‘JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL, 85, NO. 87, PAGHS 3711-3739, JULY 10, 1980 CONFINENTAL SURETCHTNG: AN EXPLANATION OF THE POST-MID-CRETACHOUS SUBSIDENCE OF THE CHIRAL NORTH SEA BAST Jot G. Selater Department of Barth and Planetary Setences, Wasaeohusetts Institute of Tecmology Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 PAM. Christie Department of Geodeay end Geophysics, Cambridge University. Madingley Rise Abstract. he Torth Sea is a major continen- tal tasin filied vith early Paleorole to Recent sediments. Though graben formation started in the Triassic, the last major period of extension occurred between the Middle Jurassic and the mid-Gretaceous. Folloving the faulting and graben formstion agsociated with this extension, Subsidence within the central orth Sea was widespread cna uniform and has created a saucer- shaped sedimentary basin. ‘hie wae filled successively ty chalks, dendstonee, and finally, Guring most of tho Tertiry, by shales end mde stones. We exonined the subsidence of eix wells down the middie ana two on the flanks of the Central Graven. In the period of videspresd steady subsidence the vater-loaded baseaent depth in the middle increased by 1100-1400 m. On the Planks the basenent eubesded 600-100 m. We suggest that most of this subsidence zesulte fron the thermal relexstion of the Lithosphere whieh was thinned during a Middle Juressic to mid-Cretaceous stretching of the crust. Assun ing @ crustal stretehing and associated 1itho- spheric thinning of between 50 and 100% in the middle and decreasing on either side, we obtain 24 8 good matoh to the observed amplitude and rate of subsidence. The Middle Juransie to mid- Cretaceous subsidence which is found vithin the graben proper ve relate to the fault-controlled Initial subsidence which occurred during the actual stretching. The meagured heat flow is compatible with such a stretching model. Though ‘there is no seienic refraction dsta acrose the Central Graben, this model is strongly supported by evidence of a thinner crust under the Viking Graben to she north and the Witehground/ Buchan Graben complex to the east. Using the above observations ao the basis for a geological Interpretation, ve examined the thernal maturity and hydrocarbon potential of certain sedimentary horizons in the northern section of the Central Graben. In analyzing the various wells we exten ded previous work on the compaction correction to handde overpressuring and mixed Lithologies in backstripping studies. Further, we expanded these methods to include the variation of thermal conductivity, and caleulstions of the degree of thermal mstuvation of the deposited sediments, through tine. Introduction The Late Paleozoic through Cenozoic gecloay of the stable areas of western central Furope is dominated by a series of large epicomtinental Copyright 1980 by the Anerican Geophysical Union. Paper number 8080311. » Canbridge, Ingland besins. Those, for example, the Buropean, Paris, and Torth Sea basins, are 260 or 300 lm vide, up to 600 im ong, and in places 5-8 km deep. Tt is generally agreed that the sedinents tave ‘been deposited during « period of widespread general subsidence folloving active graben for~ mation. ‘The basins ere underlain ty. continental crugt, and because the gravity snomalies are ‘all, the subsidence 1s compensated. Though mich is kuom stout their structure os a result of Tecent explorstion for oil, the mode of basin formation and the cause of the subsidence are fat present matters of speculation. The Torth Sea is a typical example of one of ‘these large epicontinental basins. It conteine fan unfaulted Late Cretaceous to Recent sedinen~ tary TH11 above a Jurassic through Barly Greta ceots graben aysten (Figure 1) thet was also active in the Trinesic. Unlike other basins of Similar setting on the continental shelves, hovever, the rate of deposition in the Tertiery appeare to increase rather than decrease as the sedinents get younger. During the recent phase of ofl exploration, ney well data and selenite eections have been released, and generally accepted sumeries of ‘the beste observations are nov appearing [ttegler, 1977, 19786). Ia this paper ve exanine thie information, particularly, the well fate both along and across the Central Greben of ‘the Worth Sea. Me rensve the sedinestary load allowing for compaction and compare the observed Raroment ibsldence vith that predicted by a simple extensional model for the development of ‘the Jurassic and Barly Cretaceous faulting. Finally, ve discuss the implications of this model for the degree of thermal maturation of certain eedinentary hortzons. Beplanstions of Continental Basins ‘The explanations for the subsidence in the North Sea and other besine and shelves of siniler type cen be separated into two groups. Earlier ‘explanations concentrated upon the effects of graben formation on the crust. These invoke Possible upward migration of the Noho with in= creasing sedinentary load [Collette, 1965; OtConnel2 and Vasserturg, 1967], creep at ‘the edges after graben formavion (Bott, 2976), crustal replacement associated with the forastion of an astenolith (Ziegler, 1977], or generat flenuval subsidence caused Wy sedinent 1oading Zolloving the formation of the graben [Beauont, 1978). The vate of subsidence in most tasine de~ am. ve eee oy 7 * Fig. 1. me sites of nine geleted velle fon the central Boren Seu on's hare of the safer greten (beery Lines) and the tersecy setioan contours (Light Lines) fron Qhegier LASTT, 1978e)- The political boundaries are ahom at auahes Lines; Seianie reelection profiles Ma" and B5" tre lactosea de the texts creases rather then accelerates vith age (Sleep, 1971]. This rules out any mechenisn of Lone term subaidence involving Moho migration, Rir= ther, the widespread period of eubsidence in ‘most basins lasts for nore than 100 my. This Ae much longer than the tine constant of shallow effects in the crust or the flenral response of a rigid Lithosphere, This though these crustal phenonena probably Gecur in one form oF another, land, in particular, the Lrostatie loading of the sedinent is inportant in peruitting large acci~ muletions in these basins, these phenomena ere hot the basic cause of the overall subsidence, Wore modern explanations are based on the chaervations of Sleep (2971), Watts and Ryan (1916), Steckter and Wests [1978], and Keen [2979], vio tave show that the subsidence of ‘hese tasins ds renarkably similar to that of the deep sex floor [Parsons and Sclater, 2977] Mo account for this observation, Sleep (2971) Broposed model vhich resembled those which here been so successful in the oceans. When the Seaperatures of the continental crust and i!thos sphere are raised, the lithosphere expands, and erust is exoded. "When the lithosphere cools, the wper surface returns to a depth below its orlee ise] position. Though thia astisfactority ex- plains the subsidence vhich will be et an expo~ sentially decaying rete dependent upon the thick- Of the Isthosphere, there is » apace protien. No more sedinent can be deposited than was re~ soved by erosion in the firet place. For in= stance, in the orth See there is no evidence of ‘the 5 im of Jurassic erosion necessary to pro~ duce the retaceous and Tertiary sediment, P21 There have been sone attempts involving thermal Selater ané Christie: Continents] Stretching-North Sea doming and phase changes to accourt for thes space protlens [Haxty et al., 1976], but these hnechanioas are ad toc, and it 45 4ifticuit to Justify then in a sinple extensionel setting Iwekonzie, 1978]. ‘The space problem and the long-term aubsi- dence are resolved if the basing are crested by extension over a broad region. Such extension renoves the space problen, since Light crust 1s, Yeplaced ty nore dense asthenosphere and there Ae no necessity for uplift before subsidence. In fact, the mximm ancunt of sedimentary £21 ‘hat can be obtained without davaking uplift and erosion occurs after infinite extension tnd te ‘between 15 and 20 km. ‘The Lithosphere can extent efther by stretehing or hy rigid breakup eat the intrusion of het material tram below. ‘Thus to plausible models can be develozed frou this explanation, and in the cate of large anomts of extension they aze ind‘ stinguishable, Many authors, for example, Artenjev end Actuskov [1971], Votgnt [197], Lovell e= el. [i975], and Worton and Black (igTh], pave in soked Stretching to account for the normal feulting and crustal thinning observed in riftad regions. Recently, NoKenzie [19TBa] has exained doth the short~ and long-term consequences of such @ model and has deuonetrated that it cen account for the present defamation and heat flov in the Aegean [NoKensie, 19780]. In thi mathe- matical development, exteneion oecure dnetantan cously, resulting in a repid breakup of the brittle crust and ductile floy in the suberustal Lithosphere, permitting the asthenoaphers to rise Deneath the ‘thinned portion of the crust. Gra- Dens bounded ty low-angle listric normal faulte are created during extension and give rise to feultecontrolled qubsidence. When faulting ceases, the hot asthenosphere cools, and the ‘asin Gubsides in a videspresd steady manier. After a time, vhich fs dependent upon the amount of stretening, the basin subsides at the sane rate as the deep ocean floor. An alternative explanation bas been developed fron the generally accepted idea that the ocean crust is created by numerous dykes and flove Sinple models based on this concept have been lused to account for the dyke svarte found on continents. Burke [1975] proposes that such intrusion processes are important in contineatal Dbreskup and in the formation of inland basins, and Foyden et al. [1980] have considered the ‘hemal consequences of this proposal. During periods of rapid extension there {e mich block faulting and graben formation. Vertical dykes wre injected, and heat 1e brought repidly to the surface, Though there is fault-controiled sub- TABLE la, Comparison of the Amplitude of Fault= Controlled Tnitiel and Theraal Subsidence 3 0_2.35 5.88 _2.93 7.33 Initial ond thermal eubeldence values ere in kLloneters. WF is vater-filled subsidence. SF is sedinont-tilled auteidence.Sclater and Christie: Continental Stretching-Hiorth Sea sidence, the initial thermal subsidence which follows dyke injection te more rapid than it 12 in the case of crustal atretehing and throughout has the sane shape 5 the subsidence of the deep sea floor. There are several problewe vith the ayke Anjection model. In general, it 1s wiikely ‘that injection can occur at depths viere the Lithosphere behaves as a viscous fluia, though 4t could be important in the Brittle layer neer ‘the surfece. However, oven shallow infection i unlikely in the Eurepean basing, since there is, Little evidence of dyke svarns in the graben systems and, further, the varied Woho depths to ‘be anticipated from auch widespread shelloy Antrusion are not observed. Though it may be a useful concept elsavhere, ve do not think dyke Anjection vas the doninant cause of extension, ‘and, apart fron a fey references Inter, we do not “apply the model to the Horth Sea. "In the vest of thio paper ve exanine the observations within the frenework of the crustal stretching model. nthe crustal stretching rodel, thinning of the Lithosphere occurs as the result of broad extension that causes the surface area to in- crease ty a factor &. If the extension 12 vapid and Lithosptere {s conserved, both crast and Lithosphere decrease in thickness by a factor of 2/8. ‘This causes a fault-controiled initial subsidence of the surface due to the replacement St depth of the Light shallov erust ty nore dense asthenospheric material. Tho thinning of Fauetecomrmoutes 354535 a5 Fig. 2. (Top) A cooperison of fautt-controlied initial sussidence vith the general thermal subsidence expected for various ancuxts of Anstantaneous stretching. (Bottom) The hest flow decay for various anounte of stresehing, assuming an initial heat flux of 1.6 yoal/en® = with half coming from the decay of hest-producing Glenents vithin the crust. ams TABLE 1. Predicted Heat Flov Including Betect of Stretching Radioactive Crust Mier omy. Ae Borin is i Ly 233 @ 2100 aan 1:20 30 210 2.04 B20 3.40 Ly, 200 Waitin git Fay 0.8 yeal/en® s coming trom eat-produeing elenents An the erurt. ‘the Lithosphere creates « thermal anomaly by the Dasslvo upvelling of the hot eethenoaphere nater~ dal, As the thermal enanaly decays by conduction, the Uthosphere thickens and subeides, alloving, in the ebsence of further extension, the forma ‘tion of a basin. NeKenzie (1970a] bes show thet the fault controlled subeidence, neat Tlov, and resulting ‘thermally controlled subsidence can be presseted fas a function of the extension factor B. fov- ever, there are sone problens vith thie sizple model. Tor example, it vas assumed that stretching occurred instantaneously, and thie ie obviously not true for the graben eysten in the Morth Sea, Yortunately, 0. Jarvis and D. NoKen- aie (nanuseript in preparation, 1980) keve shown ‘that for most cases the errors’ associates in predicting the heat flov end the thernal-contrel~ ‘ea subsidence using an instantaneous tine of extension are shall. ‘Thus it 1s not necessary at current levels of understanding to go toe nore complicated model. ‘wo other results of the mode thet do require exwxination are the axount of fault-controlled Anstial subsidence ana the effect on the heat flow of stretching 4 hest-producing radioactive crust, The fault-controlied initial subsidence Bye de given by Spo = allogrog Enon 88) ~ B30. 2) soa )-Py here a (9 the thickness of the 2sthasphere, te ‘the initial thiekness of the continental crusty Bo the density of the mantle, and pg that of she ‘continent both at 0°C. Paranater 9,, 1s the density of seewater, & the thermal expansion coetficient of toth the mantle and the crust, and Ty the temperature of the asthenospnere (trom WoKensie [197Ga] as corrected by J.6. Sclater ot al., manuscript in preparstion, 1960). The term vithin the braces ({) is the anoust of subsidence to be expected upon infinite exten ston. It ie 2.5 ka and 1s given by the average height of the present riage axis [Anderson ot al., 1973). Stretching by @ factor of 2 will halve this subsidence, but 1t ts ettlL large; ‘and this foult-controlled initial subsidence vill represent about 30% of the totel subsidezce, or 458 of the subsidence 100 a.y. after the ex- ‘Yensicral event (Table la and Figure 2 (top)). Including the effect of a significant conjo- nent of heat flow in the continental orust per turbs the predicted hot flux (Table Tb, Figure 2 (bottoa)). Jn the case of an indtial host flux of 1.6 poai/en® s vith 0.8 yeal/en® s coming from tthe decay of heat-profucing elements within the crust, the heat flix shove some unexpected varia~S2MSNAM SmBBONONY nsM¥2704 a¥Na90NONY > oore = aissvida| |. 5 sass a eel é jong 8c i leal8 2] : co Emenee kt 4 vo] 3} awowwn henod, 36 HaYON UCU ——— ele 3aouna WuaT83MHi4ON aE RD cy abe a -onosnoo3e]Sclater and Christie: Continental Stretching-North Sea tions vith tine, For factors of stretching below 1.5 there is very Little variation of heat flow with time, about a 25% drop in all. However, for Large factors of stretching, 2 and above, the @rop is quite striking, and the final value is Lest then that for the snallex stretching facm tors, These numbers are probably not significant for continental basins, vhere large anounts of stretching are not observed, but they could well ‘be important on the outer cantinental shelf, where significant thinning of the crust is nom ‘to occur. Tectonic Setting and Sedimentary Structure ‘The major structural elonents of the orth Soa, the Viking and Central grabene, trend ina sinuous tut generally north-south direction through the center of the basin. The two grabene meet st the intersection of the Witchground and Buckan grabens, the letter lying to the east of ‘the Moray Firth Basin, and forma three-way June tion. The Vikize Graven is both narrower and, especiatly in the North, deeper than the adjoin ing graben. It also hae no structural high at the center. ‘This i in marked contrast to the Witehground and Buchan grabens, vhich are fated by the Halibut birst, and'to the Central Graben, where there is sn unnamed, Jurassic to Barly Gretaceous high running down the middie of the graben (Figure 1). Sondstone ond Conglomerate Sondstone SAZZ] Peeper marine sendtoneFysch Shale ==] Orgone shote Deeper marine shale Corporate Frotite (x) Gypsum, Aniydite Coot Eorly Tertiary Vleanies Lote Tertiory Voleonies Fig. ‘The sediments overlying the crystalline base- ment of the North Sea sccimlated in a suite of successive basins developed in response £0 varying tectonic settings (Ziegler, 1978a]. In ‘mich oP the Yorth Sea the basexent was consoli— ated during the Caledonian crogeny, whereas in central Europe the basenent was Tormed during the Variscan testonie eyele, During the PeraowTriaseie the North Sea was Gominated by extension. The general subsidence of both the south and north Pemian baaine gave rise to the deposition of the Rotliegendes sendstone and the trancaression of the Zechstein seas. During the Triassic the North Sea vas oditied by the creation of a graben eysten. These Triassic tectonic elenents end the contin ued subsidence of the Permian basin laid the foundations for Jurassic-Cretaceous tectonics. The subsidence also triggered the dispirien 1n ‘the Zechstein salt that continued through the Mesozoic and "ertiary The Viking end Central grabens, which were created during the Triassic, developed in’ the Turasaic into the major strictural elements of ‘the North Sea. During the Jurassie the North Sea was dominated ty rifting, relative uplift, fant differential ubeldence.' For example, in the Middle Juraseic, the Central Graben high rose above sca level. The rifting and differential subsidence contined during the Early Cretaceous and did not terminsts stil the early Albian. UToLOeY AND mason Ase GL/GAS OccuRRENces [METRES “rere ‘PuoceNE| ‘coo sanos | E | mocene ‘coo, FORTIES, al a wer |) so 5 eee om) 7 oot g SEGRE | soo g ; ca é Shunt? Be | | e-r0 | 4 eee eee 3 Braet 7 eae [Recnstein z disttes | [oes rel TOW. CARBON. oe DEVOMAN . cen EALEDONIAN—BASEWENT STRATIGRAPHY OF THE CENTRAL GRABEN Legend for the paleogeographic charts and the stratigraphic sections and Schematic outline of the stratigrapty of the Centrel Graben [Zsegler, 1977].jer, 1977] Most of the major events during thie tine period vere conzenporazeous vith events taking place during the opening of the Atlantic (Figure 3). After the Albian/Aptian the subsidence in the basin becane widespread, with the thickest Late Cretaceous and Tertiary sequences deposited over the Viking and Central grabens. Though there wat gone tensional tectonic activity curing the early Tertiary (‘Laranide evest'), it aa not stgnificantly affect the sedinents in the Central Graben, Tho Tertiary regional subsidence led to the development of the distinctive syametrical saucer shape of the Norta Sea basin. Yor our stuly ve have assmed that compaction terminates at the botton of the Permian, and hhonee ve have taken the base Pernion as our reference point for caloulating mbeidence of dasenect. “Tn the Central Graben the Permian Paleogeographic charts of the Worth Sea et selected intervele since the Barly ie. ote that the onset of basinvide subsidence camences in the Late Cretaceous, Sedinents consist of Rotliegendes sands, which fare folloved by Zechstein salt or anhyérite, depending on position in the basin [ef. Ziegler, 19780] (Figure 4). Above the Zechstein lie Triassic sands and shales, Madle Jurassic volcanics, and then nore sand and shale. This Sequence terminates between the Hazrenian and ‘the Albian, vhere the shales in the Central. Graben are known to be ebaliov water [Fowler, 1975; Johnson, 1975]. Tt is overiain ty the ‘ATbian/Aption tranogreation, which it eneily: recognized on most seieuic reflection profiles across the graben. In the late Cretacess and ‘hrough the Danian the basin progressively Qeepened, and chalk vas deposited. Chali depo sition termicated in the Peleocene vith the sudden influx of sand from the uplifted Orkney- Shetland Platform [Parker, 1975]. Above the sandde a thin sandstone and tuff sequence that ia in then overlain by shale. Deposition of shale hes ‘continued to the present. Bxanination of the paleogcographic charts of ‘the Jurassic through the present of Zeger [ig7T] (Pigure 5) demonstrates that 2 major unconformity seperstes Early Jurassic and older from late Middle Jurassic snd younger sedinente. Tate Jurassic and early Gretaceous deposition occurred over this unconformity, progressively Gnvading the emergent areas. By the Late Cretaceous the entire North Sea ares vas again Tlooded, and chalk deposition was videspread snd fn places very mubetantial. Throughout she Tertiary, sedimentary accumlation renzined ex- tensive and was centered over the Viking and Central gravens, In sumary, Jurassic through Early Cretaceous deposition is characteristic of a tactonically active aren and Late Cretaceous fand subsequent deposition of widesrread steady subsidence. Basement Subsidence We obtained detailed Lithologic, sonic and ‘ganss log data fron eight vells in’and on either Side of the Central Graben. The six vells within the graben extend from the Tartan field in the Worth to the Valbell field in the south (Figure 2, holes 1-6; Figure 6a). ‘The two wells on either aide are on the mid-orth Sea nigh to the west and the Vestland High in the Torvegien Section to the eact (Figure 1, velle 7-5). To gether with EF 30/1-1 they form a northeast Southvest erose section of the graben (Figure 60). he major sedimentary features, the Late Cretaceous chalk, the Paleocene sands, the Tertiary steles, end the thin or totally absent Barly Cretaceous and Jurassic sediments on the flanks are vell {llustreted by the two sections. For ease of analysis and presentation ve have simplifies the aections. We placed ail the sand in the Paleocene, ignoring the thin Dantan chalk ‘and the widespread shale and tuff sequence in the latest Paleocene. urtherzore, we have ‘asouned that the chalk vas deposited continously from the Albian/aptian to the end of the Late Cretaceous. This is not strictly correct, since there iz, in sone welle, a thin Danian section. Hote the widespresd occurrence of Middle Jurassic Yoleanics which extend froa the Montrose Field Ge Pigare Ga) through the Forties ares BP 21/10- 2 (G5 Figire a) 0 Gonos 25/20-2 (2, Phewe ‘ie estimated the depth to basewent from is0~ pachs of the Upper Permian end the thickness of he Rotliegendes sandstone given by Ziegler [19TH]. Algo ve used tho interpreted seismic cross sections of the Worth Sea presented by Biegler [1977] (Figure 7). We checked these estinates wherever posaible agsins seismic feflection data in the vicinity of the individual Nella (we are graveful to Conoco, IOC, BP and Shell for access to unpublished reflection profiles). in the sefemic gestions (Figure 1), note the videapread occurrence of Zechstein in’the north (section B-B'), the thick Triassic sediments 4 the south (section A-A'), and the salt Giarizs fon the same profile, Of our sites ve believe Selater and Christie: Continental Stretehing-North Sea an only Amoco 2/21-1 Likely to have been signit cantly influenced by set movenent. In the Forties field end elecshere the Middle Jur Berly Cretaceous high is clesriy interbedded with Jursasic and Triassic eedinents. This well lustrated on the section wader the Fe field (Figure 7). Finally, tt 4s significa: that the faults penetrete both che Juressic am the Lower Cretaceous and gradually @ie out in ‘the Upper Cretaceous. Ritting in the North Gea was active trom the Geiassic through the end of the Barly Cretaceous. Thereafter, foulting vas only mizor, and the besin subsided in a relatively uniform fashion with the axis of mibeidence overlying the graben rysten. For the purposes of comparing the ob- served subsidence vith thooretiesl predictions vve made ®o assumptions. First, we assuned that ‘the themal effects of the Trlagele rifting events vere anal ty the tine of the major Turaseie-Berly Cretaceous extension. Second, we yumed that to first order, this event could be modeled by a very rapid stretching cceurring at tthe ni¢-Cretaceous Douidary. With the present state of understanding of bhe Worth See and the theoretical models (G- Jervis and D. Mexenaie, ‘anuseript in preparation, 1980) ve Teel these sesumptions, which grestly simplify the analysis, ere Justitiea. ‘In order to compute the Pasement subsidence fron yell log data it £2 necessary to take faccount of compaction, sediment louding, vater Gepth during deposition, and cea level changes For these ealoulations ve sssumed loca} loading. Following Steokler and Watts [1976], the water loaded basenent depth Y is given by (Pan) (eqr?w) where pgs Og» and py are the mantle and ean Sedinent anf water densities, respectively. Wa ip the water depth at the tine of burial, and ter ie the height of sep level above the present Gey value, The seainent layer thickness § re~ presenta the layer thicknose that formally Beleted, Because of compaction, § éoes not Sorrespona to observed thickness in the vell. Tn their study of the Cost Be? well off the east const of the United States, Steckler and Watts [1978] hed to desi vith a single lithology fand no overpressuring. This is not the case in She orth Set, where there ere four different Lithologies ~ shale, sand, chalk, and shaly gana - and sone evidence of overpressuring, To handle the differest lithologies, we carried out fan analysie of the porosity/depth relation for ech of the Lithologies involved. We also Snrestigaved the effects of overpressuring, using ‘ang bosis the treatments of Ruby and Hubert [iséo] and Megare [1978]. A detailed account of these Anvestigatione Se presented as Appendix A. ‘Ta the central grabes we exanined six wells; exaco 15/16 in the Tartan field (Brooks, 197]. Conoco 15/30-1 (Coneco, persona) communications {e19), BPei/10-1 in the Forties field [Walmsley, LOTS], hnoco 22/16-2 frou the Montrose f1el4 [Footer, 1975], BP 30/1-1 (BP, personal, commin- Seation, 1979) and Amoco 2/11-1 in the Valhell ol field [Morvegian Petroleum Directorate, Sorrel (Tapes 2a-22). The two wells on either tile of the graben vere Amoco 21/10-1 (Anoeo, Ow x sheet) + Wa ~ by, b5eSoa!nopssouBeuv./uoyssea80x wopady/uorary ou sauesosdox OUT ATSIGA Aiwod ous “uaqusg Tex¥"ID oN UTUSIA TION xTs 203 Uadap (atuzoy oneq) wuomoeeg Jo eoqempase pow (pradeT x03 q sanqg ses) Audedyaeaqs persredms “89 "Fre g 5 some] § : 4 g aL sevane 9 F== = doreroana 1S a bess g i clo as 5 SUC BERS SERS SEES bcc] oe = i z ws 3 2 i : = yet} i bees ES : LOL/Lz 1 -OE/SL. : dg 030NO) £ z ‘ N ans SeUa / SS | A LEG LS Si SEDIMENT DEPTH KM HN ee OT SS 6 Fig. 6b. three velle across the Centre Graben personal communication, 1979) and Conoco 9/4~3 [Norvegian Petroleum Directorate, 19770) (Taties 2g and 2). We sauned for the purpose of computation that in the Albian/Aptian, tectonic activity termina ted, sedimentary deposition vas at sea level, snd ‘the thermally controlled subsidence started. Plotting the date from the 1ithologic logs with ‘out any correstions, ve observed for the six Melle dn the Central Graben the sane increase in Subsidence rate with age noted by Clarke [1973]. However, when the effect of compaction 1s re~ A AUK FIELD fare shown on Figure 1. as i ls Simplified stretigraphy and estimates of tasenent (bese Permian) depth for Symbole the sane ag in Figure 6a. moved, the rapid inerease in deposition of the younger sediments 2 leas pronounced, snd the Tate of depoattion is closer to Linear (Pigure 8). Upon renoving the sediment load, apart fron ‘an apparent sharp drop in the Pliocene end Pleistocene, the zereese in basement depth with fage became Tenarkavly Linear, vith the totel. ubaidence varying fron 1355'n for BP 30/1-2 to 750m for Texaco 15/16. We tried two different approaches in otudying the conpection of the Farties well, BP 21/10-1. Firat, we apsined no compaction within the vol- erevgeray % rr seta [arene Sree ot) rat nt ein ee (Ey ene rig. 1. cericturen eros sestidns aorore the Contra Semen et te Bltisk ent Forties Big ToS GLES LISS. SE tae ene peoiies sith tae Movie profit to the south |selater and Cheistie: Continental Stretching-North Sea 3720 -sayouyguao oygno sed omeid uf Avsouop ausutpos tou sf 0 cetomes0g, enosouyedg seddn uy aoTeR Udep quossad woss paysex}IOR SSAUHITYD AuaMzpes paq92s100 cu Syeq ‘PaTtEAP aadep TeIaE “sormBOTOR apssump -AoToa mm T ‘0"h ‘sovaiog yata SGotwuw Aq pow (qgL6t] ZeTHT7 Hoss eX 2°¢ eyMIOZ Ladin so0q ~ qUoRDSOE 205 0025 forms qusmeesg Shen pues oysemmny ssortsoton ‘oT w evte otwye snosgeaD enc wrt goes egte rast, LNSE 699 OT aTRUD werady/usTaTY Loe yest ate eget wz Sg gore yee ZEOE SLT eu uetaqoraasean ain eget ote galt mee 6 6ine — 6ns2 Tel2 29 pars suscosteg ong welt Wee S612 Ect «NOE RST OTTa <= oT sus30r 69. geet ge'z tle © zen Ete © ape | ET OTST ge oT aaa083T0 alg 6o0z lez © gléz Sake ence con S16 tt Gree atau ‘20300 226 sete ge-2 Eye «=p E6LZ HOEY teh ORS Stes oueo0F td 266 ogte of:z GE Lge Soe atl TE Oe ates ouss03879TE scot __asge_of'2 __inse__geoc_—dnce_ gest Eg poawes HSSIISR FUausewy , GAGS TTT Glows vy TASHST IRE TUES TS TeeT a sadiig snoay “axcay edd onoay oxoay odin oncay sxoay _ pogees vag ‘ody auomypeg orto, Wide pewsearog —«WquNmTPOE PUSSIIOH WTTUSETEST TOOL — ATO ACTOR ape T0E/ST 20009 “2 TION “az STEW sssseuyaueo oyqno sod suyusd uy Ayyeuop quomypss wosw fo soqouDrEI, ssnosowyes9 seddq our aotaq qadsp suasard wosy paxsesyyory sesmqoTHY WOMTEIS PINTO “[aguét] ferser2 sears ay ¢ 48 eyo seuqrauomsreg “posveres tou peTTED uadep Teves ‘sXo0xg wos yoTsn6 sep TIM ca ee | oe a 0994 cong =** Aorme quowsseg eet are ug nage oLtz 0632 E9Z COT © ATwlo snossey929 eda, 62 2SLt lite geet gas. ofee © ogoz oltz S90 pave ‘puas03T ed es owe 1e2 Size in osty OW ong) SS stays ausocg ag a oye Iza 692 190, oggx "ont Eg peaeeg ‘SuvSSeIBT] TUnasSWT 0 goGa sess] WWausIey BOSSES TUG THT sald oscay “sacey Jeddn oaoay “snoay — sedan saogy scay poqees reg ‘oly 3uouFpog wor TscH. SF eaiog PISO] «UW guaypeg FSIS “W TAISUTOS TOIGE— —AOTOE nOTAE ree ST/ST coexog uesaMy “T TIER “Ye aTEVESlater and Christie: Continental Stretching-North Sea spersotex 400 POTTED Gidop Tes9r *[SL6T] sTToHeG pur yeooUNY wo; payPY ATED sNOeEIex9 Zeddn JO = OOW WITH [su6t] sotmca tosy s} uoy4aas ogy “squEMTped pOpPOATOATT PUR soTUEDTOA Jo WoygoWuCD aif} 10} AOTTE 03 sn089"30I0 “raddn 2m} AoToq puss ZoTeyS 30 WY T SuypPE fq pre [9gl6t] ze1B9y7 woas WeyMEAL sodSn osvq — uauEse “xpyouyaua Opqno ied sweaP uy £yysuap sueuTpes vo ST d Ze,emEIMa, ssoeowyax) soddn actoq wadap: guasaa woas paqoosIyo0 Wadop qusWTpeS Ye3RTOOR Re forms ee . en ieo i298 suoxoseg > sig get 6 oot GADE_ OTE ODT ATMS EnovoEaA9 sadn soe ott rz alot ot gtyt 29 pre ‘pae208 Ted Age zeer ove tat 9 est ss otws 202208 ass eer ete felt gert ete se foro eua20% 710 el west 92 ere olst ole ee e900 £96 gegt fez eng gész ESE 2 Aero ousoze Ta neot___606t_yz'z__ 620. Seoe___ 620 ee peaees TavaTeIaTT Tous wT yaNOoTeATD Gueuasey MoaTeyaw sews owT zeddn oncay _aacay Foamy onoay_2a0qy 0p anoay snoay ‘e9y quesrpag wor zou Heqhieg pay «Wye PES FSTSSHGD a TaTOUTDSS THI erat/2e oxcuy esos mom “y TER “Pe IEW saeqourimes ofqno xed svs9 uy Agrsuop quawypes ven sy ¢ sosomea, ssoquuotes doa aut noTed Worioedao2 oa sy azaya dma Bayansse wid9p por292z008 savyauspessuay 20) AOTOG Gadap quoeedd woss paysUsIyTEG SEUITTG TWISTS PIII, TE QGEE “POTTEAP aadep Te19p “99UORTPS DeppeqIeWy PUY SofuTOA Jo MOTZoBIROD 03 qmoosy 03 puws forays SX T pbe anu GES 48 (SLGT ‘AOTEUTMK) soTUBOTOA ayseeme soddg - quomDseE ae ease cege forms quameser ase Be st woot —_gese See aepyaopenenma (sre) get 2658. I6-t cyt Gait Eee bre ‘eao00Ted ort 9-2 ies lest Tost aoe oe cost loz sig gt ausseaie owt Te Set Sane om test ere wa || Eee © enous ouasortt wor te 602 Oso 2 baoqepnm scasogesets zee) O16 git _&t ges gat ‘- Sucnspnn_ peawes Sr aster ee FT SST TOE TREO AT 7 Sacay sa0R v sion acon Thy auosrpes worrsoH TT USD —e TUMAS TT _AoToe Notes ae ToT/oz 4a soyateg “E TTR 92 STENsevosowaeso seddn nove quay dened Hoss peNORsTHoNG SERCATET IUOEYEES yonsesHOy “egy “PeTTESP adop Tray “teg/e Boe T-T1/e atten wo odes [BL/6t) *2esor90sTG meTosteE KoTFanson 9y7 Uy pegTeseaT Soptaer sreryon #49 Sosy THEt/2 Jo ase4 ous AOTH Buys Toner # G°0 ve 9G 09 petmmTaee on 4TH UHyRIEE ang zo dev ouy, sates ais qiveuaopm gopmoderTace ov so STHSTT Auten ates severag su Zo doy = qWetaee > "Faas sree oresemp sedan [eee srosowio49 2481 ssnosowy229 wept we S64 nee esse ews sedan, so Py ye oe are 08 teas suosoaTes att Slt e272 GOTT 8E 0 Re steissusseg AE Ste gist fz aggT te Eyer (96LE ores ‘sue008F10 sx ghz sez ogo cto got 136 steas sus00TH we Gyye were tenes gist een ores ‘sussosta 162 See ose Sse sts pet TaN, atws — suss0asyota zeot___egg2_ Ste lz ES g612___9xfs oreue poqueg BISSTIaI Tussesay jT—gAUGaoe Ian] quaweseg anosoITE) WemsTAT edd excay_sxoay xbidn snony eaoqy xeddn snoqy anoay pequeg 29g ‘ay swemTpes uoHTIOH ‘Waited peqsssI0D ‘EqueaTpeg TerseIO WT aUomTPET THIOL Torte coomy “TIME, “9 TIER “32 TENE ssoqourqueo opqno se suyesd uy Cyysuep saomppas wesw sy ¢ sevomumg, sencaowzazy sedan noteq Gudep juozold woss poxoeryxom Wydop SUSuTD 2066 ‘yeiey “a J6oT 50 ssouqoTa> + sanTD syus ‘8/ax 99°F Zo saya Texwsa v BuTMesy “sare oH uoyiootyex OymsTos ays Go's 9°o st “AxupuNoR UET¥dY/UWFATY Oa WeTEEG “yTWGO ZO SeSUxOTED Su “eB E°G JO uydap quousceq w sony Stuy "3oeducoap 30u seop yoTYs “ITes UToysysa7 ouA Toy TNGITE oF H GoOT soELaaKE selater and Christie: Continental Stretching-orth Sea 6g ST ons Aset AN6 198 rout ate Tet age sot ylOz-««GLTE 99 ay pews suno00 Tea tg gett tz = soz, TL6 BEET Gaze_©—Tyoe_TSDE $6 suonspNN seaser eh fist we cone ate Gist 2652-««gese gOLe gE euoxemns — auso0#rT0 1s geet See 652 OTKE gtez kz As6t lg0e Sze suoxsmm — auoo0TH wer Slee Tee Sole agg Geet nen GH. BGO G snoaspmm —_attooostd geet te az thoy SH ELLE 0693 00S_«OTG_ 2 stoRe EME uocoasTOTE Scet___gze_9e2__elay__aets edgy ee cors bees oue ees a panes BUDSSEIER] Gewese] 0 qauosowIsI GUaWSTE SMOOIWIST TUOMDS RT Tet seldg) saoay en0ay, Fotan sacay_“saoay — seddn saogy “saogy pequag | wog ‘ei wouryag uozTso% Spvadeg peysenieg — E SFURUTPOG Pook} “e “ieuyPES TIGL ACT ATER rear TH1/oe ae “G TIOM “02 STEVE3728 Continental Stretching-Worth Sea Sclater and Chriette: Joyouyqueo oyqno sod suvsd uy frysuep 2usUrPES Uwe St JasemTOZ, vmosaejex9 saddy no{aq qydep wose24 woz payoesayowy eeauxoea uoUyTeE pesvasTe0, “mr 2992 “POTTTAD Wadep Teq0j “pououdT axon aatspAlue 10 9CeS UyoIeTIOT 2u3 pow spuug sopuadoyrioy ous “APO oTSsEmMP sy Jo sem nCToG WOOF av d;esuIay 8g ~ yuOKOENE o1ge gale pase Sree rar “ 2ice pave Aetes —oyseemy. ze ‘STHs snoeze7009 SueT ee fer ett a 09 let zyst oot tteus enonoennsg ze ort, store, gere eet seg Sent Sat get <9 stsas—susocore lay sett core Lozt Lone Osi oGst ogo ett ss otume seas0r 49 eset ate ult use oust ole. oz zla_ z= Brey suoconsrers Ooh ___gget_et-2 _olgt__o1ge. ougt__olge_ oak oases BUGGIES GURGTAT 7 gAMONOVIOND WUaaasaE SAGSseTSHD Aas AT EA edd snoqy aA0q¥ Tolan saoay “Daoqy ceddy snoay sacqy Daqnog vag ‘MY qeN}peg worTeoH a TyMieg peyserg— —-W "Tuea peg Pesos] —U qUSUTDST TIAL — ASTOR AOTOE Swear E-Y6 ovoney “9 TIM “Me ates ssezompaueo oyqno od surex# ur Aarsusp suemypes oom sy J zajomnmeg, venoaoeiei9 todd aotsq undep yuseosd wors PoxSeIAyoNy euoUTo;Y EMP PaIV—TOD, W gLqt “BETTE adap TeyOH “yos0URT son AoTea eworspINg sepuesETTIOE PUE ITRS NreAsOoy WF peRoTG0N oTOY au Hux JJo"T 9 oeeuTAy aseq~ywoNDSNE sara wont ct ates uyensqoez Lis Lot **—orwgs—“opeer nag Spot “+ puws sagas sncooey0%9 ower em out a ow “get 669 «6B OT ——_xTBHD encoosn0%9 “dn oe ign Stes 8 zoy anes es suasootad etc 2. cee gerd cnt tel oe 096g st950a See ees Sota GELS Sea ousa0det0 dey See gt 6h Le SL lig. tet one sus00Ftd oly atg_o6"t 66916 666 fsstog Ped0o8 SUNOS SUBHSEE 0 GHTOSTHTEY MEOTUE STDS SeTENT TSU OT asT 28d onoay_eacay Fatan ssoay_ssoay © s0ddn sacay “saony poqves | vas ‘ay 3UsBTDES cox FACH WMG VeTIeTED —« TT eaipay peasant) ET USUTIRT TCG ACTH noted aia TOT/Le ovoRy +L Tren “3 ETE‘ Fig. 8. Observed subsidence (solid line), sub~ sidence taking into account compaction (dashed Line), and the computed basenent subsidence (Line through open circles) since the Late Cretaceous for six welle in the Central Graven. The tri angle represents present bacenent depth including Seavater. The lover basenent subsidence curve for the Forties SP 21/10-1 hole vas computed ‘assuning no compaction belov the uppermost vol~ cence. Selater and Chetstie: Continental Stretching-Worth Ses cenie layer, and then, because this gave too rapid a subsidence, we assuned 2 l-sm tuffacecus Layer with the sane compaction characteristics as shaley sand. This gave e basement subsidence much closer to thet of the nearby vells, and ve have used these figures in the next section of this paper. For doco, 2/11-1 ve suggest that ‘the overpressuring was created by rapid late Eocene deposition and readjusted the compaction figures accordingly. An account and justifies ‘ion of the method employed can be found in Appendix A. ‘To obtain the absolute dasenent depth relative to present gen level, {t is necessery to knov She weter depth and the height of sea level at ‘the Hine of deposition. In this section of the peper we have chosen to ignore sce level changes, bf the wells ve pave chosen, only Texaco 15/15 te known to be neritic throughout the entire sec tion. Por the other wells the depth of depost- {ion 4p unknown. However, the progradation of ‘the Paleocene tand suggests that at the Conoco, Forties, and Montrose wells this depth could pave been of the order of 300m. ortunstely, detailed paleodepth information for two wells In the Horth Sea, Mobil 21/28-1 and Amoco 2/8-2 adjacent to 2/l1-1, has been made available Gi. Berggren and F! Gradstein, manuscript in preparation, 1980). These two wells have bathysl Sediments at the Zaleocene/Eocene boundary and Middle-neritie sediments in the late Hocene and fot the Oligocene/iliocene boundary (Table 3). We faded these depth estimates to the five sites other than Textco 15/16. "fe found that the readjusted desenent mubst- dence curves appeared to have a slightly faster jnitial apd © slightly slower later subsidence (Hgure 9), In particular, the sharp drop in the Plioeene through present could be much sasll- er then that observed, especially if = 300 = father than a 200 m lover depth te taken for the extent of middle neritic sedimentation. It ts apparent that the rapid increase Ln sedimentary fccumilation in the Pliocene and Pleistocene could be the result of a shallowing depth belov fsea level and the high porosity of the surface Shaies, Tt de not necessarily caused by a rapid subsidence of the basenent, comparison of Observations and Predictions The general subsidence vhich follows the active period of extension 1s troud and easily Tecognited. Ae a consequence both the enplitele and the rete of thie subsidence can be directly Compared with predictions from models based on fan extensional explanation of the observations. The initial fault-controlied subsidence during the aative period i also a function of the fanount of extension, but it affords a mich less ‘useful comparison ror a number of reasons. ‘The Geepest arena in the graben have not been Grilied, end the maximum early subsidence 19 Difficult to estimace vithout access to detailed reflection seisuic information. Further, local tectonics ang the thermal effects of a shallow ding Lithosphere cause complications and provide considerable difficulties in matching observe= ‘lone and predictions. Ae @ coneequence ve have concentrated on comparing the amplitude and rateSclater and Christie: Continental Stretching-North Sea an TARE 3. ~ Dept a. ‘Anoeo. 27-1" ES fa attow nertvic, 0-008 Piiocene-Pietstocene Paleodepth Information, Central Yorth sea Paleowster Depth OLigocene-Wigcene? 03-1112 miaéle neritic,’ 100-200m Tate Bocene’ 1612-1652 middle neritic, 100-200— late Paleocene ‘2090-2590 batiyol, 350-hoo Barly Eocene’ 4g WoL gg mobtn 2/28-2 Oigocene-Miocene’ 905 middie neritic, 100-2008 Yate Eocene 066-1221 middle neritic, 100-200 Tate Paleocene, Lae7-1281 bathyol,| 150-800m Barly Bocene? azf2 vatlyol, 150-8008 Day Fe Geadstien wud # Sovaeeen foannsovipt Ta provera ‘tion, 1980). z 4] of the general post-Early-Cretaceous subsitence with predictions. Yor the purpose of these predictions we suggested that the general subsidence results from excension of the Lithosphere and that to ainplity the model, this extension occurred Anstantaneously at the mid-Cretaceous boundary. ‘This is a gros® oversinplitication of the geolo- gy, Dut it does not significantly affect the ‘harmal gubsidence (G. Jarvis and D. NeKensie, manuseript in preseration, 1960). For the res~ sous mentioned previously’ the dyke sntrusion vas Pejected, and ve considered only a stretching foie. We compared the observed subsidence of the six velis in the Central Graben, all correc- tei for water depth at the tine of deposition, with stretching by 50 and 100f (6 = 1.5 and 2.0) (Figure 9). The predicted profiles are ali close to exponential and, epart from Texaco 15/16, overlap in amplitude end match in rate the ob- Served subsidence. The Teyaco 15/16 well has the Bate rete of subsidence as the others, but the Amplitude is lees. ‘This is to be expected, since ‘She well {8 north of the Cestral Graben and lies fon the northern flank of the Witehground Graben, where there could vell have been les extension. ‘Considering the possibilities for large dif- ferences, the mateh betveen the observations and prediction 12 excellent. Stretchiag of between 50 end 1008 (3 = 2.5 and 2.0) in the Late ‘Sureste and Early Cretaceous is a simple and etraigntcorvard explanation of the post~ mid~ Gretaseous eubsidence of the Worth Sea basin. ‘Ag Well ag @ suite of wells dow the center wwe also coneidered a profile of three velle ‘across the graben (Figure 10). For these ve presented the observed Lithologie sections and ‘the basement subsidence profile for each well. ‘The profiles on either side of the graben are best fit by stretching by a factor of 25% (8 = 1.25) and the profile in the center by factor of 2 (B= 2). This cross section illustrates ‘That the thermal subsidence is mich greater in ‘the middie than on either side and thet the cross section can be most satisfactorily explein~ (ed by decreasing emounts of stretching avay from ‘the center of the graben, We estinsted the average stretching factor across the viole basin $We12 near well 6, Amoco 2/11-2. ‘These points used to correct subsidence curves. ‘The point used only on nearty Amoco 2/81. along profile 7-5-8 (Figure 1) to be Less then 50 (a= 1.5). Ae the North See basin, defined by the 1-kn sediuentery thickness contour, is only 300 Im wide, then the total amount of exten- sion predicted between the Jurassic and Berly Cretaceous ip less than 100 kn. ‘Bor the Feasone wentioned earlier in this section we aid not consider estinetes of the amount of stretobing based on the Zault-control— Led subsidence co be reliable. On the other and, it ie till of value to compare the actual observations vith the anount of sediment predtc~ Sed by the stretching factor vaich matches the hemmel eudsidence. For stretahing of between 50 and 1005 (B= 1.5 and 2,0) the fault-control~ Led subsidence should range fron 800 to 1250 ‘vhen water fled and fron 2 to 3 km vhen Tiled with sediment. Though there ie no evidence for more than il 1/2 kn of Jurassic and Early Cre ‘taceous sediments in the data ve have shom, sone seismic Lines rum in the northern par’ of ‘he Central Graben have over 2 kn of these seéi~ ments Deneath the Late Crecaceous and Tertiary sections. Thus in certsin areas, there are considerable thicknesses of these sediments, and they could result from fault-controlled subei— dence associated vith extension (Table 4). Un fortunately, this is wot the only explanation, since sone of the exceasive thickness could re~ sult from salt motion (Ziegler, 1976]. A nore detailed analysis of the actual reflection pro~ files ie needed before these sediments can be nade use of for quanzitetive comparigen with the other observations. Further suyport for the stretching mechanism de afforded by the Neat flov data from the North See and by two sesenie refraation lines, one shot across the Viking Graben aud the other across ‘the Witehground and Buchan grabene. The heat, flov in the central North Sea is around 1.70 weal/en? ¢ [Bvana and Coleuan, 1974]. This value may vell be too high, and if lovered by about, 10% (well within the errors of the data), It would give en excellent mich to the predicted heat flow for strevehing of between 50 end 100% (B=1.5 and 2.0) (Gable b). The errors in both the measured data end the predictions are suffi- cfently large that for she present the support $$3726 Sclater and Christie: Continental Stretching-North Sea 5 Be 30K son E zea 2 conocd 8/3041 ace ma ww so 9 ‘ ovmmase Avoca 2218-1 ae MA os sa 2 . wasn, anoco2/tt-1 Age NA so ood Pig. 9. Computed basement subsidence (Snes through open circles) and basement oub- idence adjusted for water depth changes (hetched ares between lines through open Eriangies) conpared with instantaneous stretching of factors 1.5 and 2.0 occuring Hnetastancossly 1 100 te (dashed-dotted Lines, with lees stretching giving shallover Subsidence). the dashed Line on the Tartan Texaco 15/16 plot shows the subsidence Gepected fran the dyke intruston model with 1.5 extension. ote the fust early subsidence which is not reflected in the observations. for atwetching from these observations rests only on s compatibility argunent. The refraction data provide mich stronger support for stretching. During extension the crust noves by brittle failure. If mass is conserved, the crust should thin by the sane fanount as the lithosphere attenuates. The hnaximim anount of sedimentary 1111 should overlie ‘he thinnest crust, ané the extension tector eich accounts for'the thermal subsidence should falso give the observes crustel thinning. Guristie snd Sclater [2980] have show thet across the Witchgrount-Buchan Graben comlex here is « direct correapondence between obs crustal thinning and the predicted extension from the basement subsidence. Both sets of observations are best matched by stretching of ‘vetween 50 and 808 (6 © 1.5 and 1.5) in the center of the graben complex. Aerosa the Viking Graben, Ziegler (197fa] hee presented an inter- pretation of the seienic profile of Solli [1976]. Again the maximim anoint of sedimentary F422 focours over the thinnest crust. xtension ty = factor of 2 ie required to account for both the Inte Cretaceous to recent subsidence und the thinsed orust. This iz close to the value we propose for the Cextral Graben. ‘The observed crustal thickness, heat flow ant feult-contvolled and thermal subsidence can all be accounted Zor ty Middle Jurassic to Barly Cretaceous stretching (Table h). The amount of extension £e 4 maximum under tho Central Graben and decreases rapidly on elther side. For the sake of simplicity we have noglected ‘three factors, and made a basic sssumption concerning a fourth, all of whieh could change the amplituteSclater and Christie: see Bort Ks ‘ ‘ Bow [smo ow Exeue ge ak Tr 5 ooo ENuze 4 a00 E 100) E 00 Fro ssa Iie00 a Fig. 10. (Tap) A 1¢thologic cross section of the Central Graven. ‘The heavy viggly Line is mid Cretaceous regression/tranagression. (Botton) The basenent sbeldence profiles for the whres wells compared with predictions for aitferent lanounte of stretching. 8? 30/1-1(5) has deon corrected for the vater depth at the time of aeposition. of the themal subsidence and hence the snout of extension needed to create the basin. We have neglected the Triassic rifting phase Which gave rise to up to 2000 m of sediments in ‘the Central Graben end have assuned thet the effecta of this event have died out by the Middle Jurassic. In light of the long tine span detveen the two events, this assumption is probably Justified. Hovever, if it 4s not, the fenperature of the Lithosphere in the Late Turageie and Rarly Creteceous was higher than equliitriun and the heat loss after stretching sould have been greater. This would increase the post mid-Cretaceour subsidence and, sence, decrease the auount of Middle Jurassic'to Harly- Cretaceous etretching necessary to account for the observations. Simplistic calculations (Table 1s) suggest that at a maximm this coulé lead to ‘a 25% increase in the subsidence and # siniler decrease in the amount of stretching. We have neglected the flexural loading of the Lithosphere by the cominmmous sediment 122 [Steckler and Watts, 1978]. We have deliberately chosen sites in the center of the basin, wiere this effect is minisized, and epart fron Texaco tinental Stretching orth Sea 15/16, site 2, it is not significant at the level of accuracy with vbich we are desling. Another {aportant faster which ve ignored 44, changes in the betght of sea level. Trough the form of the eustatic sea level curve through ‘tine is generally accepted, the explitudes of doth the long-tere and short—term variations are ‘the subject of vigorous debate [Vail et al., 1978; Pitman, 1970; Selater et §1., 1979]. ow ever, there is a consensus that during the Late Cretaceous, sea level vas at least 200 m higher ‘han at present. Such e figure vould increase ‘the absolute vaiue of the basement cubsidence by between 15 and 204. This vould increase the amount of stretebing necessary to acooimt for the subsidence in the center of the graben ty the fame anosnt. Fortunately this Increase 1s in the opposite direction to the decrease in the prou posed stretching cousea ty our neglect of the Grigaaie extension. Jo e firet epproxination the ‘tro effects appear to cancel each other out. ‘One of our baste assumptions in this study was ‘that at the ALblan/Aptian Doundery the sediments in the Central Graben of the Tort Sea were close to gea level. Recently, P. Ziegler (personal communtestion, 1960) bas questioned this assump- ‘ion and pointed out that the basin could have ‘been ag deep as 200 or 300 m at this time, IP he ie correct, then since some of the Iste Creta~ ceous chalk was deposited ine basin alresdy vell, delov sen level, we have underestinated the mount of initicl subsidence and overestinated the fount of themal subsidence. If the depth of deposition in the center of the graben vere close to. 300 mat the start of the Late Cretaceous thea ‘the observed data vould be best matched by a stretehing of closer to 50% rather than the T5 to 1008 implied by the origins) analysi ‘As a result of the argunente presented sbove wwe DeLieve that we may have overestinated the fanount of Middle Jurassic thrown Early Orata~ eeous extension, Our revised estinete of the amount of stretching in the cester of the graben vould Iie closer to 50 rather than 100$ and the lanount of extension geross the basin as @ whole would be between 25 and bof, Geologic Model Because of the good agrecnent between obser~ vations and predictions ve propose the folloving schematic nodel tor the post-Pernian development of the orth Sea. The primury graben systen was Enitiaced st the beginning of the Triassic and was centered in the aret that vas subsequently Yo become a region of major Jurassic faulting. TABLE 4. Comparison of Observations and Predictions Hatenane Subsidence Toaervea Predieted Water f112e4), = ee = 2.0 duplitude, initial 500-1000 B00 1250 ‘fault controlled amplitude, thermal 1200-1100 oko 1550 Bete, thermal Linear exponential Exponentiel Bxpogential Crustal thickness, km 15-25" 23 Mey Heat lov, yeal/on? g _1,70 # 0. ky 0.3 14) 20.3" ‘Hhate Tron Wtcheroum’, Buchan, and Viking eravens. ingnming 35-kn thickyese for prestresched crust. Higssuning 0.O-ueal/ea" 9 heat flow from prestretehed crust.Continental Stretehing-Horth Sea Fig. 11. an outline of the post—Trinssie fevelopient of the Central Graben complex. (a) Initial cross section prior to Middle Jurassic and Barly Cretaceous extension. (b) Present Section acter stretehing by 2008 (B = 2.0) in the graven. Hote the shallow Mobo, the localized Suraseie and Early Cretaceous section, and the widespread Late Cretaceous. ‘The lithosphere Cashed Tine) has tninnea by 1008. (¢) Concep~ tual post-lliddle Jurassic subsidence of the Center of the graben conpler assuning the sedi~ hentary aupply were to exactly match the ba bent, subsidence. 2h gave vee to e rapid erly Trisssie subsidence tn the center and an uskova eount on the Tlanks. After uplift, erosion, and gradual subsidence the basin returned to close to sea evel (Figure 1a). ‘reinitistion of the Triassic fault systen ‘courted in the Middle Juraseie through Late Cretaceous vith zajor excension confined to within the Central Graben. This faulting my have extended the underlying basement by as much fas 50-75 ko, The crust udervert brittle feil~ we, producing teostatic feult-contrelled sub- Sidence vithin the graben. hen extension ter insted, a general subsidence, caused by the ‘thermal relavation of the aathenosphere, comenc= 8 and the present. saucer-shaped basin resulted (Figure 220). There are no refraction and/or deep-sounding Lines evailable across the central lorth Sea. ‘mug st fa not clear whether or not the ductile portion of the Lithosphere extended as ach the brittie crust. If the upper layer extended 1 more than the ductile layer, thet the area of deformation of the lover layer vould extend yell beyond the Limtte of the wctual graben. Such suberustal thinning would replace cold Lithosphere ty less dense, hot asthenosphere and would cause the sides of the graben to rise during extension. This might be sn explanation of the Barly Jurassic dome proposed by Ziegler [1grt, Pigure 3] and account for the sbsence of the Wadle Juraseie and Zarly Cretaceous jedinents observed on the flanks of the graben. Hovever, thie 12 not the only explanstion of the absence of these sediments, since extension and Graben formation alone Vill cause the flanks to Hise buoyantly in reeponse to the crestion of « greater foot. At present, the observational finta are too izpreciee to shov convincingly that suberustel extension has taken place. By the end of the Zarly Cretaceous the basin pad filled with sediment, and fault-controlied subeidence terminated. Thermally controlled subsidence took over, vith the areas of greater Gxtension subsiding more rapidly (Figure 1c). Ae this area of general subsidence vas vider than he Central Graben, the widespread saucer-shaped Gepression resulted. This vas pertially Filled Guring the Late Cretaceous ty chalk. In the Paleocene there vas uplift along the orkney-Shetland Platform resulting in a rapid infill of eand from the uorthvest. As the top of the chal vas 00-500 m below sea level, a Considerable thickness of sand ves deposited neer the margin of the basin vith turbiaity sequences Flowing out into the center. At the beginning of the Bocene more general fine-grained sedimen- ation took place, and the center of the basin, vaion waa still vell below sea level, began Gradually to £121 up. It remained fairly deep ‘throughout the Mocene, and it was rot untill the rapid Pliocene and Pleistocene shale and clay deposition that the surface of the basin returned ‘to close to soa level There are evo problems with this mdel. We cannot account for the absence of Zarly Jurassic sediments in the ceater of the graben. ‘This probles is not major, since they could have been Penoved by uplift associated with the initiation of the extensional event. "The second problem 2 sore important. The snount of stretching which ve propose in the pePrn METER easement 009} Tao 100 8060 40260 aoe MA Pig. 12. ime, temperature, and depth (TTD) plot for Conoes 15/30-1, The heary solid lines fre Ssothers, the ight dashed lines are depositional isockrons (the depth of a given sedinestary horizon at a specific tine), the heavy deched lines are contours of degree of maturation, and the cireled nuabers are the Gegree of maturation for individual horizons in ‘the well.Selater and Christi erust leads to between 75 and 100 im of total extension across the basin, Though it de possitie to account for betveen 20 and 30 km of ‘extension ty the throv on the obecrved Faults, ‘there are problems vith finding the extre 50 ka of extension In the actual graben systen 1? one Rcoepta the present interpretation of most multichannel seismic lines. Hovever, secondary high-angle faulting is known to occur in the Piper field [Williams et al, 1975), and it de possible that the mpped high angle-faults are Only the last of a series of auch faults through Dasenent such as those proposed by Profett (1977) ‘to explain the extension in Basin end Range. If thie were the case, the earlier faults would now have @ muck lover angle of dip, and the exten Sion would be significantly move than that ob- ‘tained by mapping the final sequence alone. Though this objection ie inportant and hes to be resolved, ve do not feel St ia aufticientay major, for the present, to warrant the rejection of our hypothesis, In'the next. section ve dis cuss the iuplteations of the stretching notel tor predictions of the paleoheat flow and the degree Of thermal maturation of certain sedimentary horizons. Paleotemperatures and Naturetion Petroleus hydrocarbont are formed by the ‘thermal alteration of organte-rich sediments Guring burial. Although many factors contribute ‘to organic metanorphiea, the process 1s primarily Gepentent on the integrated time/tenpersture history of the buried organte material [Mesot et al., 1974). Lopatin [1971] and others have concluded experimentally that the reaction rate for thermal alteration of organie sediments doubles for each 10°C incvesse in tenpereture. Hood et al. [1975] have shown that this approach gives results in excellent egreenent with a more heoretical model vbich assumes the reaction is first order in temperature and obeys the Arr hemius equation. We have shova that by stripping off succes sive layers, deconpacting the rensining sediment, and remving the load {t {@ possible to compute ‘the subsidence of an eplcontinental basin or a shelf. If ve accept that these basins or shelve have an extensionsi origin, then the amount of stretching can be determined trom the cbserva~ ‘ions on the thermally controlled subsidence {Royden et a1., 2980). Maving determined che stretching factor, it is possible to predict the palecheat flow once the final predicted value bas been adjusted to wsteh the present heat flov. If the thermal conductivity of the sediments is known as a function of tine (see Appendix 3), then the temperature at any given depth can be calculated fron the palechest flo«. By contra Ying a time, temperature, and depth plot for an individual well or basin and then integrating, ‘the degree of thermal maturation of any indivi- Qual sedimentary boundary can be obtained. Foyden et el- [1980] have establishes the folloving relation for calculating C, the degree of thermal maturation: * c= ans alt 2}/2088 of a given eedimentary layer ap both time and ontinental Stretching-North Sea 3729 depth of burial increase. Further, they have related C directly to the level of organic raturity end vitrinite reflectance, the generslly accepted measure of tho thermal slcerstion of organic matter. They have shown that to 4 first approxinstion the of1 generation process hes hardly started when C fa equal to 10 and is esuentiaily complete vnen it is greater thon 16. Most Light ols are expelled when C lies between 12 and Ih, and gas generation 1s complete vien C is greater then 20. To illustrate the use of this approach in the examination of the thermal meturation of sedi- ents in a basin, ve ave chosen Conoco 15/30-1. In this well a gas condensate vas found in the Lover Cretaceous shales, and the hole is quite close to the Forties field, vhere « large accumi~ Iation of of] Se found in a Paleocene sand reeer= voir. We computed the heat flov as a function of ting for stretching of # = 1.5 and 2.0. Assuming that the highest hest floy vas established by 125 Ma during the extensional process and allow ing for the effect of radioactivity by anaming ‘crustal hest flov of 0.8 yeal/em? = ve compu tied the tenperature at various depths and tines We also started vith a backgrowad hest flux of 1.0 peal/en? 2 in order to mitch the theoretical models with the observed heat flo tsken from Byans and Colenan [1978]. The temperature was integrated to obtain C, the degree of therm naturation (Figure 12, Table B1). The onset of ‘thermal neturation, indiestea ty'a C contour value of 10, steys close to the 100°C isotharm, but 1 shove considerable variation with time. Moe meen Light ofl novenent maturation figure, C= 13, varies ifttie in depth but quite consid erably with respect to the teotherms. Both figures vary quite dramatically with respect to the depositional teochrons. For euumple, maturity in the Lover Cretaccous shele probably started quite early either in the Lote Upper Cretaceous or the Paleccene, and by the beginning of the Miocene thie layer bad a xatur ton figure of 13, at which light olis would be highly mobile. fiowever, the base of the Paleo cene Send only just reaches maturity and then only lete in the Pliocene, Fron these calcula ‘tions it aypesrs unlikely that the source mter~ ial for the nearby Forties field vas located in ‘he saxe sand. lence our caleuletions would suggest that the o1 has probably migrated fron nature sections below. When thie might have occurred is difricult to estimate. If the source nateriel is in the Lover Cretaceous or Upper ‘Sarssate ahales, and if they are st the sane depth es those in the Conces 15/30-1 well, they vould have been sufficiently mobile fron any tine after the nid-Bocene. ‘The above Aiscussion 1s speculetive and Le desed on a number of acsumptions sbout thermel conductivity, sealing, and the absence of signif feant £Iuid zovenent in the upper sedimentary sections. We have chosen to present the analysis decause it illustrates the potential value of these tine-tempereture-depth plots end of con touring the degree of thermal maturation. Conclusions Tue approach ve have taken is by necessity simplistic. Because the sree is of high comer~3730 Selacer and Christie: Continental Stretching-Horth Sex cial value, mich of the deta, especially detailed Gefaie reflection profiles, are unavailable to i. in Light of these restrictions it is sur prising thet ve have been able to account for 20 mich of the observational evidence, We have Shown thatthe observed foult-controlled Mri [ Hes Jurassic, and Early Cretaceous subsidence Viuhin the giabens ana the general yost AYbian/ fpticn seucer-shaped basin of the Worth Sea ean Ye eccounted for by simple extension causing frustal and Lithospheric thinning. Support for stretching 1s fount in the atsent- ated erst observed in the other two grabena and {in the predicted heat flow, wbich is compatible with tbat observed in the Horth Sea. Fron these Cbservations we have developed & schenatic geological nodel for sedimentary dezosstion in {he North Sea and have demonstrated its potential ty colculating the peleotenperstures and the hneturation history of the major sedimentary horizon®. By necessity, we have been forced to make ory simplifying assumptions in our approach to ‘the Worth Gea, ‘Though we have been successful in accounting for gone of the cbservations, ve have Left a series of questions unmnewered. Wi12 a reinterpretation of the reflection seismic dat Support cur contention of 50- to T5-lm extension Gf the Central Graben detveen the Hidde Jurss~ tic and the mid-Cretaceous? Have the Triassic Hitting evente significantly affected the vide~ ppread mid-Cretaceous to Recent subsidence of the orth Sea basin and, es a result, have we over~ estieated the axount of extension necessary in ‘the later event? Pinel2y, does tue rapié Snereage in sedinentation at the top of the wells indicate a Pliocene tectonic event, or te our explanation in tern of the rapid infill of & bbesin whieh vaa Yell belov sca level correct? The answers to these and otter such questions wELL have to avait further detailed studies of tthe North fea, Even alloving for these problems, out study hap demonstrated the pover of obsarva~ tions of aubeldence and selsuic refraction axta dn unravelling the long-tera geological history of the Worth Ses basin. Wo suggest that this Gnformstion 2 vell ae that provided by selanic reflection and detailed vel} control will prove ‘very important in detersining the tectonic his tory of other basins end eortinentel shelves. Appendix & ‘Simple Theory Governing Hoxgal end. Overnrestired. Sections A vater-saturated clay vill compact on burial. As hsa been shoin by Roby snd tubbert [2960] on the basis of simple prizeiples of soil acchanice [Terengns end Peck, 1948], the load s on a layer of sedinent 4e supported jointay by the fluid pressure p and the grein-to-erain bearing Strength of the clay aggregates, where ose-p @ Tt 4e dmpLiolt in this motel that the effective stress 0 exerted by the porous clay depenis solely on the degree of coupaction of the clay, with g inoressing continuously #2 the corpaction Incresces. The neasure of the degree of compac tion of @ cley Le the porosity f defined as the retio of the pore yolune to the total velume. ‘As a stratim becones buried under an ever increasing Los of sediments, 4t will be subjec= ‘ted to vertical total compressive streas of magnivude Fou @ where Dy 18 the mean value of the vater-satura- ted bulk'denalty of the overlying sedinents, & fe the acceleration of gravity and 2 is the depth, “Prom (1) £¢ is clear thet the eupport of this load is divided between ¢ and p. Further nore, p can be expressed in ters of 6 by the relation pede Wry 8 a where A is the ratio of fluld pressure to over Durden preesure. Substituting (2) and (3) in (2), ve obtain = (~My et 0 ‘The Limite 4m variation sn ) are 0 and 1 corre sponding to zero pressure and to a water pressure qual to the entire weight per unit area of the overburden, respectively. ‘The Limite in variation in ) are 0 and 1 corre sponding to Zero pressure and to a water pressure equal to the entire eight per unit ares of the overburden, respectively. ‘As sedimentary load ie added, the increase is assumed initially wy sn increase in pore pressure per of the paraaster A, With time, in the ‘Terzaghi and Peck [1986] model the vater is slovay expelled until the pore pressure reaches the lovest Linit compatible vith the hydrostatic column, vile at the suse tine, @ increases and f decreases. The lovewt uit occurs when PT py Be (3) essentially hydrostatic, the pretsure at the sam depth na static body of water. In this ct ae Pe ‘mir is called the norma pressure, and pressure states prior to thie vnich are higher than homal are characterized by 1 > fy/Byyr In the terminal equilibrius state, where’ze 4a the depth of burial, o* Gy, - oulete a The variation of porosity In shales te a simple exponential decrease vith increasing apt. Using the data of Athy [2930] and Hedbers (2936) (see Figure Ma ona AIb), Ruby and Hubbert [1960] show tiat for noma pressures the porosity £ can be represented by the relatin f= tyet? @ where fo 4 the surface porosity value. In the orth Sea, using the sonte log information of Sehiumberger [1974] and the porosity/sonie los pelation of Megara [1976b], we find that ‘normal’ Torth Sea shales also show en exponential de~Sclater and Chrdatie: Continental Stretching-North Sea “orn POROSITY SHALES POROSITY SANOSTONES_) een 50100 40 50, 1000) 1000 2000 42000 ia 3009 3000 E soa 4 a 4000 5000] 5000 6000} 6000 ‘o00} {1000 000! 8000 Fig. Ala. Simplified plots of log porosity versus depth for shales and sandstones. ‘The Worth Sea shale data vere conputed fron the observed sonic log plots for normal pressured section of Schlusberger [19Tl] asing the sonic log velocity/ porosity relation of Magara [1916a]. The sandstone data for the Worth Ses are From Sealey [1976] supplenented with date ealeulated using observed sonic velo~ cities and the velocity/porosity tables of Schlusberger [197k]. Toe best Tit straight line through the data and that through the Atwater and Miller [1965] Gate is constrained to pasa through the surface porosity velues of Pryor (1973]. erease of porosity with depth though with Aigner which 1s the relationship between f end g. This values of fy and c than those of Hedberg (1936) relation betveen porosity f and the maximum uni- CRigure Ala}. ELiminsting 2 and substituting axial effective stress a to which the clay has An (8) from (7), we obtain been subjected 1a considered @ fundamental, property of naturally deposited clay sediments. - on Tt ip now possible to examine the effects of pa tye WuPule (9) greater then normal pressure on compaction. Te yg fox Fig. Alb. Plots of 10g porosity versus depth for chalks and shaley sands in the North Sea. The chalk data are fron Scholie [3976] supplemented by porosity values in txo normslly pressured holes, calculated using the sonic logs and the velocity/ porosity relations of Schlumberger [1971]. The best ft straight line through the Gate ie constrained to pass through the DEDP deta and the lowest values of the two chalks in the northern portion of the Central Graben. The porosity of the shsley-sand used to estimate compaction in sections belov the Late Cretaceous vas taken as the average of the relations for sand and shale individually.3732 POROSITY SHALE AND CHALK 2/II=1 oni 50. "00 2000| 6009} 2000 Fig. 42. etinated porosity versus depth rel ‘tion for Amoco 2/11-1. The relation was dever— rnined assuming that total sealing occurred at ‘the end of the Eocene and with noraal pressure above. dg this, 1 4s only nevessery to obtain a func~ ‘onal elation between f, 2, snd 2. Substiti= ‘ting the value of o given by (i) into (9), we obtain f in tems of A ant 2: Fralt-0t fa tg Phe (20) ‘were the prosoure 4 rommal, zhie reduces to (8). Por normsliy pressured sections where the pore pressure {s Iytrostatie, ve estailien that for the dominant iithoiogles in the Yorth Sea the porostty/tepth relation can te fitted toe Simple exponential. To coupute the thickness of sedinente st any tine in the past, it 4s nees~ sary to "backstrip'. This 4s accomplished by Fenoving the layers of sedinest jouer than the ge considered ant persittiag the sedinente below te decompact Decause they hnve Fisen to a shallower depth. The sedinente are decompected ty moving thes vertioally up the exponent sal velation detween porosity and dept Having faleulated the thickness of he sedinenca at this past tine, the load of these sediments in the Derenent is compited. Removing this load lesves ‘the basement. depth ay the tine the sedinents vere depossted. Tt is this basenent subeidence vith TABLE Als, Paraneters of the Exponential Relation Between Porosity and Depth fer Verious Torual Pressured North Sea Litnologies and the Density Astuned Tor the Sediment Grains an ‘the Sene Litho2osy ag, gem eg Send 04g. oat 265 Chale 0.78 om an Shaley gand__0.56 2. 2168. Bt OP argent Tag slontery anu £°4h tn prcone aivlene by 100, Selater aid Christie: Continental Stretching-North Sea TUBLE AID. Paraneters for the Exponential Relation Between Porosity and Depth 4n the Overpressured 211-1 Hole ine Depth Base E Oligccene, Thala Chalk resent 7550 Tis 336 Pleistocene = 1ikh aio 1550 Pilocene 957 Loo 3135 ‘ine thet is the real subsidence giving rise to ‘the sedizentary basin. The actusl method of calculating the subsidence is discussed in a following section. ‘To backstrip cverpressured sections 1s more airfioult, Pirst it 18 necesanry to determine « reasonable geologic rodel for the onset of overpreasuring and then use this model to exanine the variation of porosity and depth with time. To do this, ve examined a hole in the Yalhsll ofl Held, Anoco 2/11-1. Thia well is kmovn to be ovexpressured, and oll de produced from the chalk. Firet’ve uged the sonie log end che Schiwmberger [197] tables to compute porosity (Figure 42). ‘As expected, below 1200 m these porosity velues ave considerably higher than for 2 normal section for the sume lithology. Below ‘bout 1500 m, ignoring the chalx, the shale porosity values decrease exponentially sith depth to the bottom of the hole at 4600 m. If, oving to some cause, possibly rapid sedi mentation, there is @ geal, then vertical flov Of vater ceases. Aza resilt the porosity does not change within this layer vith increasing wurial. The porosity ean be caleulated fron the normal depth/porosity relation sinply by moving the relation vertically down the depth axis and recsloulating the Intercept fo at the origin, For the Valhall field and Anoco 2/Li-1 in parti cular ve assuned thet overpreasuring vas created by @ rapid late Eocene sedimentation and a seal- ing tn the lowermost Oligocene shales. We com puted the expected porosity vereus depth rele tion, assuming that compaction vas normal after this’ sealing, and compared this predicted porosi- ty depth relation with that observed in the hale. Except for depths delow 4000 m, where the ob- served porosity ealouletions for the marl could easily have a sigcificant error, the agreement is striking. As a consequence, ve assumed that ‘this model vas @ valid approximation of the factual observations at this hole and calculated the bacenent depths accoréingly. For example, ve gasuned ormel coxpaetion to the tase of the Oligocene. For the Miocene, Pliccene, and pre- sent ve offect the normal curve vertically by ‘the compacted sediment accumulated during the interval im question (Tables Ala and AIb). The basement subsidence profile for Anoco 2/111 (Figure a2) is not smooth vhon the depth of Geponition is taken into account. Hovever, if ‘the overpressuring occurred in the mid-Eocene rather thin the Oligocene, the Focene/Oldgocene subsidence point vould be much deeper, and the profile vould be very close to linear. ‘There is an interesting implicstion for the conpection model of Rutly and Hubbard [1960] for certain coniitions of overpressuring. For exam=3733 yg to00- f= : 4’ 4 wo oe 5000- 7 5000 relations between porosity and the log of porosity ana aesth. ‘When sediment 1s rexoved, the sediment layers aro decoupnated by uoving thon vertically up the porosity/depth curves for the lithology of the indtviduel sediment layer. case of Texaco 15/16 they are moved up the dashed Line: ple, if (Pya(1-1}1/Cturbu)) £9 constant with depth, then from (10) the porosity f decresses exzo~ nentiaaiy vith depth. fs By, is constant, to first order, then if (1'~ 2) 4s cbiiscant with depta, the alove relationship will hold. This occurs if both the fluid pressure and overburden pressure increase at constant rates. ence for sny constant Snerease in fluid presswe the relation between porosity and depth is approxi sately exponential. ‘Thus if we sssune these conditions have existed throwthout time, decon- yaction can be calculated directly fron the ob served data vithout vorrying vhether or not the Section {2 overpressured, ‘Thus, at the level of four study, it does not matter that ve heve Sesuted thet the velis we considered were all normal. What we have to worry about ie that, in genersl, the ratio of fluid pressure to over orden Sresmure ie constant vith depth, that our porosity versus depth estimates are reasonable, and that here is no sudden inerease tn fhud pressure in the section. Forositv/Devth Relations of Sediments in the wort Se ALL sedimentary sequences, chalk, sandstone, clay, and maria exeeyt salt compact and devater on burial, Thie compaction is a result of pliysieal processes asseciated vith increasing pressure and chemical cenentation of the actual Sedimentary matrix. Sediments such as chalks, Sendatones, and clays all compact with increas ing depth ins siziler fashion, but because oF ‘he physical ‘and chemical differences of the sedimentary matrix, this compaction is not exact fy the same, The difference tn conpaction of the ingividial ithologies has to be taken into faceount when the sedinents ere 'backstripped’. ‘Thus 42 1s not poseLble to use one simple or even ‘the present porosity depth relation when renoving ‘he effect of compaction from the depth versus age record. ‘There are three major types of sediment pre~ aent in the central graben of the Torth See shales, sands, and chelks. In terms of careful ‘theoretical analysts of compaction most work has concentrated on shales (Ruby snd liubbert, 1960; Za the Magara, 1976e]. Plote of porosity versus depth for variqus shcle sequences chov considerable scatter (Figure Ala). Hovever, when generalized, ‘the data show an exponential decrease in porosity with depth with the soatter in the data attribuc ed to variation in the silt content of the shale [Sehlumberger, 19TH] end the effect of Gverpressure oF undereompection [Ruby and fiub- bert, 1960], Por the compaction of North Se shales we Pave used a owe computed by taking ‘the observed normal pressure sonic og plots of Schlumberger [19TH] and the porosity/soaie 20g velocity relation of Megara [1976b] to celeulate porosities. ie prefer thie curve to those of Athy [2930] or Hedberg [1936] because we are confident thet tthe shales in the North Sea have a porosity of close to 636 near the surface (Schiusberger, LTH] and thet they will have @ porosity versus depth relation close to thet of shel? sediments Off the cust coast of the United States. Whether The ditrerence between the porosity depth-niot Ye nave chosen and that of Hedberg [1936] is due to o different sedimentary environzent (the Yorth Sea sedinente have always been vet) or to over~ pressuring i mot Smporlant if ve assume that the beGinente in the Central Graben of the North See Sn general chov en exponential increase vith shalloving depth on decompection. Thus though vwe are not cure exactly wiy the clay porosity- epth curves differ from one another, we are confident that the curve ve have constructed for Ghe Worth Sea is reasonible and vill nat lead to Significant error when resoving surface sediment and couputing the amount of deconpaction. ‘here 4a mich observational data on the rels- tion between porosity and depth for sandstone Yost previous vorkere fevor a linear relation Ydetveen the tvo (Marvell, 196; Seliey, 1978) Hovever, the Atveter and Mizler [1965] asta in— eluding Pryor's [1973] surface values can Cquatly ¥ell be acecunted for Wy an exponontia) decrease in porosity with depth. As the best fitting exponential through the Atwater and MéLler [1965] data set cleo lies cloge to all the mean pointe for Socene and younger sandstones of Maxwell [1964], ve believe that assuming an ex- ponentiel decrease is reasonable, We used thea7 Sclater end Christie: Continental Stretching-Horth Sea a Zz Jp) Basement 1, bom Fig. @h. A acheratie Gagran outlining the de- ‘conpaction an e layer of gedinent {5 renoved. Schlumberger [19TH] correction tables and the Observed sonte logs to compute sandstone porost~ ty values for Peleccene and Jurassic sands in the Central Graben. These plot slightly below the Atwater and ilter [1965] curve. Tovever, exten Ging our best fit exponential trom Pryor's (2973) fata at the surface gave an excellent match to ‘the mean porosity values presented by Nexeel? [196h]." ha e consequence ve have chosen a slightly steeper exconontial curve for the sand- Stonce than that of Atwater and Milter [1965]. Again, voether or not this ts the correct ex- pression for normel sandstones {s not of great Amportance, tince ve believe thet slightly overprersured sections in the center of the Central Graben vill decapact aloag en exponen Hal ourve with the sane intercept at the origin ‘The compaction of chatks vith particular en- phasis on the Horth Sea has been studied by Scholle [1977]. fle has dexonetrated that though Chalke thov coneiderable variation in their porosity versus depth relation, it is clesr that Under nomel pressures this relation te exponen Ual. Forth Sea end Deep Bee Drilling Project porosity versus depth yeiues ahov a very rapid Gecrease in porosity vith depth. However, for ‘the Worth Ses, Scholte [3977] used a site from ‘the southern lorth Sea that Le protatly aot representative at depth, Using the Schlumberger Tigth] porosity versus sonic 10g relation, ve determined the range of porosity in tvo normally. pressured holes to the north of the Central Graven (Figure Alb). Betending the shellover North Sea snd DGDP data to go throwgh the lovest of the tvo ranges in porosity, we established porosity-depth curve for the chalk. In aost of fhe northern, holes thet ve considered, the chalk is either mt overpressured or only slighty overpressured. ‘Thus the curve ve fave used will ‘be a reasonable approxination to the actual Aecompaction of the sedinents ss the surface aedinents are atriyped off. For the overpres~ sured Velhall vel, fioco 2/11-1, ve asgumed that fall the weter waa irepped at the tine of sealing, fend ve deconpacted the chalk by the same method ‘wo used for the elaye. Belov the Upper Cretaceous in the northern North Sea the section consists of lover Creta~ eeous and Usper Jurassic shales, a Middle Jurae- sic sand, a lover Jurassic and Triessic sand ani shale, © Jechetein salt or auhyarite, and a Rot Liegendes sandstone (Figure b). For ‘these seo- done ve renoved the salt or anhydrite, whieh de pot compact, and assured that the rest vas 4 ixture of Sale and sand, The parameters of the exponential vere cosputed by taking the mean mlue for fo end ¢ of the individual euves of shale and sand (Pigure Alb). ‘The paranesere for ‘Skis mec curve and those for normfl shale, sand, fand chalk are presented in Table Ala. Alno presented are the parameters for shale and chalk for the overpressured Amoco 2/11-1 (Table Alb). How to Decompact Sediments For « normliy compacted section of @itterent Lithologies one must firet set up a porosity versus depth curve, Ag al the functions for shale, sandstone, and chalk are exponential, this is best done on log linear graph paper. Consider, for example, the Texaco 15/16 well (Figure A3). We show the vell section ineluaing fan estimate of depth of the dasexent vaich ts ‘taken aa base Pemian, lioting the given 14%ho- logies, ve vied our exponential poroesty/aepth relations to determine a porosity/aepth curve for ‘this hole. When plotted ae log porosity against depth, the relations are straight lines (Figure 43). As each sediment layer {8 removed, those velow will decompact along the dashed curves shows. As these curves are not the same, this TEKACO 15/16 eerrereserernas Fig. 45. (a) Sediment dackstripped at Texsco 15/36 without correcting for compaction. (3) Beainent backstrpped correcting for compaction. (c) Eetective basenent depth after the load of ‘the backstripped sedinent has been reoved.Sclater and Christie: Continental Stretehing-North Sea Leads to different snounte of Gecompaction on backstrtpping. Consider # sedizent at a depth, at present, between 2 anf zg. How vill {t expand ven sedi- ment above is renoved and it moves to = depth of af and 2h (sae Figure ab)? ie knw that the relation between porosity f and depth © t= £2 fy eet From this equation ve cen compute the volute of voter Vy daa unit section of sediment lying between 2) ant zo? Wyo P toe ae an 5 vy 2 tered = 28] (2) ‘As the total volume of unit colum, Vues 12 equal to the volume of the gedinent gral Vou» Plus the porosity, f, times the volun vhere Vy is the totel vater in the sediment column. Considering unit cross-sectional area, the height of the sediment grain column tg, vecones froa (11) fo prety _ gti tag te Sle] (on sedinent veing removed from stove, the sedi- ment in the colum expands ty absorbing water. However, the ectual volune of sedinent grains within the sediment colum which expands reneine constant. Tow the veight of vater x) in a unit aren sedimentary coluxn Tying between depths ef and 2h from (12) is given by fo ert _ get fo (ety _ goth ae (as) fand the total height of the sediment colin af - t} ie given by a6 Substituting, this becomes at fo .-c21 aba) = ape Ae As 2 end zp are the present depth of the sedimentary saction ant fo and e are constant and knovn, 2h ~ 2} can de evaluated, since aj is the votton of the previous layer. Having estculsted 2} by working dow the sedimentary column, 23 can be evaluated by numerical methods. For example, in che cese of Texaco 15/26, $f ve consider shit all the sedimentary column stove Zi» the depth of the Upper Cretacects, is renoved, then 2] = 0, and (27) becomes 2b rgenye Ble Ce 2] ree] (08) tye B72 _ (20m )ntg/otty/ole ue 2] (09) 3738 If fy = 0656 and ¢ = 039 x 20°F ont) and 2 in ke set Mba 92 - eT 1d + aT =O i 20 Hh + Lta6e3982 — g.no #0 Tia ts solved numerically, giving 2p = 2.8%h kx. Ghia gives the depth of the basement below sea evel 100 Na. sow to correct For Sedintat Loading We anow fy ant e and tave computes #} md 2). he porosity of the nev layer ie given by the relation (a) Wie can then use the relation fet thet (= Ag (22) shore oy tel ogg, are the densities of water ant The setfnent effin neeted to calewate pg, the density of the sediaent layer. Having calculates py Zor an individual Isyer, the mean sediment ESnoity for the total column fy fe then Fypatla-Fy log Bee Ble (23) 5 ee fete een eee orleeectares es gence aie ie leriaalans fees te steer ete eae tat at ee cinerea ca eee Spe alte etioustes equals 2.65 g/cm? (Schlumberger, 1974], e: sn 6 elem ace cae desl, Pag for chalk equale 2.71 g/cm! (Scholle, Fe ee ete, and py equals 1.03 g/em. fe Cate eee anata du then eee crs a pear ro Pate. = aga wnere Y 42 the actual depth of the basement, § ‘the observed thickness of sedinent, 9, the mean sedfnert denaity, pp, the density of aantle, and the density of water, Parameter pq was asauted to be 3.33 s/c) for all the calculations. ‘The decompacted gedinent thickness and the variation of the Sasenent depth through tine for ‘Texaco 15/16 are presented as Figure AS. Mote the 30% increase in sediment thickness on decom paction of the bottom shale-sand Layer. appendix 2 Toermal Conductivity ‘Jo entinate the pslectenperature, tt te necessary %o now not only the present but the prior thermal conductivity as a function of ti He is Qiftieut for two reaons to extrapolate ‘the deta im the orth Seu back in the past. Firet, there are large Affferences in Lithology, and second, most extrapolation tecuniques involv ing empirical relations with forsation propertiiand Christie: Continental Stretching-tiorth Sea + enue t ? THERMAL CONOLET ITY 4 0-2 caL. rem $6 (eee Cr Poros 0 Pig. Bl, Relation between therms) conductivity and porosity for lorth Ses ebelks and shale: Yor porosities greater thin M0 the values are taken from the Geep-tea clays of Ratelifte (1960) and the shalloy water Jorth Atlantic sedinente Of Ratelifte [1960]. The observed conductivities fre fron Evans [1971] wich porosities estinated from the depth using the curves developed in Appendix A. The matrix values are controlled by Linestone and slave valuet taken from Clark (1966). have omly been yorked out for sandstones. Sand stones occur in only Limited areas and during relatively short tine intervals in the llorth &¢ Horever, these expirical techniques do provide a basis for tackling other 1ithologies euch es shales and chalke, which preccninate in the Hersh Se: Various authors [Anand et al., 1973; Goss et sl., 3975] have obtained an empirical reletion between therm conductivity and porosity, compressional velocity, and talk density for sandstones. vans [2977] has shown that similar cupirical selstions have considerable validity for the pre-Testiary shales, marie, and chalke of ‘the Morth Sea. oth velocity and density are related to porosity. Thus if a reasonable esti- nate of the porosity can be detersioed, then to First order {t should be possitle to relate ‘thermal conductivity to porosity. In a general sense this 1s iotuitively ressomble, for if @ sedinent is thought to consist of water in a Sedimentary matrix, st 1008 poroasty the sediment ELL have the conductivity of vater, and vhea Almost ary end totally compacted, 1¢ will have the conductivity of the matrix. ‘The conductivity WLLL vany Detween the two extrene values, and it ie only necessary to obtain sce values in be- ‘tween to cbtein # zelation between gorossty and conatictivsty that ie reasonably valid throughout tthe Tall expected range of poreeity. Ratelitze (1960) has established in the deep sea a relstion between thermal. confuctsyity ant porosity for various sediment types and for porosities greater than Of. Fursher, mich se inom ebout the conductivity at lov porosity of shale, slste, and linestone (Clark, 1966]. We plotted the conductivity versus porosity values from the deep see for clay sedinente (deep Pacitic; Ratelitte (2960]) and cerbonste-rich sedinents (North Atlantic; Ratcliffe 119601) ana wena, coventry 1/3uP2 i ot i ata aot! nega rt h—# aa a Fig. 52, Comperieon of observed theraal conduc- {ivities dn 1/31 and thove predicted tron the deptn/porossty/eongactivicy relation for cbalke fand shales (asta from Zvans [1977]; the top 500» have been removed). compared these vith the measured conductivity of Evans [1975] and cur om estinate of the porosity Getermined from the depth (see Appendix A) (Fie- ure BL), The conductivity values as @ function fof depth down hole and the 1ithology for Phillips ‘T/L in the North Sea are presented as Figure 22. Wote that the observed conductivity values for the porous shallow clays fall within 10% of the values predicted from deep-sea clays. Giving the clays a matrix value of 5.0 x10" cal/om Soe and draving a enooth curve through the deep- sea Line, the mean of the observed values gives fa reasonable ft to the observed data. We followed ghe game procedure for the chalks, using 6.0 x 10S cal/en °C s for Limestone from Clark [1966] aa the ary value. Having established en empitieal elation between conductivity and. porosisy for clays and chalks, ve compared the predicted values vith those observed by Evans [i977] (Figure 52). The agreement ia satisfac tory and indicates that in this ares and for THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY «1oPcaLeMS*C (seein aie ateerauienisets Fig. 53. ‘he increase of thermal conductivity with depth for chalk and shele inferred from the Telationship between depth, porosity, and con~ ductivity. ‘he values have not been corrected Sor either temperature or pressure.ter, ca 536 38k. B05 Si L.T23Kh 75 7.0 clay Boh 6 6. 2263 77 T9179 82 8.9 19K, 9B 9.3 clay 586 95 B.9 1911 104 20.0 211k 106 10:8 2549 109 10.9, creed ology sand (aay) 5K 107 10.3. 200% 124 10-9. A6k2 132 12.9 2932 136 12.7 3123 135 13.2 3517 136 13.3 chalk g T 0 5 58 5. Die Teh Mek z 0. ° k ie oo 352. 2h De olor) o 0 0 Gi) 3408 253 10.1 3588 251 14.5 3976 252 10.6 clay (205) az) (9.9) 2095 133 1211 9525236 12.6 352 15113. 16) tet A List of Depth, Temperature, and Gumlative Degree of Maturation for Conoco 15/30-1 ° 2 coors Th TABLE BL. “Fred ae 3 2g) Me B= 2.0 p= 1. a f Miocene, 22.5 Ma Oligocene, 38 Ma Bocene, 55 Ma Paleocene, 65 Ma eos, Seat. Flos : 8 5 Seabed Fliocene, 5 Ma lover © 1.66 a ") Wie degree of theraal maturation, se o ron SD is dopih In wctersy T is Vemperative in degrees Celsius assuming surface 6 yendtx IT. of 1-0 yeal/em? s and 0.8 pcet/en? 5 couing from crust before stretening. ce of thermal asturation for 8 = 1.5. Br Fileat flow in yeal/en® = assuming equilibrium value (his Ie aifrerent from feble 1b and was doue to mateh predicted heat flow vith that observed The de rs chalks and clays our first-order method of estination can predict the everage conductivi to within 10-25%. We would have Liked ta tzy and determine « similar relation for sends. Clearly, this 1s much more difficult because of the large varia~ ‘Hon in the confuctivity of quartz depending upon grain size and crystal orientation. Thus Though the deep-sea eupiricel relation betveen water content nd conductivity probably vill work well for low values, Jt 19 difticult to now Without direct meamirenent vast matrix value showld be used for low porosity. However, once Such mesturenents are nade, it should be possible to determine relation betveen conductivity and porosity and hence compute the thersal eonduc~ Eivity a2 the sand layer decompacts as the upper sedinents are removed. Ealeotemperature Since the temperature at depth is directly relatel to heat flov, the stretsbing models con te used to datemsine paleotenperaturee in opeci~ flo sedimentary strate ent bence eotinete the themal potential for saturation, ear the ‘urface end within the sedimeatary layer the beet Flow doee not vary vith depth, and the tempera tare at tine © and at depth 2 40 glven by + Fg(tlee Mest) * Turtece *! Ree -) here K{ty2) 4s the conductivity as a tmetion of ive and depth, We evalunted (23) by eotablish= ing the variation of conductivity with dept Tor the two Lishologics fron the relations between conductiviey and porosity and porosity and depth Gugure Ba) and then by Integrating mmerically for each layer, The resulting temperatures sp Ganoeo 15/30-1 a2 a funczion of time are presen« ted ip feble Bl. Wo dia not estimate the conduc- tivity for the Zatescone sand but instead used he velue given by shale for this layer. Such an approsination vill increase the tenperatures et depth because ve Dave underestimated tie conduc tivity. foverer, the sand layer 1s thin, and the over-estinstion will not eause e significant fervor. Aacther gall erzor ardees shroush not faring sccount of the variation of thersel con Guoesvity vith temperature. The 208 decrease in somiuctivity vith every 100°C texperature rise {Clark, 1966] is not offset in wet sediments by any significant Anerease a conductivity vith Yarial, In thie ease our tenperetures probably 5§ too low. The Iuplication of the temperature history of ‘the sedimentary layers for the degree of mature ‘ton and the hydrocarbon potentiel fs &iscussea fn the text Acknowledgements, We would Like to thank uy, Toelita of Mobil for help with the porosity nogels for the Horth Sea ani P. Walmsley of BP fan R. Simpson of Conoco for making unreleased Lithologie logs available to us and for granting tus access to seimmic dete over the sites in question. We benefitted from discussion vith C. Fovler and are grateful to Ancco for the release of veli 10g fnformtion. The paper vas greatly improved after discussion and review3138 Selater and Chrletie: Continental Stretehing-North Sea ‘oy P. Biegier of Shell and Wy hie permission for ts £9 use some of the figures from bis earlier pevere. Wo would like to thenk 7. Helzon, Er tapecott, and R, Vierbacken for constructive reviews of an easly version of this pazer and Wy, Steckler for pointing out an exror in one of cour aaeumptsons congerming the effect of over~ pressure. Reterences Anand, J. We He Souerton, ant B. Gone, Pre- ‘icting thornal conductivities of formations fron other Knom properties, Soc. Petrol. Bog. Buy 13, 267-273, 1913. anderson, R. 1, D. vefensie, and J. G. Sclater, ‘Grevity batiymety ant convection inthe earth, Earth Planet. Sel, Lett. 18, 361-407, 1973. artenjev, He By and T. Atushkov, Structure and Ynostaay of the Betkal Rit and the mechaniss of rigting, J. Geopays. Bes., 76, 1197-1211, isn. Athy, In Fs, Density, porosity snd compaction of sekinentaiy rocks, Aner. fgsoo, Petrol. Geol. Bulla, by 12h, 1030. Atwate®, G,'T., end E. B, Willer, The effect of Snoredse in porosity vith depth on future developient of ofl and gas reserves in South Lousiana (cbstrect), mer. Ass. Petrol. Geol Bull, 49, 394, 1965. Besusoa’, C., The evolution of sedimentary basins ‘on a Viscoelastic Lithosphere: Theory and exangles, Geophys, J. oy. Astron. Soe., 55, inn st Bott, MH. P., Foraation of sedimentary basins ‘of graven type by extension of the continental crust, Tectonoshysies, 36, 77-06, 1976. Brooks, J.B. V., Exploration statis of the Mesosoie of U.K. Worthern Worth Sea, paper presented at the Horvegian Petroleun Society Nesozoie orshern forth Sea Sympoeiui, Oslo, Horvey, 1977. Burke, K/, Hot spots and anlacogens of the Turopesn margin: Leleester/Shropshire; Oslo/ Fon; Atno., Geol. Soc. of Aver. Abstracts, 7, ain’, 1975. Curistic, P. A. F., and J. 0, Sclater, An exten— ‘sional origin for the Witchground/Bichan graben in the Torthern North Sea, ature, in press, 1980. Clark, 8. P., Thermal conductivity, Handbook ‘of Prysieel Constanta, edited by's.P. Clark, Manoir 91, Geol. S00. Aner, 59-Né2, 1966, Clarke, 3. H., Cainosoie subsidence cf ‘the North Sen, Barth Pianet. Sel. Lette, 18, 329-332, 3973. Collette, 5. J., On the subsidence of the North ‘Sea Area, in Geology of Shelf Seas, edited by Df. Donovan, 15-30, Oliver and Boyd, Bhinturgh, 15-30, 1968. Dickinson, 6., Geological aspects of abnormal resevoir pressures in Osl? Coast. Louseianay da Aonoe, Petvol, Geol, Bul}, 3fy 10-432, 053. Brans, 7. R., Thermal properties of North Sea rocks, ‘ke Lop Analyst, Narch-Aprd), 1977, Brana, 1. R. ant H.C. Coleman, Worth Sea geo- thermal gradients, Hsture, 247, 26-30, 19Th. Fowler, 0., The geology of the Wontroze Field, {in Petrolou end the Continental Shelf of Northwest Surope, editea by A.W. Woodland, UeyetTe, Totn Wiley end Seno, 1973- dove, 6. J. Combs, and A. Tiner, Prediction of ‘pornal confuctivity in socks ‘rom other physica: Parancters and #ron stascare. geo Siyeive well loge, SeW0A Anon! Nesting, Hew Orleans, Jone, 2975. Ytancack, J, ML an 2. Ar Sehotle, Chatk of the ‘orth Sea in Petroless ané the’ Continental Shel? of Hortiyest Brope, edited ty A. We Rooaland, FP Hi-U28, Joho Wiley, few York, 1915 mgty, W. F.5D. T. Turcotte, and J. B, Bind, ‘efmai ani ncchaniee) evolution of he Mhigan Basin, Tectonophystea, 36, 25, 1976. etbengs f. D., Gravitutionl cobpaction ‘of clare ‘al, 2in-28t, 1936. toot, Ary €. Ge We Gutjary and R. L- Honcock, Grganie motanorghise nd the generation of perolewm, far: fos. Petrol. Geol. Bully 53, 986-996, 1975- scion, fr vy The base of the Cretaceous: A ‘iscuseion, in Petroleus and the Continent Shelf of Northwest Europe, edited by A. We oodlandy pp. 355-002, date Wey, New York, wp. een, G. Duy Termal history and subsidence of Tifted continersal margsne ~ Svigence rem wells on the Tove Sootien and Iabredor shelves, Gan, J. Barth Sei., 36) 2919 opatin, T V., Tenperataren® Geologtcheakoe ‘rene kak faktory uglefiketsit, fav. Akad Task S82, Ser. Geol 3, 95-106, 197i. lovely J'3.¢ Gd Genk, f, K. Weleon, and P.M Ticker, Petroleum and plate tectontes of the southern fed fea, in Petrotew and. Global estozica, eatted ty A. G. Fischer and 8. Jnison, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 13.5 1915 agave, "k., Thickness of venoved sedimentary. ‘ovis, Paleopore pressure ane paleotenperatures, Southuestern pass of western Canaen Saat ners Ase. Petrol, Geol, Bull.» 60, 356-505, i vagare, K.. Vater exputaton fron elastic sedt~ Tents curing conpection-airectson? and volte, Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol. Bull., 60, 543-553, ates ec agave, 5 Compaction and fivia sigration, sm Trecticel Petrolew Geology, 319 po, Heevier, Tew York, 2578. Marvell, J” ry influence of depth, tenperature fn geologic’ age on poronity of guartaose fendscone, ner, feat Petrol. Geol. Bulle, 4B, Or 100 ce ae cag eee Vokeneie, Dry Sone remarks on the development of selinentary tasine, Barth Planet, Sel. Letty ig, 25052, 1976 Woiaieie, Dl, Active tectonics of the Alpine Hinalajan ‘eit: he Aegean Sou end surrounding Pesione, 0 str. Soc 53s 20S 25h, i9t8b. Yorton, i. Hand R. Pack, Crustal attenuation {in Afar, in Proceedings of an Intemational Symposia on the Afar fasion apt Related R&Tt Promiens, eaitea by A: Pilger and A. Roser, E. solvesserbere' she Verlagsbucthandluce, Stuttgart, West Germany, 287% YNervegian Potroleum Directorate, tthology, welt os. 2/ti-l and 2/801, repore, dh ppry 194 Tas Yorvegian Petroleum Divectereie, elt data ftumary shecta, vol. 3, Novester 1971, Decem= Yer 1572 separ’, pe 4S, TT.e Sclater and Christie: Continental stretching-oreh Sea a9 Orconnell, R. Jy and G. J. Wasserburg, Dynamics of the waotion of a phase boundary to’ cbanges in pressure, Rev. Geot os Bs 309, 1967. parker, J. Re; Lower tertiary sand development Sn ‘the central North Sea, in Petrotews and the Continental shelf of Northwest Europe, edited SPE glint op. tatisk, dom dey, Tew York, 3975- Parsons, Bl, end J. G. Sclater, An analysis of ‘the vardation of ocean floor bathymetry and heat flow with age, J. Geoshye. Res., B2, G03 825, 1977. Pitan, W. Go, Relationship between eustacy and ‘stratigraphic sequences of passive margins, Geol. Secs Auer. Bull., 89, 1389-1403, 1978. Profert, J. ., Canozole geology of the Yerington aistrict, Nevada, end smplications for the nature end origin of basin and range faulting, Geol. Soc. Auer. Bull, §3, 287-266, sit. mnyor, W. A.y Femenbility ~ porosity patterns Zod "variations in sone Folocene sand bod faery Aes, Petrol. Geol, Bully Sf, 362-289, isis. Ratelitte, Z. Hi, The thersal conductivities of Gocan aedivents, J. Geophys. fes., 63, 1535 sia, 1960. mocenanely i. C., Sandstone porosities, Geotoes= al Seudies on the cost B2 Welly U.S. Mice Retaneic Outer Continental shelf Aree, U.S. Geok. Surv. Cire., 150, 23. 9TT. nogisay Eee Ge Selater, and B. 2. Yon Heraen, Yortinestei margin subsidence and heat Zlov: Seporsant,parancters in formation of petroleut virccarbona, Amer, Ase. Petrol, Ceol, Bull, ickerira-2010] oO) gemma gamer maby) Wr Wey and MK, Hutbert, Role of fue wZeemire io mechanice overthrust. feulting, 1, Byorenraot belt, in-geosyreiinal area of western Wyoming in Light of fistacpreasure hypothests, eons Sous Aner. Butt., 60, 167-205, 1560. schiaaberse® .y Well Bmluation Conference, orth Gea, edited by Cambell ev ly Schl berger, London, 197%, senelie, Rh Aes Gheit diagenesis end its relation to petvoleus exploration: O!1 from chalks, & Sober eivacie; Amer. Aes. Petrol. Geol. Bull. Bs 58emi009, srr. sclsver; J. 0) Fe Boyle, and J. Me Ranond A quentitalive anelyate of sone factors affecting Seflonate sedimentation in the oceans, n Deep. Seitiing nesuse in the Atlante Ooosae Betbinedzel crenne apd Palevensiromere, Heeeee pring Sores vol. 3, eaten by ¥. Telvanty We faye and 9B. Fyeny 638 pp.» AOU, Washington, Do, 2919. Seley, B.C, Porosity gradients in North Sea ‘oll-besting sandstones, Geol. Soe. Lond. 135, uup-132, 2918. sleep, I. He, Thermal effects of the formation of ‘felantie continental margins by continental Yreakup, Geophys. J. Roy. Astron. Soo., 2k, 325-350, 1972. Soil! M., En selemisk skorpendersokelse Yorses~ Shetland, Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Bergen, Bergen, Horvey, 1976. Steckier, M. S., and A. 3. Watts, Subsidence of ‘the Abantie-type continentol margin off New York, Barth Panst, ei, Levt., bl, 2-13, 1978. terzeght, Ke, and R. B. Peck, $012 Mechanics in Buginecring Practice, 566 pp.» Jobn Wiley, New York, 1988. ‘hesot, 3., Be Durand, J. Espitalie, and A, Condaz, Znfiuence of neture ond diagenesis of orgenie metter in formption of petrolewn, smer. fess Petrol. Geol. Buli., 58, 499-506, 1974, yall; P. Rey fy Me Mitenum, Je., and S. Thoopson, Sti, Selonic stratigraphy and’ global changes: of sea level, Stratigraphic Interpretation of Selonic Data, anor. Ase. Petrol, Geol. Mem. a ree ee ea tah Voight, B., Thineskinned graben, plastic vedges and jezormablenplate tectonics, in Approaches fe Tapmogenesis, edited ty J. H. Wlies and Ke Wucns, Schvetterbert, Stuttger®, West Oereany, 1974. Velusieys'P. J, The geology of the Nontrose Field,’ in Zeifolsum snd the Continental Shelf of Hortnvest Burope, edited by A. W. Woodland, SOMMER gala Winey, ew York, i973. Watts, A., and W. 3. F, Ryan, Flexure of the Mithooplere and continental, margin basins, Sestonophysies, 36, 25-4, 1976. wilifune, Js Jey Dy G. Conner, ond K. 2. Paterson, Te piger oficrield, U.K. Torth Sea, A favit~ lock structure vith upper Jurassic ‘beach-bar Peservoie sands, 1m Petzolew end she Contingn= 4a) Sete of nortnuese Brope, els Ty wp. 352 37, dom Wiley, lev York, 1915. tegier, P. Ac, Geology snd Yydrocarbon provinces fof the Worth Sea Geol. J, 1, 1, 19TT- aiegier, Pu Ar, Torth Soe rit and’ basin develop ‘nent, in Tectonics ané Geophysics of Continer Tel fufts, edited ty 1, B. Rantberg and E.R. ribenn, pp. 209-271, Reidel, Dordreckt, xoliand, 107 aiegier, P. Av, Torthvestern Burope; Tectonics ‘and basin developmen, Geologie en ¥iJsbou, ST, 589-626, 19780. (Recetved October 15, 19795 revised March 10, 19805 accepted Nareh 13, 1980.)