Fair 1

Hillary Fair
Professor Shirene McKay
COMM 1050-400-F15
29 November 2015
The Expectancy Violations Theory and its Application in the Cinematic Film Inception
The Expectancy Violations Theory, or EVT, is a theory that critically analyzes how
individuals respond to violations of expected parameters of communication.1 Scenarios that
counter social norms, or disturb cultural patterns, as they relate to an individual, would fall under
this theory. These encroachments on acceptable behavior can occur in both verbal and nonverbal communication, causing cognitive dissonance, or mental stress, to whomever is
confronted by the expectancy violation.2 There are many cases of EVT in the media, and a
prominent example of its use in film is the move Inception. This film, following an anti-hero
protagonist through a high stakes and illegal career in order to be reunited with his children,
incorporates EVT in not only its character-character interactions, but also in its plot-audience
communication. The theory can be applied to every major beat in the film, from its Opening
Image starting with the final moments of the movie, to a Final Image of breaking the audiences
expectations of closure, revealing that the plot had been misleading viewers on critical cues
throughout.3
The entire film is based on the concept of perceptions and an individuals reactions to
them. The concept becomes more complex throughout the film. It starts with the idea that a
subconscious can detect an individual within itself, or another conscious mind in their dream.
When that detection occurs, the subconscious acts to protect itself, attacking the violator. This is
a simplified explanation of a basic reaction to an expectancy violation. An individual can either
react through interaction or withdrawal. Suggesting that a subconscious would react through a
negative interaction to cognitive dissonance at such an intimate level is in line with the concept
of EVT.4 This would suggest a negative interaction position. At times in the film, the
expectations of an individual are violated on purpose to accomplish a specific task. For example,
when Fischers subconscious detects an intruder, they start to attack the characters. Then
Fischers expectations are deliberately violated and he is told he is dreaming, and that his
subconscious is actually the violation, not the intruders.5 And more dramatically, at the finale of
the film, Fischers expectations are violated when he discovers (through his own devising) that
1

(Burgoon and Hale, Nonverbal Expectancy Violations: Model Elaboration and Application to Immediacy
Behaviors)
2
(Burgoon, Applying a Comparative Approach to Nonverbal Expectancy Violations Theory)
3
(Rich)
4
(Bottoms, Kovera and McAuliff)
5
(Nolan)

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his father cares for him. This creates a positive reaction and interaction position. This positive
reaction and its claimed effectivity on his subconscious reality can be applied to the
requirements, expectations and desires concept within EVT. It fits his requirements because it
justifies a base level need to be acknowledged in his existence. His expectation was that his
father did not care for him, but satisfied his desire to be loved by him. In this way the movie was
self-fulfilled from Cobbs statement that positive expectancy violations are better accepted by the
subconscious than negative.6 These examples, and for the majority of character-character
interactions involving EVT, are verbal.
The audience is hyper-focused on detecting these violations throughout the film because
they expect to be misled in the plot and its representation of reality. This focus diverts their
attention from a critical plot point, and in the end their expectations are violated. The
protagonist, Cobb, uses a top throughout the film to signify his totem, or link to reality.7 Note
that this particular example of EVT is almost expressly non-verbal. Although this concept cannot
be directly related to the audience verbally without breaking the fourth wall, it is still effectively
communicated non-verbally through critical timing and placement within the plot.8 This links
closely to the use of the Uncertainty Reduction Theory, as the top is never expressly clarified to
be his totem, and the audience assumes that to be true based on lack of a communication
countering the assumption. In the final scene this top is assumed to be critical in defining
whether he is indeed in reality or has been trapped in someone elses mind. But the audiences
expectations of resolution are violated because the top is never shown to fall over, a critical act to
indicate he is in reality.9 The audience has been misled about his totem, which is actually his
wedding ring. Based on the reception of the film, this violation of expectation had a profound
effect. People responded to this violation positively, with popular rating sites listing that over
90% of viewers enjoyed the film.10 It also generated a lot of revenue while in theaters.11
Of the examples of character-character expectancy violations and plot-audience
expectancy violations, the latter had a much greater impact on the overall effect of the use of
EVT in the film. While people can connect with characters portrayed in movies, a greater
emotional connection is created, or a greater emotional response is elicited when the situation
affects an individual directly. The entire plot, through each cinematic beat, built on the concept
that reality was being violated for the characters, and their individual reactions to the violations.
When the audience had accepted this concept and were mindful of any deceptions that might be
played out in the plot meant for them, it was an excellent thematic shock to reveal a violation in
the final scene that would affect an individuals reaction to the entire movie. This was met with
6

(Nolan)
(Nolan)
8
(Burgoon and Hale, Nonverbal Expectancy Violations: Model Elaboration and Application to Immediacy
Behaviors)
9
(Nolan)
10
(Flixster)
11
(Flixster)
7

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an overall positive interaction position because there is no negative consequence to interpreting a

movie incorrectly. It put all audience members in the same position, and therefore did not isolate
or threaten the position of any one person, evincing a need to respond negatively. People are
much less likely to respond negatively when they perceive they are collectively being violated,
whereas individuals isolated in the violation tend to respond in a negative interaction.
EVT was first introduced in 1978 by Judee K. Burgoon. Burgoon is a professor of
Communication at the University of Arizona, and has done extensive research on the Uncertainty
Reduction Theory, which EVT was derived from.12 The Uncertainty Reduction Theory details
how to predict how communication is used to reduce uncertainty for people communicating.13
This would include following social constructs and norms, making assumptions and following
cultural expectations. After studying this, Burgoon saw the need for an antithesis to this theory,
and thus created EVT, which suggests how to predict an individuals reaction to the breaking of
these social parameters. This is done by gauging the arousal in the person experiencing the
violation, and their level of cognitive dissonance. In addition to the verbal and non-verbal aspects
of communication, Burgoon also included the concept of proxemics, or personal space, in her
theory.14 This was pulled from Edward T. Hall and his studies on expected personal space
allowances per cultural norms.
Inception was written and directed by Christopher Nolan. His overall message from the
film was that of perception, and how reactions define reality. With every scene, there was a
desired reaction for the characters, and audience. This constant play between situation and
reaction determining the next step of the plot made the entire storyline an excellent example of
EVT and its predictability concepts for an individuals reaction to expectancy violation. It is
clear that this was intentional, and that Nolan knew of EVT and the powerful effect using
peoples natural desire to fit into a given situation would be in effecting the overall perception of
the film. It was applied on a two-tiered scale, to both the characters in the actual film and the
audience watching the plot play out. Facilitating the kind of emotional response garnered at the
final scene of the film through its violations of typical cinematic constructs would be extremely
difficult, if not impossible, if the concept had not be subliminally implied throughout the film in
preparation. That amount of pay-off setup can only be achieved purposefully. Nolan
demonstrated an excellent insight into the theory and its potential application to a simplified
subconscious examination.
Through examining the use of EVT in Inception, it has become clear that the value of
perception is equal to that of presentation. Communication is often analyzed as a projection, or
one way-one way. But this is obviously incorrect, and how a message is perceived is just as
critical as how it is sent. The fact that this perception relies on more than just verbal
12

(Burgoon, Applying a Comparative Approach to Nonverbal Expectancy Violations Theory)

(Turner and West)
14
(Burgoon and Jones, Toward a Theory of Personal Space Expectations and Their Violations)
13

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communication, and includes non-verbal, and personal space, makes it more applicable in daily
situations and the opportunity to use it in predicting others responses. The critical insight to gain
is that of the effect a positive interactive position. People tend to respond negatively to cognitive
dissonance, which is a predictable reaction and can aid in effectively communicating a
contradictory idea to an individual.15 However, the effect of maintaining a positive interaction
position throughout that communication, despite presenting a contradictory concept, can greatly
improve its reception and retention in the perceiver. This is critical in the plot of Inception, and
in effective communication in general.
Burgoon stated herself that she was looking to explain things that challenge truisms
and the concept that violation is not a negative at the same time, and produced EVT.16 Nolan
agreed with this concept in the statement from Cobb, I think positive emotion trumps negative
emotion every time.17 These two concepts, although the second is a simplified version, ring true
to EVT and its potential to explain not only negative reaction to violation, but also positive
reaction, a lack of withdrawal, and overall positive interaction position.

15

(Bottoms, Kovera and McAuliff)

(Burgoon, Judee Burgoon on Expectancy Violations Theory)
17
(Nolan)
16

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Bibliography
Bottoms, Bette, Margaret Kovera and Bradley McAuliff. Children, Social Science, and the law.
Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Burgoon, J. K. and J. L. Hale. "Nonverbal Expectancy Violations: Model Elaboration and
Application to Immediacy Behaviors." Communications monographs (1988): 58-79.
Burgoon, J. K. and S. B Jones. "Toward a Theory of Personal Space Expectations and Their
Violations." Human Communication Research (1976): 131-146.
Burgoon, J. K. "Applying a Comparative Approach to Nonverbal Expectancy Violations
Theory." Sage (1992): 53-69.
Burgoon, J. K. Judee Burgoon on Expectancy Violations Theory Em Griffin. 29 January 2014.
Video.
Flixster. Rotten Tomatoes: Inception. July 2010. November 2015.
Inception. Dir. Christopher Nolan. Perf. Leonardo DiCaprio. 2010. CD.
Inception. Dir. Christopher Nolan. Perf. Cillian Murpphy. 2010. CD.
Rich, William Robert. "Inception Beat Sheet." 7 August 2012. ScreenPlayHowTo. November
2015.
Turner, L. H. and R. West. "Introducing Communication Theory." McGraw Hill, 2010. 147-165.