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6 Lectures
3 Main Sections
~2 lectures per subject
I Transmission Lines
I.0 The wave equation
I.1 Telegraphers Equations
I.2 Characteristic Impedance
I.3 Reflection
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OBJECTIVES
As the frequency of electronic circuits rises, one can no
longer assume that voltages and currents are instantly
transmitted by a wire.
The objectives of this course are:
Appreciate when a wave theory is needed
Derive and solve simple transmission line problems
Understand the importance of matching to
characteristic impedance of a transmission cable
the
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Handouts
Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to recognise
the generalized form of the wave equation, its general solution,
the propagation direction and velocity
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I.0.0 Introduction
An ideal transmission line is defined as:
a link between two points in which the signal at any point
equals the initiating signal
i.e. transmission takes place instantaneously and there is
no attenuation
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Examples
Power
Plant
Consumer
Home
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10
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Optical
Fibre
Link
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11
12
Pair of wires
PCB tracks
Co-ax cable
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IC interconnects
Waveguides
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13
Mircostrip
14
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Microwave Oven
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15
16
16
Optical Fibres
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Phasor Notation
means A is complex
Im
I m{ A}
A = e{ A} + Im{ A} j = A e j A
A A
e
e{ A}
A=A
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Ae j x
is short-hand for
which equals:
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e Ae j ( x + t )
A cos x + t + A
17
17
Proof
j ( )
= cos( ) j sin( )
then
Ae j ( x + t ) = Ae j A e j ( x + t ) = Ae j ( x + t + A )
Ae
j x + t + A
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A cos( UNIVERSITY
x + t + A ) + ELECTRONIC
jA sin( DEVICES
x +AND
t + A)
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18
A
2 2
=v A
2
t
Where the Laplacian of a scalar A is:
2 A 2 A 2 A
A=
+ 2 + 2
2
x
y
z
2
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19
A
2
=v
2
t
x 2
or
2 A 1 2 A
= 2 2
2
x
v t
20
20
There are many other cases where the wave equation is used
For example
1) Waves on a string. These are planar waves where A
represents the amplitude of the wave
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21
A = f ( x vt )
Note
A = f ( x vt )
Forward moving
A = f ( xCAMBRIDGE
+ vt ) UNIVERSITY
Backward moving
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22
Direction of travel
f ( x vt )
F(t+x/v
f ( x +) vt )
P
t+t
t+t
Verify that A
23
= f ( x vt ) is general solution
A
= vf '( x vt )
t
2 A
= v 2 f ''( x vt )
2
t
2 A
= f ''( x vt )
2
x
A
= f '( x vt )
x
2
2 A
A
2
=v
2
t
x 2
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24
Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to recognise
when the wave theory is relevant; to master the concepts of
wavelenght, wave velocity, period and phase; to describe the
propagation of waves in loss-less and lossy transmission lines
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In our case
A can be Voltage (V) or Current (I)
26
26
Let us define
VL
x
V = L x
I
t
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27
VC
IC
C x
x
I C = C x
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VC
t
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28
VL = L x
I
t
IF = I +
IC =
VL
I
x
x
I
x
x
VC
VC = V +
V = VC + V L
V
x
x
x
I C = C x
VC
V
V
V
V
2
= CAMBRIDGE
C x (V UNIVERSITY
+
x ) = C x
+
C
x
(
)
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29
VC = V VL
I F = I IC
V+
V
I
x =V L x
x
t
I+
I
V
x= I
C x
x
t
V
I
= L
x
t
I
V
= C
x
t
29
(1.1)
(1.2)
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30
2V
I
= L
2
x
t x
2V
= LC 2
t
(1.1a)
I
V
C
=
x 2
t x
2I
= LC 2
t
(1.2a)
I
x
using (1.2)
V
x
using (1.1)
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31
32
32
V
V
= LC 2
2
x
t
2
(1.1a)
I
I
= LC 2
2
x
t
(1.2a)
2 A 1 2 A
= 2 2
2
x
v t
1
v =
LC
2
V = Ae
j x
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j tELECTRONIC DEVICES
2 Ae j x e j t = 2 LC Ae j x e j t
Hence
= LC
Phase Constant
(1.3)
{(
I = R e {( I
) }
V = R e V F e j x + V B e j x e j t
(1.4)
) }
j x
j x
j t
e
I
e
e
+
F
B
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(1.5)
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33
If we now define
R= series resistance per unit length [/m]
G= shunt conductance per unit length [S/m]
To derive the relevant expressions for a lossy transmission line our
equivalent circuit would become :
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34
R x
I
I+
x
x
L x
V
VC = V +
x
x
VL
VR
G x
C x
V VR VL VC = 0
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V R xI L x
35
35
36
36
I
V
(V +
x) = 0
t
x
V
I
= RI + L
x
t
I = f ( x)e jt
Then
V
= ( R + j L) I
x
V
I
= L
x
t
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=AND
LI
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I G xV j C xV ( I +
I
x) = 0
x
I
= (G + jC )V
x
I
V
= C
= j CV
x
t
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37
L' =
C in a lossless line with:
( R + j L)
j
C'=
Then
= LC
in a lossy line
(G + jC )
j
in a lossy line
1
'=
( R + j L)(G + jC )
j
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in a lossy line
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38
= ( R + j L)(G + jC ) = + j
We get
{(
I = R e {( I
V = R e VF e
Fe
( + j ) x
+ VB e (
( + j ) x
+ I B e(
) }
)
)e }
+ j )x
e j t
(1.6)
+ j x
j t
(1.7)
39
V = VF e x
phase factor
time variation
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40
Note:
At high frequencies:
= ( R + j L)(G + jC ) 2 LC = j LC
Thus
LC
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41
e j x
j t
The other: e
gives the temporal dependence of the wave, hence its frequency:
f =
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42
v= f
then
2
2
v=
= LC
since
1
LC
v=
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43
43
From
and
Then
= LC
2
LC
2
2 10 10 6 0.22 10 6 86 10 12
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= 23metres
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44
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45
Large ship is in serious trouble (as you can see) and we cannot ignore the
effect of the waves
A much smaller vessel caught in the same storm fares much better
If a circuit is one quarter of a wavelength across, then one end is at zero,
the other at a maximum
If a circuit is an eighth of a wavelength across, then the difference is
2 of the amplitude
In general, if the wavelength is long in comparison to our electrical circuit,
then we can use standard circuit analysis without considering
transmission line effects.
A good rule of thumb is for the wavelength to be a factor of 16 longer
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46
Wave Relevant
16
16
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47
L=0.5Hm-1
From
Then
C=60pFm-1
And
= LC
2
2 5 10
0.5 10 60 10
12
2
LC
= 36.5m
36.5 m is much greater than 200 mm (the size of the circuit board),
so that wave theory is irrelevant.
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Note: The problem
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i.e.
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48
50 Hz. This gives ~3650 km
Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to describe the
forward and backward waves in a transmission line and
calculate the characteristic impedance
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49
{(
I = R e {( I
) }
)e }
V = R e V F e j x + V B e j x e j t
j x
j x
e
I
e
+
F
B
(1.4)
j t
(1.5)
I
= Re j I F e j x + j I B e j x e jt
x
) }
(2.1)
VCAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY j x
j x DEVICES
j
t
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=
R
e
Cj
V
e
Cj
V
e
e
F
B
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t
(2.2)
{(
{(
) }
50
50
I
V
= C
x
t
(1.2)
{( j I
Since
) }
e j x + j I B e j x e j t = R e
j ( t x )
and
{( C j V e
j x
) }
C j V B e j x e j t
j ( t + x )
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This leadsDEPARTMENT
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two independent
expressions
in
V
and I
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51
51
j I F e j x = Cj VF e j x
VF
=
I F C
I B j e
j x
= Cj V B e
j x
VB
=
C
IB
Note: If we consider VF and VB to have the same sign
then, due to the differentiation with respect to x,
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52
VF
Z0 =
IF
Since
Z0 is always positive
VF
=
I F C
From (1.3)
Z0 =
= LC
L
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C
Z0 =
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(2.3)
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53
Units
[ ] = m 1
[ ] = s 1
F 1 A s
s
[C ] = =
=
m m V
m
[ L] =
H 1 V s s
=
=
m m A
m
V L
[ Z0 ] = = =
I C
Z0 is the total impedance of a line of any length if there are no reflections
I and V in phase everywhere. Z0 is real
If there are reflections, the current and voltage of the advancing wave are
again in phase, but not necessarily with the current and voltage of the
retreating wave
The lossless line has no resistors. Yet Z0 has units of .
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54
{(
I = R e {( I
V = R e VF e
F
( + j ) x
( + j ) x
+ VB e (
+ I B e(
)e }
)
)e }
+ j )x
+ j x
j t
(1.6)
j t
(1.7)
= + j = ( R + j L )(G + j C )
Remembering that we can write the expressions for a lossy line starting
from those of a lossless line, if we substitute
L in a lossless line with:
L' =
( R + j L)
j
in a lossy line
C'=
(G + jC )
j
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Thus
Z0 =
L
C
corresponds to
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55
in a lossless line
Z0 =
Z0 =
Note: at high frequencies
L'
C'
in a lossy line
R + j L
G + jC
and
L >> R
C >> G ,
L
Z0
C
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56
I.2.3 Summary
1) For a unidirectional wave:
V = Z 0 I at all points
2) For any wave:
VF = Z 0 I F
Hence
and
VB = Z 0 I B
VF and
IF
are in phase
VB and
IB
are in antiphase
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57
AND
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58
V = VF e j x + VB e j x
2
= [ m 1 ]
2m
x = - 3m therefore:
Since
Then
IF =
VF
Z0
V = 5e + j 3 + 1e j 3 [volts]
VB
IB =
and
Z0
5 j 3 1 j 3
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e
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75
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59
I.3 Reflection
Aims
To introduce the concept of voltage reflection coefficient and
its relation to the reflected power at the load
Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to calculate the
voltage reflection coefficient, the incident and reflected power
on the load, the conditions for ringing and quarter wave
matching
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60
V = VF e j x + VB e j x
I = I F e j x + I Be j x
V = VF + VB = VL
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I = I + I = I L AND
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F
B
But:
V = VF + VB = VL = Z L I L
= ZL IF + IB
61
61
62
62
VF
Z0
IB =
VB
Z0
VF + VB = Z L I F + I B = Z L
VB Z L Z 0
=
VF Z L + Z 0
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VF VB
Z0
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L , is defined as
The Voltage Reflection Coefficient,
the complex amplitude of the reverse voltage wave
divided by the complex amplitude of the forward voltage
wave at the load:
L =
VB
VF
(3.1a)
Z L Z0
L =
Z L + Z0
(3.1b)
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63
63
64
64
V (t ) = Re V e j t = V cos( t + V )
I (t ) = Re Ie j t = I cos(t + I )
Instantaneous power dissipated at the load:
P (t ) = V (t ) I (t ) = VI cos( t + V ) cos( t + I )
Remembering the identity:
cos( A)cos( B) =
1
[cos( A + B) + cos( A B)]
2
we get:
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cos(2OF
P (t ) = VIDEPARTMENT
t
+
V
+
I
)
+
cos(
I
)
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2
{ }
*
1
= Re V I
2
1
1
PAv = P (t ) dt = VI cos( V I )
T 0
2
Where I
Thus
I
*
I = e{I } Im{I } j = I e j I
I = e{I } + Im{I } j = I e j I
At the load:
V = VF + VB
But, from (3.1a):
VB = L VF
V = VF (1 + L )
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65
66
66
Similarly:
At the load:
1
VF
(V F V B ) =
I = IF + IB =
Z0
Z0
I=
Hence:
VF
(1 L )
Z0
VF
*
*
1
1
V I = 1+ L 1 L
Z0
2
2
VF
2Z
)(
VB
1
V
F
(1 +
L L
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But
is imaginary
L L
2
so:
VF
*
1
Re V I =
1 L
2
2Z0
{ }
Therefore:
Incident power=
VF
Reflected power=
2Z 0
VF
2Z 0
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L
67
67
Maximum voltage V + V
=
VSWR =
Minimum voltage V V
F
V
V
1+
V
VSWR =
=
=
1
V
V
1
1 UNIVERSITY
NANOMATERIALS
AND
CAMBRIDGE
ELECTRONIC
DEVICES
V
DEPARTMENT OFV
ENGINEERING
AND
MATERIALSGROUP
GROUP
SPECTROSCOPY
1+
1+
68
68
VSWR 1
=
VSWR + 1
L
(3.2)
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING
NANOMATERIALS
AND
ELECTRONIC
DEVICES
AND
MATERIALS
GROUP
SPECTROSCOPY GROUP
69
69
70
70
I.3.4 Summary
L = 0
Full power transfer requires
When L = 0 a load is said to be matched
The advantages of matching are that:
1) We get all the power to the load
2) There are no echoes
The simplest way to match a line to a load is to set
Z0 = Z L
i.e. so that the load equals the characteristic impedance
Z L Z0
Z L + Z0
DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING
L =
Since, from (3.1b):
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY
NANOMATERIALS
AND
ELECTRONIC
DEVICES
AND
MATERIALSGROUP
GROUP
SPECTROSCOPY
1+
VSWR =
1
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING
NANOMATERIALS
AND
ELECTRONIC
DEVICES
AND
MATERIALS
GROUP
SPECTROSCOPY GROUP
71
71