Production of Materials

Contents
1. Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene, for the
production of other substances.............................................................................2
Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the
fractions from the refining of petroleum.............................................................2
Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is
readily transformed into many useful products..................................................3
Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made....3
Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this
term.................................................................................................................... 3
Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a
commercially and industrially important polymer..............................................3
Identify the following as commercially significant monomers by both their
systematic and common names:........................................................................4
Vinyl chloride................................................................................................... 4
Styrene............................................................................................................ 4
Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in terms of
their properties................................................................................................... 4
2. Some scientists research the extraction of materials from biomass to reduce
our dependence on fossil fuels..............................................................................5
Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently obtained
from the petrochemical industry........................................................................6
Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer............................................6
Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed...........6
Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a
condensation polymer found as a major component of biomass........................6
Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain structures needed to
build petrochemicals and discuss its potential as a raw material.......................6
3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable
resources such as plants....................................................................................... 8
Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a
catalyst in this process and the catalyst used....................................................8
Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of
ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst
used.................................................................................................................... 8

Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and
non-polar substances......................................................................................... 8
Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a
renewable resource............................................................................................ 8
Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted...............9
Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process......................................9
Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the value for
ethanol from first-hand data............................................................................... 9
Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of its use...........................................................9
Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols from C1 to C8. 10
4. Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly important as a source of energy
............................................................................................................................ 11
Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of
electrons........................................................................................................... 11
Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by
other metals to the relative activity of metals..................................................11
Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or
gain of electrons............................................................................................... 11
Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions. 12
Outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of electron
flow................................................................................................................... 12
Define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to describe
galvanic cells.................................................................................................... 12
5. Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials............................................13
Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the
conditions under which a nucleus is unstable..................................................13
Describe how transuranic elements are produced...........................................13
Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced....................................14
Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation........14
Identify one use of a named radioisotope:.......................................................14
- in industry................................................................................................... 14
- in medicine.................................................................................................. 14
Describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical
radioisotopes are used and explain their use in terms of their chemical
properties......................................................................................................... 14

1. Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials

such as ethylene, for the production of other substances
Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking
of some of the fractions from the refining of petroleum
Catalytic cracking:

High molecular weight fractions (alkanes) are broken into lower

molecular weight fractions (shorter chain alkanes and small alkenes
ethylene and propene)
Conditions are:
Zeolite catalyst (Aluminosilicate)
500oC
A few atm pressure

Steam or thermal cracking

Alkanes are decomposed completely into smaller alkenes (butane,

propene and ethylene) also producing hydrogen gas. This is used
more often due to its higher concentration of products
Conditions are:
700 1000oC
Just above atm pressure

Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its

double bond, is readily transformed into many useful
products
Ethylenes reactive double bond allows it to be easily converted into other
products such as ethanol and starting materials for plastics

Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which

polymers are made
A polymer is a large molecule composed of smaller molecules
(monomers), about 300 3000 units ethylene (monomer) is polymerised
to form polyethylene

Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the

meaning of this term
Polyethylene is an addition polymer because it forms by ethylene
molecules adding together without any loss of atoms

Outline the steps in

the production of
polyethylene as an
example of a
commercially and industrially important polymer

Pressure
Temperatur
e
Catalyst

Low Density
Polyethylene (b)
1000-3000 atm
300oC (high)

High Density Polyethylene

(a)
A few atm
~60oC (low)

Organic peroxide
Zieglar-Natta catalyst
(Initiator)
Properties
Highly branched
Unbranched
Low density
High density
Low MP
High MP
Soft
Hard
Low crystallinity
High crystallinity
Note: the denser the polymer, the closer the molecules are together which
results in stronger dispersion forces (since non-polar) thus higher melting
point

Steps in the process:

1. Initiation: The peroxide initiator produces radicals which activates
some monomers
Initiation: R-O-O-R -> 2(R-O)
Activation: R-O + CH2=CH2 -> R-O-CH2-CH2
2. Propagation: Activated monomers react with other monomers to
increase the chain length
Propagation: R-O-CH2-CH2 + CH2=CH2 -> R-O-CH2-CH2-CH2CH2
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Sometimes the chain will curl around and biteback on the existing
chain, removing a hydrogen and having an unpaired electron where
branching may occur.
3. Termination: The free radicals combine with each other to form a
neutral species and chain growth stops
Termination: R-O-CH2-CH2 + R-O-CH2-CH2 -> R-O-CH2-CH2CH2-CH2-O-R
Since there is no uniform polymer chain length there is a distribution of
molecular weights hence the term average molecular weight is
commonly used.

Identify the following as commercially significant monomers

by both their systematic and common names:
Vinyl chloride

Chains of chloroethene form polychloroethene or poly (vinyl chloride)

(PVC)

Styrene

Chains of phenylethylene form polyphenylethylene or polystyrene

Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above

monomers in terms of their properties
Structure
Average molecular
weight
Chain branching

Chain stiffening
Cross-linking

Property
Melting point, hardness
Crystallinity (density, melting point, hardness and toughness)
Note: the more orderly the arrangement, the stronger the
dispersion forces
Stiffness, rigidity (does not flop around)
Rigidity or elasticity
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Polymer
LDPE

HDPE

Poly(vinyl chloride),
PVC

Polystyrene

Uses
Wrapping materials
Bags
Flexible toys
Milk bottles
Kitchen utensils
Containers
Rigid toys
Pipes (transporting natural gas)
Soft
Rigid
Electrical
Guttering
insulation
Sewage pipes
Garden hoses
Tool handles
CD cases
Foam packaging 1

Properties
Soft
Flexible
Low melting point
Not strong
Hard
High tensile strength
High melting point
Soft or rigid (can be
adjusted)

Very hard
Rigid

2. Some scientists research the extraction of materials

from biomass to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels
Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds
presently obtained from the petrochemical industry
As oil reserves diminish, there will be no source of the raw materials
needed to make plastics. It is important to obtain a new source to keep up
with the high demand to produce plastics.

Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer

A condensation polymer is a polymer formed by the removal of a small
molecule (often water) when monomers are joined

1 When gas is bubbled during polymerisation, a lightweight foam is formed and

solidifies
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Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer

is formed
A number of monomers are joined together to form a long chain but in the
process, water molecules are eliminated between each pair

Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an

example of a condensation polymer found as a major
component of biomass
Cellulose consists of alternating inverted glucose units and forms a very
linear molecule. It is a
major component in plant
material or biomass
(material produced by
living organisms).
Cellulose cannot be
digested by humans
however the similar in
structure biopolymer starch can be digested.

Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain

structures needed to build petrochemicals and discuss its
potential as a raw material
Glucose units, in cellulose, contain 6 carbon atoms which can be regarded
as able to make the starting molecules for petrochemicals. However, to
break cellulose into glucose it requires a lot of energy coming from oil in
the first place. Developing efficient ways to allow cellulose as an
alternative source of chemicals, other than oil, is underway.

Biopolymers
Poly(-Hydroxybutyrate) or PHB is a biopolymer having similar properties
to polypropylene and also is biodegradable. Microorganisms called
Alcaligenes eutrophus are fed nutrients to multiply and grow. The diet is
then restricted (such as Nitrogen) so it produces PHB storing energy for
later use. The amount of PHB produced is from 30% to 80% of its own dry
weight. The PHB is separated out for use. Although much more expensive
to produce than oil-based polymers, there is a growing demand for
biodegradability for applications such as disposable nappies and
packaging (bottles, bags and wrapping film).

3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily

available from renewable resources such as plants
Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify
the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used
Dehydration is a reaction where water is removed from a compound.
Ethanol can be dehydrated to form ethylene with heat (180oC) and the
use of a catalyst: concentrated sulphuric acid or phosphoric acid

C2H5OH

concentrated

C2H4 + H2O

Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the

production of ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in
this process and the catalyst used
Hydration is the addition of water to a compound. Ethylene is hydrated to
form ethanol using heat and a catalyst: dilute sulphuric acid

C2H4 + H2O

dilute

C2H5OH

The diagram below shows how the catalyst is involved in the hydration of
ethylene:

Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a

solvent for polar and non-polar substances
Ethanol contains ends which are polar as well as can form hydrogen bonds
(OH) to dissolve polar substances. However, it contains alkyl groups (ethyl
C2H5) which are non-polar thus it can also dissolve non-polar substances.
Since oxygen atoms are more electronegative than hydrogen and carbon
an electric dipole is formed thus it is polar. Ethanol is a common solvent
in:

Cosmetics
Food colouring and flavourings
Medicinal preparations
Some cleaning agents

Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can

be called a renewable resource
Ethanol is a liquid which can readily burn. There is already petrol
containing 10% ethanol which any engine can run on without
modifications.
It is called a renewable resource because there is a cycle: when ethanol is
burnt, it produces CO2 and H2O which are the raw materials for
photosynthesis forming glucose which can be broken down into ethanol
and thus the cycle repeats

Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is

promoted

Suitable grain or fruit is mashed up with water

Yeast is added
Air is excluded
Mixture is kept at around 37oC

Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process

Enzymes are added to the mixture to convert any starch or sucrose into
glucose and/or fructose. Other enzymes (yeast) break this down to
ethanol and carbon dioxide.

This produces ethanol contents of about 15%; high concentrations will kill
the yeast and cease the fermentation process.
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Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and

calculate the value for ethanol from first-hand data
The molar heat of combustion is the amount of heat liberated when one
mole of a substance undergoes complete combustion

Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and

discuss the advantages and disadvantages of its use
Ethanol is a potential as an alternative fuel due to its alternative source
other than oil however currently the processes to obtain ethanol produce
a lot of greenhouse gases anyway.
Advantages:

Renewable resource
Reduce greenhouse gas emissions

Disadvantages:

Large areas of land would be needed to grow suitable crops

Disposal of waste fermentation liquors
Obtaining glucose (to ferment into ethanol) from cellulose is not
very efficient due to the energy for machinery and keeping at
constant temperature to digest the cellulose by either:
Cellulase enzymes: NaOH is added to finely grounded
cellulose materials used to open up fibres for the enzymes to
produce glucose
Strong acids: moderately concentrated H2SO4 is added a
suspension of cellulose (with wood chips) producing glucose

Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained

alkanols from C1 to C8

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

-ol suffix
Number to denote location of OH at a certain carbon atom
General formula: CnH2n+1OH
Methanol
Ethanol
Propanol
Butanol
Pentanol
Hexanol
Heptanol
Octanol

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4. Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly

important as a source of energy
Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of
transfer of electrons
A displacement reaction is when a metal converts another metal ion to a
neutral atom. This is done by the transferring of electrons e.g.

Cu donates electrons to form Cu2+(oxidation)

Ag+ receives electrons to form Ag (reduction)

Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions

in solution by other metals to the relative activity of metals
The more reactive metal is the one which will displace the other metal
from a solution of its ions
The metals on the left are more reactive; easily oxidised than compared to
the right

Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in

terms of their loss or gain of electrons
An oxidation state is the valence of the atom e.g. for monatomic ions the
oxidation state is the positive or negative charge on the ion
If there is an increase in oxidation state, the atom has lost electrons
(oxidation)
If there is a decrease in oxidation state, the atom has gained electrons
(reduction)

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Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of

oxidation/reduction reactions
Galvanic cells are devices which uses chemical reactions to produce
electricity. This is done by splitting up the oxidation and reduction
reactions in different locations. As seen in the picture, the Cu loses
electrons (oxidation) and flows through the wire to give Ag+ ions electrons
(reduction).

Outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the

direction of electron flow
A Cu strip is placed in a beaker of Cu(NO3)2 solution connected with a wire
to a Ag strip in another beaker of AgNO3. The flow of electrons goes from
the Cu to Ag; where the oxidation reaction occurs to where the reduction
reaction occurs.
A salt bridge is used to maintain neutrality in both beakers and keep the
reactions continuing i.e. the concentration of Cu2+ increases as well as NO3in the left beaker as NO3- ions flow from the right beaker to the left beaker
which also balances the NO3-concentration with the decreasing
concentration of Ag+. The substances used in the salt bridge must not
react with the ions i.e. form precipitates.

Define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte

to describe galvanic cells
Anode: the electrode where oxidation occurs
Cathode: the electrode where reduction occurs

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Electrode: the conductors of a cell which are connected to the external

circuit
Electrolyte: a substance which in solution or molten state conducts
electricity

Leclanche Cell (Dry Cell)

Anode reaction:
Zn

Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-

(s)

Cathode reaction:
MnO2

(s)

+ NH4+ (aq) + H2O (l) + e-

Mn(OH)3

(s)

+ NH3

(aq)

CHANGE

Note: the anode and cathode must NOT touch each other otherwise the
redox reaction will occur and will short circuit the battery
Battery

Cost and Practicality

Dry cell

Cheap
Non rechargable
Does not store a lot of
charge
Produces 1.5V
Could potentially leak

Impact on
Society
Portable power
source
Powers small
electrical devices
Improves quality of
life
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Environmental
Impact
Inert manganese oxide
compounds

Button cell
Anode reaction:
Zn

(s)

+ 2OH

(aq)

ZnO (aq) + H2O

(l)

+ 2e-

Cathode reaction:
Ag2O

(s)

+ H2O (l) + 2e-

Battery

Cost and Practicality

Button
cell

Expensive
Non rechargeable
Produces 1.5V
Constant, stable
voltage

2Ag (s) + 2OH

Impact on
Society
Powers very small
devices (e.g.
hearing aids and
heart pace makers)
improves life
expectancy and
quality of life

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(aq)

Environmental
Impact
KOH is caustic
Silver needs to be
recycled (expensive
material from mining)
No highly toxic
materials

5. Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials

Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and
describe the conditions under which a nucleus is unstable
Radioactive isotopes are isotopes spontaneously emitting radiation and
stable isotopes do not.
Generally, the nucleus is unstable if the atomic number is greater than 83
or if the ratio of neutrons to protons places it outside the zone of stability
(red).

Describe how transuranic elements are produced

Certain isotopes are not fissile i.e. does not split when hit by a neutron but
instead it forms a new element. The neutron will decompose releasing
beta radiation (electrons) and adding a proton to the nucleus thus
changing its atomic number.
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Nuclei can also be bombarded with positive particles using linear

accelerators
or
cyclotrons.

Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced

Nuclear reactors: a source of neutrons e.g. cobalt-59 captured a neutron
to form cobalt-60 or to obtain molybdenum-99 (technetium-99m is then
obtained from this) from fission of uranium.
Cyclotrons: small positive particles (such as helium and carbon) bombard
the target nucleus to obtain isotopes such as fluorine-18. The particle
goes through alternating magnetic fields so it is pulled and pushed to
accelerate it to high speeds.

Identify instruments and processes that can be used to

detect radiation

Photographic film: film darkens when exposed

Cloud chamber: contains supersaturated water or alcohol vapour
Geiger-Muller counter: uses ionisation of gas particles to detect
electrons
Scintillation counter: certain substances emit a flash of light when
exposed

Identify one use of a named radioisotope:

- in industry

Iridium-192
Industrial radiography (non-destructive testing)

- in medicine

Technetium-99m
Radioactive tracer (cancer diagnosis)

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Describe the way in which the above named industrial and

medical radioisotopes are used and explain their use in
terms of their chemical properties
Industry: radioisotopes emit radiation through the material which absorbs
some it and a detector picks up the remaining. The thicker the material
the less radiation the detector will receive which is connected to the
controller which adjusts the rollers to the thickness required. The
radioisotope has to emit low energy radiation and have a long half
life.
Radioisotopes can also be used to detect leaks in pipes using a radio
tracker. If radiation is detected in the area, there is a leak in the pipe. It
might have a short half life to prevent contamination of water.
Radiation can kill micro-organisms and bacteria to sterilise equipment and
minimise spoilage in food. The energy must not be too high otherwise
it could make the food radioactive and the source must have a long half
life to minimise replacement.
Medical: radioisotopes (such as cobalt-60) emit gamma rays which are
used to kill cancer cells and its half life is suitable to be stored for a
while but short enough to emit suitable amounts of radiation.
Other radioisotopes (such as technetium-99m) can be distributed
throughout the bloodstream to observe clotting, constrictions or disorders
and also assess the heart. It has a short half life thus causing minimal
damage to the patient.

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