14 The Notion of Expenditure I The Insufficiency of the Principle of Classical Utility Every time the meaning of a discussion depends on the fundamental value of the word useful — in other words, every time the essential question touching on the fife of human societies is raised, no matter who intervenes and what opinions are expressed — itis possible to affirm that the debate is necessarily warped and that the fundamental question is eluded. In fact, given the more or less divergent collection of present ideas, there is nothing ‘that permits one to define what is useful to man. This lacuna is made fairly prominent by the fact that its constantly necessary to return, in the most "unjustifiable way, to principles that one would like to situate beyond utility and pleasure: honour and duty are hypocttially employed in schemes of pecuniary interest and, without speaking of God, Spirit serves t9 mask the intellectual disarray ofthe few people who refuse to accept a closed system. Current practice however isnot deterred by these elementary dificul ties, and common awareness at first seems able to raise only verbal objec- tions to the principles of classical utility ~ in other words, to supposedly ‘material utility. The goal of the latter is, theoretically, pleasure ~ but only ina moderate form, since violent pleasure is sen as pathological. On the one hand, this material uly is limited to acquisition (in practice, to produc- tion) and to the conservation of goods; on the other, itis limited to reproduction and to the conservation of human lif (to whichis added, it true, the struggle against pain, whose importance itself sufice to indicate the negative character of the pleasure principle instituted, in theory, as the basis of utility). In the series of quantitative representations linked to this flat and untenable conception of existence only the question of reproduc- tion seriously lends itself to controversy, because an exaggerated increase in the number ofthe living threatens to diminish the individual share, But on Originally pubished in English in 1984, the text is fom Viton of Exc lec eines 1927-1938, e, Allan Stoel, , Allan Stock with Cad R, Lovit aud Donald M. 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