Concept 11.

3: Transduction: Cascades of
molecular interactions relay signals from
receptors to target molecules in the cell

Multistep pathways can amplify a signal: A few

molecules can produce a large cellular
response by activating many proteins
Multistep pathways provide more opportunities for
coordination and regulation of the cellular response
Like falling dominoes, the receptor activates
another protein, which activates another, and so
on, until the protein producing the response is
activated

At each step, the signal is transduced into a different

form, usually a shape change in a protein
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Protein Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation

In many pathways, the signal is transmitted by a

cascade of protein phosphorylations
Turn on: Protein kinases transfer phosphates
from ATP to protein, a process called
phosphorylation
Turn off:Protein phosphatases remove the
phosphates from proteins, a process called
dephosphorylation

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 11.10

Signaling molecule

Receptor

Activated relay
molecule

Inactive
protein kinase
1

PP

ad
sc
ca

Active
protein
kinase
2

ADP

ti o
la
ry

ATP

ho
sp

Inactive
protein kinase
2

o
Ph

Active
protein
kinase
1

Inactive
protein kinase
3

ATP
ADP

Active
protein
kinase
3

PP
i

Inactive
protein

ATP

ADP

PP
i

Active
protein

Cellular
response

Small Molecules and Ions as Second Messengers

The extracellular signal molecule

(ligand) that binds to the receptor is a
pathways first messenger
Second messengers are small,
nonprotein, water-soluble molecules or
ions that spread throughout a cell by
diffusion
Cyclic AMP and calcium ions are
common second messengers

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 11.11

Turn on: Adenylyl cyclase, an enzyme in the plasma

membrane, converts ATP to cAMP in response to an
extracellular signal

Adenylyl cyclase

Phosphodiesterase

H 2O

Pyrophosphate
P
ATP

cAMP

Turn off: Phosphodiesterase, an enzyme that converts

cAMP to AMP

AMP

Figure 11.12

First messenger
(signaling molecule
such as epinephrine)
Adenylyl
cyclase

G protein

G protein-coupled
receptor

GTP
ATP
cAMP

Second
messenger
Protein
kinase A

Cellular responses

Figure 11.13

EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID

Plasma
membrane
Ca2
pump

ATP

Mitochondrion

Nucleus
CYTOSOL
Ca2
pump

ATP

Key

High [Ca2]

Ca2
pump

Endoplasmic
reticulum
(ER)

Low [Ca2]

Figure 11.14-3

EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID

Signaling molecule
(first messenger)

Pathways leading to the release of

calcium involves inositol triphosphate
(IP3)

G protein
DAG
GTP

G protein-coupled
receptor

PIP2

Phospholipase C

IP3
(second messenger)

IP3-gated
calcium channel

Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)

CYTOSOL

Ca

Various
proteins
activated

Ca2
(second
messenger)

Cellular
responses

Concept 11.4: Response: Cell signaling

leads to regulation of transcription or
cytoplasmic activities

The cells response to an extracellular signal is

sometimes called the output response
Ultimately, a signal transduction pathway leads to
regulation of one or more cellular activities

The response may occur in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus

Many signaling pathways regulate the synthesis of enzymes
or other proteins, usually by turning genes on or off in the
nucleus
The final activated molecule in the signaling pathway may function
as a transcription factor

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 11.15

Growth factor

Reception

Receptor

Phosphorylation
cascade

Transduction

CYTOPLASM

Inactive
transcription
factor

Active
transcription
factor
P

Response

DNA
Gene
NUCLEUS

mRNA

Figure 11.16
Reception
Binding of epinephrine to G protein-coupled receptor (1 molecule)

Other pathways
regulate the
activity of
enzymes rather
than their
synthesis

Transduction
Inactive G protein
Active G protein (102 molecules)
Inactive adenylyl cyclase
Active adenylyl cyclase (102)
ATP
Cyclic AMP (104)
Inactive protein kinase A
Active protein kinase A (104)
Inactive phosphorylase kinase
Active phosphorylase kinase (105)
Inactive glycogen phosphorylase
Active glycogen phosphorylase (106)
Response

Glycogen
Glucose 1-phosphate
(108 molecules)