Carbohydrates: Revision Summary ‘Carbolyrates contain 3 ements: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (sand Oxyzen(O). Thus if we remove water from cabeltydeates al hat ‘remains carbon. Carboitydrates an be divided into categories; monesaccuarides, dkciceharMesand polysaccharides (Tale 1). “Table Stractre of monosaccharides saccharide: and polysaccharides a = = ot > QA ao ae Te a see: |maspmmcnten |e O eo |ceee te, |S O 7 si tg |e Cece. |e | WO. oinedionetien | Chin = polymerof glecosnine | etesteltetonct Gitconwitsanamion | arthropods elds id wie) ‘Monosaccharides and Disaccarides Formation of dancchatides- typical exam questions ‘Monmsocharides and disaccharides re sugars: Thc all have the basis Commenesan questions inde oma (CHO), and cane clase aor to ow nan can 1-Nase Oe veavtion volved whee adscchares fed sss ey cc, 2 Nae he typeof bod Formed $3.Shovby damiegatdusram bow a dsaecurbeis onset (Queso | and 2 ae very spe - sacar fore in acondession ‘action which fsa elon bund. The oly wap 0 et Question 3 from te anos [ig L Formation ofmalioe and sucrise from ther monesaecharides ‘oxo nan quo “O }—o. ©. emcee game LEONE ce w/in w\on w/t fron oe wba low ‘esd aon gue a.Polysaccharides Polysaccharides ar polymer ie. they aremade up of many repealing uit. Thce polysaccharides which commonly fare in exara questions ave tach, ‘cellulose and slycogen By far the rast conmmon questo asks "How is the srucue of polystcctaides related to Ui urction?" I should berated ‘hat alls have the advantage that they ate ncluble in water and erefore have no cxmotic effect effect on water potential an! te unable to ds ‘tf the cll More spec famines ae summnaied in Table 2 “Tube 2, Structure:Function of polysaccharides oye Sucre ‘Structure Function [Seron— | atade or wo priymers a e-gtacose: amos and amylopectin Insoluble in water, therefore good storage stain sorage ‘compound e gin stron of chloroplasts potssaccharido| amylase —a chin of glucose molecalos joined by o-1 4 glycosidickands which, in plans. | by hydiogen bonding, form a eli. [is this helix which holds and forms | The Helix forms a compoct shape which allows ‘comple with dine wea we test for starch sigh packing andi deforeanexcellet rage Giot ion molec amylopectin ~ glucose molecules joined by a1 glycoside bonds but after | Amplopeetn hss many protng erence ‘every 25 glucase molecu: adjacent chains ae commacod by a, 5.lyeosidic | molecules) which can be hydrlysed apily — Dondsi-.amplopestinis banched. lows rapid release of ucoseo provide energy why SPEED ae ae ‘Suarch from diferat sources is unique. Each yo cao ‘Source as characteristic proportions of aylose % and stmlopectn andthe lengths ofthese 180 i ‘molecules die Thus, miroscopi analysis of oH ‘Search gai can be used toientfy WICK ype tf, of plait came fom. caycogen— | siniiar race to amylopectin (in hs i a polymer of a-phurse) af starch | Compact toragemoiecsle sa msmmalian iver Jain storsge | buthas many more branches andthe branches ar hore. Glyeogen isevenmore | and in fungal cells and can be broken down to polysaccharide | compact than snilepectin, ‘eleseeglucse, The uct of glhcogen allows oranimal and faster bydbolysis than sth which s important fungal elis | ‘sanimals may aced emergency glucose faster ‘un plans. [Cetmtese— | Longuetvancid chain of lucselinted by fA glycosidic toads. The inves | Hydrogen bonding prevents water entering the Jstactursl | chains ero then linked to cach othe by hydrogen bands. These ae formed int | molocule. Cellulose is therofors tessa 10 poissacchuide| strong micioibls. ‘czymechydvolysis which makes tan excellat in pts. Structural polysaccharide. Cellos cell walls fame ge ‘provides protection to all plant cells Humans a who fn wha he cannot digest cellulose but herbivores have tact and potctse in thoi digestive syste Dp N\_ of ‘bic produce cells (1 4-gyeosiase) The t Tong uxbranched fibrous strata provides great on Gout tong te‘Made of glassamine units ghaonse + aminoacid and isin by fl -Iycosidc | The presence of the amino aap causes even bonds. smoce hydrogen bonding between the chains than potsacchaide| scoot, sucoct, in cellulose. Chitin is hecefre an exemely ound hae y ‘non resilent and tough polysaccharide. exoskelns ° ral fou i 0. aicopads Nn A Mow yo aud in hyphal ells of many Kt Gapn ot ng Carbohydrates Bio Factsheet “Testing for Carbotydrates “The most conumon ests for cabolydraves are sunuarised in Table 3. ‘Table3.Common carbotydrate tests Test Reagent Method | Positive result Seah | tee ‘Ad drops oFtogine hem precipi (pp) form eiucingSugar | Benedics'reagent | Ad olume of Benatiow reagent = volume est soltin. | Soluiontums rom lve pale green eg gheoe ‘Mix. Heat 070 to yellow to orange o brick ed pt race (Do nat bei because this wouk splits dsocchaside ‘of copper) oxide. The intensity of ‘malice ‘9g everose into reducing sugars (ghicose and fructose) and | the colour, which can be measured ‘shea ase positive tes) Andicaes how mach ring sugar was present Nonseducing sugar | Benedit'eagert | To em’ test solution add lon? date HCI Boil Col ad | Brick rod ppt seuvalise with excess NOM Repeat es for edueing sugar‘Functions of carbohydrates: summary 2 Energystorese. glycogen in mammals ‘sch in plane 13. Suuctural components. cellulose in plant cel walls ‘chitin in athroped exorkeleton pentose sgars- howe and deoxyribose [components of RNA aod DNA respective 4. Meubles. ated in biochemical pabways ‘5 Cellnet tachment molecules eg combined with prot 1 ‘orm seeps lipdstformlheoiason plasma membeane (6. Tramport eg, sucrose i plant poem Hisse Digestion of polysaccharides Stage zyme saree | Stach Statose | sativa and pancreatic amy. @amylase breaks + tas Fandom. amy reas aerate 14k Malone = Glucose _| Malas in inestinal juice Fajeoace | Glycogen = Geese | Pealsinisasot {angen sce loca sich activates enzymes for Sysopenayes [censtose | tebivoresnane | Cette ‘stead lA glyositse) ototst in thir Sieve tems ‘Practice questions 1 The diagram shows pst ofa starch molecule OO OOOO (2) Name he type of bon found at postion X may {) Name the eaction which fomed this ood. (1 mask) () Explain how the truce ofthis molecules related its faneon (@ marks) 2. Outline abiochemicl est which you couk use distinguish betwen asoluion of glucose and slain of sucrose ‘Gras Answers ‘Semicolon indicate marking pans 1. G@) Giycasiie; 1) Condensation: {© Compactsighly packed wo amylase helix; scien storage: “mylopectin lacose wis: allow rapid bydolysisileasofpacose, 2 Add Benedict eagen wo each solution; eat w 6.800: _lucos soltion would give trick ed precipitate: {ncrone solution would not changeThe Structure and Function of Lipids ‘This Factsheet summarises the structure and function of lipids. Lipids are organic compounds found in every typeof plant and animal cll, They always contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but the reletive amount of oxygen isRessthan in carbohydrates. Alllipids re polymers long chins of repeating unis joined together in ‘condensation action during which waters released. The commonest lipids are rilyeries hee fat aids and glycerol inked by an ester bond (Fig) Fig L Structure ofa triglyceride 0-0 E=CH, CH CH, HO W=C—050-C— eH, eH, CH, “The three fy acids may be ideal but ature of faty ci is also possible, Thus, many diferent wiglyeeridesiustures ogsur and this in tum means that they have range of futons. Saturated fas are those ‘which contain ingle bonds erween the carbons inthe hydrocarbon chain ‘offs acids and these are usually solids at oom temperature Unsaturated fats eg. vegetable os, are liquid at room temperature and have some! ‘many double bonds between the erbons. Functions. “There are eight major 1. nergy storage Lipids formexcellent nergy storage molecules. asp deposits in the stroma of te chloroplast and as fats in seeds and adipose tissue of vertebrates. Oxidation of fats to release energy occurs in the raitociondia. Asin the oxidation of glucose, seeyleoenzyme A is produced in the firs stage. but so are many molecules of NAD and FAD. These are reoxdied in the electron transport chain and hence ‘oxidation of ft yields more ATP than oxiation of carbohydrates ‘Weight for weight they ae therefore high-energy molecules, sich s important in ft or seeds that need to be dispersed 2. Structural components Phospholipids usually make up 408 of cell membranes where thei “amphipathic nature (having apolar anda hon-polar end) enable them to contribute tothe spontaneous formation ofthe bilayer. Cholesterol isalso amor component of aial cell membranes. 3 Thermal insulation Fat conducts heat slowly and therefore the wglyceries, which are Stored assuhewtneous atin vertebrates, re important for maintaining. ‘optimum temperature for metabolism 4. Mechanial protection ‘eg. of delicate organs, sah as kidneys. 5 Electrical insolation <8 Sphingomyelnisa specialised phospholipid in the mycin shet of 6 Waterproofing 2g. The waxy cuticle onthe lea epidermis ora cis bids feathers. “The presence of wary suiberin in the Casparian strip of endodermal cells in plan oot forces water int the symp pahoray which is tude the contol ofthe nucleus. This stip therefore ges the plan ‘control over substances entering the xylem 7. Buoyancy Since fat less dense than water fat reserves provide buoyancy for xquatic animals, 8. Precursors of many cel constituents Eg. gibberellins ~ plant growth substances e.g. earotehes, ‘hotsynthetic pigments, coloration pigments, steroid hormones e ‘ow do animals obtain ips? Since all cells conan pds. any animal that eats planor animal cell will take in some lipid. Triglycerides and phospholipids are hydrolysed by lipase iat glycerol and fat acids. Since lipids do ot dissolve in water, ‘hey ae not easy to digest ad their digestion is acceerned i vertebrates by the wecetion of bie sls, which emulsify them int smaller parties. rally increasing the surface area which lipase cam act. Fatsare hydrolysed by pancratieipases it fat acs. manoglcerides nd cholesterol Single wgheerdes, phospholipids and cholesterol then Aiffose across the brash border of gut epithelial cells (Fig 2) Fig2. Uptake of ipidsin ileum monogyceides. faty acids hole vipers — cholesterol O-+ system hylomiron 888 triglyceride 8% phospholipid 4% cholesterol ‘Once inside the cll, wiglycerides are reassemble wo form eylomicrons. ‘These. phi cholesterol and phospholipids move from the epithet cells {tote lymphatic system. he reascembly of wilycrids i the epithelia call eps the concentration of fty aid ow: This maintains the difosion {gradient Between the leu andthe inside of the epithelial ces. Lipid are ‘eansportein the Iymphatic system before entering the Bloodstream near the heart, ‘Typical Exam Question Deni thesractue to function of epithelia el of etm. Mictovli on Tuminal surface increase surface area for absorption, Plasma membrane of epithelial cll has protein caries for active transpor, Epithelial cells comin smoth endoplasmic reticulum for eeasembly of wipycerids.“ae Steet. proportions Lipide Peete ‘May stated ao double bos ‘omar comic ale ‘a plumed cette male Soe An a ‘aint hg a se ih Sd a te erga Egy ee ae Deore bye ay Ald ‘es nsohae ape ak (Shes ih a pi ie dott wiper yl eae ‘me ith hy cls om eed ty ‘nda i ape) a rca eet anh came peat a omaha Sipe hector pevcspsnpaheinertecerety ‘rac oct e na posi Roath am pam ea Hee ‘Progen copacas ng suc i nei tr) came nl» peorrereenieeroers’ ecectn te bee be heed ay and iacah heist ‘tapi iy ea eat es aa cen psi a Siniagreeraoe ory dn i wares cll ‘emtartsaiie eane Cable en et bya. ay ao alt “Tram ise Mond Low ety pope Dango cence Hd Hi Sn ep se eee Ty alk | Comput Han Onicha COON papa fen |ewe Sahai Laie ‘Sc iy aid. 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