7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

Chaapter-8
INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
According to RIA (Robotics Industries Association) the definition of robot is An industrial robot is a
reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools or special devices
through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.
Over view of robots and future applications

o
o
o
o

The four basic components of the robot system are

Manipulator
Sensors
Controller
Power conversion unit

External
power unit

Teach
Pendent

Robot
Computer
Controller

Program
storage disk /
tape

Manipulator

Sensors
Internal
External

Block diagram of an industrial robot

HAREESHA N G

Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

Manipulator: The manipulator consists of a series of rigid members, called links, connected by joints. Motion of a
particular joint causes subsequent links attached to it to move. The axes of motion of the robot arm can be
either rotary or linear. The motion of the joint is accomplished by an actuator mechanism. The joints can be
actuated by electric, hydraulic or pneumatic methods. The manipulator itself has three divisions
a. The major linkages -- links like arm, shoulder and elbow, these link pairs grossly position
the manipulator in space. The main frame is known as the arm. It consists of a sequence of mechanical links
connected by joints. The function of the joint is to control the motion between the links
b. The minor linkages wrist components, these are associated with the fine positioning of the
end effector i.e. they provide the ability to orient the end effector once the major linkages bring the manipulator
close to the desired position. A typical wrist includes three joints, which provide three motions of roll, pitch
and yaw.
c. The end effector -- gripper or tool, it is mounted on the tool plate. It consists of particular
mechanism needed at the end of the robotic arm to perform a particular task. Each of the joints of both arm and
the wrist provides for one degree of freedom of motion of the robot end effector. It may be a tool, if the
function is drilling or welding. It may be a gripper if the function is pick and place the objects.

Sensors: It is necessary to know the state of each joint (position, velocity and acceleration) for proper control
of the manipulator. A sensory device must be incorporated into the joint- link pair to achieve proper control.
Usually sensor is connected to the actuators shaft. Sensory devices may monitor position, speed, acceleration
or torque.
Touch and tactile sensors are used in grippers to gain information about whether the object is grasped
or not. Vision sensor (TV camera, associated electronics and control) is used to locate a particular object in its
field of view. Once found, it relays the coordinate of the object to the robots controller so that the robot can
position its gripper over the object in order to pick it up.
Controller: The controller provides the intelligence to cause the manipulator to perform in the manner
described by its user. The controller consists of:


A memory to store data defining the positions (angles and lengths associated with the joints) of
where the arm is to move and other information related to the proper sequencing of the system


A sequencer that interprets the data stored in the memory and then utilizes the data to interface
with other component of the controller.


A computational unit that provides the necessary computations to aid the sequencer.


An interface to obtain the sensory data into the sequencer.


An interface to transfer sequencer information to the power conversion unit so that actuators can
eventually cause the joints to move in the desired manner.


An interface to ancillary equipment (like motors, valves and condition of limit switches)

HAREESHA N G

Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

Control unit for the user to use in order to demonstrate positions, to define the sequence of
operations and control of the robot. (Control panel, teach pendent and simulator)

Generally a computer is used as a controller in robots. It performs the task of controlling the robot with the help
of specific software.
Power conversion unit: The power conversion unit contains the components necessary to take a signal from the sequencer
(digital or analog) and convert it into a meaningful power level so that the actuators can move. Ex. For electric
drive robots- electronic power amplifiers and power suppliers. For Hydraulic drive robots compressor and
control valves

Classification and structure of Robotic system

The classification of robot system can be done in many ways
1. According to Geometric configuration
Cartesian
Cylindrical
Polar
Jointed arm horizontal
Jointed arm vertical
Pendulum arm
Multiple-joint arm
2. According to degrees of freedom:
3 Degrees of freedom
4 Degrees of freedom
6 Degrees of freedom
3. According to Drive Method:
Electric drive
Hydraulic drive
Pneumatic drive
4. According to Control system:
Open Loop System
Closed Loop System
5. According to Programming Method
On-line programming
Off-line Programming
6. According to Intelligence level
Operating Robot
Sequence Control Robot (Fixed and Variable)
Play back Robot (PTP and CP)
Intelligent Robot
7. According to Function
Assembly robot
Welding robot
Material Handling robot
Painting robot
8. According to Application
Education robot
Industrial robot
Military robot
Marine robot

HAREESHA N G

Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

Space research robot

Domestic robot
9. According Drive Transmission:
Direct drive
Indirect drive
10. According to purpose
Single Purpose
Multi Purpose
Special purpose
11. According to Mobility:
Stationary robot
Mobile robot
12. According to path control system
Point to Point
Point-to-Point coordinated path
Continuous path
Work volume: It refers to the space within which the robot can manipulate its wrist end.
Work volume is determined by the following physical characteristics of the robot.
The robots physical configuration - Determines the shape of the work volume
The sizes of the body, arm and wrist components Determines the size of the work volume
The limits of the robots joint movements. Determines the size of the work volume

Horizontal
Stroke

Swing
Vertical
stroke

Forward
and
Backward
stroke
Rectangular work volume

2.2

Robot Geometrical Configuration

Configuration
Cartesian
Cylindrical
Polar
Joint-arm horizontal axes

HAREESHA N G

Vertical
stroke

Cylindrical work volume

Work Volume
Rectangular
Cylindrical
Spherical
Spherical

Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

Joint-arm vertical-axes
Pendulum arm
Multiple-joint arm

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

Cylindrical
Partial spherical
Spherical

Cartesian or Rectangular co-ordinate Robots:

The main frame of Cartesian/Rectangular coordinate robots has three linear axes of motion or coordinates.
It has equal and constant resolution in all axes of motion throughout the work volume of the robot arm. It
cannot reach objects on the floor. It has a rectangular work volume.

Cartesian robot and Gantry robot with its work volume.

Advantages:1. The linear movements allows for simpler controls.
2. These robots have high degree of mechanical rigidity, accuracy and repeatability due to their structure
(spatial resolution is constant in all axes)
3. Large pay-load capacity.
4. Work-Volume region can be expanded easily.
Disadvantages:1. The movement is limited to one direction at a time hence slower than other robots.
2. The robots cannot reach objects on the floor.
3. Large floor space for size of work-volume (Gantry)
Applications:Pick-and-place operations.
Inspection.
Nuclear material handling
Loading of CNC Machines.
Assembly and subassembly (St. Movements)

Welding.
Surface finishing.
Water Jet cutting.

Cylindrical coordinate Robots:The main frame of cylindrical robot consists of two linear axes of motion and a rotary motion at the base. The
resolution of the cylindrical robot is not constant and depends on the distance between the column and the
gripper along the horizontal arm. It has inferior dynamic performance. Its work volume is hollow cylinder.

HAREESHA N G

Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

Advantages:
1. These robots are fast compared to Cartesian robots.
2. It is capable of carrying large payloads.
3. It has a good access to reach front and sides.
4. It has large work volume than rectangular robot.
Disadvantages:
1. The overall mechanical stability is lower than Cartesian robot.
2. Repeatability and Accuracy are lower in the rotary movement and resolution is not constant.
3. It is not possible to reach above itself and around the obstacles.
Applications:
Assembly
Coating
Conveyor pallet transfer
Die casting
General material handling
Foundry and forging
Investment molding
MACHINE loading and unloading
Meat packing
Pick and place
Spherical or Polar coordinate Robots:Spherical or Polar coordinate Robots consists of two rotary motions and one linear motion. It
resembles turret of a military tank. It consists of a rotary base, an elevated pivot and a telescoping arm which
moves in and out. The work envelope is a thick spherical shell. It has low resolution which varies with the arm
length.

Spherical or Polar coordinate Robot with work volume.

Advantages:
1. It has better mechanical flexibility
2. It has easy access to points below base level.
3. These robots have good pay load capacity
4. Fast operation
Disadvantages:
1. Overall mechanical stability is low
2. Low resolution compared to other two
3. Cannot reach around Obstacles
Applications:
Glass handling
Heat treatment
Injection molding
MACHINE loading
Parts cleaning
Material handling
Stacking
Jointed Arm Coordinate Robots:-

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Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

7th Semester

There are two types in this category

1. Jointed- Arm-Horizontal axis

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

2.Jointed Arm Vertical axis

Jointed- Arm-Horizontal axis

Anthromorphic or Revolute or Articulated
This type of robot has three motions. It consists of three rigid members connected by two revolute joints and
mounted on a rotary base. It has one rotary motion along the vertical axis and two rotary motions along the
horizontal axis. The design is similar to the human arm. Its spatial resolution depends entirely on the arm
position. The accuracy of this robot is poor since the joint errors are accumulated at the end of the arm.

Advantages: 1. It has extremely Good maneuverability

2. It has the ability to reach over obstacles
3. It is Fast in Operation
4. It has Good mechanical flexibility
5. It has Large work volume for low floor space
6. Easy access to reach all around the obstacles
Disadvantages:1. Accuracy and resolution of this robot is poor
2. Most Complex manipulator hence sophisticated controls required
3. There are two or more ways to reach a point
Applications:
Paint andadhesive applications

Thermal coating

Welding

Machine loading and unloading

Metal cutting

In Process inspection
Jointed- Arm-Vertical axis:This type of robot has two rotary motions along the horizontal axis and one sliding motion along the vertical
axis. This robot is specially designed for assembly operations. It is also called as SCARA (Selective
Compliance Assembly Robot Arm).

SCARA robot and it work volume.

Advantages:1. It is very fast in operation and has high precision
2. It has large work volume for less floor space
3. It can reach around obstacles
Disadvantages:1. It is difficult to program Off- line
2. It has highly complex arm hence sophisticated controls are required
Applications: Assembly of small parts

HAREESHA N G

Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

Pendulum arm:It consists of two rotary motions along horizontal axis and one linear motion along vertical axis.

Advantages:1. High pay load capacity

2. Compact size and Robust
3. Fast operations and can reach inaccessible points
Disadvantages:1. Accuracy and resolution is low
2. Complex controller and software
Applications:
Spot welding in difficult to access region

Small parts assembly

Multiple joint arm or Spine configuration
It has multiple axis motions. It consists of series of stainless steel 3-dimensional discs stung together on two
sets of tensioned steel cables. Altering the tensions in opposing cable actuates the arm. Hence it can reach a
point in all directions.

Advantages:1. Extremely compact and uses less floor area

2. Very high degree of maneuverability
3. It can reach around obstacles
Disadvantages:1. It has low payload capacity
2. It requires sophisticated software and controller
Applications:
Spray painting

Spot welding

Seam Welding

Remote handling of dangerous products

Wrist and its motions:The end effector is connected to the main frame of the robot through the wrist. The wrist movement is
designed to enable the robot to orient the end effector properly with respect to the task to be performed. The
wrist is normally provided with up to three degrees of freedom.

HAREESHA N G

Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

Robot wrist and its motions

1. Wrist roll: Wrist swivel, this involves rotation of the wrist mechanism about arm axis (rotation in a plane
perpendicular to the end arm).
2. Wrist pitch: -It is the up or down rotation of the wrist known as wrist bend (rotation in a vertical plane).
3. Wrist yaw:It is left or right rotation of the wrist (rotation in a horizontal plane through the arm
The wrist should be designed to be as light as possible. Reductions of weight at the wrist increase the maximum
allowable load and reduce the moment of inertia, which improves the dynamic performance of the robot arm. To
reduce the weight at the wrist, the wrist drives are sometimes located at the base and the motion is transferred
with chains or rigid links. The design requirements of the wrist depend on the application. many applications
require only 2 axes of motion.
A wrist for process applications, such as arc welding and spray painting is designed differently from a wrist for
material handling. Except for machine tool loading and material transfer, most process applications uses small
and constant payloads. To perform tasks in confined areas a compact wrist with a high level of dexterity and
large angular range of orientation is required.
Ex.:- Welding Automobile Body.
End Effectors and its types.
The effector may be the hand or tool that is attached to the wrist end. End effectors fall into two categories
1.Grippers 2.Tools.
1. Grippers:-These are utilized to grip the work part, and to hold it during the robot work cycle.
Ex.:- Mechanical grippers, suction cups, magnets, hooks and scoops.
2. Tools: -These are used as an end effector in applications where the robot is required to perform some
operation on the work part. In each case, the particular tool is attached to the robots wrist to accomplish the
application. Ex.:- Spot welding, arc welding, Spray painting and drilling etc.,
Grippers can be classified as single gripper or double grippers. Single gripper uses one gripping device
at wrist end. Double gripper uses two gripping devices which can be actuated independently. Multiple gripper
uses more than two gripping devices attached to the loading and unloading multiple grippers are used in special
assembly process.
Another classification is external gripper and internal gripper
External Gripper- The part is grasped on its exterior surface.
Internal Gripper:- The part is grasped on its interior surface.
Gripper classification
Mechanical Gripper:-It is an end effector that uses mechanical fingers actuated by a mechanism to grasp an
object Fingers are also known as jaws. They are the appendages of the gripper that actually make contact with
the object. These are actuated by separate mechanism. Usually fingers are of detachable type, which allow for
wear and interchangeability of fingers. I.e., different setoff fingers can be used with same gripper mechanism to
accommodate different shape and size of work part. The gripper mechanism must be able to open and close the
fingers and to exert sufficient force against the part when closed to hold it securely.
By designing the contacting surfaces of the fingers to be in the approximate shape of the part geometry,
motion of the part within the fingers can be restricted. In the other method part is held between fingers due to
friction. Hence fingers must apply a force that is sufficient for friction to retain the part against gravity,

HAREESHA N G

Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

acceleration, and other forces fingers or pads are generally fabricated out of polyurethane and other soft
material.

Vacuum Grippers:

Advantages
1. Only surface enough for part handling
2. Applies uniform press distribution on the surface
3. Variety of material can be handled Robots
4. Weight of the Gripper
A typical vacuum gripper is shown in figure. It is used for lifting fragile materials like glass sheets, lightweight
boxes and metal plates. A compressed air supply and a venturi are used to create a gentle vacuum that lifts the
part.
A vacuum pump powered by an electric motor may also be used. Vacuum cups are made of elastic
materials, for softer work materials, cups are made of harder material.

Links and Joints:The robots movements can be divided into two general categories. They
They are arm and body motions and wrist
motions. The individual joint motions of these categories are referred as degrees of freedom. Normally
Industrial robot is equipped with 4 to 6 degrees of freedom. Three joints are normally associated with the action
of the arm and body, and two or three joints are generally used to actuate the wrist. Connecting the various
manipulator joints together are rigid members known as links.
In a link-joint-link
link chain, link closet to the base in the chain is the input link, the output link moves
with respect to the input link.
The joints used in the design of industrial robots typically involve relative motion of the adjoining links that is
either linear or rotational.
Illustration

Name

Type

Out put link

Linear

LP

In put link
Out put link
Rotational

RB

In put link

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Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

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7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

In put link

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

Twisting

TR

Revolving

V-R

Out put link

Out put link

In put link
Types of Joints used in Robots
Linear Joint or Prismatic Joint: This involves sliding or translational motion of the connecting links. A piston, or a telescopic
mechanism or rack and pinion can achieve this motion.
Rotational joint or Bending joint: In this joint, the axis of rotation is perpendicular to the axes of the two connecting links.
Twisting joint or Rotational joint: The axis of rotation of this joint is parallel to the axes of both links.
Revolving Joint:In this, input link is parallel to the axis of rotation and output link is perpendicular to the axis of
rotation. i.e., output link revolves about input link.
In general, two links are connected by a lower-pair joint six different lower pairs are revolute,
prismatic, cylindrical, spherical, screw and planar. Out of these only rotary and prismatic joints are common in
manipulators.

Lower pair Joints:Type

Number of Degree of Freedom

Comments

Revolute joint

One - Rotation about one axis

One- Linear movement along one axis

Prismatic joint

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Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

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7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

One- Composite linear and rotational movement

Screw joint

Two - Independent Linear and

movement along and around one axis

rotational

Cylindrical joint

Three Rotation about three axes

Spherical joint

Three - Linear movement along two axes in one plane and

rotation about one axis.

Notation scheme for Robot joints

Cartesian co-ordinate robot
Cylindrical co-ordinate robot

L-L-L
T-L-L
L-T-L L-V-L
T-R-L
T-R-R V-V-R

Polar co-ordinate
Jointed arm Robot

P-P-P
R- P- P
P- R- P P- R- P
R-R-P
R-R-R

The physical configuration of the robot manipulator can be desired by means of a joint notation
scheme. The joint types are defined by considering the arm and body joints. The joint notation scheme starts
from the joint closet to the base and proceeds to the joint that connects to the wrist.

HAREESHA N G

Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

12

7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

Resolution Accuracy and Repeatability

Another measure of performance of robot movement is precision. it can be defined as a function of
Resolution, Accuracy and Repeatability.
Resolution:The resolution of a robot is the smallest increment of motion that robot can make in its work volume. It
is a feature determined by the design of the control unit and is mainly dependent on the position feedback
sensor.
Programming resolution:It is the smallest allowable position increment in robot control program. It is termed as BRU (Basic
Resolution Unit)
Control resolution:It is the smallest change in position that feed back device can sense. Best performance can be obtained
when programming resolution is equal to control resolution in that case it is termed as system resolution.
Spatial resolution:It is the smallest increment of movement into which the robot can divide its work volume. It depends
on control resolution and robots mechanical inaccuracies. The control resolution is determined by the robots
position control system and its feed back measurement system. Controller divides the total range of movement
for the particular joint into individual increments that can be addressed in the controller. The ability to divide the
joint range into increments depends on the bit storage capacity in the control memory.
Accuracy:If refers to a robots ability to position its wrist end at a desired target point within the work volume.
Accuracy depends on robots control resolution. In the worst case, the desired point would lie in the middle
between two adjacent control increments

End effector
One position

T Target point
Adjacent position

Accuracy
Resolution

In this case accuracy may be defined as one half of the control resolution. But accuracy of a robot is affected by
several factors.
1.
Accuracy varies within the work volume.
When arm is at extended position - Worst accuracy, when arm is close to base
- Better accuracy
2. If the motion cycle of the robot is restricted to a limited work range. Mechanical errors tend to reduce
accuracy in this limited work range is termed as local accuracy. Accuracy of whole work volume is Global
accuracy.
3. Heavy pay loads cause greater deflection links of the robots, resulting in lower accuracy.
Repeatability:Repeatability is concerned with robots ability to position its wrist at a point in space that had
previously been taught to the robot. Repeatability refers to the robots ability to return to the programmed point
when commanded to do so.
During the teach procedure the robot is commanded to move to point T, because of mechanical
inaccuracy the programmed position becomes point P distance between T and P is accuracy error. But when
the robot is instructed to return to the programmed point P, but it does not return to point P, but returns to
new position R. The difference between P and R is repeatability error. On subsequent repetitions of the
motion cycle the robot will not return to same position R but it will form a cluster of points on both sides of

HAREESHA N G

Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

13

7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

the position P. if these points are plotted it would form a bell shaped curve and in the statistical term the curve
is known as normal curve. It is assumed that repeatability error of a 5 or 6 degree of freedom robot is
approximately normal even if the error due to each axis is not normal.
Repeatability
Repeated point
R

T
Target point
Accuracy

Actual point achieved

P

ROBOT PROGRAMMING
A robot can perform a task, only when appropriate instructions are given to it. Programming or
teaching the robot does this. There are two types of robot program On-line programming and Off-line
programming.
On-line programming, the robot is programmed directly by the human operator. It is easy to learn and quick to
implement. It is possible to observe any likely hood of collision with obstacles while programming and it does
not require high computing power. However operators skill and experience can be transferred efficiently to the
robot (spray painting and welding) but it can be tedious and time consuming for huge and complex jobs. Since
teaching a robot takes more time productivity is lost. In on-line programming there are two methods
1. Manual Teaching
2. Lead-through teaching.
In off-line programming the robot is programmed indirectly with the help of robot programming
languages and does not require the use of robot in the preparation of instructions.
Advantages: The robot can continue working productively which programming is taking place.
Simulation can be used to anticipate collisions and hence it can be integrated with CAD/CAM system
It is possible to write program to cope with unusual and unexpected situations and to handle errors in work
situation.
Any vibrations in the work can be easily accommodated
By using Sensors adaptive and intelligent control can be accomplished.
Disadvantages: A high computing power is required software and hard ware.
The real world contact is lost.
High programming skill required.
Powered Lead through Teaching:This type of programming is used in PTP robotic systems. Moving each axis/arm of the robot manually
until the combination of all axial positions yields the desired positions of the robot does teaching. The
commands of these manual motions are given by the operator using push buttons on control box or teach
pendent. When the desired position is reached the operator stores the coordinates of this point into the computer
memory. This is repeated for each required position until the task program is completed.

HAREESHA N G

Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

14

7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

Robot

Operator using
Teach pendent

A typical manual control box is shown in figure. In this box several teach modes are available joint,
world, tool and free with each of these of these modes the position of the robot arm can be manipulated using
six toggle switches. For all the first three modes the desired motion speed can be selected by speed knob. For
precise positioning of the joint increment motion (INC) is provided it can move the joint by an amount equal to
one pulse of the position feed back device. Speed is selected according to the task program.
Manual Lead through Teaching:In this method, the programmer physically grasps the robot arm and manually moves it
through the desired motion cycle, while recording the continuous position of each axis. For electric robots this
method can be applied by disengaging electric motors and for hydraulic robots, by reducing oil pressure. Some
times it becomes impossible to generate a motion of the robot joints by pulling its end effector. Then a special
programming apparatus is substituted for the actual robot. This apparatus has basically same geometry as the
robot, equipped with position feed back devices but without any drives and transmission elements. This device
is known as robot simulator or teaching arm. The simulator is manually grasped by the operator and led
through the required path and at the same time the position of each axis is sampled and stored in the computer in
the teach mode. In the run mode the robot is capable of repeating the taught motion cycle as many times as
required.

Robot

Work
part

Teaching arm

Operator
Advantages:It is very simple and easy to teach.

Disadvantages:An investment is required on a simulator and if robot is used in teaching, then robot is tied up in programming.
Hence reduces its overall efficiency.

HAREESHA N G

Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

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7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

Since every operator motion is recorded hence unintentional motions will also be played back. In practice many
trials are required to achieve final program.
Since teaching is performed manually, a high precision in generating paths cannot be achieved.
It is impossible to obtain the exact required velocity along the path during teach mode. Other methods for
programming the velocity must be applied.
Data storage during teach mode is high. Hence large memory is required. This method is used in CP
applications Inverse Kinematics spray-painting, arc welding.

Off - line programming

In off-line programming the robot is programmed indirectly with the help of robot programming languages and
does not require the use of robot in the preparation of instructions. On-line teaching of robots is sufficient for
many applications. But it can be become tedious when hundreds of points must be programmed individually on
PTP or robots. In such cases programming languages are used. The robot programming languages are concerned
with the generation of all data required to move the robot end effector along a required path in order to perform
a specific task. Some of the robot programming languages are WAVE, AL, VAL, VALII, AML, MCL, RAIL,
HELP, RPL, ROBEX, PART, AUTOPASS, etc.
Robot Programming and Language levels
Robot languages can be grouped into three major classes.
1. First generation language
2. Second generation language
3. World modeling and task oriented object level language
First generation language:It is a combination of off-line programming and manual teaching (teach pendent).
Example:-VAL, HELP capability is limited in terms of handling of sensor data and communication with other
devices.
Second generation language:These are structured programming languages, which can perform complex tasks. It has enhanced
capabilities Inverse Kinematics, handling sensor data, and communication with other devices, file management
etc. Robots can be made intelligent.
World modelling and Task oriented object level language:It is a future generation language which includes AI. In this scheme the robot possesses the knowledge of 3-D
world and is capable of developing its own step-by-step procedure to perform a task based on a stated objective
of what is to be accomplished.
Example:- If the objective is to TIGHTEN THE NUT. The robot must find the nut and spanner, pick them up,
place them in a sequential manner and finally tighten the nut with the aid of spanner. This requires Intelligence
and decision making capability for a robot.
The VAL language:- Victors assembly language. This was developed for PUMA robot of unimation Inc.
In VAL program, the point co ordinates can be determined by manually leading the manipulator to
each required point and recording its co ordinates, and motion sequence can be defined by using service of one
word commands.
Motion instructions in robot programming languages contain following data;
1. Positional information:- The start and end points of the each trajectory.
2. Trajectory type:- Linear in CP/ quickest path in PTP
3. Velocity:- Velocity values for each motion
4. Functions to be performed at a point:- Inverse Kinematics, time delay , tool manipulation, send / receive
signals.
5. Gripper status:- Open or Close.
VAL statements are divided into two categories monitor commands and programming instructions.
Monitor commands:These are set of administrative instructions that direct the operation of the robot. Inverse Kinematics
preparing points the system for the user to write programs defining points in space.
Commanding the
PUMA to execute a program listing of programs.
Example:- Commands are EDIT EXECUTE SPEED HERE.

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Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

16

7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

Programming Instructions:These are a motion and action statement, which directs the sequence of motions of the PUMA robot. Program
instructions include,
Move to a point
Move to a point in a straight line motion
Open gripper
Close gripper
Example:- MOVE, MOVES SPPRO, APPROS, DEPART, OPENI and CLOSEI, EXIT SPEED
MOVE (Location)
MOVES (Location)

- PTP motion command

- Straight-line interpolation command (CP)

Example:-* PROGRAM DEMO

1. APPRO PART, 50
2. MOVES PART,50
3. CLOSE I
4. DEPARTS 150
5. APPROS BOX. 200
6. MOVE BOX
7. OPEN I
8. DEPART 75
1. Move to a location 50 mm above the part in the chute.
2. Move along a straight line to the part
3. Close the gripper jaws I a short delay before next statement
4. With draw the part to a point 150 mm above the chute along straight line path
5. Move along a straight line to a location 200 mm above the box
6. Move the part into the box
7. Open the gripper jaws
8. With draw to a point 75 mm above the box
Advantages:Robot is free during major portion of the programming stage.
Languages allow flexibility when corrections in the task program are required.
Disadvantages:Large gap is required skill
No standardization in languages
Positioning errors different load causes different position errors.
Robot is still tied up in program debugging stage.

Application areas for Industrial Robots:

Material Transfer: o Pick and Place Operation
o Palletizing and Depalletizing and Similar operations
o Handling Radio active material
Merits:
1. Heavy, Complicated and Delicate jobs can be handled.
2. Worker is free from repetitive tasks
3. Reduces Material transfer (Idle) Time
Machine Loading: o Die Casting Machine
o Injection and Transfer molding
o forging and other Operations
o Machining operation,
o Stamping press operation.
Merits:
1. Human labor is relieved from Hot and Unsafe environment as in die casting
2. Reduces Machine loading /Unloading time
3. Increases Productivity

HAREESHA N G

Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

17

7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

Welding: o Spot welding

o Arc welding
Merits:
1. Higher productivity
2. Improved safety and Quality of work life
3. Greater quality of Product more consistent welds
4. Process rationalization
Spray Coating: o Spray painting
o Spray coating of metals
Merits:
1. Safety operators from hazardous environment
2. Lower energy consumption
3. Consistency of finish
4. Less coating material usage
5. Higher productivity
Processing Operations: o Drilling and other Machining operation
o Grinding deburring, polishing and similar operation
o Riveting
o Water Jet cutting
o Laser drilling and Cutting
Merits:
1. Greater Productivity
2. Reduced machining and Setup
3. Better quality of parts
Assembly: - Operations are
o Parts mating
o Parts Joining 1. Screws 2. Retainer
o Fits
o Welding, Soldering etc.
o Adhesives
o Crimping
Merits:
1. Higher Productivity
2. Reduced rejected parts
3. Fast operation
4. Less wastage of materials (Screw, Solder and Adhesives)
Inspection: - Robots may be used in
o Automatic Gauging
o Inspection
o Machine vision
Merits:
1. Human labour is replaced from slow and boring task
2. 100% Inspection can be done
3. Better quality of products
Advantages of Industrial robots:
1. Robots can work in hazardous environments without the need for life support, comfort, or concern for safety.
Hence it provides safety to labourers from that environment.
2. It can work continuously without experiencing fatigue or boredom, needs no vacation. This saves direct
labour cost.
3. It increases productivity, quality, and consistency of products.

HAREESHA N G

Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

18

7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

4. It do not need of environmental comfort such as lighting, air conditioning, ventilation and noise protection.
This saves over head costs.
5. Its repeatability and accuracy are quite high compared to humans. Due to this there is reduced scrap, waste
and reworking costs.
6. It reduces raw material inventory.
Disadvantages:
1. Robots are costly. This includes cost of the equipment, installation, peripherals, training, and programming.
2. Even though it is superior to humans in certain cases, yet it has limited capability in degrees of freedom,
dexterity, sensors, vision systems and real time response.
3. Safety measures are essential to ensure that they do not injure operators and machines working with them.
4. Industrial robots replace human workers creating economic and social problems.

Robotic Sensors:
Tactile and Proximity Sensors
A review of past investigations (see Nichols and Lee [1989] for details) has shown that a tactile sensor
should have the following characteristics: most important, the sensor surface should be both compliant
and durable, and the response of individual forcels should be stable, repeatable, free from hysteresis.
The response must be monotonic, though not necessarily linear. The forcels should be capable of detecting

Fiber Optics Proximity and Tactile Sensors

The development of optical fiber technology and solid-state cameras has led to some interesting new tactile
sensor designs. The capability for high-spatial-resolution images, freedom from electrical interference, and ease
of separation of sensor from processing electronics are some of the attractions of incorporating optical
transduction methods into tactile sensors. The following illustrates two different fiber optic sensor designs, a
proximity sensor and a tactile sensor.

HAREESHA N G

Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

19

7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

Figure 14.5.4 illustrates the basic principle of fiber optic proximity sensor. Light from a light-emitting diode
(LED) is passed down a fiber optic cable to illuminate any proximal objects. A second cable picks up any
reflected light from illuminated objects within a detection zone and directs it onto a photodiode. This simple
technique can be built into a finger. The finger can sense contacts perpendicular to the finger axis, radially, and
also axial contact at the fingertip. Several fiber optic cable pairs can be evenly spaced around the fingers and
incorporated into a gripping system. Figure illustrates this transduction method for proximity sensing.

Piezoelectric/Pyroelectric Effect
The piezoelectric effect is the generation of a voltage across the sensing element when pressure is applied to it.
Correspondingly, the pyroelectric effect is the generation of a voltage when the sensing element is heated or
cooled. No external voltage is required, and a continuous analog output is available from such a sensor. Such
sensors are most suited for sensing pressure changes or thermal variations. Figure shows a design based on the
piezoelectric effect for robotic applications. The sensor includes piezoelectric strips directly interfaced with a
rubber skin; thus the electric signal produced by the strips reflects movements of the elastic rubber which results
from the friction forces.

Thermal Tactile Sensors

The thermal sensor (Nichols and Lee, 1989) is based on the detection of the change of thermal properties
through contact of an object. The main function of the thermal sensor is to provide information about the
material makeup of objects. The essential parts of each element of the thermal sensor are a heat source (such as
a power transistor), a layer of material of known thermal conductivity (for example, copper) to couple the heat
source to the touched object, and a temperature transducer (thermistor) to measure the contact-point
temperature. The response time of the thermal sensor is relatively slow, typically in the order of several seconds.
However, images representing the material constitution of the touching objects provide useful tactile data.

Force Sensors
Force sensors measure the force and represent its value in terms of an electrical signal. Examples of these
sensors are strain gauges and load cells.
Strain Gauge-Based Force Sensor

A strain gauge is a resistive elastic sensor whose resistance is a function of applied strain or unit deformation.
The relationship between the normalized incremental resistance and the strain is generally known as the
piezoresistive effect. For metallic wire, the piezoresistance ranges from 2 to 6. For semiconductor gauges, it is
between 40 and 200. Many metals can be used to fabricate strain gauges. Typical resistances vary from 100 to
several thousand ohms. Strain gauges may be arranged in many ways to measure strains and are used

HAREESHA N G

Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

20

7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

typically with Wheatstone bridge circuits. As strain gauges are often sensitive to temperature variations,
interfacing circuits or gauges must contain temperature-compensating networks.
Strain gauges are commonly used for six-degrees-of-freedom force/torque wrist sensors, force probes, flexural
assemblies for force control, and micromotion detection. The Scheinman force-sensing wrist is a Maltese cross
design, with one strain guage mounted on each of the 16 faces of the cross webbings. The gauges are operated in
eight voltage-divider pairs to measure distortions, and therefore forces, in six degrees of freedom in the hand
coordinate system.
Position sensors
There are many devices for sensing position only following devices are discussed
1.Potentio meters 2.Resolvers 3. Encoders
Potentio meters:
These are analog devices whose output voltage is proportional to the position of a wiper.
Potentiometers may be either linear or angular. It consists of resistive element. The voltage between the wiper
and the ground is proportional to the ratio of the resistance on one side of the wiper to the total resistance of the
resistive element which determines the position of the wiper.
Rotating wiper
Resistive Element

V out

V in
Encoders: An encoder is a rotating circular device that can output a digital signal for each small
portion of a movement. There are two types of encoders they are a. Incremental encoder b. Absolute encoder
Incremental encoder:- It is a disc encoded with alternating transparent and opaque stripes aligned radially. A
photo transmitter is located on one side disc and a photo receiver on the other side of the disc. As the disc rotates
the light beam from the transmitter is alternately passed and broken which is detected by the receiver its out put
is a pulse train having frequency proportional to the speed of rotation of the disc. For direction information two
sets of transmitter and receivers are aligned 900 out of phase. It is possible to use the encoder for position
information with respect to a known starting position.
Absolute encoder: - This employs same basic construction as incremental encoder except that there are more
tracks of stripes and a corresponding number of transmitter and receivers. The stripes are arranged to provide a
binary number proportional to shaft angle. Angle can be read directly from the encoder without any counting
device. The resolution of absolute encoder is 2n
n = number of tracks on the disc

HAREESHA N G

Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

21

7th Semester

Mechanical Engineering

CIM and Automation (06ME72)

Velocity Sensors `
Encoders are also used as velocity sensors. Velocity can be estimated by calculating signals
received from the encoder with respect to time.
A tachometer is used as a velocity sensor. A tachometer is dc generator which provides an output
voltage proportional to the angular velocity of the armature.

HAREESHA N G

Lecturer

D B I T, Bangalore

22