SGDU5033

School Management & Supervision

This lecture will introduces the key concepts in

educational management and administration.
You are also introduced to the differences
between management and administration as
well as the process in the management of
educational institutions.
Several theoretical models of educational
management are defined. Key managerial skills
and attributes, time management and roles of
administrators in educational institutions are
also discussed in this lecture.
2

 Kuliah ini akan memperkenalkan konsep-konsep

utama dalam pengurusan dan pentadbiran
pendidikan. Anda juga diperkenalkan kepada
perbezaan di antara pengurusan dan pentadbiran
serta proses dalam pengurusan institusi
pendidikan. Beberapa model teori pengurusan
pendidikan ditakrifkan. Kemahiran utama
pengurusan dan sifat-sifat, pengurusan masa dan
peranan pentadbir di institusi pendidikan juga
dibincangkan dalam kuliah ini.

Introduction
This lecture introduces you to management
approaches, functions, concepts and principles of
management in education.
By the end of the course, you should be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of administration, and
management with confidence and
professionalism.
2. Apply management approaches and functions
of management in educational settings.
3. Utilise the managerial skills and attributes in
appropriate workplace situations.
4

Kuliah ini memperkenalkan anda kepada pendekatan

pengurusan, fungsi, konsep dan prinsip-prinsip pengurusan
dalam pendidikan .Dengan akhir kursus ini, anda akan
dapat:
1. Terangkan maksud pentadbiran, dan pengurusan dengan
keyakinan dan profesionalisme .
2. Guna pendekatan pengurusan dan fungsi pengurusan
dalam tetapan pendidikan .
3. Guna kemahiran pengurusan dan sifat-sifat dalam situasi
tempat kerja yang sesuai.

4. Lead in the management of appropriate

educational settings .
5. Display professionalism and accountability in
the management of work-related situations .
6. Organise appropriately a variety of tasks
which require the integration of
management skills .
7. Relate to educational institution reform and
changes .
8. Create and justify teamwork in workplace
situations .
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4. Membawa dalam pengurusan tetapan

pendidikan yang sesuai
5. Memaparkan profesionalisme dan akauntabiliti
dalam pengurusan keadaan yang berkaitan
dengan kerja.
6. Menganjurkan sewajarnya pelbagai tugas yang
memerlukan integrasi kemahiran pengurusan.
7. Berkaitan dengan institusi pendidikan
pembaharuan dan perubahan.
8. Mewujudkan dan membenarkan kerja
berpasukan dalam situasi tempat kerja
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By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Explain management.
2. Differentiate the concepts of management.
3. Describe key elements in school administration.
4. Discuss various theoretical models of
educational management.
5. Identify roles of management in educational
institutions.
6. Examine skills and attributes of manager.
7. Utilise suitable skills in simulated and workrelated situations.
8

 Pada akhir pelajaran ini, anda akan dapat:

1. Terangkan pengurusan .
2. Bezakan konsep pengurusan .
3. Jelaskan elemen utama dalam pentadbiran sekolah.
4. Bincangkan pelbagai model teori pendidikan
pengurusan.
5. Mengenal pasti peranan pengurusan di institusi
pendidikan
6. Memeriksa kemahiran dan sifat-sifat pengurus
7. Guna kemahiran yang sesuai dalam situasi simulasi
dan berkaitan dengan kerja.
9

CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT
MANAGEMENT

As a Theory
Philosophy
Concept
Objectives
Functions
Principles & Practices
Models

As a Process
Human Relations
Material Management
Financial Management
Planning
Organizing
Implementing
Directing
Coordinating
Monitoring
Controlling
Decision-making
Evaluating

Why Study Management?

The better you can work with people, the more
successful you will be in both your personal and your
professional lives.
Ministry/school want to hire head teachers who
can participate in managing the school.
The study of school management builds the skills
needed in todays workplace/school to succeed in:
Becoming a partner in managing your
organization through participative management.
Working in a team and sharing in decision
making and other management tasks.
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 The study of school management also

applies directly to your personal life in
helping you to:
Communicate with and interact with
people every day.
Make personal plans and decisions, set
goals, prioritize what you will do, and get
others to do things for you.

12

What is Management?
What in the world is everyone talking about
when they talk about management?
Primarily, they're talking about CONTROL.
School managers control things. People.
Results. The stuff we do every day to make
sure nothing goes wrong, to make sure that
we're sailing smoothly.
13

A set of activities
planning and decision making, organizing,
leading, and controlling
directed at an organizations resources
human, financial, physical, and information
with the aim of achieving organizational
goals in an efficient and effective manner.

14

Definition of Management
Management is a continuous process through
which members of an organisation seek to
coordinate their activities and utilise their
resources in order to fulfil the various tasks of
the organisation as efficiently as possible
(Hoyle 1981, 8).
Management also refers carrying out the
executive functions in line with the agreed
predetermined policy
made by the relevant authority.
15

It concerns the operations of the organisation

especially the management of educational
resources and its relationship with the
environment.
Above all, management in principle concerns
the purpose or aims of education (Bush and
Middlewood 2005:3).

16

Management
The PROCESS of working (i) WITH and
THROUGH OTHERS to (ii) ACHIEVE
ORGANIZATIONAL OBJECTIVES in a (iii)
CHANGING ENVIRONMENT. (coping with
changing environment).
Management entails the (iv) EFFECTIVE and
EFFICIENT USE OF LIMITED RESOURCES. Making
most of limited resources. Balancing
effectiveness and efficiency.
17

Key Aspects of the Management

Process
Changing Environment
(Outside influences)

Working
with and
through
others

Getting the most

out of limited
resources

Achieving
organizational
objectives

Balancing
effectiveness
and efficiency

Working with and Through Others

Management is a SOCIAL process in which
school managers get things done by
working with and through other
(teachers). Collective purposes.
Shortcomings of derailed school
managers
Problems with interpersonal relationship
Failure to meet objectives
Failure to build and lead a team
Inability to change and adapt during a transition

119

Achieving Organizational Objectives

An objective is a target to be strived for and
attained.
Challenging yet achievable objectives provide
guidance for effective and efficient actions by
individuals and organizations.

120

Basic Purpose of
Management

EFFICIENTLY

Using resources wisely

and
in a cost-effective way

And

EFFECTIVELY
Making the right decisions and
successfully implementing them

121

Effectiveness

Balancing Effectiveness &

Efficiency

The job gets

done, but

Efficiency
Limited resources
are wasted

Too much emphasis on effectiveness

122

Efficiency
Available resources
are underutilized

Balancing
Effectiveness &
Efficiency

Effectiveness
The job gets
done,
because

Too much emphasis on efficiency

123

Balancing Effectiveness &

Efficiency

Effectiveness
The job gets
done, and

Efficiency
Limited resources
are not wasted

Balanced emphasis on effectiveness and efficiency

124

MEANING OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT

A social organization

Specified objectives
Own staff
Resources financial, material and physical
The manager head master

School management has two aspects:

Internal management admission, library, laboratory, building etc
External management community, department, agencies and
other persons

Cooperative human endeavor

Head master, teachers, parents, students and the community
members.

SCHOOL MANAGEMENT &

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
Administration as decision-making function and management as
execution function. In this sense administration is above
management Oliver Sheldon (1923)
Administration is a part of management. Brech (1972)
The most popular and practical view;

Management and administration are same because both involve

the same functions, principles and objectives.

Dash (2004) difference between management and

administration:
Administration more stress on strict conformity to
rules and regulations.
Management - democratization in policy formulation,
decision-making, implementing and bringing
improvements in the system. A manager is considered
as one among the staff-friend, philosopher and guide
for others.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHOOL
MANAGEMENT
1.Multidisciplinary various disciplines such as
psychology, sociology, economics.

2.An applied branch applies the techniques and

principles of management to achieve the objectives.

3.Flexibility - should not be based on rigid principles.

4.Practicability should not be a bundle of theoretical
principles.

5.Humane concerned with the welfare and

development of human beings

6. Conformity with the social and political

philosophy of the country

7. Objective-based
8. Both science and art - not only scientific
principles but also based on intuition, experience
and common sense.

9. A semi-profession not a profit industry

10. Relative, not absolute the differences in
situational factors.

SCOPE OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT

Includes the following elements:
1. Planning
2. Budgeting
3. Organizing
4. Directing
5. Controlling
6. Coordinating
7. Decision-making
8. Evaluating
9. Activities and Programme

Includes the following activities under its scope:

1. Planning of all activities and programme of the
school
2. Distribution of academic and co-curricular
activities
3. Preparation of budget
4. Preparation of timetable
5. Provision of staff
6. Provision of equipment and furniture
7. Provision of books for the school library
8. Organization of academic work
9. Organization of co-curricular activities

Managing for Effectiveness

132

What is a Manager?
Someone whose primary responsibility
is to carry out the management
process.
Someone who plans and makes
decisions, organizes, leads, and
controls human, financial, physical, and
information resources.
133

What Is a Managers Responsibility?

Management is the attainment of
organizational goals in an effective and
efficient manner through planning,
organizing, staffing, directing, and
controlling organizational resources
Manager
The individual responsible for achieving
organizational objectives through efficient and
effective utilization of resources.
134

The Managers Resources

Human, financial, physical, and
informational

Performance
Means of evaluating how effectively and
efficiently managers use resources to
achieve objectives.

135

What Do Manager Do?

Managerial Functions
General administrative duties that need to
be carried out virtually all productive
organizations to achieve desired outcomes.

Managerial Roles
Specific categories of managerial behavior
that managers use to achieve desired
outcomes.
136

What Manager Do?

Managers (or administrator)
Individuals who achieve goals through other
people.
Managerial activities
Make decisions
Allocate resources
Direct activities of other to
attain goals
137

Where Managers Work?

Organization (School)
A consciously coordinated social unit,
composed of two or more people, that
functions on a relatively continuous basis to
achieve a common goal or a set of goals.

138

Hierarchy and Collegiality as Types of Organization

Hierarchy likely to be more directing, controlling and

commanding (Bell,1989)
Hierarchical pyramid:
Headteacher
Deputy
Department head
Teacher

Teacher

Deputy
Department head
Teacher

Teacher

Collegiality colleagues being involved, and co-operating, participating

and delegating within a structure where working as a decision-making
team is seen as important

Organizational Levels
School management team
Direct the activities of others
top managers (school principal/head teacher)
middle managers (Assistant Principal)
first-line managers

Operatives/teachers
Work directly on a job or task and have no
responsibility to oversee the work of
others.
140

Planning
and decision

Organizing

making
Inputs from the environment
Human resources

Goals attained

Financial resources

Efficiently

Physical resources

Effectively

Information resources

Controlling

Leading

141

The Management Process

142

Identifiable
Functions in
the
Managemen
t Process

143

Managerial Functions
Planning
Formulating future courses of action.

Decision making
Choosing among the alternatives for action.

Organizing
Deciding on the HR structure of the organization.

Staffing
Recruiting, training, and developing people.

Communicating
Providing information, direction, and feedback.
144

 Motivating
Providing meaningful work and valued rewards
to individuals pursuing collective objectives.

Leading
Serving as role models and adapting
management styles as the situation demands.

Controlling
Comparing desired results with actual results
and taking corrective action as needed.

145

The Systems Relationship among the

Management Functions
Planning

Controlling

Organizing

Leading
Exhibit146
13

Ten Roles Managers Play

Managers play various roles as necessary while performing their

management functions so as to achieve organizational objectives.

147

Technical Skills
Interpersonal Skills

Fundamental
Fundamental
School
School
Management
Management
Skills
Skills

Conceptual Skills
Diagnostic Skills
Communication Skills
Decision-Making Skills
Time-Management Skills
148

Fundamental Management Skills

Technical
Skills necessary to accomplish or understand the
specific kind of work being done in an organization.

Interpersonal
The ability to communicate with, understand, and
motivate both individuals and groups.

Conceptual
The managers ability to think in the abstract.

Diagnostic
The managers ability to visualize the most
appropriate response to a situation.
149

 Communication
The managers abilities both to convey ideas and
information effectively to others and to receive
ideas and information effectively from others.

Decision-Making
The managers ability to recognize and define
problems and opportunities correctly and then to
select an appropriate course of action to solve the
problems and capitalize on opportunities.

Time-Management
The managers ability to prioritize work, to work
efficiently, and to delegate appropriately.
150

The Honeymoon Study:

How Managers Learn
to Manage
Job assignments
(the school of
hard knocks)
50%

Relationships
30%

Formal
training and
education
20%

151

How Can Future Managers

Learn To Manage
Future managers can learn by;
Integrating management theory (i.e. formal
training & education) and managerial
practice (i.e. work-study and internship)
Observing role models
Learning from experience in the school of
hard knocks
152

Ethical Problems in the

Workplace

Lying to the school manager

Lying on reports or falsifying records
Stealing and theft
Sexual harassment
Abusing drugs or alcohol
Conflict of interest
153

New Workplace Issues and

Challenges
Technology and Speed

Networking and
Boundaryless
Relationships

Globalization
and Diversity

Knowledge,
Learning,
Quality, and
Continuous
Improvement

Ethics and
Social
Responsibility

Participative
Management,
Empowerment,
and Teams

Knowledge
Management
Change, Creativity, Innovation,
and Entrepreneurship
154

Definition of administration
Define administration from the perspective of
school administration.
School administration is defined as a process of
working with and through others to accomplish
school goals effectively and efficiently
(Sergiovanni, Kelleher, McCarthy and Fowler
2009, 52).
Administration is linked with formal position in
the organisational structure.
55

For the school principal for example, his

or her job is;
to coordinate, direct, and support the work of
others by defining objectives, evaluating
performance, providing organisational
resources, building a supportive psychological
climate, running interference with parents,
planning, scheduling, bookkeeping, resolving
teacher conflicts, handling student problems,
placating the central office, and otherwise
helping to make things go. (Ibid, 52)
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All these activities refer to the normal

behaviour associated with a principals job.
Leaders are always proactive, shape ideas,
motivate followers, establish goals and
directions, and influence others to think outside
the box. Administration is also
related to policy.
Reading
Please read Chapters 1 and 2 of the book entitled Theories of Educational
Leadership and Management by Tony Bush (2003).
57

Models of Educational Management

Models are essential concepts to explain theories in
practice and as such Bush (2003) has classified
educational management into six different models.
These models include:
formal,
collegial,
political,
subjective,
ambiguity, and
cultural.
58

Formal Models
In simple terms, formal models assume that
organisations are built around hierarchical systems
whereby managers use rational means to pursue the
predetermined agreed goals that have been decided
by the organisation.
Formal positions in the organisational structure allow
the holder of the position to exercise the legitimised
authority over the subordinates and as such the
subordinates are required to follow the decisions
made by the superior. Bush (2003, 37 38)
highlighted seven features that characterise the
formal models.
59

1. Organisations are represented as systems because

they are linked with others, both inside and outside
the organisations, and formally such links are
exemplified in the functioning of the organisations.
A university, for example, is regarded as an open
system and although it maintains a definite
boundary (having its own constitution), it is related
to a larger environment (we have in Malaysia the
Ministry of Higher Education) and it makes
exchanges with the environment.
Even in schools, we can see that there are several subunits of subjects that are functioning together to
achieve the schools aims through their interactions
with each other.
60

2. Official structures prevail and are portrayed

through organisational charts, by which formal
positions are arranged according to ones
position to represent a pattern of relationships
between members of the organisation.
In schools and other educational organisations,
there are organisational charts to portray official
structures.

61

3. Official structures are hierarchical and the emphasis

is on vertical relationships between positions. The
hierarchical structures legalised the control function
of the superior over those being supervised.
As an example, in school we can see that the school
principal is positioned at the top of the organisational
chart and has control over the school teachers. This
is the same for relationships between staff, for
example the senior clerks with other office staff. The
same applies in other office structures where you will
see the head positioned at the top of organisational
charts.
62

4. Educational organisations have goals and

therefore they are regarded as goal-seeking
organisations. In Malaysia, we can see that
schools are expected to develop both
students academic capability and nurture
them to meet the goal of becoming well
rounded individuals as envisaged through the
national education philosophy.

63

5. Decision making in educational organisations

are made through rational process, and is
derived after an intellectual process of
decision-making whereby decisions are
weight against the aims to achieve
organisational goals.
Normally, there are individuals who are invited
or officially appointed to participate in the
decision-making process, for example through
committees, and decisions are considered to
be objective and impartial.
64

6. Authority in the organisational function

is represented through official position
and therefore leaders are considered
to have such authority based on their
official positions in the organisation.
School principals are assumed to have
the authority over the teachers due to
their official positions as arranged in
the schools structure.
65

7. Educational organisations are accountable to

their sponsoring agencies or funding bodies.
Accountability means that educational
organisations are answerable to the bodies
that are funding them.
In Malaysia, public schools are funded by the
Ministry of Education (MOE). Therefore, these
schools are accountable to the MOE.

66

Activity 1.1
Give an example of a formal model by
presenting its organizational structure and
describing its key features.
____________________________________________
__________

67

Collegial
models
The collegial models are regarded as more appropriate
for educational organisations because decision-making
does not rest on an individual, but it should be shared
together with the members of the organisations.
The collegial principles emphasise on consensual
decision-making and decisions are derived after a
process of discussion with some or all members of the
organisation, who are assumed to have a common
understanding about the aims of the organisation
(Bush 2003).
Bush describes five common features of the collegial
models and we shall now discuss each of the features
in turn.
68

1. The first feature relates to the normative nature of

the decision-making approach. Normative means
that it is believed that decision-making should be
made through democratic principles because
agreement among members of the organization is
crucial to the achievement of organizational goals.
In schools for example, it is believed that decisions
should be made through a participative process
among the teachers. However, this may not be true
in practice.

69

2. The models also favour full participation of the

school community in the decision-making process
through power sharing. Teachers are professional
staff belonging to the community of intellectuals and
are said to have the authority of expertise through
their professional knowledge and skills rather than
on the official positions in the organisational chart.
3. Members of the organisations are assumed to have a
common set of values, shared together to achieve
the agreed educational goals. Teachers have
common values in schools focusing on teaching as
their core activities, and together they try to achieve
the educational objectives.
70

4. Another salient feature of the collegial models relate

to formal representation and size. There will be
individuals appointed to participate in the decision
making process through committees as determined
by the institution.
In school, for example, we have a management
committee whereby only those involved in the
administrative functions are invited to participate in
the meetings. The size of the committee is limited
and it is sufficient to explain that decisions made
reflect the interests of various groups represented by
those in the committee structure.
71

5. An important feature of the collegial models rests on

the assumption that decisions are derived through
consensus. Common set of values, shared vision and
objectives become the guiding principle and
decisions are derived out of agreement and
compromises among the teachers, for examples,
although there might be conflicts.
There will be arguments during the process of decisionmaking, but these arguments provide for better
decision-making.
Finally, the most favorable options will be adopted by
the decision makers as they are considered to be
beneficial to the achievement of the organisational
goals.
72

Activity 1.2
What is the main difference between the
collegial models and the formal models?
________________________________________________
_____

73

Political models
The political models are based on three underlying
theories; conflict theory, community power theory,
and interest group theory (Baldridge 1971). As an
institution, educational organisations are considered
as complex organisations.
They are fractured into several competing interest
groups or power blocs and Bush (2003) regards the
decision-making in educational organisations as a
result of a bargaining and negotiation process. Other
scholars (Ball 1987; Hoyle 1999) as cited in Bush
have described educational organisations as micro
politics.
74

 Politically, many bargaining processes occur within

the organisations and politics influence the nature of
organisational functioning. It is assumed that conflicts
happen in educational organisations whether they are
universities or colleges or schools. These conflicts
between groups can be termed as politics. There are
six common features that learners need to
understand about politics in organisations.

75

These are listed as follows:

It is assumed that organisations are coalitions comprised
of a variety of individuals and diverse interest groups,
and coalitions are formed because of interdependence
among the individuals and groups. Therefore, the focus
is on group activity. They need each other, although
their interests and preferences may collide.
Political approaches form the major activities whereby
groups will maneuver against each other for political
benefits, thus emphasising groups supremacy as
opposed to institutional success.
However, ultimately, the groups will negotiate towards
achieving an equilibrium point of compromise.
76

1. The major concern of the political models is on

interests and interest groups. Differences exist
among individuals and groups in terms of beliefs,
values, preferences, information and perceptions of
reality.
Individuals pursue individual goals, but it is more
beneficial if certain individuals form a group that
have common interests and pursue such groups
goals. Therefore, in such conditions politics will be
more visible and dominant. Bush (2003) also argued
that differences between groups can lead to
fragmentation affecting organisational unity.
77

2. Conflicts are central to organisational dynamics

due to enduring differences and scarce resources
especially when financial assistance is becoming
more stringent due to criteria in budget allocation.
Political activities are more prevalent because
individuals and groups will compete to get what
they want. Thus, power becomes the most
important element, and the distribution of
resources for example and decisions made will
reflect the outcome of the political activities
among the major players in the organisations.
78

3. The political models also assume that organisational

goals are unstable, ambiguous and contested (Bush
2003, 93). Organisational goals and decisions are
derived as a result of a process of bargaining,
negotiation, and politicking for position among the
major players in the organisational system, and it is
not a simple decision made by those at the top
(Bolman and Deal 1991).
These activities are illustrated by individuals and groups
because they have their own purposes and will act to
ensure that their purposes are accomplished, which
sometimes are in contrast between individuals,
groups and organisational goals.
79

4. Decision making is the outcome of a process of

bargaining and negotiation. It has to go through
several stages before decisions are derived. Normally,
individuals and groups will pursue their interests,
form coalition and influence the decision-making
process.
Finally, although decisions have been made through the
process of bargaining and negotiation, they will not
resolve the problems or issues at hand, but will
provide another avenue for future negotiations
especially by those unsuccessful individuals or
groups.
80

5. Power is the foundation of politics. The final outcome

of the political activities determines who has more
power, and as such the dominant individuals and
groups are more likely to gain the needed power.
Therefore, to solve many of the organisational
problems, a political interpretation is necessary
whereby it sets the stage for power manipulations
and struggles in decision-making activities (Bolman
and Deal 1991).

81

Activity 1.3
Identify the various groups in your workplace.
________________________________________________
______

82

Subjective models
Subjective models focus on individuals because each
individual has a subjective and selective perception of
the organisation and organisations are indeed the
creations of the people within them (Bush 2003,113).
It is normal to assume that different people bring with
them different perceptions and interpretations due to
differences in their background or experiences or
upbringing, thus these will bring about different
meanings to them.
According to Bush, there are five significant features
related to the subjective models.
83

1. The subjective models stress on the importance of

individuals beliefs and perceptions, thus the focus is
on individual rather than on the institution. As an
individual, the goal is to satisfy an individuals aims,
such as to get promotion, rewards, and other
individual benefits.
2. Meanings become the primary concern because
people bring with them their own perceptions and
interpretations. Each individual has his or her own
interpretation of what is seen or is experienced that
may not be the same with other interpretation
behaviour will bring about different meanings
although they are looking at the same event.
84

3. Values, background and experience will produce

different meanings. We all come from different
backgrounds. So, interpretations derived reflect
different values, background and experience.
Sometimes, these can lead to conflicts because it is
normal as in the political models that conflicts can
emerge as a result of competing values between
individuals.
4. Structure in the organisation is regarded as a result of
human interactions and is not fixed or predetermined
(Bush, 2003, 117). The organisational chart is just
portraying the organisation. However, human
behaviour and interactions can lead to change
regardless of what is shown in the organisational chart.
85

5. The emphasis on goals is on the individual goals as

opposed to organisational goals. It is viewed that
individuals have and will pursue individuals goals. As
a teacher, the aim is to get promotion when the
promotion is due. Regardless of what transpired in the
organisation, individual aim will focus on getting
promotion.

86

Activity 1.4
What are the important features of subjective
models?
________________________________________________
______

87

Ambiguity models
The ambiguity models assume that organisations are
unpredictable and their objectives are not easily
understood. Educational organisations are complex
organisations. There are nine common features that
can explain the model.
1. Organisational goals are ambiguous and inconsistent.
In schools for example, teachers pursue individuals
goals as opposed to organisational goals. Teachers
aim for promotion, while schools have goals either to
achieve good examination results, or good in sports,
or produce disciplined students, or good in everything.
88

2. Educational organisations have problematic

technology and their processes are not easily
understood. Teachers can teach, but what the
students learn can only be seen through
examinations and how they learn is not clear. It is
not like producing goods where the process is the
same for all products.
3. Educational organisations are also fragmented and
divided into several groups. They are loose coupling
organisations. It is like having many families and
their relationships are made official based on their
existence as members of the organisation.
89

4. The organisational structure of educational

organisations is problematic and unlike the formal
model, the structural relationships may overlap
because power is distributed among the members.
School principals may have power over the teachers,
but there are expert teachers who have superior
knowledge in their fields as compared with the
principals.

5. Educational organisations are viewed as client-serving

organisations. Teachers in schools are basically giving
their services to fulfill the needs and expectations of
the students. Teachers are considered professionals
who serve to respond to the needs of the students.
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6. The participation of the members in the decisionmaking process is fluid, meaning that teachers,
involvement in many activities is dependent on their
available time and the effort put in to participate.
7. Schools as educational organisations are susceptible
to their environment. There are communities,
parents, government agencies and many other
organisations around schools. Therefore, they are
open to external environment and have to react and
respond to the external pressures.

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8. Decisions in educational organisations are unplanned

because unlike the formal models which assume that
decisions are derived through rational process, in the
ambiguity models decisions are not necessarily made
through rational process. There are decisions that have to
be made based on the merit of the case or situation and
not necessarily based on official decision-making bodies.
9. Decentralisation of decision making is emphasised
because educational organisations are complex and
unpredictable, and decisions are better made at the subunits and individual levels. Teaching activities are good
examples. How teachers teach and what teachers should
do in class, are left to the teachers to decide.
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Activity 1.5
Identify the advantages and disadvantages of
the ambiguity models.
________________________________________________
______

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Cultural models
The final educational model discussed by Bush (2003)
is the cultural models. Morgan (1997) and Beare,
Caldwell and Milikan (1989) have also mentioned the
cultural models in educational organisations.
The cultural models assume that beliefs, values and
ideology are at the heart of organisations (Bush, 2003,
156). These informal components of the organisations
are dominant as opposed to structural components of
the organisations. Rituals and symbols are prevalent
as culture and these make the organisations have
unique qualities as reflected through shared meanings
among the members in the organisations. There are
four major characteristics of the cultural models.
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1. The cultural models focus on the values and beliefs of

the members of the organisations. You can see that there
are values and beliefs that become the underlying
component that shape the attitudes and behaviours of
the members in your work place. Normally, these beliefs
and values are shared by the members and are
translated into actions and behaviours.
2. Shared norms and meanings are translated into
organisational culture because it is assumed that the
members will interact in ways that eventually lead to a
common behaviour that is acceptable to the
organisation. In the short term, it becomes the norms
and over time it becomes the culture of the organisation.
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3. Beliefs and norms are expressed through rituals and

ceremonies throughout the organisation. We always
celebrate the school success in sports or examination
results. Schools also organise an annual prize giving day.
4. The existence of heroes and heroines is accepted
because heroes and heroines are those members who
have achieved certain accomplishments and have
carried with them the values, beliefs and ideology that
fit with the organisational culture. There are excellent
teachers who become our school heroes and there are
also students who represent the country in various
activities, and there are also former students who have
excelled in their careers whom the school is proud of.
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Activity 1.6
Illustrate the characteristics of the cultural
models.
________________________________________________
______

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References
1.Bush, T (2005) Theories of Educational Leadership and Management, 3rd edn,
London: SAGE Publications.
2.Bush, T and Middlewood, D (2005) Leading and Managing People in Education,
London: SAGE Publications.
3.Davies, B, Ellison, E and Bowring-Carr, C (2005) School Leadership in the 21st
Century, London: Routledge.
4.Everard, K B, Morris, G and Wilson, I (2004) Effective School Management, 4th
edn, London: Paul Chapman.
5.Hoy, W K and Miskel, C G (2005) Educational Administration: Theory, Research,
Practice, 7th edn, New York: McGraw-Hill.
6.Maxwell, J C (2008) The Maxwell Daily Reader: 365 Days of Insight to Develop
the Leader Within You and Influence Those Around You, New York: Thomas
Nelson Pub.
7.Razik, T A and Swanson, A D (2010) Fundamental Concepts of Educational
Leadership
& Management, 3rd edn, Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
1.Sergiovanni, T J, Kelleher, P, McCarthy, M and Fowler, F C (2009) Educational
Governance and Administration, 6th edn, Boston: Pearson.
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