Internal Fertilization

External Fertilization

What is it?

What is it?

Advantage:

Advantage:

Disadvantage:

Disadvantage:

Picture/Example:

Picture/Example:

Budding

Binary Fission

What is it?

What is it?

Advantage:

Advantage:

Disadvantage:

Disadvantage:

Picture/Example:

Picture/Example:

Cloning

Vegetative Propagation

What is it?

What is it?

Advantage:

Advantage:

Disadvantage:

Disadvantage:

Picture/Example:

Picture/Example:

Answer Guide
Asexual Reproduction

Cloning
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Binary Fission
1.
2.
3.

4.
Budding
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Vegetative Propagation
1.
2.
3.
4.

Sexual Reproduction

Internal Fertilization
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
External Fertilization

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Budding, in biology, a form of asexual reproduction in which a new

individual develops from some anatomical point of the parent organism.
In some species buds may be produced from almost any point of the
body, but in many cases budding is restricted to specialized areas. The
initial protuberance of proliferating cytoplasm or cells, the bud,
eventually develops into an organism duplicating the parent. The new
individual may separate to exist independently, or the buds may remain
attached, forming aggregates or colonies. Budding is characteristic of a
few unicellular organisms (e.g., certain bacteria, yeasts, and protozoans).
However, a number of metazoan animals (e.g., certain cnidarian species)
regularly reproduce by budding.
Budding is a type of asexual reproduction. It is most commonly associated with bacteria and
yeast, but some animal species reproduce via budding, too. A parent organism creates a bud from
its own cells, which then form the basis of the offspring organism and develop into an organism
resembling the parent. Animals that reproduce this way are basic organisms, either without
reproductive organs or with both male and female reproductive organisms located internally.
by Simon Foden, Demand Media

Photodisc/Photodisc/Getty Images
Budding is a type of asexual reproduction. It is most commonly
associated with bacteria and yeast, but some animal species
reproduce via budding, too. A parent organism creates a bud
from its own cells, which then form the basis of the offspring
organism and develop into an organism resembling the parent.
Animals that reproduce this way are basic organisms, either
without reproductive organs or with both male and female
reproductive organisms located internally.

Flatworms
The vast majority of flatworms reproduce by budding. These
animals, biologically, are extremely basic. They have no
respiratory or circulatory systems and therefore no need for
body cavities. They take in oxygen and nutrients through the
process of diffusion. To reproduce, flatworms produce selffertilized eggs and release them. Upon release, these eggs split and go on to grow into entirely
new organisms. All types of parasitic flatworm, such as tapeworms, use budding. Budding is an
important adaptation for parasitic animals, as this method of reproduction means offspring are
guaranteed to be born into the ideal habitat, namely the host organism.

Jellyfish
Jellyfish dont rely solely on budding to reproduce. They first release a sperm and egg into the
water. Once fertilized, the sperm and egg grow into a basic organism called a polyp, which lives
attached to the base of a rock. The polyp then grows, before releasing a genetically identical bud
of itself, that grows into an adult jellyfish.

Sea Anemones
Sea anemones reproduce in a similar fashion to jellyfish. The first stage of reproduction,
whereby the polyp is produced, is sexual; the second stage of reproduction, whereby the polyp
buds, is asexual. The polyp then goes on to form a medusa" that reproduces with itself to form a
polyp.

Corals
Due to the nature of budding, large colonies of organisms can be produced at a very fast rate with
minimal interference from outside factors. One of the best examples of this phenomenon is the
coral reef, which is a huge colony of living organisms, almost identical to one another, created
via reproductive budding.

Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

What is budding?
Why is budding considered asexual reproduction?
How do the offspring compare to the parent?
What are 3 organisms that reproduce with budding?
Why is budding an advantage over sexual reproduction?

Vegetative Propagation

Bulbs are a form of vegetative propagation

You may know that plants produce seeds and pollen in order to create new plants. However, this
form of reproduction is not the only way to create new plants.
When plants make seeds and pollen, they often use a significant amount of time and energy.
Additionally, remember that not all plants make seeds. For plants that do not make seeds, there
are many options for making new offspring. We will look at a few of these forms of
reproduction. But first, let's understand some general aspects of asexual plant reproduction.

Vegetative propagation, like many things, has its advantages and disadvantages. It is beneficial
for plants that are well suited for their environment and when the environment is stable.
Remember that asexual reproduction results in genetically identical organisms, so these
organisms must be well adapted to their environment in order to survive. Because asexual
reproduction doesn't allow for evolution and adaptations to occur as frequently as sexual
reproduction, vegetative propagation is not advantageous for plants that live in changing
environments. In unstable environments, plants that are identical to each other may all die out at
once. However, if plants are genetically different, which is a result of sexual reproduction, some
plants may survive in an unstable environment.

New plants will grow from the eyes on a potato

For example, if we have a specific type of plant that grows very well in hot, humid
environments, all of the plants may die out if there is a change in the climate. If the temperature
or humidity change, the plants that produce asexually are all the same and therefore, will all die
out because they are not adapted to the new climate. However, a plant that produces sexually will
have some diversity in the individual plants and some may survive this change in temperature or
humidity. We also see this in plants that are affected by diseases - those plants that are genetically
identical are more likely to die out than those plants that are genetically diverse.
Bulbs
Bulbs contain several buds near the node, which is where leaves are produced.
These new buds can eventually develop into new plants. If you plant one bulb, you
may find that years later you have several plants coming from that one bulb. If you
want, you can separate these new bulbs and plant more flowers. Because this one
plant produces new offspring that are genetically identical, bulbs are a form of
vegetative propagation.
Tubers

Tubers are somewhat similar to bulbs. Tubers, such as potatoes, are enlarged, fleshy
underground stems. While potatoes do not always reproduce by using tubers, if you've ever left a
potato for too long, you know that new potato plants can develop from the tuber. These new
stems start on the eyes of the potato and, if you plant a potato with new growth from the eyes, a
potato plant will develop.

Questions:
1. What is a disadvantage of making seeds and pollen for sexual reproduction?
2. When is vegetative propagation an advantage for a plant?
3. How is vegetative propagation an evolutionary disadvantage?
4. What are two types of vegetative propagation?

Sexual ReproductionExternal Fertilization

External fertilization is limited essentially to animals living in aquatic
environments. The flagellated sperm must have fluid in which to swim, and
the eggs lack a protective coat or shell (so that sperm can penetrate and
fertilize them), and would dry out in the air. Almost all aquatic invertebrates,
most fish, and many amphibians use external fertilization. However, shedding
eggs and sperm into the water is an uncertain method of fertilization: many
of the sperm never locate an egg, and many eggs are never fertilized, even if
both types of gametes are shed at the same time and in the same place, as is
usually the case. Consequently, animals using external fertilization generally
release vast numbers of eggs and sperm at one time.

Fertilization is the fundamental

process of reproduction in sexually
reproducing animals. In this
process , haploid gametes of the
male and the female parents unite
together to form a diploid zygote
,and the process is called
fertilization. Fertilization can
occur inside the body of the mother,
(internal fertilization like man) or
outside the mother's body in water
-called external fertilization like in fishes, frogs etc. With time, internal
fertilization developed but the aspect of external fertilization still remains the
mainstay for aquatic, sexually reproducing, animals.

The main feature of external fertilization are:

Both the male and female parents interact only during a specific breeding
period and spawning is observed

In some animals like fishes or certain frogs. the process differs a little where
parental care is observed as far as care of the young are concerned

The eggs and the sperm are released together after a little sport ,under
appropriate conditions of temperature, light, rainfall etc

The sperms find their way to the ova by chemo-taxis involving specific
chemicals

The fertilized embryo develops inside the egg covered by thin shell, in
certain cases, they may be carried by the mouth, or borne on the back

The developed embryo hatches into a larva which undergoes further

development into fingerling, fry ,then into adult

The matured larva can undergo progressive metamorphosis as the tadpole

larva develops into a frog

External Fertilization : Advantages

External fertilization does not require specialized structures like placenta etc.
for survival of fetus
It is prevented from desiccation (drying out) by environment
There is a potential for high rate of reproduction
Parental care is not essential
Developing larvae are supplied by the egg resources itself(yolk)
Hatched young's are independent and can find food for themselves

Frisky Fish

Almost all species of marine fish reproduce using external fertilization, although a few
exceptions exist. Fish such as tuna, cod, wrasses, groupers and flounders all fertilize their eggs
using this method. Some types of fish, such as parrotfish, are able to spontaneously change
gender from female to male if there aren't enough males in the area to fertilize the females' eggs.
Suave Starfish

Starfish have several methods to ensure the success of their external fertilization. Rather than
simply releasing their gametes and hoping for the best, they synchronize their spawning to
increase the chances of fertilization. They gather themselves in groups on certain days and at
certain times -- using the length of the day and the amount of light as indicators -- and use
chemical signals to let other members of their species know they're ready to spawn.

Questions:
1. What is external fertilization?
2. What types of organisms use this reproductive
method?
3. Where does it usually occur?
4. How many eggs and sperm are used?
5. What are some animals that use this
reproduction method?

Sexual Reproduction- Internal Fertilization

Most land animals, both invertebrate and vertebrate, use internal fertilization. In effect, the
sperm cells are provided with the sort of fluid environment that is no longer available to them

outside the animals bodies. The sperm can remain aquatic, swimming through the film of fluid
present on the walls of the female reproductive tract. Once fertilized, the egg is either enclosed in
a protective shell and released by the female (egg), or held within the females body until the
embryonic stages of development have been completed. Internal fertilization requires close
physiological and behavioral synchronization of the sexes, which involves extensive hormonal
control.
Internal fertilization developed in evolution when the animals started to migrate onto the land
from water. Initially when life was only in water, there was no problem of leaving eggs without
the fear of them getting dried out. But as the species moved onto land, that condition of a moist
environment was altered. This was solved by development of an egg that was provided with its
water and food for the embryo, called a cleidoic egg (like the hen's egg). This development was
ushered in the reptiles which are oviparous.
There are three ways that offspring are produced following internal fertilization: oviparity,
ovoviparity, and viviparity.
In oviparity, fertilized eggs are laid outside the female's body and
develop there, receiving nourishment from the yolk that is a part of
the egg. This occurs in many reptiles, two mammals, and all birds.
Reptiles and insects produce leathery eggs, while birds and turtles
produce eggs with high concentrations of calcium carbonate in the
shell, making them hard. These animals are classified as oviparous.
In ovoviparity, fertilized eggs are retained in the female, but the embryo obtains its nourishment
from the egg's yolk; the young are fully developed when they are hatched. This occurs in some
bony fish (such as the guppy, Lebistes reticulatus), some sharks, some lizards, some snakes (such
as the garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis), some vipers, and some invertebrate animals (such as
the Madagascar hissing cockroach, Gromphadorhina portentosa).
In viviparity, the young develop within
the female, receiving nourishment from
the mother's blood through a placenta.
The offspring develops in the female and
is born alive. This occurs in most
mammals, some cartilaginous fish, and a
few reptiles, making these animals
viviparous.
Internal fertilization has the advantage of
protecting the fertilized egg from
dehydration on land. The embryo is isolated within the female, which limits predation on the
young. Internal fertilization also enhances the fertilization of eggs by a specific male. Even

though fewer offspring are produced through this method, their survival rate is higher than that
for external fertilization.

Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

What is internal fertilization?

What change brought about the adaptation of internal fertilization?
Name the three types of internal fertilization?
How are oviparous and viviparous animals different?
Which type of internal fertilization do humans use?

Cloning
Reproductive cloning is a method used to make a
clone or an identical copy of an entire
multicellular organism. Most multicellular
organisms undergo reproduction by sexual
means, which involves genetic hybridization of
two individuals (parents), making it impossible to
generate an identical copy or clone of either
parent. Recent advances in biotechnology have
made it possible to artificially induce asexual
reproduction of mammals in the laboratory.
Parthenogenesis, or "virgin birth," occurs when an
embryo grows and develops without the
fertilization of the egg occurring; this is a form of
asexual reproduction. An example of
parthenogenesis occurs in species in which the
female lays an egg. If the egg is fertilized, it is a
diploid egg and the individual develops into a
female; if the egg is not fertilized, it remains a
haploid egg and develops into a male. The unfertilized egg is called a
parthenogenic, or virgin, egg. Some insects and reptiles lay parthenogenic eggs
that can develop into adults.
Sexual reproduction requires two cells; when the haploid egg and sperm cells fuse,
a diploid zygote results. The zygote nucleus contains the genetic information to
produce a new individual. However, early embryonic development requires the
cytoplasmic material contained in the egg cell. This idea forms the basis for
reproductive cloning. If the haploid nucleus of an egg cell is replaced with a diploid
nucleus from the cell of any individual of the same species (called a donor), it will
become a zygote that is genetically identical to the donor. Somatic cell nuclear
transfer is the technique of transferring a diploid nucleus into an enucleated egg. It
can be used for either therapeutic cloning or reproductive cloning.
The first cloned animal was Dolly, a sheep who was born in 1996. The success rate
of reproductive cloning at the time was very low. Dolly lived for seven years and
died of respiratory complications . There is speculation that because the cell DNA
belongs to an older individual, the age of the DNA may affect the life expectancy of
a cloned individual. Since Dolly, several animals (e.g. horses, bulls, and goats) have
been successfully cloned, although these individuals often exhibit facial, limb, and
cardiac abnormalities. There have been attempts at producing cloned human
embryos as sources of embryonic stem cells. Sometimes referred to as cloning for

therapeutic purposes, the technique produces stem cells that attempt to remedy
detrimental diseases or defects (unlike reproductive cloning, which aims to
reproduce an organism). Still, therapeutic cloning efforts have met with resistance
because of bioethical considerations.

parthenogenesis
This type of asexual reproduction involves the development of offspring from
unfertilized eggs. It is particularly common amongst arthropods and rotifers, can
also be found in some species of fish, amphibians, birds, and reptiles, but not in
mammals. Parthenogenetic development also occurs in some plants species, such
as roses and orange trees.
In most cases, parthenogenetic reproduction occurs when environmental conditions
are favourable and there is plenty of food that can sustain the generation of large
numbers of individuals in a short period of time. When external conditions change
and food supplies become less abundant, or when the environment becomes
unpredictable, these species shift to a sexual mode of reproduction. Although sexual
reproduction is considerably slower and generates fewer organisms, it gives rise to
individuals containing variations in their genetic material. Some of these individuals
might be at an advantage over their predecessors, because they might be more
able to adapt to new conditions.
questions:
1. What is cloning?
2. How do cloned offspring compare to the original?
3. Why did dolly have the finn-dorset appearance if the sheep that gave birth to
her was a scottish blackface?
4. What would be the advantage of a species reproducing by parthenogenesis?
5. Why dont these species alway reproduce by parthenogenesis?

Binary fission
Binary fission, is a form of asexual reproduction that involves
the separation of the body into two new bodies. In the
process of binary fission, an organism duplicates its genetic
material, or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and then divides
into two parts (cytokinesis), with each new organism
receiving one copy of DNA.

Binary fission is the primary method of reproduction of prokaryotic organisms. In

protists, binary fission is often differentiated into types, such as transverse or
longitudinal, depending on the axis of cell separation. Regular transverse fission in
some organisms, such as tapeworms and scyphostome polyps, is called strobilation.
Commonly, this results in a chain, called a strobilus, of the fission productsthe

proglottids of tapeworms and the ephyrae of scyphozoan jellyfish; each proglottid or

ephyra matures in turn and separates from the end of the strobilus. A few metazoan
(multicellular) species regularly undergo a body division into several units
simultaneously, a process called fragmentation. Planarian fission and fragmentation
generally represent direct reproduction in which each portion regenerates missing
parts to become a complete new animal. Strobilation products, however, are only
indirectly reproductive: proglottids are not regenerative but carry and release great
numbers of eggs and die; ephyrae do not produce new polyps but mature into
sexually reproducing medusae, the larvae of which become polyps.

Protists include any member of a group of diverse eukaryotic, predominantly

unicellular microscopic organisms. Protists vary greatly in organization. Some are
single-celled and others are multicellular. (While protists may show multicellularity,
they are never multitissued.)
Cell division in protists, as in plant and animal cells, is not a simple process,
although it may superficially appear to be so. The typical mode of reproduction in
most of the major protistan taxa is asexual binary fission. The body of an individual
protist is simply pinched into two parts or halves; the parental body disappears
and is replaced by a pair of offspring or daughter nuclei, although the latter may
need to mature somewhat to be recognizable as members of the parental species.
The length of time for completion of the process of binary fission varies among
groups of organisms and with environmental conditions; generally it ranges from
just a few hours in an optimal situation to many days under other circumstances. In
some unicellular algal protists, reproduction occurs by fragmentation. Mitotic
replications of the nuclear material presumably accompany or precede all divisions
of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis) in protists.
Questions:
1. What is binary fission?
2. How do the offspring created in binary fission compare to the parent
organisms?
3. What type of organisms reproduce using binary fission?
4. What must happen to the organisms DNA before binary fission takes place?
Why?