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Food Science

NTR 502

Entomophagy: Insects as Humanitys Future Food a Review

Michelle Garvie
Abstract: The human population is on track to reach a world population of 9.2 billion by the
middle of the century, and feeding this many people is impossible with current agricultural
practices. Entomophagy, or the consumption of insects, is a way to solve the world food
crisis through environmentally sound and nutritionally means. However, the issues with
acceptability, sustainability and culture will have to be addressed before entomophagy is
adopted as a mainstay in the human diet

S a g e G r a d u a t e S c h o o l O c t o b e r 2 4 , 2 0 1 4

Michelle Garvie

October 24, 2014

Entomophagy: Insects as Humanitys Future Food a Review

I.

Entomophagy

Introduction
All ecosystems have a finite carrying capacity that is defined as the number of a

particular species that can be sustained without competition for resources leading to species
die-off (Krausman and Leopold, 2013). Limiting resources are those that are in finite supply
and thus cap an ecosystems carrying capacity (Krausman and Leopold, 2013). The human
population is experiencing exponential growth, and is on track to reach a population crisis
(Mlcek, Rop, Borkovcova, and Bednarova, 2014), a point where the population is too large for
the earth to sustain. Food is one of humanities limiting resources. The human population will
reach 9.2 billion by the middle of the century, and already approximately 1 billion are hungry
(Population Institute, 2014). Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) is already a problem at a
global population of approximately 7.3 billion (Mlcek et al., 2014). Our food supply is not
sufficient to meet the needs of humanity currently, let alone the needs of a larger population in
the future.
The current methods of food production are very land and water intensive (van Huis,
Van Itterbeeck, Klunder, Mertens, Halloran, Muir, and Vantomme, 2013). Due to the irrigation
and synthetic fertilizer needs of industrial farming, and the water, feed, and waste disposal
needs of large-scale livestock production, the current methods of farming are not sustainable
(van Huis et. al, 2013). Diets based on animal protein, therefore, are not environmentally
sound and cannot feed the worlds population currently, and will not be able to be sustained as
the population increases (van Huis et al., 2013). Humans need to find a novel source of food;
one that meets the nutritional needs of the species, and can be sustained as the population
expands. Entomophagy - the consumption of insects - is a way to provide protein and
nutrients to feed the world population now, and as it increases (Mlcek et al., 2014).

Michelle Garvie
Entomophagy
October 24, 2014


II.
Comparison of Insects to Meat

The nutritional composition of insects is similar to that of animal products, making it an
ideal substitution for meat in the diet. Insects are approximately 50% protein by weight as
Figure 1 shows (Johnson, 2008), with some species containing as much as 75% protein by
The contribution of edible forest insects to human nutrition and to forest management

weight, making insects an extremely nutrient-dense food.

Table 3. Protein content of common insects on a dry weight basis
Common English name

Protein percentage

Leafhoppers

56.22

Yellow mealworm beetle larvae

47.76

House fly larvae

54.17

House fly pupae

61.54

Darner larvae

56.22

June beetle larvae

42.62

Agave billbug larvae

55.56

Honey bee larvae

41.68

Honey bee pupae

49.30

Water boatmen and backswimmer eggs

63.80

Water boatmen adults

53.80

Stink bugs

44.10

Leafcutting ants

58.30

Paper wasp pupae

57.93

Red-legged locusts

75.30

Corn earworms

41.98

White agave worms

30.28-51.00

Red agave worms

37.10-71.00

Treehoppers

44.84-59.57

Source: Ramos-Elorduy (1998).

Figure 1: The average protein percentage of selected insect species (Johnson, 2008)

Insects have aThe

protein
digestibility of 77-98%, which is only slightly lower than
Asia-Pacific perspective
Within
Asia and the
edible
forestainsect
species
countschave
been(compiled
traditional non-plant
sources
of Pacific,
protein
such
s egg
(95%),
asein
99%) afornd beef (97%)

Thailand individually, as well as for various groups of other countries in the region. The
compilations are based largely upon the work of DeFoliart (2003), augmented by other sources.
The
perspective
is incomplete,
data
forhChina
atmajor
consuming
(Mlcek et al., 2014).
Insect
protein
is on however,
a par since
with
or
igher
han insect
many
plant protein foods,
country are not easily available, and lists from Japan and Australia are not included.

which have a protein

digestibility
of around
(Xiaoming,
Ying,
Hong, inand Zhiyong,
Taken
together, all the insects
identified7in5-85%
the compilation
highlight the
predominance,
sequence, of the Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera Orders. These are the
same four Orders found most commonly at the global level (Table 1), suggesting that the types
2008). Preparation ofminsects
ethods
change
the nmirror
utrient
ontent of the insects, however, as does
eaten d
ino
Asia
and the Pacific
worldcpatterns.

the life cycle stage that the insect is in at the time of consumption (van Huis et al., 2013). The
8

amino acid composition of insects is also important when viewing them as a food source, as
there are amino acids that are essential to the human diet which cannot be endogenously

Michelle Garvie
Entomophagy
October 24, 2014

synthesized. An analysis of the amino acid composition of insects show that they are poorer
than pure animal protein in this regard, having limited amounts of tryptophan and other
aromatic amino acids (van Huis et al., 2013). This is less limiting than it initially appears to be,
as humans eat a varied diet, and rely heavily on cereal grains and other starch sources for food,
many of which happen to be rich in the amino acids that insects are lacking (Xiaoming et. al.,
2008). Creating a balanced diet containing all the essential amino acids by pairing
consumption of certain starchy foods with certain insects may take some education, but it
72

Edible insects: d
future
forefood
feed security
seems to be what many cultures have traditionally
one (prospects
van Huis
t al., and
2013).
The variability

of protein content and digestibility across species of insects may limit which ones are best
TABLE 6.5

suited
global
human
consumption
t al., 2014).
Fatfor
content
and
randomly
selected fatty(Mlcek
acids ofeseveral
edible insect species consumed in
Cameroon
Edible insect species

Fat content
(% of dry matter)

African palm weevil

(Rhynchophorus phoenicis)

54%

Edible grasshopper
(Ruspolia differens)

67%

Variegated grasshopper
(Zonocerus variegates)

Termites
(Macrotermes sp.)

Saturniid caterpillar
(Imbrasia sp.)

9%

49%

24%

Composition of main fatty acids

(% of oil content)

SFA, MUFA
or PUFA1

Palmitoleic acid (38%)

MUFA

Linoleic acid (45%)

PUFA

Palmitoleic acid (28%)

MUFA

Linoleic acid (46%)

PUFA

-Linolenic acid (16%)

PUFA

Palmitoleic acid (24%)

MUFA

Oleic acid (11%)

MUFA

Linoleic acid (21%)

PUFA

-Linolenic acid (15%)

PUFA

-Linolenic acid (23%)

PUFA

Palmitic acid (30%)

SFA

Oleic acid (48%)

MUFA

Stearic acid (9%)

SFA

Palmitic acid (8%)

SFA

Oleic acid (9%)

MUFA

Linoleic acid (7%)

PUFA

-Linolenic acid (38%)

PUFA

Note: 1SFA saturated fatty acids; MUFA and PUFA mono and poly unsaturated fatty acids.
Source: Womeni et al., 2009.

Figure 2: Fatty acid content of a variety of insect species (Womeni, et. al, 2009)

6.1.5 Micronutrients
Insects have a high
fat content,
adding
their nutrient
ensity
and their
iability
Micronutrients
including
minerals
andto
vitamins
play dan
important
rolevin
the as a
nutritional value of food. Micronutrient deficiencies, which are commonplace in many
meat developing
replacement
(van Huis
al., 2major
013). adverse
Many species
f insects contain
long-chain
countries,
canet
have
health oconsequences,
contributing
to
impairments in growth, immune function, mental and physical development and
polyunsaturated
acids (that
PUFAs)
and always
monounsaturated
fatty
acids (MUFAs)
reproductivefatty
outcomes
cannot
be reversed by
nutrition
interventions
(FAO, 2011c). In insects, metamorphic stage and diet highly influence nutritional value,

making all-encompassing statements on the micronutrient content of insect species of
little value. Moreover, the mineral and vitamin contents of edible insects described in

Michelle Garvie
Entomophagy
October 24, 2014

(Raksakantong, Meeso, Kubola and Siriamornpun, 2010), and some species even contain the
essential fatty acids linoleic acid and -linolenic acid (Womeni, Linder, Tiencheu, Mbiapo,
Villeneuve, Fanni, and Parmentier, 2009), as shown above in Figure 2. Insects tend to have
much less saturated fat than beef, making them more heart healthy than red meat, with fat
compositions akin to chicken or fish (Schabel, 2008).
Insects contain a variety of minerals essential for human growth and development, with
some species comparable to and some surpassing the mineral content of meat (Schabel,
2008). An overall comparison of the nutrient profile of selected insects and commonly
consumed livestock is shown below, in Figure 3, from Sirimungkararat, Saksirirat, Nopparat,
and Table
Natongkham,
., (2008).
1. Nutritional A
value
of edible insects per 100 grams of fresh weight compared to commonly eaten
livestock
Insect/livestock

Protein
(g)

Fat
(g)

Carbohy
drate
(g)

Iron
(Fe)
(mg)

Calcium
(Ca)
(mg)

Phospho Potassium
rus
(K)
(P) (mg)
(mg)

Vitamin (mg)
B1

B2

Grasshoppers (large)

95.7

14.3

3.3

2.2

27.5

150.2

217.4

0.19

0.57

6.67

Grasshoppers (small)

152.9

20.6

6.1

3.9

35.2

238.4

237.4

0.23

1.86

4.64

Niacin

True water beetles

149.1

21

7.1

0.3

6.4

36.7

204.8

197.9

0.31

3.51

6.85

Mole crickets

125.1

15.4

6.3

1.7

41.7

75.7

254.1

267.8

0.20

1.89

4.81

3.2

6.5

4.1

8.4

113.4

96.3

0.15

0.19

0.92

Red ant eggs

82.8
(a mix of eggs and pupae)

191

Silkworm pupae

98

9.6

5.6

2.3

1.8

41.7

155.4

138.7

0.12

1.05

0.89

Giant water bugs

162.3

19.8

8.3

5.5

13.6

43.5

225.5

191.7

0.09

1.50

3.90

Chicken

110

20.8

2.4

1.2

11

214

0.15

0.16

7.90

Beef (without fat)

150

20

7.2

171

0.07

0.34

6.70

Pork (without fat)

376

14.1

35

2.1

151

0.69

0.16

3.70

Pork (with fat)

457

11.9

45

1.8

117

0.58

0.14

3.10

Source: Nutrition Division (1978).

Figure 3: Comparison of nutrient density of selected insects with that of commonly consumed livestock
(Sirimungkararat et. al., 2008)

The insects looked at by Sirimungkararat et. al. (2008) appear to be approximately

Sivilai Sirimungkararat, Weerasak Saksirirat, Tussanee Nopparat and Anchalee Natongkham

Energy
(kcal)

equivalent or higher in iron, calcium, phosphorus and potassium than chicken, beef and pork.
Zinc amounts are not shown. Zinc deficiency is a public health problem (WHO, 2010), and the
insects analyzed by Sirimungkararat et. al. (2008) appear to not contain this essential mineral.

TABLE 6.6

Michelle
Garvie intake of essential mineralsEntomophagy
October 24, 2014
Recommended
per day compared with the mopane caterpillar
(Imbrasia belina)
Mineral

Intake recommendation for

25-year-old males (mg per day)*

Mopane caterpillar
(mg per 100 g dry weight)

Potassium

4 700

1 032

Chloride

2 300

Sodium

1 500

1 024

Calcium

1 000

174

Phosphorus

700

543

Magnesium

400

160

11

14

Iron

31

Manganese

2.3

3.95

Copper

0.9

0.91

Iodine

0.15

Selenium

0.055

Molybdenum

0.045

Zinc

Note: 
%JFUBSZ
SFGFSFODF
JOUBLFT
%3*T


SFDPNNFOEFE
EJFUBSZ
BMMPXBODFT
BOE
BEFRVBUF
JOUBLFT
NJOFSBMT
'PPE

and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies.

Source: Bukkens, 2005.

Figure 4: Mineral content of 100 g of Mopane Caterpillar compared to the DRI for a 25-year-old male (Bukkan,
2005)

6.1.7 Vitamins
Vitamins essential for stimulating metabolic processes and enhancing immune system
Another
utrient inanalysis
(shown
in FBukkens
igure 4), (2005)
conducted
on for
the a M
opane
Caterpillar
functions
arenpresent
most edible
insects.
showed
whole
range
of
insects that thiamine (also known as vitamin B1, an essential vitamin that acts principally
(Bukkans,
2005) shows
that 100g
(approximately
3.5 ounces)
the c0.1
aterpillar
would
as a co-enzyme
to metabolize
carbohydrate
into energy)
rangedof from
mg to 4 mg
per supply
100 g of dry matter. Riboflavin (also known as vitamin B2, whose principle function is
14 gmetabolism)
of zinc to an
individual, enough to satisfy the DRI of 11g/day. These two nutrient analyses
ranged from 0.11 to 8.9 mg per 100 mg. By comparison, wholemeal bread
provides 0.16 mg and 0.19 mg per 100 g of B1 and B2, respectively. Vitamin B12 occurs
show that although insects are very nutrient dense and contain a lot of the micronutrients that
only in food of animal origin and is well represented in mealworm larvae, Tenebrio
molitor (0.47 g per 100 g) and house crickets, Acheta domesticus (5.4 g per 100 g in
the adults
human
diet requires, there is much variation between species. For entomophagy to be a
and 8.7 g per 100 g in nymphs). Nevertheless, many species have very low levels
of vitamin B12, which is why more research is needed to identify edible insects rich in
viable diet option, any food plan relying on insects as a major contributor of essential minerals
B vitamins (Bukkens, 2005; Finke, 2002).

would have to contain more than one species of insect to ensure that the full mineral profile
was met (van Huis et al., 2013).
Entomophagy is not without its nutritional issues, however, as evidenced by seasonal
ataxia in forest-dwelling populations in Nigeria, related to their consumption of the pupae of
Anaphe spp., an African silkworm (Nishimune, Watanabe, Okazaki, and Akai, 2000). This grub
contains a particularly heat resistant thiamin reductase, which causes thiamin deficiency when
consumed in reasonable quantities, as these Nigerians do. Nutrient interactions such as these
are to be considered when advocating entomophagy. Despite instances such as this, few insects

Michelle Garvie
Entomophagy
October 24, 2014

are truly poisonous (Meyer-Rochow, 2008). Constipation has been noted as an unpleasant side
effect of consuming edible insects, when the legs, wings and other fundamentally indigestible
portions are not removed prior to eating (Mlcek et al., 2014).
For a novel global food source, insects are a good choice as a substitute for traditional
meats. Insects are very nutrient-dense, containing protein, essential fatty acids, and
micronutrients that the human diet must contain to meet the requirements of health (van Huis
et al., 2013). However, entomophagy must be researched and practiced with caution to avoid
unhealthful side effects such as adverse nutrient interactions, or intestinal blockages (Mlcek et
al., 2014).

III.
Preparation of Insects

One of the barriers to introducing a new foodstuff to the diet is the practicality of the food
or ingredient; how the consumers will incorporate the food into their diet. Insects are a
versatile foodstuff and can be utilized in many ways. Traditionally, insects that are eaten whole
are prepared in a variety of ways, including eaten raw, deep fried, baked or roasted, ground up
into a meal, or even blanched in milk (Durst et al., 2010). This may prove a problem when
introducing insects as a meat substitute in cultures where insects are not currently consumed.
Insects in their whole form are less appealing to those who have never consumed them than
are insects in disguise. Dishes containing insects in their whole form are rated as much less
appealing than those where the insect is an invisible component (Verbeke, 2014). However,
given the versatility of insects, this barrier could be overcome with a variety of preparation
methods.
Preparations of non-whole insects fall into two catagories: paste or extract. Insect pastes
are produced by freeze- or heat-drying whole insects, followed by pulverization, resulting in a
paste or a meal. Insect extracts are more complicated, the production of which is currently

Michelle Garvie
Entomophagy
October 24, 2014

cost-prohibitive. These involve the extraction of (primarily) amino acids or polypeptides,
either chemically or enzymatically. The benefit of an extract is that the insect origin is well
hidden from the consumer; however separating the protein from the whole food leaves behind
much of the mineral and fatty acid benefit (van Huis et al., 2013). In general, pastes are a better
choice when incorporating insects into foods, due to ease and economy.
Insect pastes have been successfully incorporated into foods that are pleasing to
consumers. In Mexico, tortillas are supplemented with yellow mealworm flour (Aguilar-
Miranda et al., 2002), in Kenye, termites are roasted and ground and added to flour to make
crackers and baked goods (Ayieko et. al., 2010), and in Thailand the flavor of the giant water
bug in chili-bug paste is so popular and desirable that it is being reproduced artificially (van
Huis et al., 2013).
Experimentally, work has been done to prepare insects in such a way that the food is both
nutritionally sound and pleasing in taste and texture. Researchers in The Netherlands are
developing a spicy Mexican-style snack-food made of 60% chickpeas and 40% lesser
mealworms, called Buqadilla. It is similar to a falafel in appearance and use in wrap
sandwiches, and when tested in a variety of restaurants and eateries it was well received for
its pleasing taste and texture. It is not currently on the market, however (van Huis, van Gurp,
and Dicke, 2012). Another product called SOR-mite is a termite-enriched sorghum meal that
can be made into porridge or used in baking. It was the first place winner of a competition set
up by the Institute of Food Technologists in 2009 called Developing Solutions for Developing
Countries at the Annual Food Expo in Anaheim, California. Yet another example of an
experimental food product is Crikizz, a puffed and crunchy snack food made with cassava and
up to 20% mealworm paste. Pilot testing revealed that consumers found the taste pleasant and
unique, and the texture as crunchy and delightful as other puffed and crispy snack foods. This

Michelle Garvie
Entomophagy
October 24, 2014

product won at Eco-trophlia in 2012, a French culinary inventiveness contest (van Huis et al.,
2013).
Despite the versatility that insects have when it comes to preparation and integration
into foods, the greatest barrier to entomophagy is consumer acceptance of insects as food.
Some countries and cultures have traditional insect foods and others have incorporated insect
ingredients into existing recipies and methods of preparation, but the Western world remains
relatively voyeuristic when approaching entomophagy; it is reserved for the adventurous,
sampling novel delicacies with no real intent of incorporating insects into their diets in any
meaningful way (Verbeke, 2014).
IV.

Consumer acceptability

Entomophagy faces a unique yuck factor when considered as a viable food source for

the Western cultures. Westerners are extremely removed from the origins of their food, and
are relatively obsessed with cleanliness (Bednov, Borkovcov, Mlek, Rop, and Zeman,
2013). While the consumption of insects has a place societally and culturally in many places
around the world (Mlcek et al., 2014; Chakravorty, Ghosh, and Meyer-Rochow, 2011), insects
as food disappeared from the Western diet as entomophagy became stigmatized as unclean
and inappropriate (Bednov et. al., 2013). In Europe and North America entomophagy
occurs only in the rare occasion when insects are eaten for their novelty (Verbeke, 2014), or in
certain boutique restaurants where they are served a new and exciting food item (Andrs,
2014).
Research has shown that even with the Westernization of eating habits around the world,
entomophagy is still practiced, primarily in African, Asian and Central and South American
countries (Mlcek et al., 2014; Chakravorty et. al., 2011). Scientists in Europe have been
researching consumer acceptability of insects as food (Verbeke, 2014). In order for the

Michelle Garvie
Entomophagy
October 24, 2014

Western cultures to accept insects as a viable source of nutrients, consumer acceptance needs
to be profiled.
Verbeke, (2014) profiled 368 consumers in Flanders, Belgium, a city of what the
researcher describes as a typical Western city. Meat consumption predominates over
vegetarianism, and the idea of consuming insects is viewed with a high degree of skepticism.
The purpose of the research was to determine the type of consumer most likely to adopt
entomophagy in a typical Western society. The research (Verbeke, 2014) concluded that such a
consumer appears to be a young, educated individual currently consuming meat, and
interested in reducing the environmental impact of their lifestyle. Consumers ready to accept
insects as food are more likely to be male than female. The factor with the greatest effect on
readiness to accept insect as food is food neophobia, or the fear of trying new foods. A
reduction by one unit of the food neophobic score resulted in an 84% increase in the
willingness to adopt insects as a substitute for meat. Thus, a low neophobic score was the
greatest predictor in consumer readiness to adopt entomophagy (Verbeke, 2014).
In addition to profiling the traits of the consumer most ready to adopt insects as a food
source, the species and the form in which the insect are in also has to be determined to
complete the picture of Western acceptance of entomophagy. Verbeke (2014) described this as
the degree of processing the insects would have to go through to become edible in Western
eyes. Bednov et. al., (2013) profiled more than 5,000 consumers over 11 years in the Czech
Republic to determine what sort of insects were seen as appropriate food sources, which were
unfit for consumption, and the methods of preparation best suited for pleasurable
consumption. The researchers determined species of insects acceptable for consumption
through a series of questionnaires and bug banquets where the participants sampled the
insects. The insects were presented in a variety of forms, from whole to finely ground. The
consumers rated the insects and the preparation methods separately. Cockroaches,

Michelle Garvie
Entomophagy
October 24, 2014

predictably, were considered to be categorically unfit for human consumption. Mealworm
larvae, honeybee brood (larvae), and wax moth larvae were the species that were met with the
highest level of sensory acceptability, when all insects were ranked. Honeybee brood were the
favorite for eating whole, while mealworms were preferred in a powdered form. Overall,
mealworms were shown to have both a high level of consumer acceptability and also the
advantage of ease of rearing, making them a very viable option as an introduction insect to the
food supply (Bednov et. al., 2013).
As the research by Verbeke, (2014) and Bednov et. al., (2013) shows, consumer
acceptability depends on neophobia and the familiarity with and preparation of the insects to
be consumed. Consumer acceptability of entomophagy can be influenced through exposure to
the idea, and education of the benefits of consuming insects (Gracer, 2008). If insects are to be
successfully introduced into the Western food supply, they will need to be the right kind of
species, in the right preparations, and be presented to the right population. As the overall
familiarity with the concept increases, neophobic attitudes will decrease, and entomophagy
can become more accepted (Verbeke, 2014).
V.

Sustainability

Insects are a remarkably diverse food source, with a reported 1,681 edible species

found around the world (Durst, Johnson, Leslie and Shono, 2010) making insects a truly global
food (van Huis et. al, 2013). Biodiversity is of concern when looking for a food source for a
growing global population (Mlcek et al., 2014), and the variety habitats where insects thrive
makes entomophagy one of the soundest choices for a future food source. In some cases, the
insects being consumed are agricultural pests. This leads to more sustainable forestry and
agriculture, and is advantageous both from a dietary and an ecological perspective (Meyer-
Rochow, 2008, Schabel, 2008). In other instances, the areas where insects can be reared are

10

of the animal and the production practices used. Typically, 1 kg of live animal weight in
a typical United States production system requires the following amount of feed: 2.5 kg
for Gchicken,
for beef (Smil, 2002). Insects require far
less feed.
Michelle
arvie 5 kg for pork and 10 kgEntomophagy
October
24, 2014

For example, the production of 1 kg of live animal weight of crickets requires as little
places asthat
re of
currently
considered
agricultural
wasted
spaces,
ncluding for
the
spaces
reserved
1.7 akg
feed (Collavo
et al., 2005).
When these
figures
areiadjusted
edible
weight
(usually the entire animal cannot be eaten), the advantage of eating insects becomes even
for the
treatment
of manure
astes (van
Huis
et al., 2013).
greater
(van Huis,
2013).wNakagaki
and
DeFoliart
(1991) estimated that up to 80 percent
of a cricket is edible and digestible compared with 55 percent for chicken and pigs and

Raising
insects
for consumption
is advantageous
in many
other winays.
Insects hfeed
ave to
an
40 percent
for cattle.
This means that
crickets are twice
as efficient
converting
meat as chicken, at least four times more efficient than pigs, and 12 times more efficient
incredibly
igh capacity
for t5.1).
ransmuting
feed ibecause
nto edible
product,
much higher and
than do
beef
than hcattle
(see Figure
This is likely
insects
are cold-blooded
notpork
require feed to maintain body temperature.
and chicken. Insects have an efficiency rate 80%, compared to an efficiency rate of 40-55% for
FIGURE
5.1 Huis et al., 2013).
chicken, pork and beef, shown below in Figure
5 (van

Efficiencies of production of conventional meat and crickets

Percentage of animal edible

80

55

55

40

25

20

kg

15

10

0
Cricket

Poultry

Pork

Beef
kg feed/kg edible weight

Source: van Huis, 2013.

kg feed/kg liveweight

Figure 5: Efficiency of converting feed to edible biomass, a comparison of cricket to poultry, beef and pork (van
5.2 ORGANIC
SIDE STREAMS
Huis,
2013)

A benefit of insects as an alternative animal protein source is that they can be reared
sustainably
organic sideimpact,
streamsthe
(e.g.
manure, pig
compost).
The use
In
terms of eon
nvironmental
production
of islurry
nsects and
produces
a fraction
of of
the
organic side streams in insects starts by rearing the insects on biowaste. The insects are
greenhouse gas emissions and uses much less water than livestock rearing, making for low

environmental impact (van Huis et al., 2013). This is illustrated below, in Figure 6, from
Oonincx and de Boer (2012).

11

FIGURE 5.5

Greenhouse gas production (global warming potential), energy use and land use due to
Michelle Gthe
arvie
Entomophagy
October 24, 2014
production of 1 kg of protein from mealworms, milk, pork, chicken and beef

ef

s
m
M

ea

lw

or

Be

or
lw
ea
M

ic

ef
Be

ke
n
ic

Po

rk

Ch

ilk
M

m
or
lw
ea
M

Be

0
ke
n

ic

50
rk

50

Po

100

Ch

100

ilk

150

150

ef

200

ke
n

200

rk

250

Po

50

Land use
(m2)

300

250

Ch

100

300

ilk

150

Energy use
(MJ)

200

Global warming potential

(kg CO2-eq.)

Note: The grey bars are minimal values and the dark green bars are maximum values found in the literature.
Source: Oonincx and de Boer, 2012.

Figure 6: A comparison of global warming potential, energy usage and land usage for the production of 1 kg of
protein of mealworms, milk, pork, chicken and beef (Oonincx and de Boer 2012)

Agriculture accounts for up to 70% of the freshwater usage globally (Pimentel et al.,

2004), and the majority of this is used in the raising of meat; it takes approximately 5-20 times
the amount of water to produce 1 kg of animal protein as it does to produce 1 kg of plant
protein. Estimates of the water usage of insect rearing are currently unavailable (van Huis et
al., 2013), but insects have been shown to be remarkable drought resistant.

The importance of the low environmental impact and high capacity for converting feed to

edible biomass cannot be overstated. As the global population expands, arable land will
continue to decrease and the need for food will increases, making the rearing of livestock
resource prohibitive. Insects provide a comparable nutrient profile at a fraction of the
environmental cost (van Huis et. al., 2013).

Raising insects for food is not without potential problems, however. There may be some

issues with regards to sustainability of entomophagy, as currently most insects are gathered
from the wild, and are not farmed (Durst, et al., 2010). Traditional methods of entomophagy
are steeped in culture, and as the consumption of insects becomes more mainstream there may
be an over harvesting of particular species, with unknown results (Chakravorty, et al., 2011,
Durst, et al., 2010). In addition, it is possible that there would be a detrimental loss of culture

12

Michelle Garvie
Entomophagy
October 24, 2014

and tradition with industrialization and regulation of raising and harvesting insects for
widespread consumption (Chakravorty, et al., 2011). Ectotourism is already a form of food
tourism that takes advantage of local traditions for the entertainment of the privileged
(Schabel, 2008). Insects do not have the same animal welfare issues as do other sources of
human food, though it is unknown how and if they experience pain. Insect-rights is an issue
that could arise in the future, confounding the adoption of entomophagy (van Huis et al., 2013).
While entomophagy has the potential to be the future of food, it is of vital importance that the
necessary research is conducted so that it is as environmentally and socially responsible as
possible.

VI.

Conclusions

The human population is on track to reach a world carrying capacity crisis by the

middle of this century, and feeding the estimated 9.2 billion people is impossible with the
current agricultural practices. Entomophagy is a way to solve the world food crisis, as insects
are a nutritionally valid substitution for meat, with the advantage of versatility in possible
preparations, such as baked goods, crispy snacks, or meat substitutions in sandwich fillings.
Consumer acceptance of entomophagy is a big obstacle to its widespread practice in the
western world, however neophobic attitudes to foods can be changed through education.
Insects have the added advantage of being a environmentally sound form of food production
than current livestock rearing. Though the issues with acceptability, sustainability, and culture
will have to be figured out before entomophagy becomes a mainstay in the human diet, insects
are delicious, nutritious and environmentally friendly way to feed the world.

13

Michelle Garvie

VII. References

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October 24, 2014

Aguilar-Miranda, E.D., Lopez, M.G., Escamilla-Santana, C. & Barba de la Rosa, A.P. (2002).
Characteristics of maize flour tortilla supplemented with ground Tenebrio molitor larvae.
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Andrs, J. (2014). Oyamel Dinner Menu. Retrieved September 16, 2014 from
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Ayieko, M.A., Oriamo, V. & Nyambuga, I.A. 2010. Processed products of termites and lake flies:
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Bednov, M., Borkovcov, M., Mlek, I., Rop, O., & Zeman, L. (2013). Edible insects species
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Bukkens, S. G. F., (2005). Insects in the human diet: nutritional aspects. In M.G. Paoletti, ed.
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Chakravorty, I., Ghosh, S. & Meyer-Rochow, V. B. (2011). Practices of entomophagy and
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1-14.

Durst, P. B., Johnson, D. V, Leslie R. N., & Shono, K., (Eds.). (2010). Forest insects as food: humans bite
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Krausman, P. R. & Leopold, B. D. (Eds). (2013). Essential Readings in Wildlife Management and
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Entomophagy

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Nishimune, T., Watanabe, Y., Okazaki, H., & Akai, H. (2000). Thiamin Is Decomposed Due to Anaphe
spp. Entomophagy in Seasonal Ataxia Patients in Nigeria. Journal of Nutrition, 30 (6), pp.
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Oonincx, D.G.A.B. & de Boer, I.J.M. (2012). Environmental impact of the production of mealworms
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Pimentel, D., Berger, B., Filiberto, D., Newton, M., Wolfe, B., Karabinakis, E., Clark, S., Poon, E.,
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Sirimungkararat, S., Saksirirat, W., Nopparat, T., & Natongkham, A., (2008). Edible products from
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van Huis, A., van Gurp, H. & Dicke, M. 2012. Het insectenkookboek. Amsterdam, the Netherlands:
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van Huis, A., Van Itterbeeck, J., Klunder, H., Mertens, E., Halloran, A., Muir, G. & Vantomme, P.
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Verbeke, W. (2014). Profiling consumers who are ready to adopt insects as a meat substitute in a
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15