Research Project

SURFACE MAPPING AND INTERPRETATION OF
GEOLOGIC UNITS IN LEKWESI, LOKPANTA,

AWGU, UGWUEME AND MMAKO AREAS OF
SOUTH EASTERN NIGERIA
BY
TIMI-ODIASE, KINGS U.
REG. NO.: 2001/112516
THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

GEOLOGY FACULTY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES,
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD
OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE,
B.Sc. DEGREE
ii
SEPTEMBER, 2006.
TITLE PAGE

iii
APPROVAL PAGE

BY
TIMI-ODIASE, KINGS U.
REG. NO.: 2001/112516
Thesis submitted to the Department of Geology, Faculty of Physical Sciences, in

partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Bachelor of Science, B.Sc.
Degree in Geology and Physics.
________________________
________________________
MR. D.K. AMOGU DR. H.I. EZEIGBO
SUPERVISOR HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
_____________________________
EXTERNAL EXAMINAER
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,
NSUKKA
iv
SEPTEMBER 2006.
DEDICATION
This Project Work is dedicated to the Glory of
Almighty God and to the eternal memories of my
grandma – Okponwan and my dearest Aunty – Rita
Obaghayomwan and my biological mother whom…

v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In God I have and will always trust. I am grateful for the gift of life and
for those around me especially my immediate and extended family and my close
friends given to “us” all by the Creator.
I thank and appreciate the knowledge, support and understanding I
enjoyed from my project supervisor in the person of Mr. Daniel Kalu Amogu
(there could only be few persons like him) and the entire members of staff (both
academic and non-academic) in the Department of Geology, University of
Nigeria, Nsukka.
I am appreciative for the moral and financial support I enjoyed from my
father Mr. Obaghayomwan Rotimi Odiase, and my father’s friend (friend of the
family in Nsukka) Prof. Patrick Obi Ngoddy and his family. They were always
there for me as and when due.
I am grateful to my family, my step-mum, brothers {Martin, Nosawaru
and Osatane}; my sisters {Eghe and Omowa (Faith)}; my grandpa, Pa Erhabor,
Obaghayomwan and the entire large family (the Erhabors’), for space will not
permit me to mention all yours names.
My sincere gratitude to my friends here in school, - Onwuchekwa
Chidiebere and Onyekachi and their family, Ivonye Chukwunonye, Ebirie
Kenneth, Nwogugu Kene (Pope Jones), Onyedire Nice, Aghara Kingsley, Okolo
Ikechukwu, Ojukwu Emeka, Ogbu Emeka, Ude Azor B.C and his family,
Onyekachi Amadi and her family; the entire Ogbu family especially Mr. Luis and
his father; my project group members and my classmates both in Geology and in
Physics. I am sincerely grateful for the help and support I enjoyed in one way or
the other from “you” all – thank you!
vi
ABSTRACT
The studied area is bounded by longitude 7o25’E – 7o30’E and latitude 5o55’N –
6o09N; is underlain by three lithologic units; medium-coarse grains sandstone,
mud rock and shale. Tectonic activity that affected the area is responsible for the
presence of deformation as observed in the area eventually resulting to surface
exposure of hydrocarbon around Ugwueme area, thereby destroying any possible
trap mechanism for any of such hydrocarbon accumulation. Thus, the area shows
a general trend of NE-SW and average dip direction with unconformity or
deformation affecting some parts. The studied unit belongs to Owelli/Awgu
Sandstone, Mamu Formation [all cretaceous Campanian-Maastrichtian
sediments]; while the Shale material belongs to Eze-Aku Shale [Turonian–
Coniacian sediment] and the mottled clay belonging to Awgu Ndeaboh Shale
[Santonian Sediment]. Pebbles and Sieve analysis of the medium to coarse
grained sandstone units of Owelli/Awgu Sandstone and Mamu Formation suggest
a tidally influenced fluvial environment though of deltaic origin and the shale of
Eze-Aku and Ndeaboh Nkporo deposited in range of environments ranging from
shoreface to shallow marine environment for the Eze-Aku shale and swamp
environment for Ndeaboh Nkporo Shale.

vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ii
Approval Page-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- iii
Dedication-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- iv
Acknowledgement-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- v
Abstract-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- vi
Table of Content-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- vii
List of Figures-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ix
List of Tables-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- x
List of Plates---- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- xi
Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Introduction.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1
1.2 Objective of the Study.. .. .. .. .. .. 1
1.3 Scope of the Study.. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2
1.4 Location and Accessibility.. .. .. .. .. .. 3
1.5 Literature Review.. .. .. .. .. .. .. 5
Chapter Two: Regional geologic Setting

2.1 Tectonic Evolution of the Study Area.. .. .. .. 9
2.2 Regional Stratigraphic Setting.. .. .. .. .. 11
2.3 Topology and Drainage Pattern.. .. .. .. .. 14
2.4 Climate, Temperature and Vegetation.. .. .. .. 15
Chapter Three: Outcrop Description

3.1 Introduction.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 19
3.2 Lokpaukwu-Lekwesi Study Area.. .. .. .. .. 23
3.2.1 Lokpanta Junction.. .. .. .. .. .. 23
3.2.2 Lokpanta/Awgu Boundary.. .. .. .. .. 25
3.2.3 Lokpaukwu Area.. .. .. .. .. .. 31
viii
3.2.4 Lekwesi Area.. .. .. .. .. .. .. 31

3.3 Ugwueme Area.. .. .. .. .. .. .. 35
3.4 Awgu-Mmaku Study Area.. .. .. .. .. .. 36
3.4.1 Awgu Area.. .. .. .. .. .. ..
36
3.3.2 Mmaku Area.. .. .. .. .. .. .. 38
Chapter Four: Data Presentation and Analysis

4.1 Introduction.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 41
4.2 Pebble Morphology.. .. .. .. .. .. .. 41
4.2.1 Methodology and Data Presentation.. .. .. .. 41
4.2.2 Environmental Indication.. .. .. .. .. 43
4.3 Sieve Analysis.. .. .. .. .. .. .. 46
4.3.1 Methodology and Data Presentation.. .. .. .. 46
4.4 Analysis and Results of Sieve Data .. .. .. .. 52
4.4.1 Textural Parameter.. .. .. .. .. .. 57
4.4.2 Environmental Indication.. .. .. .. .. 59
4.4.2.1 Univariate Textural Parameter.. .. .. 59
4.4.2.2 Bivariate Analysis.. .. .. .. .. 63
4.4.2.3 Multivariate Analysis.. .. .. .. 65
Chapter Five: Interpretation and Discussion of Results
5.1 Introduction.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 68
5.2 Depositional Environment.. .. .. .. .. .. 68
5.3 Discussion of Shale Result.. .. .. .. .. .. 68
5.4 Tectonic/Structural Attributes in the Study Area.. .. .. 70
5.5 Economic Indications of the Study Area.. .. .. .. 71
Chapter Six: Summary and Conclusion
6.1 Summary and Conclusion.. .. .. .. .. .. 74
Appendixes
ix
References -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 77
LIST OF FIGURES Page No.
Fig. 1.1a: Geologic Framework of Nigeria showing the study area - 3

Fig. 1.1b: Accessibility Map of the Study Area – 4
Fig. 1.2: Structural Units of Southeastern Nigeria {After Short & Stauble, 1967) -6
Fig. 2.1: Tectonic Map of Nigeria during Albian to Lower Santonian -9
Fig. 2.2: Map of South Eastern Nigeria during the Campanian to Eocene – 10
Fig. 2.3: Topology and Drainage Map of the Study Area -16
Fig. 2.4 a, b & c: Various Extraction from Fig, 2.3 showing Cross section,
direction to major locality and geologic formations respectively -17
Fig. 2.5: Temperature / Climatic Map of Nigeria – 18
Fig. 3.1a: Outcrop map of the study area – 21
Fig. 3.1b: Geologic and Outcrop map of the Study Area – 22
Fig. 3.2: Log representation of Unit TOK/SH/01 – 24
Fig. 3.3: Schematic Representation of units, – 29
Fig. 3.4: Litho-log of the studied units and proposed interpretation of
environment of deposition of the units -30
Fig. 3.5: Litholog of Unit in the area [ TOK/SST/03] - 37
Fig. 3.6: Log of Affam Mmku-Ogo study area [TOK/SST/04-05]. -39
Fig. 3.7: Hypothetical (normal) (step-like) fault that affected the Affam Mmaku
Ogo area where the numbering represent the lithologic units in fig. 3.5
above – 40
Fig. 4.1: Plot of MPS against OPI for pebbles collected at Lokpanta/Awgu
Boundary Outcrop – 44
Fig. 4.2: Plot of OPI against FI for pebbles collected at Lokpanta/Awgu
Boundary Outcrop – 45
Fig. 4.3a, b, & c: Plot Representation of Sieve Analysis for Obtaining Modal
Class Size -50
Fig. 4.4: Log Probability Curves for Samples – 53
Fig. 4.5a. : Bivarate Plot of Ski Vs σ 1 for Samples – 64
Fig. 4.5b. : Bivarate Plot of Mz Vs σ 1 for Samples – 65
x
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 2.1 Regional Sediment cycle of the Anambra Basin and it correlative
counterparts - 14
Table 3.1: Position Description / Outcrop Location and Localities in Study Area
- 20
Table 4.1: Measured and Computed data from Pebbles collected – 42
Table 4.2: Limits of form indices for fluvial and surf processes – 43
Table 4.3a, b, : Summary of Sieve Data and Analysis - 48 , 49
Table 4.4: Data from Log Probability Curves for Statistical Computation – 58
Table 4.5a, b: Summary of Results of Statistical Parameters Obtained From
Grain Size Analysis with their Verbal Interpretation - 61, 62
Table 4.6: Summary of Environment From Multivariate Discriminate Functions
- 67
Table 5.1: Composition of Extracted and Fluid Samples from the Study Area - 69
Table 5.2: TOC Classifications for Source Rock Material - 70

xi
LIST OF PLATES
Plate 3.1: Shale Outcrop as seen at Lokpanta Junction [ TOK/SH/01] – 23
Plate 3.2 showing Size and shape of typical fossil on exposed outcrop – 24
Plate 3.3: Showing concretions at the exposed outcrop [TOK/SH/01]. – 25

Plate 3.4: Section showing the (A) Cuesta and its trend, (B) exposure with units
labels TOK/MCL/01 and TOK/SST/01. – 26
Plate 3.5: Base of the Mottled Clay as seen in unit TOK/MCL/01 – 27
Plate 3.6: Extraction from Plate 3.4, the b section, showing the sandstone sections
and arrow showing the separation between same unit (this might be due
to incursion of water in the area, which is presently eroding this part of
the exposed outcrop), and where pebbles were collection for textural
analysis – 28
Plate 3.7: Section Extraction from Plate 3.6 above and arrow showing micro
folding structure – 29 D
Plate 3.8: Exposed Shale outcrop section along Enugu Port–Harcourt Road
[TOK/SH/02] – 31
Plate 3.9: Exposed section of (A) Nkporo Shale covered with vegetation (B)
Dolerite intrusion and (C) entrapped water body around Lekwesi area –
32
Plate 3.10: Dolerite at Crush Stone Industrial Site that intruded the Eza-Aku
Formation as a sill. – 33
Plate 3.11: Shale unit at Lekwesi area (inside Crush Stone Industrial Site)
[TOK/SH/04]. – 34
Plate 3.12: Shale outcrop at Lekwesi area (inside Crush Stone Industrial Site)
[TOK/SH/04] with lines showing folded region and trends of beds
(evidence of Santonian uplift) – 34
Plate 3.13: Oil Show/gas smell spot at Ugwueme [TOK/OSM/01] – 35
xii
Plate 3.14: Showing the studied Units (Awgu Sandstone) at Awgu Town Junction
with arrows showing the trends of beds – 36
Plate 3.15: Bioturbation structures as seen in the outcrop at Station TOK/SST/03
and inner cross bed. – 37
Plate 3.16: Organic Rich Shale at the unit TOK/SH/03 – 38
Plates in Appendixes
Appendix I: Abundant Vegetation land use for agricultural purpose in the Study
Area
Appendix II: (A) Flow out point of the Salt Water (Obilagu Salt water) and (B)
kegs used in collecting these water for local preparation of food at
Lokpanta
Appendix III: Flow out point of the Hard Water at Lokpanta
Appendix IV: Ogbanugwu water fall, which could be used to power a sub hydro
power generating station if developed. At Ogo-Mmaku
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Once there is a depression as a result of tectonic activity, a “basin” is
created and thus sedimentation starts in such a basin. The Anambra basin like
every other sedimentary basins has it peculiar characteristics, which can be
attributed to it geographic location. The basin is 300km NE-SW trending
syncline, located at the southwestern dip of the Benue trough in southeastern
Nigeria. The trough is characteristically linear in shape and its sedimentary
formations are continuous with the Nigerian Coastal Basin. Structurally, the
trough had been thought to be an ordinary rift valley but recently, Burke and
others have attempted to explain its origin in the light of the new ocean spreading
and plate tectonic theory. Their conclusion seems inconclusive owing to non-
availability or insufficiency of data.
The Benue trough in which the Anambra Basin is located at it dip is
marked by a lot of igneous activities. In the cause of this research, the lower
Benue trough outcrop as exposed along the Enugu port-Harcourt express road and
other parts within the study area is studied in detail in order to extract all possible
available information necessary to the field of geosciences.
1.2 Objective of the Study

Objective of the study is to extract all possible information from the study
area as far as the scope permits. They include detailed study of the area in order to
understand the following:
1 Geology of the area;
2 Igneous / tectonic activities and how they contribute to the
deformation of sediments in the area;
2
3 Interpretation of structural pattern in the area; and

4 Hydrocarbon prospects (issues, trend and analysis) in the area.
1.3 Scope and Method of Study

Scope of this research project includes:
1 Detailed field mapping of the study area;
2 Detailed study of the structural trends in the area;
3 Identification of different lithologic unit;
4 Identification of different igneous bodies and their relation to the host
rocks; and
5 Identification of different oil smell and show within the study area.
Method of study employed in this work is grouped into three as follows:
(a) Preliminary Studies / Desk Work

This aspect of the work is basically research on studies that had earlier
been carried out within the study area and also helped in the understanding of the
nature of research that is being carried out currently. This constitutes the early
part of this project.
(b) Field Work

In the field, outcrop are sited, observed and the position is marked using
Global Positioning System (GPS [Garmin-12]), this is followed by detailed
logging of the outcrop taking note of rock type (lateral extent, gross thickness,
bed thickness); textural features (colour, grain size, shape and sorting of grains,
clay content, cementation/compaction if present); sedimentary structures (nature
of bedding, internal structures); tectonic structure (fracturing, joints, fault, folds);
and biologic structures. This constitutes the central part of this project.
3
(c) Laboratory Work and Analysis

Samples of representative outcrops collected from the outcrop site were
sent into research laboratory for proper analysis. This is the most tedious aspect of
the project and is the last part of this project.
1.4 Location and Accessibility

The Anambra basin is large and wide but the area under study is bounded
by latitudes 5o55’ and 6o09’ all north and longitudes 7o25’ and 7o30’ all east. (See
Fig. 1.1a). Other neighboring towns (Awgu, Ugwueme, Mmaku, Ogo, Lekwesi
etc.) bound the area as shown in figs.1.1b.
Study Area
Sedimentary Deposit
Basement Complex
Fig. 1.1a: Geologic Framework of Nigeria showing the study area

4
7o25’E 7o30’E
6o09’N Obeagu 6o09’N
Mmaku
Mmaku
Market
6o05’N 6o05’N
Nkwe
AWGU
Mgbidi
Awgu Onoli
Market
Ugwueme
6o00’N 6o00’N
Lokpanta
Umuelem
Key
Amaojiacha Lekwesi
Express Road
Old Road
Umuchieze
Footpath
Lokpaukwu
5o55’No 5o55’N
7 25’E 7o30’E
0km 25 km
Fig. 1.1b: Accessibility Map of the Study Area
The study area is mostly accessible by the Enugu Port-Harcourt express road. The
scarp slope of the Enugu Cuesta in the Enugu Okigwe area of the Anambra basin
provides complete and easy accessibility. Representative outcrop are located
along the Lokpanta-Awgu road, Enugu Port-Harcourt express road, and minor
5
roads connecting the hinterlands in the study location as show in Fig. 1.1b, which
also connects the main roads and along the old Enugu – Awgu for outcrop located
in Awgu–Mmaku area.
Detailed studies of the outcrops were accessible by track/footpath, minor
roads, road cuts and minor river edge. Although most of the minor roads and
tracks connecting the express way from the hinterland are in bad condition
especially during the wet season owing to the presence of mud underlain beneath
the area, which makes is paramount for trips to be conducted to the study area
during the dry season.
1.5 Literature Review

Anambra basin has been studied by many researchers. It is believed that
the Anambra basin has age ranging from lower cretaceous to upper cretaceous
(Albian to Maastritchtian).
Researchers such as Brynmore (1948), Grove (1951), Barber and Tait
(1963), Jones (1964), Adeleye and Dessauvagie (1970), Peters (1978) Allix
(1983), Whiteman (1982), Benkilli (1989) and more worked extensively on the
lower Benue trough and Anambra basin in particular. They described the
individual or part of the Nigerian sedimentary basins . Short and Stauble (1967)
also noted the stratigraphic units of southeastern Nigeria with their respective
associated age, see Fig 1.2 below.
Grove (1965), Ogbukagu (1977), Nwajide and Hogue (1979) and Egboka
(1985), worked on the lithologic units in order to determine the factors
responsible for the intense gullies prominent in the area.
6
Key
Fig. 1.2: Structural Units of Southeastern Nigeria {After Short & Stauble, 1967)
Reyment (1965) described the Stratigraphy of different depositional basin

in the country and created a large number of lithostratigraphic and
biostratigraphic division of the basins. He also observed in another study that the
Benue trough as a whole is continuous with the coastal basin and that it had been
currently described as the long arm of the Nigeria coastal basin.
7
Carter et al (1963), Cratechlyey and Jones (1965) observed that the area
has a kind of rift structure due to the major fault long it.
Grove (1951) recognized the Nanka Formation as a direct mapable unit
and Kogbe (1976) maintained that the formation has lateral equivalent with the
Ameki Formation while Orjiaka and Ogbukagu (1976) considered the Nanka
Formation as a member of the Ameki Formation.
Murat (1970) presented a paleogeographic description of the Cretaceous /
depositional cycles resulting from the three main tectonic episodes. He also
considered the Anambra basin as a direct consequence of the folding and uplifting
of the Abakaliki / Benue area during the Santonian.
Reyment and Murat (1977) identified not less than 5-transgression in the Benue
trough, four of which are wholly or partly linked to global sea level changes.
Ladipo (1985), Ladipo et al (1994), Hogue (1976 and 1977) and Banergee
(1979) described the sedimentary structures of the Owelli Sandstone to include
large scale tabular cross stratification, wedge shaped trough types of Hummocky
cross stratification.
Arua (1988) wrote that the sedimentary and facies analysis of the Nkporo
Shale of southeastern Anambra basin have been critically interpreted in their
sequence and consists of a marine sequence of black carbonaceous and ammonite
bearing fissile shale inter-bedded with thin beds of sandstone [Peters (1988) and
Arua (1988)].
Arua and Okoro (1989) carried out research on the reconstruction of
paleo-wave and paleo-depth regime of the Nkporo Sea (which is located within
the Anambra basin territory). In their research, they found that the area was
characterized by low velocity wave to moderately-wave denominated period, low
to moderate water of wavelength and low wave height, thus, this part of the
Anambra basin was deposited in hydrodynamic regime of low to moderate
energy.
8
Okoro (1995) considered the Nkporo Shale to be the oldest

lithostratigraphic unit of the Anambra basin and the Afikpo syncline (Reyment
(1965) had earlier stated that it oversteps unconformably.
Nwajide and Reijer (1996) noted that the Enugu Shale of the Nkporo
Group (part of the Anambra basin) is composed of marginal to shallow marine
carbonaceous mudstone and fine sandstone characterized by thin coal seams and
extensive syn-sedimentary deformational structures.
In recent studies, others described the Benue trough of Nigeria to be a
sinistral wrench basin which extends from the Niger Delta in a NE direction to
Lake Chad where it transforms into a predominantly NW trending extensional
basin system through Niger.
Obi and Okogbue (2003 and 2004) described the appearance of soft
sediment deformational structures in the Campano-Maastritchtian succession of
strata in Anambra basin.
9
CHAPTER TWO
REGIONAL GEOLOGIC SETTING
2.1 Tectonic Evolution of the Study Area
During the pre-Cretaceous times, Nigeria consisted of an uplifted
continental landmass made up of the pre-Cambrian basement rocks which were
unconformably overlain by lower cretaceous sediments.
Deposition in the southeastern Nigeria basin during the pre-Maastritchtian
was controlled by the first of the three tectonic phases (Murat, 1970, 72). He also
recorded the three depositional cycles that accompanied each tectonic episode
when the rift-like Benue-Abakaliki trough was formed. The southeastern end of
the basin (Calabar flank) sedimentation was controlled by NW-SE trending fault
(Fig. 2.1) while the western limit of the basin, was the Benin-Benue hinge line
(fault zone) beyond which no marine sediment had been reported.
Fig. 2.1: Tectonic Map of Nigeria during Albian to Lower Santonian

{Adapted from Murat 1970}
10
The Abakaliki-trough emerged during Santonian tectonic phase when at the same
time the Anambra basin begin to subside (Fig. 2.1). The Abakaliki trough was
subjected during it’s infilling to tectonic movement which is recorded in the
sediments (Fig. 2.2). A main tectonic episode of compression occurred during the
Santonian, turning the trough into a folded belt. Three main zones of deformation
are running parallel to the main N60oE trend of the trough. From the southeastern
basin edge towards the centre, a diversity of structural styles including fracturing,
open and tight folding with associated cleavages are observed (Fig. 2.2). In most
deformed area, clear evidence of transcurrent movements (indicated by arrow
direction in Fig. 2.2) are found, slumping, syn-sedimentary faulting results from
instability of weakly consolidated sediments. This instability was due to the
presence of a set of major faults in a narrow band located north of Worku Hill in
present day Nasarawa State of Nigeria.
Fig. 2.2: Map of South Eastern Nigeria during the Campanian to Eocene
{Adapted from Murat 1970}
11
Until the Santonian, the tectonic regime was favouring transcurrent

movement rather than divergent movement that was responsible for the sinking
and filling of the basin (Burke, 1974). A sharp change to a convergent tectonic
regime with a slight transcurrent component, contributed to the activation of the
N60oE fault as reverse fault resulting in the deformation of the sediment located in
the surrounding of the axial fault system. Thus, uplift, tight folding, cleavage and
low-grade metamorphism characterized the area (i.e. Abakaliki trough, shown in
Fig. 2.2 above). This major event coincided with an important change in the
African plate movement (Burke, 1974) and consequently to the direction of the
Atlantic opening. In the post-tectonic period, a SE to NW polarity relative to the
axial fracture system resulted in the subsidence of the Anambra basin, which
developed north of the Abakaliki uplift. The subsidence is particularly strong and
the basin is the locus of a proto-Niger Delta, which was formed on the stretched
continental margin. The development of the basin was controlled by the N25oE
fault trend, which became dominant in the structural evolution of the region.
2.2 Regional Stratigraphic Settings

The Anambra basin which is in the southern Benue trough, being that the
trough itself is a continental-large scale intra-plate tectonic mega structure, which
is part of the mid-African rift system initiated in the latest Jurassic to early
cretaceous and it is related to the opening of central and south Atlantic ocean
(Murat, 1972). The southern Benue trough comprises the tectonically inverted
Abakaliki anticlinorium, Afikpo and Anambra basin flanking the anticlinorium to
the east and west respectively. The development and evolution of the tectonic, of
the Anambra basin, and the stratigraphic setting of the study area will be better
appreciated by renewing developments in the depositional area since early
cretaceous (Table 2.1) structural unit of the south east Nigeria as represented by
Short and Stauble, 1967 and presented above in Fig. 1.2 above.
12
Albian
The oldest sediment in the southeastern Nigeria is around Abakaliki area.
The sediments are unnamed and constitute part of the Asu River Group (Table
2.1). Reyment, 1965 identified the type area to be the along Asu River. The
sediments consist of Abakaliki Shale with sandstone and rather poorly banded
sandy shale. The fold axis stretch NE-SW. these beds have been recorded to be
associated with lead-zinc mineralization. The shale is deeply weathered and is
found to contain echinoids, some pelycepods and gastropods.
Cenomanian
Beds of this age are restricted to the southeastern portion sedimentary
basin of southeastern Nigeria. They belong to the Odukpani Formation and
consist of arkosic sandstone, limestone and alternating limestone with shale,
which became predominantly shaley in the uppermost part. (Reyment, 1965)
Turonian
Deposits of this age belong to Eze-Aku Formation. The type locality is
the Eze-Aku River Valley in south eastern Nigeria. It consists of hard grey to
black shale and siltstone with frequent facies changing to sandstone or sandy-
shale.
Coniacian-Santonian
The evolution of the Abakaliki basin started with the opening of the Benue
trough in the early Cretaceous with the earliest deposit on the rift floor which are
unnamed base conglomerate of continental origin. They are overlain by the
Albian to Santonian succession suite divisible into the following; Asu River
Group at the bottom, Eze-Aku Formation and Awgu Formation (table 2.1) these
formations are separated by significant unconformities representing the time
13
interval between the major sea incursion. Each succession consists mainly of
shaley lithofacies with large sand bodies (as seen at Mmako village i.e. parts of
the Awgu Sandstone) and subordinate carbonate facies. The Albian Santonian
succession is also associated with basalts, micro diorites and pyroclastics outcrops
exhibiting alkaline to theolitic affinities (Maluski et al, 1995). The succession was
uplifted and became the topographic provenance (Abakaliki Anticlinorium),
which supplied the bulk of the Anambra basin fill (Hogue, 1977).
Campanian-Maastritchtian
The thermal regime responsible for the Santonian upliftment remained
active until the end of the Eocene. The period is characterized by spasmodic
quakes in the Abakaliki region (Agagu et al, 1985) and corresponding
transgression and regression in the Anambra basin (Peters, 1978). These events
along with the paleomorphology of the southern Benue trough and proximity of
sediment source area, controlled sedimentation and paleogeographic
reconstruction of the Anambra basin (table 2.1). Campanian sediments probably
belong to the base of Nkporo Formation. The filling of the Anambra basin took
place during the two-depositional cycles from the Campanian to early
Maastrichtian to Eocene (Petters, 1978). The commencement of the Campanian-
Maastrichtian is marked by a short transgression followed by a regression (Short
and Stauble, 1967).
Resting upon the Awgu Shale is the Nkporo Group comprising shale
facies (the Nkporo Shale), a shallowing upward sand, Owelli Formation
(Campanian-Maastrichtian) and marsh shale represented by the Enugu Shale. The
Nkporo Group is overlain by succession of parallel sandstone series of Mamu
Formation.
14
Table 2.1 Regional Sediment cycle of the Anambra Basin and it correlative
counterparts
AGE (m.y) ABAKALIKI – ANAMBRA BASIN AFIKPO BASIN

Ogwashi-Asaba
Oligocene Ogwashi-Asaba Formation Formation
33.7
Ameki/Nanka Formation/Nsugbe
Eocene Sandstone Ameki Formation
54.8
Imo Formation Imo Formation
Paleocene
65.0 Nsukka Formation Nsukka Formation
Maastrichtian Ajali Formation Ajali Formation
72.0 Mamu Formation Mamu Formation

Nkporo Shale /
Campanian Nkporo Owelli Formation / Enugu Shale Afikpo Sandstone
83
Santonian
86.0 Agbani Sandstone
Coniacian / Awgu Shale
89.0 Non-deposition/erosion
Ezeaku Group
(incl. Amasiri Sst).
94.0 Turonian Eze Aku Group
99.0 Cenomanian –
112.2 Albian Asu River Group
Aptian
121.0
Barremian
127.0 U n-n a m e d U ni t s
Hauterivian
132.7
Asu River Group
Precambrian B a s e m e n t C o m p l e x
{Modified after Reyment, 1965}

2.3 Topology and Drainage Pattern
Hilly and low lands characterize the study area (fig. 2.4a,b, and c). The
area is located at the gentle westward dip slop of the Enugu Cuesta and it runs
15
through the area. The Cuesta is one of the three main landforms occurring in the
southeastern Nigeria, others are Cross-river Plains and the Niger-Imo low lands.
The entire study area is drained by three main rivers which are Oji, Miuna
and Nyana Rivers. These constitutes the major attributes of the Mamu and Imo
rivers which are the major river bounding the study area. Rivers Ajali, Oji, Miuna,
Azata and Nyana are the major rivers that drain the area. These rivers all drain
into River Niger (Fig. 2.3).
The drainage density varies depending on the geologic formation that
underlies the part of the study area under consideration. The drainage intensity is
higher at areas underlain by mud rocks than in area areas that are underlain by
sandstone. Mamu Formation, drainage and channel frequency are very high
whereas in the Ajali sandstone, there is paucity of surface drainage owing to the
high infiltration capacity of the sandstone formation. These stream flows through
the V-shaped gullies of the sandstone as well as through the well resistant
sandstone of the Nkopro Group (within the area), creating new gullies and making
the older once deeper. It is also seen that from the drainage figure (Fig. 2.3), that
the pattern is dendritic and the streams are perennial. However, flow rates and
ground water table reduce during the dry season due to very low recharge.
2.4 Climates, Temperature and Vegetation

The rainy season starts from April and run through the end of July, a short
break in August and then another rainy season from September to October
followed by dry season from November to March.
Inyang (1975) noted that the study area lies within the tropical forest of
Nigeria and he also noted that the region has four dry months in which
precipitation is less than 60mm while the annual total ranges between 1875mm
and over 2560mm. The main annual temperature in the area is 26.6 oC and a
maximum range in altitude is about 1800ft. During the first quarter month, the
16
temperature normally rises to about 37.67oC and reaches its maximum towards
the end of the dry season. (Fig. 2.5) The august break is associated with the
7o25’E
6o09’N Ob
0
140
900
00
10
11 800
00
6o05’N 900
700 Nkwe
Mamu
River
17
1600
1400
Elevation (meters)
1200
1000
800
600 Nkporo Group
400
200
0
A
7o25’E
Fig.2.4a
1600
18
inversion in the tropical meantime air mass gives the air mass little incentive to
rise and cause conventional rainfall giving rise to humidity.
Across the country generally, Adetoro (1972) noted that the entire land
mass is divided into 5-main vegetation i.e. from the south end, the swamp forest,
the high forest, the semi-desert forest, the grasslands and the semi-desert
scrubland at the northern part. (Fig.: 2.5). The study area cut across Guinea
Savannah and tropical forest which lies between the deciduous forest and the high
forest and are characterized by thick to very thick and high evergreen trees mainly
hardwood. This thick vegetation is due to the high annual rainfall and constantly
moderate temperature within the study area. Below the level of the high trees,
there is layers of smaller tress and characterized by dense overgrowth of creeping
plants and parasites.
KEY:
Scrub land
Sudan Savannah
Guinea Savannah
Tropical Forest
Fresh Water Swamp
Mangrove Swamp Forest
Fig. 2.5: Temperate / Climatic Map of Nigeria (modified after Adetero)

19
CHAPTER THREE
OUTCROP DESCRIPTION
3.1 Introduction
Outcrop in the study area is sparsely distributed, as shown in Fig. 3.1. The
locations (position and elevation values) of outcrops studied were obtained from
the field using the CG-12 Global Positioning System (GPS). The data as collected
from the field are tabulated in Table 3.1.
Three main lithologies were identified in the entire study area. They
include sandstone, shale and mottled clay. Other geologic features within the
study area include salt water located at Lekwesi area. Also distributed in the area
were buckets of dolerite intrusions. Quarrying activities that are going on in the
vicinity of the intrusions exposes these dolerites. Effects of Santonian uplift that
has been reported by other authors were also observed in some parts of the study
area. The structural implications of some of the observed trends will be discussed
in the appropriate section of this work.
The entire study area was uplifted making most of the studied outcrop to
be dipping to nearly vertical as recorded around the Lokpanta / Awgu Boundary,
parts of Lokpanta–Lekwesi area and the Awgu–Mmaku areas. The GPS data as
obtained from the field is presented below in Table 3.1.

GPS VALUE ALTITUDE OF OUTCROP 20
Ma Locality
p Strikeand Localities
Table 3.1: Position Description / Outcrop Location Dip Dip
in Study Area
S/ Long. Altitu Dir. Dir. Amount Outcrop Type /
N Station Code Lat. (oN) (oE) de (m) (Az) (Az) (o) details
1 TOK/RJ/01 Lokpanta Junction 5o58'39'' 7o27'26'' 122.8 - - - Road Junction

2 TOK/SH/01 Lokpanta 5o58'39'' 7o27'38'' 129.2 218 308 23 Shale
3 TOK/WTR/01 Lokpanta 5o59'13'' 7o27'47'' 101.5 - - - River Mmabu
4 TOK/SWT/01 Lokpanta 5o59'18'' 7o26'34'' 140.2 - - - Obilagu Salt Water
5 Lokpanta/ Awgu
TOK/MCL/01 Boundary 6o01'05'' 7o28'13'' 118.9 213 303 6 Mottled Clay
6 Lokpanta/ Awgu
TOK/SST/01 Boundary 6o01'08'' 7o27'56'' 153.6 210 300 72 SST
7 TOK/SH/02 Lokpaukwu Area 5o56'25'' 7o25'31'' 152.4 - - - Shale
8 TOK/SH/03 Lekwesi Area 5o56'06'' 7o25'15'' 166.7 - - - Shale
9 TOK/WTP/01 Lekwesi 5o56'03'' 7o25'25'' 139 - - - Dolerite Intrusion
10 SH+Dolerite (Crush
TOK/SH/04 Lekwesi 5o56'41'' 7o29'02'' 97.8 205 295 27 Stones Ind.)
11 TOK/SST/02 Ugwueme 6o01'53'' 7o27'13'' 219.5 209 299 28 SST
12 TOK/OSM/01 Ugwueme 6o01'47'' 7o27'18'' 173.7 - - - Oil Smell
13 TOK/RJ/02 Awgu –Mmaku 6o05'15'' 7o28'30'' 216 Road Jn.
14 TOK/SST/03 Awgu –Mmaku 6o05'17'' 7o28'28'' 196.6 186 276 12 Thick body of SST
15 TOK/SST/04 Affam Ogo Mmaku 6o08'07'' 7o28'23'' 347.5
16 TOK/SST/05 Ogo Area 6o08'12'' 7o28'33'' 256
17 TOK/SST/05 Ogo Area 6o08'16'' 7o28'28'' 355.1
18 TOK/SH//03 Ogo Area 6o08'14'' 7o28'24'' 410 Black Shale
19 TOK/SST/05 Ogo-Mmaku 6o08'12'' 7o28'19'' 403.9 201 291 09 Brown Sand
20 Water Well (hand
TOK/HDW/1 Ogo-Mmaku 6o08'14'' 7o28'21'' 423.7 dug)
21 TOK/WF/01 Ogbanugwu o
6 08'27'' 7o28'03'' 313.6 Water Fall
KEY TOK=> Timi-Odiase, Kings
SST=> Sandstone : OSM => Oil Smell : MCL => Mottled Clay :
SWT => Salt Water
WTR => Water : WTP => Water Peat : SH => Shale
: RJ = Road Junction
HDW => Hand Dug Well : WF => Water Fall
21
7o25’E
6o09’N Obeagu
0
140
900
00
10
11 800
00
0
80
6o05’N 900
700 Nkwe
Mamu
River
22
7o25’E
6o09’N Obeagu
0
140
900
00
10
11 800
00
0
80
6o05’N 900
(See enlarged map at the back of this project)
700 Nkwe
Mamu
River
23
3.2 Lokpanta – Lekwesi Study Area

3.2.1 Lokpanta Junction
The outcrop is a roadside exposure located 150m to Lokpanta junction
along the Enugu - Port-Harcourt express road. It has lateral extent of about 170m
and gross thickness of about 15m.The outcrop is grayish, fissile shale and appears
to have been tilted and also affected by heat at some of the areas in which it is
outcropping. The outcrop is labeled TOK/SH/01 (i.e. outcrop number 2 on the
geologic map (Fig. 3.1a and 3.1b) with position and altitude values as presented in
table 3.1 above. The slate-like nature of the outcrop is indicative of the very low
stage of metamorphism it has undergone. Some other sections of same outcrop are
also seen to contain concretions (iron-rich) as shown in Plate3.3. This material
must have been deposited in a very quiet environment to give room for such
accumulation. Some section of the outcrop contains a lot of fossil (see Plate 3.2
below). The log of the outcrop is also represented in Fig. 3.2.
Plate 3.1: Shale Outcrop as seen at Lokpanta Junction [ TOK/SH/01]

24
Lithology Structures Depositional

(m) Environment
20
15
23o
Shallow Marine
Fig. 3.2: Log representation of

10 Unit TOK/SH/01
Slatted and
contains microfossil
CL FST MS CS CGL
Unit 2 (TOK/SST/01)
Plate 3.2 showing Size and shape of typical fossil on exposed outcrop.
25
Plate 3.3: Showing concretions at the exposed outcrop [TOK/SH/01].
3.2.2 Lokpanta / Awgu Boundary
The exposures at this locality are dominantly mottled clay [TOK/MCL/01

(number 5 in the map)] and sandstone [TOK/SST/01 (number 6)]. The clay dips at
6o while the sandstone is dipping at 72o forming angular unconformity between
the two units as shown in fig. 3.3 below. The sandstone consists of many units
distinguished based on some lithic characteristics. These units are described
below. Some schools of thought have attributed the unconformity to be an uplift,
depicting the Santonian uplift which affected area (i.e the lower dip of Benue
trough – Anambra Basin, Reyment, (1965)). See Plate 3.4 below.
A
26
Pl
A
ate
3.4: Section showing the (A) Cuesta and its trend, (B) exposure with units labels
TOK/MCL/01 and TOK/SST/01.
Unit 1 (TOK/MCL/01)
This unit is an exposure of mottled clay exposed along a gully. It has long
lateral extent which approximates to thickness of about 15m. The outcrop is
grayish with strips of reddish stains. The unit is shown on Plate 3.5
27
Plate 3.5: Base of the Mottled Clay as seen in unit TOK/MCL/01
Unit 2 (TOK/SST/01)
As seen in the log (Fig. 3.3), this section is on top of unit 1 and has
position values slightly seconds difference from Unit 1 (above). It is shown in
Plates 3.6, and Plate 3.7. other details are presented in Table 3.1. The subunits of
Unit 2 are discussed below
Unit 2a is sandstone, medium to coarse grain with thickness of about
0.95m. It is massive and whitish in colour.
Unit 2b is a massive light coloured fine grained sandstone with thickness
of about 0.7m.
Unit 2c is a massive sandstone with fined grain texture and shows
alternation of colours with about 6.1m thickness.
Unit 2d is fine to medium grained sandstone with inter layered mudstone.
The Unit is about 5.6m thick.
28
Unit 2e is mudstone with alternating bands of sandstone. It is massive and

has thickness of about 6.6m
Unit 2f is sandstone, medium to coarse grain with about 15m thickness. It
is also massive.
In all Units 2, with total thickness of about 34.95m, has one peculiar thing
about them i.e., the entire rock units has same altitude i.e they are nearly vertical
to vertical at the point at which measurement and position values were obtained,
see Table 3.1 above, while hypothetical diagramme of the section is attempted
below as Fig 3.3.
The representative log of these units is presented as Fig. 3.4 below.
Plate 3.6: Extraction from Plate 3.4, the b section, showing the sandstone sections
and arrow showing the separation between same unit (this might be due to
incursion of water in the area, which is presently eroding this part of the exposed
outcrop), and where pebbles were collection for textural analysis.
29
Plate 3.7: Section Extraction from Plate 3.6 above and arrow showing micro
folding structure
D
Fig. 3.3:
Schematic Representation of units, ABCD representing hypothetical fault plane,
30
Studied section and possible orientation of the units in Fig. 3.3 below, arrows
showing their direction of motion.
Depositional
Lithology Structures Environment
(m)
50
45 )
Beach
/01
Massive
72
ST
o
/S
OK
Sands
40 (T
it 2
Un
35
30
25
Shoreface
Sands
)
01
20
L/ Massive
C
M
K/
O
15 Unconformity (T
t1
ni
U
10
6
o
Massive
Shallow
5 Marine
C C
FST MS CGL
L S
Fig. 3.4: Litho-log of the studied units and proposed interpretation of

environment of deposition of the units
31
3.2.3 Lokpaukwu Area

This station is label TOK/SH/02, which is part of the Nkporo Shale
exposed along Enugu-Port-Harcourt express road around Lokpaukwu area. The
outcrop is grey to black shale and massive. It has positions as presented in Table
3.1 above. See plate 3.8. This shale is very thick (about 25m). This outcrop must
have been deposited is a very quiet environment.
Plate 3.8: Exposed Shale outcrop section along Enugu Port–Harcourt Road
[TOK/SH/02]
3.2.4 Lekwesi Area

32
This station is label TOK/SH/03 and is located around Lekwesi area. It is

shale and close to section TOK/SH/02. This is actually an exposure of Nkporo
Shale at the Lokpaukwu area but shows peculiar characteristics. This Shale is
underlain by dolerite intrusion. The quarrying of this dolerite lead to the
entrapment of large body of water for the locality, shown in Plate 3.9.
Plate 3.9: Exposed section of (A) Nkporo Shale covered with vegetation (B)
Dolerite intrusion and (C) entrapped water body around Lekwesi area.
Further from this location where the dolerite is outcropping, we have

evidence of the Santonian uplift as seen present at Crush Stone Industrial site in
Lekwesi area (Plate 3.10 and 3.11). All position values measure is presented in
Table 3.1
Evidence of the Santonian uplift in the Abakaliki area was seen at the
Crush rock Quarrying site at Lekwesi Umuchieze. At this location (Plate 3.10),
33
dolerite sill was found to have intruded into materials of Eze-Aku Formations.
These materials consist of shale interbeded with thin layers of siltstone and the
sandstone (Plate 3.11). Attitude measurement of beds indicates that the dolerite
dip west consistent with beddings. This resulted to thicker over burden thickness
to the west. There is obvious evidence of Santonian folding as shown by the
presence of tight isoclinal fold in the shale (Plate 3.12). The exposed material here
appears like limb of a major fold.
Plate 3.10: Dolerite at Crush Stone Industrial Site that intruded the Eza-Aku
Formation as a sill.
34
Plate 3.11: Shale unit at Lekwesi area (inside Crush Stone Industrial Site)
[TOK/SH/04].
Plate 3.12: Shale outcrop at Lekwesi area (inside Crush Stone Industrial Site)
[TOK/SH/04] with lines showing folded region and trends of beds (evidence of
Santonian uplift)
35
3.3 Ugwueme Area

The outcrop in this area is a hillside exposure of sandstone. Though the
exposure was not studied in detail, samples were collected so as to obtain textural
parameters, with position and attitude as presented in Table 3.1 above. The sand
dips 28o to the west, having strike direction of 209Az and dip direction of 299Az,
and consists of fine to medium grained sizes. About 36.57m below the position of
the sandstone unit exposed along the hill are very big boulders of consolidated
coarse massive sandstone at the base of the scare face of the Cuesta in the area.
This position is where the oil seep/gas smell is located at Ugwueme (Plate 3.13).
The presence of the boulder and the oil seep may probably indicate the presence
of a fault.
Plate 3.13: Oil Show/gas smell spot at Ugwueme [TOK/OSM/01]

36
3.4 Awgu – Mmaku Study Area

The dominant Lithology in this area is sandstone. The sandstone is greatly
deformed from the sections that were seen and studied.
3.4.1 Awgu Area

Outcrop in this region of the study area is label TOK/SST/03 (Plate 3.14).
It was seen to be outcropping at three different locations, all displaying the same
trend (as detailed in table 3.1) with some area displaying evidence of bioturbation.
Ichnofossil such as Ophiamopha was seen at station TOK/SST/03 as shown in
Plate 3.15. The outcrop is weathered, poorly sorted sandstone and it is medium to
coarse grain, with most of the grains highly visible to the naked eyes at some
areas of the outcrop. The units are striking 186Az, with dip direction 276az and
dip amount 12o, with the units display variations along east to west i.e east coarser
than the western side of same outcrop. The sandstones are reddish brown to white
in colour, massive and clean. Further details are outlined in the log of the section
as shown in Fig. 3.5 below.
Plate 3.14: Showing the studied Units (Awgu Sandstone) at Awgu Town Junction
with arrows showing the trends of beds
37
Plate 3.15: Bioturbation structures as seen in the outcrop at Station TOK/SST/03

and inner cross bed.
Lithology Depositional
(m) Structures Environment
16
12
e
Massive ac
(poorly sorted) ref
8 12o
ho
S
Bioturbated (horizontal,
nearly vertical and )
Massive / consolidated
4 (poorly sorted) & presence
of cross beds
Massive
(moderately well sorted)
Massive
(poorly sorted)
CL FST MS CS CGL
Fig. 3.5: Litholog of Unit in the area [ TOK/SST/03]

38
3.4.2 Mmaku Area

This area of the study area shows a great evidence of deformation (more
of faulting) especially around the Affam Mmaku - Ogo town. A lot of geologic
features were encountered in this area most of these features seen at this location
are appended to this project as Appendixes. Shale (plate 3.15) and sandstone were
the main litho-units seen here. The log is presented in Fig. 3.6 and a schematic
representation of the orientation of the beds in Fig. 3.6. The first sand has
position and altitude as outlined in table 3.1 above and strikes at 201Az, dip
direction of 291Az with dip amount of 09o. It has estimated gross thickness of
about 130m. It is medium to coarse sand and reddish brown to white. The
sandstone is overlain by fissile shale, grey to black with thickness of about 20m
with as shown in plate 3.16, and the top of this unit, another sandstone body of
about 2.5m thick medium to coarse and brown in colour.
Plate 3.16: Organic Rich Shale at the unit TOK/SH/03

39
Lithology Structures Depositional
Environment
(m)
200
180
160
Massive ??
Shallow marine
140
120
09o
100
Massive Shoreface Sand

80
60
40
20
C C
FST MS CGL
L S
Fig. 3.6: Log of Affam Mmku-Ogo study area [TOK/SST/04-05].
The sand at the base, going by the lithstratigraphic table presented above
as Table 2.1, depicts the Awgu Sandstone. Around this area also, there is a hand
dug well that has depth to water surface of about 5.1m. Table 3.1 show further
details., also, around this region, we have the Ogbnugwa Water fall as it is
40
popularly called by the locality and it shows flow direction of 20oN. The water is
relatively soft clean water and can be utilized for domestic and agricultural
purposes. Also close to this water fall is a minor water fall this is dirty colour and
relatively hard. The step-like nature of our decending from height of about
365.78m to 213.36m and the sharp drop to about 121.9m suggests a step like
normal fault in the area. (Fig. 3.7)
2
(
3
S
h
Proposed Fault Plane
a
for the Agbani Sandstone
l
e
1
3
2
1
Fig. 3.7: Hypothetical (normal) (step-like) fault that affected the Affam Mmaku
Ogo area where the numbering represent the lithologic units in fig. 3.5 above.
41
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter will focus on the presentation of the results obtained from the
analysis of the samples collected from the study area.
4.2 Pebble Morphology

4.2.1 Methodology and Data Presentation
A total of 31 pebbles were collected from distinct pebble horizon within
the Awgu Sandstone. During sampling all pebbles with distinct fresh breaks,
obvious primary elongation or flatness, and those that showed strong lithologic
inhomogeneities were discarded to assure true values of the desired parameters
(Sames, 1966).
The three mutually perpendicular axes: the long (L), the intermediate (I),
and the short (S) axes of each pebble were measured with the veneer calipers as
suggested by Dobkins and Folk (1970). The following were calculated
1. Maximum Projection Sphericity (MPS, Sneed and Folk 1958).
MPS={S2/LI} 1/ 3
2. Oblate Prolate Index (OPI, Dobkins and Folk 1970).

OPI= {(L-I / L-S) –0.5}/ (S/L)
3. Flatness Index (FI, Luttig. 1962)

FI = S/L x 100
Bivariate plots of MPS against OPI, and MPS against FI were also carried
out following the methods of Dobkins and Folk (1970), and Stratten (1974). The
computed form and roundness indices are shown in Table 4.1. below, bivariate
plots of flatness index against maximum projection sphericity (MPS), and MPS
42
against oblate-prolate index (OPI) are shown in Figs. 4.1 and 4.2 respectively,
while the sphericity form plots are presented in Fig. .
Table 4.1: Measured and Computed data from Pebbles collected

L S I I/L S/L S/I L-S L-I LI S2 LIS MPS FI OPI
1 1.7 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.5 1.4
5 1.2 1.6 1 9 5 5 0.15 2.8 4 3.36 0.17 69 -0.33
2 1.5 1.7 1.1 0.7 1.1 1.7 2.9 11
2 2 5 6 3 1.5 -0.2 0.37 5 6 3.01 0.56 3 0.63
3 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.4 1.0 0.9
5 0.7 5 3 1 4 5 0.2 9 9 2.27 0.3 61 -0.09
4 1.9 1.7 0.7 0.8 0.4 2.2
2 1.5 2 0.9 8 7 2 0.2 3.3 5 4.95 0.2 78 -0.03
5 1.5 1.8 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.4 3.6 2.3
2 2 2 1 6 4 8 0.18 4 1 5.53 0.21 76 -0.16
6 1.1 1.7 0.9 0.6 0.6 0.6 3.2 1.3
1.8 5 8 9 4 5 5 0.02 8 2 3.68 0.13 64 -0.62
7 1.3 1.1 0.8 0.8 1.3 1.6 1.3
5 5 1.2 9 5 5 0.2 0.15 2 2 1.86 0.27 85 0.29
8 1.8 1.5 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.8 2.7
2 1 2 4 4 6 2 0.3 7 1 2.57 0.12 66 -0.16
9 1.7 0.8 0.6 1.4
2 1.2 5 8 0.6 9 0.8 0.25 3.5 4 4.2 0.14 69 -0.31
10 1.6 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.2 2.6 1.6
5 1.3 1.6 7 9 1 5 0.05 4 9 3.43 0.21 81 -0.38
11 1.6 1.2 0.9 1.2 1.3 1.6 2.7 12
1.3 5 5 6 7 2 -0.3 0.05 3 2 2.68 0.56 5 -0.55
12 1.7 1.6 0.9 0.7 0.4 2.7 1.6
2 1.3 2 3 6 0.8 2 0.1 9 9 3.62 0.2 76 -0.34
13 1.6 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.1 3.0 2.7
1.8 5 1.7 4 2 7 5 0.1 6 2 5.05 0.29 92 0.18
14 0.9 0.7 0.7 3.0 1.6
1.8 1.3 1.7 4 2 6 0.5 0.1 6 9 3.98 0.18 72 -0.42
15 1.0 0.9 0.5
2.1 5 2 5 0.5 3 0.8 0.1 4.2 1.1 4.41 0.08 50 -0.75
16 1.9 1.4 1.7 0.7 0.8 3.4
5 5 5 0.9 4 3 0.5 0.2 1 2.1 4.95 0.21 74 -0.14
17 1.7 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.6 5.2 3.0
2.4 5 2.2 2 3 9 5 0.2 8 6 9.24 0.19 73 -0.26
18 1.4 0.6 0.7 0.4 1.8
5 1 1.3 0.9 9 7 5 0.15 9 1 1.89 0.18 69 -0.24
19 1.7 0.7 0.9 1.3 0.0 2.3 3.0
1.8 5 1.3 2 7 5 5 0.5 4 6 4.1 0.44 97 9.97
20 1.9 0.8 0.8 0.3 3.1 2.5
5 1.6 1.6 2 2 1 5 0.35 2 6 4.99 0.82 82 0.61
43
21 1.7 0.6 0.5 0.8 4.5 2.2

2.6 1.5 5 7 8 6 1.1 0.85 5 5 6.83 0.16 58 0.47
22 1.4 1.1 1.5 0.7 3.3 1.3
5 5 2.3 8 9 0.5 0.3 0.15 4 2 3.84 0.13 79 0
23 1.2 0.8 0.7 0.9 0.3 2.0 1.5
1.6 5 1.3 3 8 6 5 0.3 8 6 2.6 0.25 78 0.46
24 1.2 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.3 1.5
1.6 5 1.5 4 8 3 5 0.1 2.4 6 3 0.22 78 -0.27
25 0.9 0.7 0.8 4.8 3.2
2.3 1.8 2.1 1 8 6 0.5 0.2 3 4 8.69 0.22 78 -0.13
26 1.4 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.1 2.2 1.6
2 1.3 1.6 4 2 1 2 0.12 7 9 2.95 0.25 92 0.54
27 2.4 2.1 2.3 0.9 0.8 0.9 5.7 4.6 10.4
5 5 5 6 8 1 0.3 0.15 6 2 1 0.27 88 0
28 1.3 0.8 0.7 0.9 2.3 1.8
1.7 5 1.4 2 9 6 0.4 0.3 8 2 3.21 0.25 79 0.28
29 1.2 0.8 0.7 0.8 1.8 1.2
1.4 1.1 5 9 1 8 0.3 0.15 6 1 1.93 0.22 71 0
30 0.7 1.1 0.7 0.4 0.6 0.1 1.6 0.5
1.5 2 2 5 8 4 2 0.38 8 2 1.21 0.1 48 5.56
31 0.7 0.9 1.0 2.5 2.5
1.7 1.6 1.5 6 4 7 0.1 0.2 5 6 4.08 0.33 94 1.6
44
4.2.2. Environmental Indications

Univariate pebble parameters: Several workers have demonstrated the usefulness
of pebble form indices in paleoenvironmental interpretation. Tables 4.2 shows
the critical values for form indices as established by previous workers for fluvial
and surf processes.
Table 4.2: Limits of form indices for fluvial and surf processes
Indices Fluvial Surf Reference

MPS More than 0.65 Less than 0.65 Dobkins and Folk (1970
OPI More than –1.5 Less than –1.5 Dobkins & Folk (1970)
FI More than 45% Less than 45% Stratten (1974)
Fluvial process is defined by MPS, OPI, and FI more than 0.65; -1.5; and
45% respectively, whereas surf process is defined by MPS, OPI, and FI less than
0.65; -1.5; and 45% respectively.
A critical analysis of Table 4.1 shows that within the Sandstone at
Lokpanta/Awgu Boundary, 100% of the flatness index values fall above the 45%
lower limit for fluvial process; these data thus suggest that the collected pebbles
from the pebble horizon at Lokpanta/Awgu Boundary, was largely shaped by surf
process.
The mean MPS value for pebbles sampled from the sandstone unit at
Lokpanta/Awgu Boundary is 0.25, the mean OPI is 0.49. The mean MPS and OPI
for pebbles from the Lokpanta/Awgu Boundary area suggest surf origin.
Bivariate plots: Discrimination of environments using bivariate plots of
pebble indices has been employed on ancient and recent gravel deposits with
45
much success (Luttig, 1962; Sames 1966; Dobkins and Folk, 1970; Stratten, 1974;
Els, 1988; Obi, 1996). Plots of MPS vs. OPI and FI vs. MPS are commonly used
to discriminate fluvial and beach processes. Plots of MPS against OPI (Figs. 4.1)
indicate that all the pebbles sampled from the horizon at Lokpanta/Awgu
Boundary area reflect 54.84 % beach / surf action while 45.16% reflects fluvial
action. A plot of FI against OPI (Fig. 4.2) for pebbles sampled from the same
horizons at Lokpanta/Awgu Boundary area reflects 83.87% beach action while
16.13% reflects fluvial action.
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Fig. 4.1: Plot of MPS against OPI for pebbles collected at Lokpanta/Awgu
Boundary Outcrop
0.5
MPS
0.4
46
120
100
80
Fig. 4.2: Plot of OPI against FI for pebbles collected at Lokpanta/Awgu
Boundary Outcrop
Pebble form: Certain form classes (Sneed and Folk, 1958) are known to occur
60
FI
more frequently in one environment than they do in another. For example the
three shape classes known to be most diagnostic of beach action are the Platy,
Very Platy, and Very Bladed, whereas forms most diagnostic of river action are
the Compact,40
Compact Bladed, and Compact Elongate (Dobkins and Folk, 1970).
Pebbles sampled at Lokpanta/Awgu Boundary unit belonging to Awgu Sandstone
show a remarkable transition from mainly Very Platy forms to Very Bladed form
and also from compact bladed to compact elongated.
20 SURF ACTION
47
4.3 Sieve Analysis
4.3.1 Methodology and Data Presentation
Fresh sandstone samples were obtained systematically collected from the
deformed sandstone unit at Lokpanta/Awgu Boundary [Awgu Sandstone (Five
samples from Station TOK/SST/01)], Ugwueme Area [Mamu Formation (three
Samples from Station TOK/SST/02)] and Awgu-Mmaku area [Awgu Sandstone
(Ten samples from Station TOK/SST/03)], the indurated sandstone samples were
carefully disaggregated in a mortar by a rubber padded pestle while the friable
ones needed no disaggregating. The sandstone samples were then dried.
About 100 grams of each disaggregated sample was divided into equal
parts by using the prescribed Jones sample splitter to avoid any biases in terms of
grain distribution. 50 gram of each sample was sieved for 15minutes on a Ro–Tap
sieve shaker using a set of U.S standard sieves at ¼ phi sieve internal to provide
maximum accuracy of results as was suggested by Folk (1974). Each sieve
fraction was weighed to a precision of 0.01 gram. The data obtained is as
presented in table 4.3 below. The data is also represented as histogram (as shown
in Fig. 4.3 below), plotted on the arithmetic scale, to obtain the modal class size
for each sample as well as cumulative frequency curves plotted on the log-
probability scale as shown in Fig. 4.4 below. The scale is derived by dividing the
area beneath a normal distribution curve into columnar segment of equal area.
48
Those near the center of the distribution are long and relatively narrow where as
those towards the tails are low and proportionally broader. From the cumulative
plots, values intercepted from the percentile were read off and used to compute
the statistical parameters. The parameters which include Graphic Mean (Mz),
Sorting Coefficient (σ 1) Skewness (Ski) and Kurtosis (Kg), computed using
formulas which were adopted from Folk and Wards (1957) as defined below.
Formulas for computation of statistical parameters of sieve analysis.
Mz= 1/3 (φ 16 +φ 50 +φ )
84
σ 1 = φ 84 –φ 16 + φ 95 – φ 5
4 6.6
SKi = φ 16 + φ 84 – 2φ 50 + φ 5 + φ 95 – 2φ 50
2(φ 84 –φ 16) 2(φ 95-φ 5)
Kg = φ 95 - φ 5 .
2.44 (φ 75-φ 25)
49
Table 4.3a: Summary of Sieve Data and Analysis
Station: TOK/SST/01 (Lokpanta - Awgu Lokpanta Awgu Boundary - LAB)

Unit LAB I Unit LAB II Unit LAB III Unit LAB IV Unit LAB V
Wt % Cum. Wt % Cum. Wt % Cum. Wt % Cum. Wt % Cum.
φ (g) Freq % (g) Freq % (g) Freq % (g) Freq % (g) Freq %
-2 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.1 0.20 0.20
-1 0.9 1.84 1.84 2.3 4.63 4.63 1.5 1.84 1.84 4.2 8.57 8.57 5.5 11.04 11.24
14.6 23.2
0 3.6 7.38 9.22 1.6 3.23 7.87 3.5 7.38 9.22 7.2 9 6 15.8 31.73 42.97
17.8 27.0 13.3 17.8 27.0 16.9 40.2
1 9.7 3 5 2.7 5.44 1 5.6 3 5 8.3 4 0 16.9 33.94 76.91
23. 48.7 75.8 59.8 73.1 18. 48.7 75.8 29.1 69.3
2 8 7 2 29.07 8 9 5 7 2 14.3 8 8 8.6 17.27 94.18
11. 22.2 98.8 24.1 97.3 19. 22.7 98.5 27.5 96.9
3 1 5 2 12 9 8 8 5 7 13.5 5 3 2.5 5.02 99.2
99.9
4 0.7 1.43 100 1.3 2.62 100 0.8 1.43 100 1.5 3.06 8 0.4 0.80 100
Station: TOK/SST/02 (Ugwueme Area - UA)

Unit UA I Unit UA II Unit UA III
Wt % Cum. Wt % Cum. Wt % Cum.
φ (g) Freq % (g) Freq % (g) Freq %
-2 0.3 0.60 0.60 0 0.20 0.20 0 0.00 0.00
-1 2.3 4.62 5.22 1.5 3.01 3.21 0.2 0.40 0.40
13.8 19.0 12.4
0 6.9 6 8 4.6 9.24 5 0.7 1.41 1.81
14. 28.3 47.3 21.2 33.7
1 1 1 9 10.6 9 4 2.9 5.84 7.65
21. 42.9 90.3 39.1 73.9 13. 27.1 34.8
2 4 7 6 19.5 6 0 5 6 1
99.2 25.3 98.2 56.3 91.1
3 4.4 8.84 0 12.6 0 0 28 4 5
4 0.4 0.80 100 0.9 1.81 100 3.9 8.85 100
50
Table 4.3b: Summary of Sieve Data and Analysis
Station TOK/SST/03 (Awgu-Mmaku –AM)

Unit AM I Unit AM II Unit AM III Unit AM IV Unit AM V
-2 1.2 2.42 2.42 0.4 0.80 0.80 0.5 0.10 0.10 0.3 0.6 0.6 0 0 0
11.7 11.0 11.8 10.4
-1 4.6 9.29 1 5.53 7 7 3.2 6.39 6.49 4.9 9.82 2 5.1 10.2 10.2
18.9 37.6 49.5 12. 25.1 31.6 18.2
0 9.4 9 30.7 18.82 3 0 5 3 2 3.9 7.82 4 19.2 38.4 48.6
16. 33.5 64.2 34.6 84.1 10. 20.8 52.4 37.2 55.5
1 6 4 4 17.31 1 1 4 0 2 18.6 7 1 21.5 43 91.6
16. 32.3 96.5 14.2 16. 34.6 87.0 31.2 86.7
2 0 2 6 7.15 9 98.4 3 0 2 15.6 6 7 3.5 7 98.6
99.5 99.8 6.0 12.1 99.1 13.0
3 1.5 3.02 9 0.72 1.41 1 7 5 7 6.5 3 99.8 0.4 0.8 99.4
99.9 0.4 99.9
4 0.2 0.40 9 0.1 0.20 100. 1 0.82 9 0.1 0.2 100 0.3 0.6 100
Pa
n
Unit AM VI Unit AM VII Unit AM VIII Unit AM IX Unit AM X

-2 0 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0.00 0.3 0.60 0.60 0 0.00 0.0 0.2 0.20 0.20
-1 5.9 11.8 11.8 2.2 4.4 4.4 3.8 7.62 8.22 1.2 2.41 2.41 4.9 9.82 10.02
21. 42.6 50.9
0 4.2 8.4 20.2 3.7 7.4 11.8 3 9 1 3.3 6.63 9.04 20.2 40.48 50.50
16. 18. 37.0 87.9 32.5 41.5
1 5 33.0 53.2 5.9 11.8 23.6 5 7 8 16.2 3 7 20.5 4108 91.58
17. 11.2 40.1 81.7
2 5 35.0 88.2 14.3 28.6 52.2 5.6 2 99.2 2 6 3 3.4 6.81 98.39
14.6 96.3
3 5.5 11.0 99.2 20.5 41.0 93.2 0.3 0.60 99.8 7.3 6 9 0.5 1.00 99.39
99.9
4 0.4 0.8 100 3.4 6.8 100 0.1 0.20 100 1.8 3.6 9 0.3 0.60 99.99
Pa
n
51
52
Station: TOK/SST/01 (-Lokpanta -Awgu

Unit LAB)
Boundary Unit
5 LAB I
0
4
6
0 LAB II
5
g)
g) 4 % 5
0
% 0 (
( 3 ht
4
5
ht g
g 3 ei 0
ei 0 W
2 e 3
0
W
5 g
ge 2 a
ta 0 nt 2
en 1 e 0
rc 5 c
Pe 1 er 1
0 P 0
5
0 0
- -
- - 0 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 2 1
2 1 Phi Phi
(φ ) (φ )
Unit
4
LAB III
3
0 Unit
g)
0
3 2 LAB IV
5 5
g)
%
3
%
2
(
0 (
ht
2 ht 0
5
g g
ei 2 1
5
ei
W 0 W
1
1
ge ge
5
0
ta
1
ta
en
rc 0 en
rc 5
Pe 5 Pe
0
- - 0
0 1 2 3 4 - -
2 1 Phi 0 1 2 3 4
2 1
Unit (φ )
Phi
(φ )
3 LAB V
5
3
Station: TOK/SST/02 (Ugwueme
Area - UA)
g)
% 0
(
ht
2
5 4 Unit
5
g
ei
2
0
g)
%
4
0
UA I
W 3
1 (
5
5 3
ge ht
0
ta g
en 1 2
0 5
ei
rc W 2
0
Pe
5 ge
ta 1
5
0 en 1
- - rc 0
0 1 2 3 4
2 1 Phi Pe 5
(φ ) 0
- -
0 1 2 3 4
2 1
Unit Phi
4
Unit
0
UA II 6
0
(φ )
UA III
g)
3 g)
5
%
5
3
%
0
(
ht 0 (
g 2 ht 4
ei 5 g 0
W 2 ei 3
ge 0 W 0
1
ta
5
ge 2
en 1
ta 0
0
en
1
rc
0
Pe rc
5 Pe
0 0
- - - - Pa
Pa 0 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 2 1 Phi n
2 1 n
Phi (φ )
(φ )
Fig. 4.3a: Plot Representation of Sieve Analysis for Obtaining Modal Class Size
53
Station TOK/SST/03 (Awgu-Mmaku -AM)
40
Unit AM II
35
Unit AM I 35
Percentage Weight ( % g)
Percentage Weight ( % g) 30
30
25
25
20 20
15
15
10
10
5
5 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Phi (φ) Phi (φ)
700
Unit AM III
40 Unit AM IV
600
500 35
400 30
300
25
200
20
100
15
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 10
Phi (φ) 5
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 Pan
Phi (φ)
45 Unit AM V
40 35 Unit AM VI
35 30
30
25
25
20
20
15
15
10
10
5 5
0 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 Pan -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Phi (φ)
Phi (φ)
Fig. 4.3b: Plot Representation of Sieve Analysis for Obtaining Modal Class Size
54
Station TOK/SST/03 (Awgu-Mmaku -AM) Continues

Unit AM VIII
4
4 5
5 Unit AM VII 4
4 0
0 3
g) 3 g) 5
% 5 % 3
( 3 ( 0
0 2
2 5
t t
gh 5 gh
2
ei 2 ei 0
W 0 W 1
ge 1 ge 5
ta 5 ta 1
en 1 en 0
0
rc rc 5
Pe 5 Pe
0
0 - -
- - 0 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 2 1
2 1 Phi Phi
(φ ) (φ )
Unit AM VII
4 Unit AM IX
5 4
5
4
4
0
3 0
3
g) 5 g) 5
% 3 % 3
( 0 ( 0
t 2 t 2
gh 5 gh 5
ei 2 ei 2
0 0
1
W W
1
ge
5
ge 5
ta ta 1
1
en en 0
0
rc rc 5
Pe 5 Pe
0
0 - -
0 1 2 3 4
- - 2 1
0 1 2 3 4 Phi
2 1
Phi (φ )
(φ )
Fig. 4.3c: Plot Representation of Sieve Analysis for Obtaining Modal Class Size
4.4 Analysis and Results of Sieve Data
The computed statistical parameters for textural analysis from sieve data
are presented in Table 4.5 and the data used for the computation is below in table
4.4. Representative histograms of the grain–size distribution are shown in Fig
4.3a, 4.3b and 4.3c above and the probability curves are presented below in Fig.
4.4. The statistical parameters are; Mean size (Mz): Sorting (σ 1), Skewness
(SKi,) and Kurtosis (KG).
55
Fig. 4.4 Log Probability Curves for Samples
Sample No.: TOK/SST/01 [Lokpanta Awgu Boundary (LAB)]
φ (Phi –
Scale)
LAB I
LAB II
φ (Phi –
Scale)
LAB III LAB IV
56
Sample No.: TOK/SST/02 [Ugwueme Area (UA)]

Sample No.: TOK/SST/01 [Lokpanta Awgu Boundary (LAB)]
φ (Phi –
LAB V Scale)
UA I
φ (Phi –
Scale)
UAII UA III
57
Sample No.: TOK/SST/03 [Awgu Mmaku (AM)]
φ (Phi – Scale)
AM I
AM II
φ (Phi – Scale)
AM III AM IV
58
φ (Phi – Scale)
AM V
AM VI
φ (Phi – Scale)
AM VII AM VIII
59
φ (Phi – Scale)
AM IX
AM X
4.4.1 Textural Parameters

Mean Size (Mz):
The mean size reflects the overall competency of the transport system. The
mean diameter is the size at which 50% of the particles (by weight) are medium
and the remainder finer. Samples obtained from the Station TOK/SST/01, show
moderately stable current from the base and slight variation at the top (LAB V)
with high current for depositing the coarse sand. Station TOK/SST/02 shows
moderate current for the three samples at this station. Station TOK/SST/03 show
that the depositing medium had high current responsible for deposing coarse sand
and slightly varied in the cause of depositing towards the top of the section detail
of analysis is presented in table 4.5 below after table 4.4.
60
Table 4.4: Data from Log Probability Curves for Statistical Computation
Sample Station: TOK/SST/01 (Lokpanta - Awgu Lokpanta Awgu Boundary - LAB)
φ 5 φ 16 φ 25 φ 50 φ 75 φ 84 φ 95
LAB I -0.40 0.40 0.80 1.40 1.80 2.30 3.50
LAB II -0.60 1.00 1.20 1.60 2.10 2.30 2.80
LAB III -0.40 0.40 1.10 1.70 2.40 2.80 3.40
LAB IV -1.20 -0.60 0.00 1.00 2.00 2.50 3.40
LAB V -1.30 -0.70 -0.50 0.20 0.90 1.20 2.30
Sample Station: TOK/SST/02 (Ugwueme Area - UA)
UA I -080 -0.10 0.30 1.00 1.60 1.90 2.60
UA II -0.40 0.20 0.00 0.60 1.30 2.10 2.80
UA III 0.80 1.30 1.50 2.20 2.80 3.00 3.60
Sample Station TOK/SST/03 (Awgu-Mmaku –AM)
AM I -1.40 -0.80 -0.40 0.40 1.20 1.70 2.40
AM II -1.30 -0.90 -0.60 0.00 0.70 1.00 2.20
AMIII -1.20 -0.60 -0.20 0.60 1.40 1.80 3.00
AM IV -0.80 -0.20 0.20 0.80 1.60 2.00 3.00
AM V -1.20 -1.00 -0.60 -0.40 0.40 0.60 1.80
AM VI -0.80 -0.20 0.50 0.80 1.60 1.80 2.60
AMVII -0.70 0.40 1.0 1.70 2.40 2.80 3.40
AM VIII -1.20 -0.80 -0.60 0.00 0.60 0.80 2.10
AM IX -0.40 0.20 0.50 1.20 1.80 2.10 2.80
AM X -1.20 -0.80 -0.50 -0.20 0.40 0.60 1.80
Coefficient of Sorting (σ )
This parameter is a measure of the spread of size about the average and it
defines the dispersion of sediment. Samples from units at station TOK/SST/01
shows moderate sorting from base to top, station TOK/SST/02 shows all samples
to be moderately sorted, and same for station TOK/SST/03. (See Table 4.5)
Skewness (Ski)
Skewness is a measure of the asymmetry of a frequency distribution. If
negative, it is coarse and fine if positive. Stations TOK/SST/01, TOK/SST/02
and TOK/SST/03 showed samples to be fine from the base of the units and
through the entire unit and its indicated as positively skewed.
Kurtosis ( KG)
61
Kurtosis in a measure of the peakedness of a curve from normal (Tucker

1982). In effect, it measures the degree of sorting in the center of the curve
compared to sorting at the tails. Fluctuation in kurtosis between “leptokurtic” and
“platykurtic” were observed in samples from station TOK/SST/01 and
TOK/SST/02 had all its samples to be platykurtic. Station TOK/SST/03 showed
dominant platykurtic and varied in the middle showing mesokurtic. This means
that their curves are moderately peaked and sometimes strongly peaked. Kurtosis
is an indirect measure of sorting that flat curves of poorly sorted sediments are
platykurtic while strongly peaked curves of good sorting are leptokurtic.
However, it should be noted that kurtosis is not a diagnostic parameter in
predicting depositional process (Blatt et-at 1972).
4.4.2 Environmental Indication:

The textural parameters namely: Mean Size (Mz), Sorting, (σ ), Skewness
(Ski), and kurtosis (KG) are used as environmental indicators. The technique
involves using the unvaried textual parameters, beverage plots of such textural
parameters and multivariate statistical functions to predict possible environment
of deposition of the various units at the stations.
4.4.2.1Univariate Textural Parameters

Mean Size, Mz
The sandstones of Awgu Sandstone are dominantly medium-grained and
coarse-grained fractions (Table 4.5.) Suggesting a relatively high-energy
condition at the time of deposition of the sediments. Occasional increase in
hydraulic energy may be associated with the deposition of the coarse-grained
fractions. The fining-upward motif at the muddle internal is attributed to fluvial
processes and may probably be the result of lateral migration of fluvial channels
62
(Pettijohn 1975, p 628). This observed abrupt variation in mean size from medium
to coarse may be related to rapid changes in hydraulic energy commonly
associated with tidal processes This interpretation is supported by the presence of
variation of sand sizes (from medium to coarse) at the observed stations.
Coefficient of Sorting or Standard Deviation (σ ,)

Sorting indicates function in the velocity of the depositing agent. The
sandstone units at stations TOK/SST/ 01, TOK/SST/02 AND TOK/SST/03 do not
show uniform sorting. Fluctuations from moderately well sorted to only one
sample from station TOK/SST/01 being poorly sorted sand, can be attributed to
difference in water turbulence and variability in current velocity. Sorting reflects
relatively stable current velocity (for moderately sorted) and minute turbulence
(poorly sorted) during deposition typical of tidally influenced action for moderate
sorting and fluvial action for poor sorting. Cant (1982) related moderately sorted
to poorly sorted sandstone with dominant polymodal distribution to tidally
influenced fluvial channel. The symmetrical to asymmetrical shaped of
histograms (Fig. 4.3a, 4.3b and 4.3c above) of frequency distribution for
sandstone of the units at stations TOK/SST/01, TOK/SST/002 and TOK/SST/03
along with the generally moderate to poor sorting suggests tidally influenced
fluvial setting.
Skewness (SKi)
Trend in the Skewness are also significant of sandstone deposition
medium which shows Skewness / medium fluctuation between dominantly
negatively or coarsely skewed, finely or negatively skewed and symmetrical
fractions. The coarsely skewed or positively skewed fractions implies that the
velocity of the depositing agent operated at a higher velocity than the average
velocity for a greater length of time than normal and / or the velocities occur more
63
often than normal. The subordinate finely skewed or negatively skewed fractions
indicated that the velocity of the depositing agent operated at a lower velocity
than the average velocity for a greater length of time than normal. Near
symmetrical Skewness indicates that a broad spectrum of population is present in
the sample. It indicates that occasional stability in the velocity conditions of the
depositing agent, (see detail of studied area as presented in table 4.5a and 4.3b
below).
Table 4.5a: Summary of Results of Statistical Parameters Obtained From Grain

Size Analysis with their Verbal Interpretation
Sample TOK/SST/01 – Lokpanta – Awgu Boundary (LAB)
No Mean Size (Mz) Sorting (σ 1) (Kurtosis (KG Skewness (SKi)
LAB I 1.77 1.18 1.11 0.27
Medium Sand Moderately Sorted Leptokurtic Pos. Skewed
LAB II 1.80 0.89 1.32 0.18
Medium Sand Moderately Sorted Leptokurtic Pos. Skewed
LAB III 1.83 1.23 1.01 0.18
Medium Sand Moderately Sorted Mesokurtic Pos. Skewed
LAB IV 1.27 1.56 0.76 0.14
Medium Sand Poorly Sorted Platykurtic Pos. Skewed
LAB V 0.6 1.13 0.73 0.14
Coarse Sand Moderately Sorted Platykurtic Pos. Skewed
TOK/SST/02 – Ugwueme Area (UA)
UA I 1.17 1.08 0.85 0.11
Medium Sand Moderately Sorted Platykurtic Pos. Skewed
UA II 1.20 1.03 0.79 0.57
Medium Sand Moderately Sorted Platykurtic Pos Skewed
UA III 2.37 0.91 0.69 0.47
Table 4.5b: Summary of Results of Statistical Parameters Obtained From Grain

Size Analysis with their Verbal Interpretation
TOK/SST/03 – Awgu Mmaku (AM)
64
AM I 0.67 1.27 0.79 0.11

AM II 0.43 1.12 0.73 0.14
AM III 1.00 1.35 0.77 0.17
AM IV 1.20 1.22 0.82 0.26
AM V 0.13 0.97 0.74 0.23
AM VI 1.07 1.09 0.51 0.18
Medium Sand Moderately Sorted V. Platykurtic Pos. Skewed
AM VII 1.83 1.28 1.02 0.12
AM VIII 0.43 1.03 0.68 0.12
AM IX 1.40 1.03 0.79 0.22
AM X 0.27 0.92 0.82 0.16
Kurtosis (KG)
Kurtosis is an in an indirect measure of sorting, flat curves of poorly
sorted sediments are platykurtic while strongly peaked curves of good sorting are
leptokurtic. It should be noted that kurtosis is not a diagnostic parameter in
predicting depositional process (Blatt, et al, 1972).
Log Probability Plots: Presented above as fig. 4.4 for the entire stations, has
been suggested that these cumulative frequency curves on log-probability scale
could be subdivided into two, three, or four linear segments representing the
traction, saltation, and suspension modes of sediment transport (Visher, 1974).
The number, amount and degree of mixing, size range, and sorting of these
subpopulations vary systematically in relation to provenance, sedimentary
processes, and dynamics. Visher (1974) investigated these characteristics and
65
reproduced several curve patterns, each reflecting various sedimentary processes

(e.g. current, wave, tide, channel, etc. Log -probability plots of sands of the
present study area, were analyzed for environmental indications following the
method of Visher (1969). Plots for samples from the Awgu Sandstone at labeled
Stations TOK/SST/01, TOK/SST/03 and Mamu Formation label TOK/SST/02
representing LAB, AM and UA respectively show the following general
characteristics:
• a small poorly-to-fairly well sorted traction load;

• a saltation subpopulation that ranges from -1 phi to 1 phi, with the
saltation-suspension junction occurring at between 2 phi and 3.0phi.
These characteristics are very similar to the characteristics of curves obtained for
sandstone samples from the Almond and Lance Formation which Weimer (1965)
interpreted as being of deltaic origin. The characteristics are believed to be
produced by strong tidal currents in areas where the surface creep population has
been removed probably in shallow water, or on bars in the tidal channel.
4.4.2.2 Bivarate Analysis

Information pertaining the processes and environments of sand deposition
can be extracted from grain size data and have been demonstrated by several
workers such as Mason and Folk, 1958, Friedman, 1967, and Cant, 1982.
66
SKi
0.6
0.5
LAB
UA
AM
0.4 σ 1
Fig. 4.5a. : Bivarate Plot of Ski Vs σ 1 for Samples
Bivariate plots of textural parameters (sk1 Vsσ 1) could also be used to delineate
adjacent environments. A plot of Skewness (Sk1) against standard deviation (σ 1)
for samples collected from station labeled Stations TOK/SST/01, TOK/SST/02

0.3
and TOK/SST/03 representing LAB, UA and AM respectively (Fig. 4.5) indicates
a dominant fluvial process. Also, plot of mean size (M Z) against standard
deviation (σ 1) used for interpreting depositional environment for the analyzed
sand; (fig 4.5b) classifies the sand units as almost 100% fluvial deposit.
0.2
Beach
67
2.5
LAB
2
UA
AM
σ 1
Fig. 4.5b. : Bivarate Plot of Mz Vs σ 1 for Samples

1.5
4.4.2.3 Multivariate Analysis
Statistical methods to discriminate between adjacent environments having
closely similar energy conditions as presented by Sahu (1964) is the basis of this
Mz
method of analysis. He proposed some discriminate functions among which three

(3) would be used in this study being found relevant. He discriminated between
shallow marine and beach, shallow turbidity currents based on a defined function
(Yu.). 1
In the first case, he established Surf Process

Yu for Beach: shallow marine
Yu = 15.6534 Mz + 65.7091 σ 12 + 18.1071Sk1,+18.5043KG and proposed that Yu<
65.3650 indicates beach environment while Yu > 653650 indicates shallow marine
0.5
environment.
68
In the second case, the established

Yu for shallow marine: fluvial (deltaic)
Yu = 0.2852 M2 – 8.7604 σ 12 - 4.8932Sk1+0.0482KG and proposed that Yu <
-7.4190 indicate a fluvial environment, while Yu > -7.4190 indicates shallow
marine environment.
In the third case, we established

Yu for fluvial: Turbidity currents
Yu = 0.7215M2 – 0.4030σ 1 + 6.7322Sk1 + 5.2927KG
And proposed that Yu < 9.8433 indicates turbidity current deposition while Yu >
9.8433 indicate fluvial (deltaic) deposition.
Results obtained using these multivariate relationships are shown on Table
4.6. From the tables, it is evident that all samples of station TOK/SST/O1 and
TOK/SST/03 of Awgu sandstone and Station TOK/SST/03 of Mamu Formation
were dominantly deposited in a shallow marine environment, using the first
relationship. Using the second relationship, samples deviated, indicating fluvial
environment of deposition. And, upon using the third relationship, the fluvial
deposits of the samples become indicative of turbidity current deposition.

69
Table 4.6: Summary of Environment from Multivariate Discriminate Functions

Sample Beach Shallow Marine Shallow Marine: Fluvial :
no Fluvial Turbidity Current
VALUE VERBAL VALUE Verbal term Value Verbal Term
TEARM
LAB I 144.63 Shallow Marine -12.96 Fluvial 8.49 Turbidity Current
LAB II 107.91 Shallow Marine -7.24 Fluvial 9.12 Turbidity Current
LAB III 150.01 Shallow Marine -13.56 Fluvial 7.38 Turbidity Current
LAB IV 196.39 Shallow Marine -21.61 Fluvial 5.25 Turbidity Current
LAB V 109.34 Shallow Marine -11.66 Fluvial 5.63 Turbidity Current
UA I 112.68 Shallow Marine -10.38 Fluvial 5.60 Turbidity Current

UA II 113.43 Shallow Marine -11.70 Fluvial 8.47 Turbidity Current
UA III 112.79 Shallow Marine -8.85 Fluvial 8.16 Turbidity Current
AM I 133.08 Shallow Marine -14.44 Fluvial 4.89 Turbidity Current

AM II 105.20 Shallow Marine -11.52 Fluvial 4.67 Turbidity Current
AM III 152.73 Shallow Marine -16.48 Fluvial 5.40 Turbidity Current
AM IV 136.47 Shallow Marine -13.93 Fluvial 6.46 Turbidity Current
AM V 81.72 Shallow Marine -9.30 Fluvial 5.59 Turbidity Current
AM VI 107.51 Shallow Marine -10.96 Fluvial 5.46 Turbidity Current
AM VII 157.35 Shallow Marine -14.37 Fluvial 7.01 Turbidity Current
AM VIII 91.35 Shallow Marine -9.73 Fluvial 4.30 Turbidity Current
AM IX 110.23 Shallow Marine -9.93 Fluvial 6.25 Turbidity Current
AM X 77.9 Shallow Marine -8.08 Fluvial 5.24 Turbidity Current
70
CHAPTER FIVE
INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
5.1 Introduction
The study area is interpreted using the analyzed data presented in chapter
four. Samples collected and analyzed though representative of the area is used to
infer the depositional environment of the sediments in the area, structural
interpretation based on hypothetical analysis carried out in the study areas, with
concluding section on the economic importance of the study area.
5.2 Depositional Environment

Using the pebble analysis, though samples are small in number, the
pebbles of Lokpanta/Awgu boundary (belonging to Awgu Shale) shows a fluvial
environment of deposition shaped largely by surf processes.
Sandstone analysis carried out in the study area, samples preventative of
Awgu Sandstone and Mamu formation is used to infer this environment of
deposition. The analysis point to the fact that the samples were deposited in
fluvial environment with active turbulent current acting on the samples, while
their cumulative plots was indicative of deltaic origin.
5.3 Discussion of Shale Result

Samples collected from station 2, 7, 8, and 10 (TOK/SH/01, TOK/SH/02,
TOK/SH/03, and TOK/SH/04) belonging to Eze-Aku Shale; Station 18
(TOK/SH/05) belonging to Asata Nkporo Shale; and seeped oil collected at
Station 12 (TOK/OSM/01), were analyzed using methods of pyrolysis and liquid
chromatography. The result is presented in Table 5.1 below.
71
Table 5.1: Composition of Extracted and Fluid Samples from the Study Area.
Map Sample Code Sample TOC SOM SHC AHC NSO
No. and Location Type (wt%) Ppm % % %
2 TOK/SH/01 Shale 2.50 4670 1.25 10.7 88.1
7 TOK/SH/02 Shale 4.06 13069 309 19.0 50.1
8 TOK/SH/03 Shale 2.40 771 12.8 7.6 80.7
10 TOK/SH/04 Shale 4.27 4137 31.5 3.4 65.1
18 TOK/SH/05 Shale 2.27 3642 21.9 7.3 70.8
18 TOK/SH/05 Shale 2.10 1355 14.5 5.2 80.3
12 TOK/OSM/01 Seeped oil - - 0.69 1.05 98.2
TOC - Total Organic Content; SOM – Soluble Oganic Matter
AHC – Aromatic Hydrocarbon; SHC Saturated Hydrocarbon
NSO – Nitrogen, Sulfur and Oxygen
Table 5.1 shows that Map No. 2, 7, 8, 10 belong to Eza-Aku Shale, Map. No. 18
belongs to Asata Nkoro Shale and Map. No. 12 belonging to Mamu Formation
(See Table 3.1 and enlarged map).
The analyzed samples show relatively high sulfur, nitrogen and oxygen
content and the saturate show low percentage of viscosity and porosity of the
materials, which suggest low asphatene precipitation which in turn will affect the
two mentioned factors of the material mentioned above.
High resin content (SOM) show intensive biodegradation of the materials
involved, which is common in the very near surface.
From energy point of view, it is considered that if the average organic
content and a sample is less than 2.5% per weight, more energy is required for
processing than is produced. Also studies by a number of authors indicate 1.5-2%
per wt for TOC and were adequate for the rock to be an oil source rock. Tissot
and Walte (1978) used 0.5%wt of TOC for clastic and 0.3%wt for carbonate
sediments to be oil source rock. Table 5.2 present TOC classification for source
rocks.
72
Table 5.2: TOC Classifications for Source Rock Material

TOC (%wt) Interpretation
0-0.5 Poor
0.5-1.0 Fair
1.0-2.0 Good
2.0-4.0 Very Good
>4.0 Excellent
Thus Table 5.2 shows that the samples are good to excellent source rock material
It should be noted that not all organic carbon in sedimentary rocks is converted to
hydrocarbon and actually, TOC may reach 20% or more by weight. These high
values are mainly seen in coal and rich oil shale (which are not source sediment
for potential reservoir).
The oil potential associated with these shale deposit within Anambra basin
in the study area can be measured in hundred of billion assuming it will
sometimes be of economic importance to mine and process or process in-situ,
although in some area, the shale (s) have been buried to considerable depth, which
in-order words can be considered to be source rock for neighboring oil fields.
5.4 Tectonic / Structural Attributes in the Study Area

Sedimentary and tectonic structures general characterize the study area.
Plates 3.8, 3.15, 3.10, and 3.16 in chapter three, shows these features, including
that of biogenic activities. For shale, it shows that the environment of deposition
must have been affected by low to very quiet environment, giving rise to the thick
accumulation of the organic sediments in the area. But the presence of dolerite
intrusion within this material could infer that that organic matter may have been
destroyed, due to high temperature of the dolerite thereby destroying the organic
matter that are to yield hydrocarbon or that the hydrocarbon being vaporized doe
73
to its presence, since organic matter ordinarily will not thrive in such an
environment.
Different varieties of soft sediment deformation structures have been
observed in southern Anambra basin. The structures include angular discordance
in the form of folds (Plate 3.12), faults and ball and pillow structure. (Obi, 2000).
Evidence of tectonic activities in the study area (Plate 3.10), could as well
have created subsurface structures capable of trapping hydrocarbons post the
tectonic activity, but since crude are seen in the surface as oil seep and gas smell,
the structures in place prior to migration of the fluid to the reservoir (Mamu
Formation) could have been destroyed by the Santonian uplift in the area. This
statement of fact should further be investigated by used of subsurface exploration
techniques for fault patterns in the area so as to understand the depth and nature of
tectonics activity in the study area.
Mudrock and fine grained sandstone of Eze-Aku Shale as observed at
Crush Stone Industrial Site shows deformation structure that are readily
observable from side view sections Plate 3.11 and appear in the form of intra
formational angular unconformity and deformed strata.
5.5 Economic Importance of the Study Area
The study area is endowed with abundance of economic prospects, some
of which are not yet developed. This probably may be due to lack of good road
networks as a result of low funding for such projects
Road Construction and Building Material
The Agbani, Awgu and parts or Mamu materials in the area particularly in
Ogo-Mmaku, Ugwueme, Lekwesi and their respective environs contains a thick

74
sequence of extensive sandstone found to be quartz rich The sand though in
some areas it is being quarried recently, it can further be quarried as glass sand for
glass industry and is also suitable for concrete mixing used for bridges and other
civil engineering construction purposes.
Clay (Mud) and Shale
Shales in the area have high drying and frying shrinkage. The shale when
mixed with clays that have low drying and firing shrinkage can be used for the
manufacture of vitrified bodies such as paving bricks, roof tiles and sewage pipes
(Ogbukagu, 1979).
The clay within the area has a whitish to dull colour. Most of the clays of
the Awgu Ndeaboh unit is very plastic in nature and could be used for the
manufacture of refractory substances. The clays when fired to very high
temperature and treated chemically could be used in the manufacture of china
waves, building bricks, earthen- ware, conduits and foundry, septic tanks and
tiles.
Agriculturally, clay, shale, sandy clay, sandy shale and sandstone of the
Agbani Sandstone and Awgu sandstone form abundant productive fertile
farmland around Mmaku Area (Appendix I) on the plains to the east (Grove,
1951). Those living on the uplands often have farms some mile further east, and
are largely dependent on the cassava, yam and other crops produced in the area.
75
Dolerite is also presently being quarried in the area, which can be used for
edifying houses, construction of roads etc., both by local contractors around
Lokpaukwu areas and cooperate body around Lekwesi area.
Hydrogeology
Drainage pattern presented in chapter two suggests abundance of surface
water in study area. Though chemical analysis of these water is not carried out, so
as to obtain its suitability for domestic purposes, but form informal sources owing
to interview carried around the environs, indigenes responded that though the salt
water (Obilagu Salt water) is perennial, it is still of economic importance to them
since it immediately alleviate their salt needs. (Appendix II).
Hard Water was also encountered in the study area around Ogo Mmaku
environs. (Appendix III). The Ogbanugwu water fall (Appendix IV) was also
encountered in the area around Ogo-Mmaku area. This water fall have an average
falling kinetic energy to be greater than 140-160 m/s. if this is developed to be up
to >200m/s, it could be used to power a mini hydro power substation that could
alleviate electricity problem within it immediate vicinity.

76
CHAPTER SIX
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Summary and Conclusion
The study area, underlain by three lithologic units; medium-coarse grains
sandstone, mud rock and shale, have a general trend of NE-SW and average dip
direction with unconformity or deformation affecting some parts. The unit
(TOK/SST/01, 03, 04, and 05) belonging to Awgu Sandstone and the unit
(TOK/SST/020) belonging to Mamu Formation [all cretaceous Campanian-
Maastrichtian sediments]; Shale (TOK/SH/03 and 10) belonging to Eze-Aku
Shale [Turonian–Coniacian sediment]; and Mottled clay rock (TOK/MCL/01)
belonging to Awgu Ndeaboh Shale [Santonian Sediment].
Pebble and Sieve analysis of the medium to coarse grained sandstone
units of Awgu Sandstone and Mamu Formation suggest a tidally influenced
fluvial environment though of deltaic origin and the shale of Eze-Aku and
Ndeaboh Nkporo deposited in range of environments ranging from shoreface to
shallow marine environment for the Eze-Aku shale and swamp environment for
Ndeaboh Nkporo Shale.
Tectonic activity that affected the area could be responsible for the
presence of deformation as observed in the area eventually resulting to surface
exposure of hydrocarbon around Ugwueme area, thereby destroying any possible
trap mechanism for any of such hydrocarbon accumulation.

77
APPENDIXES
Appendix I: Abundant Vegetation land use for agricultural purpose in the Study Area
A B
Appendix II: (A) Flow out point of the Salt Water (Obilagu Salt water) and (B) kegs
used in collecting these water for local preparation of food at Lokpanta
78
Appendix III: Flow out point of the Hard Water at Lokpanta
Appendix IV: Ogbanugwu water fall,

which could be used to power a sub
hydro power generating station if
developed. At Ogo-Mmaku
79
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SURFACE MAPPING AND INTERPRETATION OF

GEOLOGIC UNITS IN LEKWESI, LOKPANTA,

THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

SURFACE MAPPING AND INTERPRETATION OF

SURFACE MAPPING AND INTERPRETATION OF

Thesis submitted to the Department of Geology, Faculty of Physical Sciences, in

This Project Work is dedicated to the Glory of

Almighty God and to the eternal memories of my

grandma – Okponwan and my dearest Aunty – Rita

Obaghayomwan and my biological mother whom…

6o09N; is underlain by three lithologic units; medium-coarse grains sandstone,

presence of deformation as observed in the area eventually resulting to surface

exposure of hydrocarbon around Ugwueme area, thereby destroying any possible

a general trend of NE-SW and average dip direction with unconformity or

deformation affecting some parts. The studied unit belongs to Owelli/Awgu

Sandstone, Mamu Formation [all cretaceous Campanian-Maastrichtian

sediments]; while the Shale material belongs to Eze-Aku Shale [Turonian–

[Santonian Sediment]. Pebbles and Sieve analysis of the medium to coarse

grained sandstone units of Owelli/Awgu Sandstone and Mamu Formation suggest

Eze-Aku and Ndeaboh Nkporo deposited in range of environments ranging from

environment for Ndeaboh Nkporo Shale.

Chapter One: Introduction

Chapter Two: Regional geologic Setting

Chapter Three: Outcrop Description

3.2.4 Lekwesi Area.. .. .. .. .. .. .. 31

Chapter Four: Data Presentation and Analysis

Fig. 1.1a: Geologic Framework of Nigeria showing the study area - 3

Table 4.1: Measured and Computed data from Pebbles collected – 42

Table 4.3a, b, : Summary of Sieve Data and Analysis - 48 , 49

Table 4.5a, b: Summary of Results of Statistical Parameters Obtained From

Grain Size Analysis with their Verbal Interpretation - 61, 62

Table 4.6: Summary of Environment From Multivariate Discriminate Functions

Table 5.2: TOC Classifications for Source Rock Material - 70

Plate 3.3: Showing concretions at the exposed outcrop [TOK/SH/01]. – 25

1.2 Objective of the Study

3 Interpretation of structural pattern in the area; and

1.3 Scope and Method of Study

(a) Preliminary Studies / Desk Work

(b) Field Work

(c) Laboratory Work and Analysis

1.4 Location and Accessibility

Fig. 1.1a: Geologic Framework of Nigeria showing the study area

Fig. 1.1b: Accessibility Map of the Study Area

1.5 Literature Review

Reyment (1965) described the Stratigraphy of different depositional basin

Okoro (1995) considered the Nkporo Shale to be the oldest

Fig. 2.1: Tectonic Map of Nigeria during Albian to Lower Santonian

Until the Santonian, the tectonic regime was favouring transcurrent

2.2 Regional Stratigraphic Settings

AGE (m.y) ABAKALIKI – ANAMBRA BASIN AFIKPO BASIN

Maastrichtian Ajali Formation Ajali Formation

72.0 Mamu Formation Mamu Formation

{Modified after Reyment, 1965}

2.4 Climates, Temperature and Vegetation

600 Nkporo Group

Fig. 2.5: Temperate / Climatic Map of Nigeria (modified after Adetero)

from the field are tabulated in Table 3.1.

in the appropriate section of this work.

be dipping to nearly vertical as recorded around the Lokpanta / Awgu Boundary,

obtained from the field is presented below in Table 3.1.

1 TOK/RJ/01 Lokpanta Junction 5o58'39'' 7o27'26'' 122.8 - - - Road Junction

3.2 Lokpanta – Lekwesi Study Area

Plate 3.1: Shale Outcrop as seen at Lokpanta Junction [ TOK/SH/01]

Lithology Structures Depositional