's current political situation.
Solution 1: This article provides a summary of Nigeria's current political situation.
Solution 2: This article summarizes Nigeria's current political situation.
(While #1 avoids is, #2 sounds better and fresher, and also shortens the sentence.)
2. The author's introduction is a recapitulation of previous research.
Solution 1: The author's introduction serves as a recapitulation of previous research.
Solution 2: The author's introduction recapitulates previous research.
(While #1 avoids is, #2 uses a stronger verb, and also shortens the sentence.)
17. MODIFIERS: Correctly place modifiers. Avoid dangling participles, dangling infinitives, and
squinting modifiers.
Dangling: After turning the corner, the statue appeared.
Correct: After I turned the corner, the statue appeared.
Dangling: To appreciate Hamlet, a performance of it must be seen.
Correct: To appreciate Hamlet, you must see a performance of it.
Squinting: Patients who follow their doctors' advice often can improve their health.
Correct: Patients who often follow their doctors' advice can improve their health.
Correct: Patients who follow their doctors' advice can often improve their health.
(Notice that these two sentences produce completely different meanings.)
18. EMPTY INTENSIFIERS: Avoid words that intensify nouns, verbs, adverbs, and other adjectives if
they are imprecise, redundant, or virtually meaningless in the sentenceso-called empty
intensifiers. Either omit the intensifier or find a stronger adjective/adverb to use in the sentence.
1. Look for these words: very, definitely, awfully, totally, incredibly, cool, really, particularly.
Example: The dogs were definitely eager to get off their leashes and really run.
2. When you find one of the words, try reading the sentence without the intensifier. Is the
meaning unchanged or weaker without it?
Example: The dogs were eager to get off their leashes and run.
3. If the answer to the question in step 2 is yes, either omit the intensifier or replace it with a
word that conveys your meaning more precisely.
Example: The dogs were straining to get off their leashes and run free.
Examples:
Poor: I worked very hard to gain my objectives.

Better: I worked diligently to gain my objectives.

Poor: The paper expresses my thoughts incredibly well.
Better: The paper expresses my thoughts beautifully.
Poor: He was totally in charge of the operation.
Better: He was in charge of the operation.
Better still: He commanded the operation.

Revising
Your Drafts

REVISING YOUR DRAFTS

Many people think that they can produce a good piece of writing in one draft, but revision forms an
essential part of the writing process. Try not to think of it as a correction process, but rather as a
process by which you develop your writing. You should work through three levels of revising:
1. Global Rewriting
This level makes large-scale revisions that significantly affect content, and so focuses on substantive
rather than stylistic changes. They may include the following:
Shifting or narrowing the focus of the paper
Deciding to direct the paper to a different audience
Changing your main purpose
Cutting substantial amounts in some parts of the paper and expanding others
Reorganizing the paper to shift emphasis or structure
Make these major changes to your first draft; discipline yourself to look first at the presentation of your
ideas, at how well the paper is focused, and at your organization and support. Consider your purpose
and your audience carefully.
2. Local Revising
This level makes the small-scale revisions that are essentially surface changes. You make these
changes to create a more readable style, to make your paper more concise and effective, and to
make your paper more engaging for the reader. These changes do not seriously affect content, but
affect how your reader will respond to your writing. Writers normally make these changes on the
second draft of a paper. Such local revisions may include the following:
Adding examples and details
Combining, rearranging, or changing sentences
Revising opening and closing paragraphs
Finding more effective words and phrases, especially verbs
Strengthening transitions
Improving tone (adjusting the; level of formality, modifying the writer's "voice," revising to
accommodate the audience's level of expertise, etc.)

3. Editing
Editing focuses on details of form (grammatical structure, consistency, punctuation) and is most
usefully performed on a final draft. Editing involves the following steps:
Checking for accuracy and consistency, seeing that details are correct and that you've
remained consistent about key issues
Improving the body language of your writing by breaking up paragraphs, using headings,
and breaking long passages into chunks or fists
Eliminating obvious repetition and redundancy
Checking spelling and punctuation
Proofreading for typographical errors

Initially, when writing your first draft, plan to do as little revising as possible. Push yourself to get out a
complete first draft that gets your main ideas down on paper and gives you a document to work with.
Then, give yourself enough time to produce several drafts, with time in between to distance yourself
from the writing, so that you can come back to it later with "fresh eyes."