THE SOCRATIC METHOD IN THE CONTEXT OF THE

FOUR MAIN LEARNING STYLES

G00304955
Robert Marron
B.Sc (hons) Design Technology and Education
Galway-Mayo Institute of Technology, Letterfrack

Module Leader:

Dr. Pauline Logue Collins

Programme:

Design Technology and Education (Year 3)

Module Title:

Applied Theory of Education

Date Submitted:

14th, November, 2014

THE SOCRATIC METHOD IN THE CONTEXT OF THE

FOUR MAIN LEARNING STYLES

ABSTRACT
The Socratic Method1 has been used throughout history as a way of
imparting knowledge and analysing one's beliefs. This essay examines
how the Method can be used to reinforce the four main learning theories
of Discovery Learning, Cognitivism, Behaviourism and Humanism. The
secondary research employed in this essay examines literature regarding
these theories and the Socratic method. The research finds that the
Method is congruent with all theories to some degree and can be
beneficial to improving the classroom environment.

AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to take this opportunity to thank Dr. Pauline Logue-Collins for
the assistance I received during the writing of this essay. The library staff
at GMIT was extremely helpful and made the research process as easy as
possible. Finally, I would like to thank Davina Marron (M.S. Ed.) for taking
the time to proof read the final draught.

1 The Socratic Method may be referred to as "the Method" for brevity

2

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION1
1.1 BACKGROUND: SOCRATES THE PHILOSOPHER.............................................1
1.2 CONTEXT AND AIMS...................................................................................... 1
1.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND STRUCTURE...............................................2
3. SOCRATIC METHOD IN THE CONTEXT OF THE FOUR MAIN LEARNING METHODS
.............................................................................................................................. 3
3.1 DISCOVERY................................................................................................... 3
3.2 COGNITIVIST................................................................................................. 5
3.3 BEHAVIOURIST.............................................................................................. 6
3.4 THE HUMANIST APPROACH...........................................................................7
5. CRITICISM OF THE SOCRATIC METHOD..............................................................8
5.1 STIFLING CREATIVITY.................................................................................... 8
5.2 SEXISM......................................................................................................... 8
5.3 EFFICIENCY................................................................................................... 9
5.4 PROBLEM SOLVING....................................................................................... 9
6. USING THE METHOD IN THE CONTEMPORARY CLASSROOM.............................10
7. CONCLUSION................................................................................................... 11
Bibliography......................................................................................................... 12
APPENDIX......................................................................................................... 14

1. INTRODUCTION
"[I do not] carry such information in my mind since it is readily
available in books. ...The value of a college education is not the
learning of many facts but the training of the mind to think" Albert
Einstein2.
The move towards problem solving in second level education is at the
core of the junior cycle reforms that are in the process of being
implemented. From the above quote it seems that Albert Einstein felt that
the true value of education is learning the ability to problem solve, as
facts can be found easily. In the era of Google and the internet, the
Socratic Method may be used to increase students problem-solving
abilities, but can a classical method of imparting knowledge be congruent
to contemporary teaching methods?

1.1 BACKGROUND: SOCRATES THE PHILOSOPHER

Socrates the philosopher is credited with creating what we call the
Socratic method of enquiry, also known as elenchus. The Socratic Method,
as explained in the appendix, is most commonly seen in courtroom
situations as the negative method of hypothesis elimination used by
lawyers. In relation to the contemporary Irish classroom, the Socratic
Method involves a dialogue between the teacher and students with the
teacher posing thought-provoking questions intended to arrive at a
relevant conclusion.

1.2 CONTEXT AND AIMS

Today, Junior Cycle reforms, in their simplest for, are moving away from
the tradition of fact-based teaching to a more fluid "learning to learn"
approach. This is to remedy some existing shortcomings, namely to
2 (Frank, 1947, p. 126)
1

produce critical thinkers and problem solvers (NCCA, 2011, p. 19). The aim
of this essay is to assess if this methodology lends itself to the
contemporary classroom. How do we encourage deep thought and further
exploration of ideas through Socratic debate without classroom
disruption? Will the Socratic Method cater to the needs of all of the four
main learning theories?

1.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND STRUCTURE

The research employed in this essay was secondary research, mainly in
the form of literature review. Online works were also utilised in this essay
and have been included in the bibliography.
In this essay the Socratic Method will be assessed to determine if it will be
of benefit to the contemporary Irish classroom with respect to how it
relates to the four main learning methods of learning; Discovery,
Cognitivist, Behaviourist and Humanist. Criticisms that have been levelled
at the Method will be assessed to see if they remain valid after some
examination.

3. SOCRATIC METHOD IN THE CONTEXT OF THE FOUR

MAIN LEARNING METHODS
The Socratic Method has been used as a tool for education since its
inception over two thousand years ago. Since the nineteenth century, a
great deal of scientific study regarding education and the types of learning
has taken place. In this section the Method shall be analysed as to how
well it accommodates these theories of learning.

3.1 DISCOVERY
Discovery learning is inherently inquiry based and takes place in problem
solving situations where the learner can draw on previous knowledge and
interact with their environment. John Dewey was clearly aware of the
classical foundation to the Discovery theory as in Democracy and
Education he said of Plato's educational theory,

"It would be impossible to find in any scheme of philosophic thought

a more adequate recognition on one hand of the educational
significance of social arrangements and, on the other, of the
dependence of those arrangements upon the means used to
educate the young" (Dewey, 1916, p. 85).

Dewey wished to allow students to find their own strengths and focus on
them as Plato espoused in his work. He felt that the democratic model
would allow students to find their strengths without the traditional class
prejudices hindering their freedom to choose. The correct implementation
of the Socratic Method would in this case allow individuals to find their
own specific niches of interest while simultaneously have their opinions
heard in a democratic, inclusive environment.
Dewey believed, "The process of learning is just as important as the
curriculum content" (Chamblis, 2009, p. 225). Dewey's work promotes the
3

need for a democratic classroom, where students feel that their input to
the class is not only acceptable but necessary, a need that would be met
through voicing their opinions in the Socratic Method.
Maria Montessori contended that intrinsic motivation should be the key
driving force behind a students learning, this links into the work of Piaget
which we will examine where intrinsic motivation occurs where there
exists a discrepancy between existing schemas and the world.
In the "Distribution of the Stimuli" chapter of her book, Montessori notes
that once simple tasks with "few stimuli strongly contrasting" are
mastered, students can move on to more complex tasks with "many
stimuli in gradual differentiation always more fine and imperceptible"
(Montessori, 1967, p. 184). This method of moving from clear differences
to slighter ones relates to the Socratic method of distilling ideas and
beliefs down to core values.

3.2 COGNITIVIST
The Cognitivist approach to learning grew out of the German Gestalt
psychology of the 1900's and dealt with the transformation of information
from short-term memory to long-term memory and lower-order to higherorder function. Cognitivists such as Vygotsky have noticed the importance
of language in developing the higher level mental functions that education
tries to develop (Meyers, 2008, p. 163).

Regarding the role of language, Bentham states, "It is language, which is

learned through social interactions, that will ultimately make possible
thought, problem solving or what Vygotsky termed higher mental
functions" (Bentham, 2002, p. 10). Vygotsky theorised that it is language
that gives us the ability to construct hypothetical and abstract theories
and therefore analyse problems with a greater depth than would be
possible otherwise.
Language not only effects higher order mental functions, but can
transform experiences, "Bruner emphasises the role of language, that
language not only reflects experience but can transform it" (Bentham,
2002, p. 11). The idea that language can transform experiences leads into
the theory of Paulo Freire, who states in Pedagogy of the Oppressed,
Education (is) the means by which men and women deal critically and
creatively with reality and discover how to participate in the
transformation of their world (Freire, 1970, p. 34)(Foreword by Richard
Shaull). Therefore, the Socratic Method can be used not only develop
complex and abstract ideas, but also to critically examine their reality
and, if necessary, develop steps to change it for the better.

Another Cognitivist, Piaget, believed that, "Motivation to learn... would be

the result of the individuals awareness of a discrepancy between their
existing schemas and the reality of the world" (Bentham, 2002, p. 14).
5

What greater motivation could exist within a classroom than when a

student has a belief challenged? When this challenge is made there exists
a discrepancy between existing schemas and the world, in this situation, it
is likely that self-directed research and learning will take place as the
individual wishes to defend their existing schemas.
3.3 BEHAVIOURIST
John Watson, creator of the term "behaviourism" believed that individuals
can acquire new behaviours through Classical Conditioning, where
behaviour is a reflex response to a stimulus. Later Skinner's work on
Operant Conditioning in The Behaviour of Organisms, Showed how reward
or punishment reinforces a behaviour (positive or negative
reinforcement) .
Using the Socratic Method, we have the possibility of both positive
reinforcement and negative reinforcement. In a classroom where students
are using a negative method of hypothesis elimination there is great
scope for negative reinforcement, something detrimental to learning.
The severity of negative reinforcement is highlighted in an anecdote from
Susan Bentham, "Connie gave the wrong answer and for her transgression
had to sit at the back of the class with her face to the wall wearing a
strange hat. Connie has hated maths ever since" (Bentham, 2002, p. 22).
Here a learned, negative emotional response to maths could be explained
in terms of classical conditioning theory as laid out by Skinner where the
consequences of an individual's actions can create the same extreme
learned response as seen with Pavlovian Classical Conditioning (Skinner,
1938).
From a behaviourist point of view, positive and repeated enforcement is
effective. Using the Socratic method we have a trade-off between positive
reinforcement and negative reinforcement. In a classroom where students
are using a negative method of hypothesis elimination there is great
scope for negative reinforcement, which would not be desirable in the
contemporary classroom. However, with firm control from the start and
6

the teacher facilitating the negative hypothesis elimination in a calm and

fair environment, the Socratic Method would provide a great deal of
positive reinforcement whenever a student successfully defends their
beliefs or sees the benefit of altering their beliefs to suit the reality laid
out by another member of the class.

3.4 THE HUMANIST APPROACH

The Humanist approach to learning can be seen as a response to
Behaviourism, as seen with Maslow's hierarchy of needs where the goal of
education is self-actualisation rather than the more rigidly defined ideas of
behavioural acquisition. This approach, while not rejecting the need to
assimilate knowledge and acquire information and behaviour; puts capital
in the psychological development of the individual.

Carl Rogers theorised that, "Not only is the individual's world private but
also nobody can know it completely. For this reason, if somebody is to be
understood, their point of view must be adopted," (Casal, n.d., p. 295).
Every class will be made up of individuals who do not share the same
reality in so far as everyone's life is different to some degree. If we can get
others to see another's reality form their perspective we can hope to
create a more empathetic atmosphere and enhance the learning
environment from a humanist point of view. Using the Method to give
voice to students allows the rest of the class to gain an understanding of
another person's point of view.
During a lesson utilising the Socratic Method, students would combine
cognitive skills with interpersonal skills such as sharing and
communicating effectively. This would support Rogers' idea of the
classroom supporting a type of therapy, one in which the students are
given the opportunity to voice their own opinions and therefore give
capital to the individuals point of view.
7

The development of a student's individual identity as something separate

from another student's is only half of the process. By giving voice to the
students and allowing them defend their stance creates a safe
environment for them to truly develop as a individuals.

5. CRITICISM OF THE SOCRATIC METHOD

5.1 STIFLING CREATIVITY
In her criticism of the Method, C. Linskens Christie summarises the Method
by stating, "The Socratic Method uses a series of questions designed to
channel the students thought process along predetermined paths"
(Christie, 2014, p. 342). One of the criticisms being that by guiding them
along "predetermined paths" are we stifling their creativity?
Guiding students is a necessary part of classroom management. While
creativity may not reach its maximum potential, it is still important to
ensure there are set procedures, guidelines and rules within a classroom
to ensure a suitable learning environment for all. regarding "predetermined paths", while it is accurate to note this about the Method, it
must also be said that students can answer in any way that they like, so
while we are guiding them along pre-determined paths, as would be
necessary for a class to be productive, we are not limiting their
individuality or creativity in the way they choose to answer.
5.2 SEXISM
One critique of the Socratic Method is that it is inherently sexist, as males
are more likely to air their opinion to a group of their peers. A 2004 study
on gender issues at Harvard Law School found that men were "50 percent
more likely than women to volunteer at least one comment during class,
and 144 percent more likely to speak voluntarily at least three times"
(Harvard, February 2004, p. 4).
This study certainly shows the correlation between gender and
volunteering in class, but it is my contention that this is not something
inherent with either gender. Rather, this is the perfect opportunity for
teachers to encourage the female members of the class to let their voice
be heard, thus challenging the gender stereotype of the quiet female and
the outspoken male. Then, we can affect positive social change as Freire
espoused.
9

5.3 EFFICIENCY
A common criticism of the Socratic Method is that it is inefficient, too
much time is spent arguing when that time could be used to give students
the information that they need in order to pass exams. However, as John
W. Neumayr, Ph.D states; " Discussion is intrinsically inefficient... The
very inefficiency of dialogue makes room to consider the ideas of ordinary
experience as we take up the great questions that make up the corpus of
learning" (Neumayr, 2014, p. 6).
Is the race to accrue information the same as learning? The Discovery
theory would argue that "The process of learning is just as important as
the curriculum content" (Chamblis, 2009, p. 225). Therefore, if the junior
cycle reforms are serious about improving education then we can move
away from the approach of regurgitating information for state
examinations and towards a more holistic approach that utilises the
Socratic Method to augment the learning process.
5.4 PROBLEM SOLVING
One of the great focuses of the junior cycle reforms outlined by the NCCA
is to move away from working towards a big exam and towards bettering
students' problem solving skills.
This shift in education for the benefit of the students can be summed up in
a quote from Albert Einstein. In response to not knowing the speed of
sound as included in the Edison Test, Albert Einstein responded by saying,
"The value of a college education is not the learning of many facts but the
training of the mind to think" (Frank, 1947).
Here Einstein aptly sums up the view that education, at second level in
this case, must not simply be a "points race" where knowledge acquisition
is key to success, we must instead produce students who are capable of
high-level critical thinking and problem solving. Therefore the deep10

thinking and problem-solving of the Socratic Method are fundamental to

better education.

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6. USING THE METHOD IN THE CONTEMPORARY

CLASSROOM
In The Socratic Method: Teaching by Asking Instead of by Telling, Rick
Garlikov used the Socratic Method in primary level to conduct the lessons
with a regular third grade class in a suburban elementary school.
"There were 22 students in the class. I was told ahead of time by
two different teachers (not the classroom teacher) that only a
couple of students would be able to understand and follow what I
would be presenting. When the class period ended, I and the
classroom teacher believed that at least 19 of the 22 students had
fully and excitedly participated and absorbed the entire material"
(Garlikov, 2014).

In order to teach a new maths topic ("twos") he started by asking the

class a question they all knew the answer to. From this starting point the
class were engaged as they were all motivated to answer the questions
they perceived to be easy. By raising the difficulty of the questions almost
imperceptivity he arrived at the main learning outcome of the lesson with
all students engaged and all students understanding the new information.
This experiment shows that if performed correctly, using an intelligently
organised set of questions leading to a goal, the Method includes
spiralling back, scaffolding, intrinsic motivation, assimilating new schemas
through logical progression and numerous other learning methods
advocated by the four main learning theories as summarised above.
Garlikov's experiment concluded that it is crucial that important questions
in the sequence are logically leading rather than psychologically leading.
It is important to remain focused on the goal and not get distracted by
other interesting avenues of discovery. The Socratic Method also gives the
students a chance to experience the joy and excitement of discovering
and articulating ideas on their own. This approach leads to the students
being, " much more inventive and bright a great many more students are

12

than usually appear to be when they are primarily passive" within a

classroom" (Garlikov, 2014).

13

7. CONCLUSION
From these findings I would conclude that Socratic Method can be used to
employ all of the core principles of the four main learning theories. The
ideal time for engaging in full Socratic methodology in the contemporary
Materials Technology (Wood) classroom would be at the early stages of the
design process. For the Technical Graphics classroom the ideal time for
utilising the Method would be at the introduction of a new topic where the
class needs to understand a new methodology to complete a drawing
question (i.e.: trammel v concentric ring method for constructing an
ellipse). In this situation the students can debate the pros and cons to
arrive at a methodology that everyone can agree with, thus enforcing
Freire and Dewey's idea of the democratic classroom.

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Bibliography
Allen, R., 1981. Socrates and Legal Obligation. 1 ed. Minnesota : University of
Minnesota Press.
Anon., n.d. s.l.: s.n.
Barbe, Swassing & Jr., M., 1979. Teaching Through Modality Strengths: Concepts
and Practices. 1st ed. Columbus, Ohio: Zaner-Blosner.
Bateman, P., 1997. Five Suggestions From The Back Row. Toward Diversity in
Teaching Methods in Law Schools, 17(1), pp. 396-370.
Benson, H. H., 2000. The Model of Knowledge in Plato's Early Dialogues. 1st ed.
New York: Oxford University Press, USA.
Bentham, S., 2002. Psychology and Education. 1st ed. London: Routledge
Modular Psychology.
Biographies, N., 2014. Encyclopedia of World Biography. [Online]
Available at: http://www.notablebiographies.com/Sc-St/Socrates.html
[Accessed 01 11 2014].
Casal, S., n.d.. Learning Dimensions in The Classroom. [Online]
Available at: www.raco.cat/index.php/Bells/article/download/102842/149247
[Accessed 2 11 2014].
Chamblis, J., 2009. Phillosophy of Education Today. Educational Theory, 59(2), pp.
233-251.
Christie, C. L., 2014. academia.edu. [Online]
Available at:
http://www.academia.edu/4995503/What_Critiques_Have_Been_Made_of_the_Soc
ratic_Method_in_Legal_Education_The_Socratic_Method_in_Legal_Education_Uses
_Abuses_and_Beyond
[Accessed 01 11 2014].
Creely, E., 2013. Irish Examiner [Interview] (14 June 2013).
Dewey, J., 1916. Democracy and Education. 1 ed. London: Macmillan.
Frank, P., 1947. Einstein: His Life and Times. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Freire, P., 1970. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. 1 ed. New York: Herder and Herder.
Garlikov, R., 2012. Concordia Online Education. [Online]
Available at: http://education.cu-portland.edu/blog/curriculum-instruction/shouldeducators-use-the-socratic-method-of-teaching/
[Accessed 01 11 2014].

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Garlikov, R., 2014. The Socratic Method: Teaching by Asking Instead of by Telling.
[Online]
Available at: http://www.garlikov.com/Soc_Meth.html
[Accessed 1 11 2014].
Harvard, W. G., February 2004. Study on Womens Experiences at Harvard Law
School, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Law School.
Henderson, H. K. a. L., 1990. The Carl Rogers Reader. 1 ed. London : Constable.
Kirschenbaum, H. a. L. H. V., 1990. The Carl Rogers Reader. 1 ed. London:
Constable.
Meyers, D., 2008. Exploring Psychology. 1 ed. New York: Worth.
Montessori, M., 1967. The Absorbent Mind. 1st ed. New York: Delta.
NCCA, 2011. Towards A New Framework For Junior Cycle, Dublin: National Council
for Curriculum and Education.
NCCA, 2011. Towards A New Framework For Junior Cycle, Dublin: National Council
for Curriculum and Education.
Neumayr, J. W., 2014. Why the Discussion (Socratic) Method?, California :
Thomas Aquinas College.
Skinner, B. F., 1938. The behavior of organisms: an experimental analysis.. 1 ed.
Oxford: Appleton-Century.
Tyson, N. d., 2014. Neil deGrasse Tyson on the New Cosmos [Interview] (10
January 2014).

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APPENDIX
1.
"Socrates believed that skill and knowledge can be acquired by:
1. Interpreting the statements of others;
2. Testing or examining the knowledge or wisdom of those reputed (by
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

themselves or others) to be wise;

Showing those who are not wise their ignorance;
Learning from those who are wise;
Examining oneself;
Exhorting others to philosophy;
Examining the lives of others;
Attaining moral knowledge."

(Benson, 2000)

17