Mech-Iv-Kinematics of Machines (10me44) - Notes PDF

Kinematics of Machines 10ME44
KINEMATICS OF MACHINES
Subject Code : 10ME44 IA Marks : 25
Hours/Week : 04 Exam Hours : 03
Total Hours : 52 Exam Marks : 100
PART – A
UNIT - 1
Introduction: Definitions Link or element, kinematic pairs, Degrees of freedom, Grubler's

criterion (without derivation), Kinematic chain, Mechanism, Structure, Mobility of
Mechanism, Inversion, Machine. Kinematic Chains and Inversions: Inversions of Four
bar chain; Single slider crank chain and Double slider crank chain. 07 Hours
UNIT - 2
Mechanisms: Quick return motion mechanisms-Drag link mechanism, Whitworth

mechanism and Crank and slotted lever Mechanism. Straight line motion mechanisms
Peaucellier's mechanism and Robert's mechanism. Intermittent Motion mechanisms -
Geneva wheel mechanism and Ratchet and Pawl mechanism. Toggle mechanism,
Pantograph, Ackerman steering gear mechanism. 06 Hours
UNIT - 3
Velocity and Acceleration Analysis of Mechanisms (Graphical Methods) Velocity and

acceleration analysis of Four Bar mechanism, slider crank mechanism and Simple
Mechanisms by vector polygons: Relative velocity and acceleration of particles .in a
common link, relative velocity and accelerations of coincident Particles on separate links-
Coriolis component of acceleration. Angular velocity and angular acceleration of links,
velocity of rubbing. 07 Hours
UNIT - 4
Velocity Analysis by Instantaneous Center Method: Definition, Kennedy's Theorem,

Determination of linear and angular velocity using instantaneous center method Klein's
Construction: Analysis of velocity and acceleration of single slider crank mechanism.
06 Hours
PART – B
UNIT - 5
Velocity and Acceleration Analysis of Mechanisms (Analytical Methods): Analysis of

four bar chain and slider crank chain using analytical expressions. (Use of complex
algebra and vector algebra) 06 Hours
Department of Mechanical Engineering SJBIT Page 1
UNIT - 6
Spur Gears: Gear terminology, law of gearing, Characteristics of involute action, Path of
contact. Arc of contact, Contact ratio of spur, helical, bevel and worm gears, Interference
in involute gears. Methods of avoiding interference, Back lash. Comparison of involute
and cycloidal teeth. Profile Modification. 07 Hours
UNIT - 7
Gear Trains: Simple gear trains, Compound gear trains for large speed. reduction,
Epicyclic gear trains, Algebraic and tabular methods of finding velocity ratio of epicyclic
gear trains. Tooth load and torque calculations in epicyclical gear trains 07 Hours
UNIT - 8
Cams: Types of cams, Types of followers. Displacement, Velocity and, Acceleration time
curves for cam profiles. Disc cam with reciprocating follower having knife-edge, roller
and flat-face follower, Disc cam with oscillating roller follower. Follower motions
including SHM, Uniform velocity, uniform acceleration and retardation and Cycloidal
motion. 06 Hours
TEXT BOOKS:
1. "Theory of Machines”, Rattan S.S, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New
Delhi, and 3rd edition -2009.
2. "Theory of Machines”, Sadhu Singh, Pearson Education (Singapore) Pvt. Ltd, Indian
Branch New Delhi, 2nd Edi. 2006
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. “Theory of Machines & Mechanisms", J.J. Uicker, , G.R. Pennock, J.E. Shigley.
OXFORD 3rd Ed. 2009.
2. Mechanism and Machine theory, Ambekar, PHI, 2007
Graphical Solutions may be obtained either on the Graph Sheets or on the
Answer Book itself.

CONTENTS
Sl.No Particulars Page No
1 Introduction to KOM 4-14
2 Mechanisms 15-37
Velocity & Acceleration Analysis of

3 38-70
Mechanisms (Graphical method)

4 71-87
Mechanisms(Instantaneous Method)

5 88-105
Mechanisms(Analytical Method)
6 Spur Gears 106-139
7 Gear train 140-167
8 Cams 160-196

UNIT-01
INTRODUCTION TO KOM
1.1 Definitions:
Link or element:
A mechanism is made of a number of resistant bodies out of which some

may have motions relative to the others. A resistant body or a group of resistant
bodies with rigid connections preventing their relative movement is known as a
link. A link may also be defined as a member or a combination of members of a
mechanism, connecting other members and having motion relative to them, thus a
link may consist of one or more resistant bodies. A link is also known as
Kinematic link or an element.
Links can be classified into

+ Binary
+ Ternary
+ Quarternary, etc.
Binary Link Ternary Link Quarternary

Link
Kinematic Pair:
A Kinematic Pair or simply a pair is a joint of two links having relative motion between
them.
Example:

In the above given Slider crank mechanism, link 2 rotates relative to link 1 and
constitutes a revolute or turning pair. Similarly, links 2, 3 and 3, 4 constitute turning
pairs. Link 4 (Slider) reciprocates relative to link 1 and it‟s a sliding pair.
Types of Kinematic Pairs:
Kinematic pairs can be classified according to

i) Nature of contact.
ii) Nature of mechanical constraint.

iii) Nature of relative motion.
i) Kinematic pairs according to nature of contact :
a) Lower Pair: A pair of links having surfaced or area contact between the
members is known as a lower pair. The contact surfaces of the two
links are similar.
Examples: Nut turning on a screw, shaft rotating in a bearing, all pairs of a slider-crank
mechanism, universal joint.
b) Higher Pair: When a pair has a point or line contact between the links, it is
known as a higher pair. The contact surfaces of the two links are
dissimilar.
Examples: Wheel rolling on a surface cam and follower pair, tooth gears, ball and roller
bearings, etc.
 Kinematic pairs according to nature of mechanical constraint.
Closed pair: When the elements of a pair are held together mechanically, it
is known as a closed pair. The contact between the two can only be broken
only by the destruction of at least one of the members. All the lower pairs
and some of the higher pairs are closed pairs.
Unclosed pair: When two links of a pair are in contact either due to force
of gravity or some spring action, they constitute an unclosed pair. In this
the links are not held together mechanically. Ex.: Cam and follower pair.
iii) Kinematic pairs according to nature of relative motion.
a) Sliding pair: If two links have a sliding motion relative to each other, they
form a sliding pair. A rectangular rod in a rectangular hole in a prism is an
example of a sliding pair.

b) Turning Pair: When on link has a turning or revolving motion relative to

the other, they constitute a turning pair or revolving pair.
c) Rolling pair: When the links of a pair have a rolling motion relative to
each other, they form a rolling pair. A rolling wheel on a flat surface, ball
ad roller bearings, etc. are some of the examples for a Rolling pair.
d) Screw pair (Helical Pair): if two mating links have a turning as well as
sliding motion between them, they form a screw pair. This is achieved by
cutting matching threads on the two links. The lead screw and the nut of a
lathe is a screw Pair
e) Spherical pair: When one link in the form of a sphere turns inside a fixed
link, it is a spherical pair. The ball and socket joint is a spherical pair.
Degrees of Freedom:
An unconstrained rigid body moving in space can describe the following independent
motions.
1. Translational Motions along any three mutually perpendicular axes x, y and z,
2. Rotational motions along these axes.
Thus a rigid body possesses six degrees of freedom. The connection of a link with
another imposes certain constraints on their relative motion. The number of restraints can
never be zero (joint is disconnected) or six (joint becomes solid).
Degrees of freedom of a pair is defined as the number of independent relative motions,

both translational and rotational, a pair can have.
Degrees of freedom = 6 – no. of restraints.
To find the number of degrees of freedom for a plane mechanism we have an equation
known as Grubler‟s equation and is given by
F = 3 ( n – 1 ) – 2 j1 – j2
F = Mobility or number of degrees of freedom n = Number of links including frame.
j1 = Joints with single (one) degree of freedom. j1 = Joints with two degrees of freedom.
If F > 0, results a mechanism with „F‟ degrees of freedom.

F = 0, results in a statically determinate structure.
F < 0, results in a statically indeterminate structure.

The degrees of freedom for various joints are given by:
Type of joint Nature of Motion. Degrees of freedom.

Hinges (Revolute) Pure rolling 1
Slider (prismatic) Pure Sliding 1
Cylindrical, Cam, Gear, Rolling and Sliding 2

Ball Bearings
Rolling Contact Pure Rolling 1
Spherical 3
Note: A revolute joint connecting m links at the same point must be considered as (m-1)
joints.
Kinematic Chain:
A Kinematic chain is an assembly of links in which the relative motions of the links is
possible and the motion of each relative to the others is definite (fig. a, b, and c.)

In case, the motion of a link results in indefinite motions of other links, it is a non-
kinematic chain. However, some authors prefer to call all chains having relative motions
of the links as kinematic chains.
Linkage, Mechanism and structure:
A linkage is obtained if one of the links of kinematic chain is fixed to the ground. If
motion of each link results in definite motion of the others, the linkage is known as
mechanism.
If one of the links of a redundant chain is fixed, it is known as a structure.
To obtain constrained or definite motions of some of the links of a linkage, it is necessary

to know how many inputs are needed. In some mechanisms, only one input is necessary
that determines the motion of other links and are said to have one degree of freedom. In
other mechanisms, two inputs may be necessary to get a constrained motion of the other
links and are said to have two degrees of freedom and so on.
The degree of freedom of a structure is zero or less. A structure with negative degrees of
freedom is known as a Superstructure.

Motion and its types:

(i) Motion
Absolute motion Relative motion
(ii) Motion
Plane motion Rectilinear Helical or Spherical

motion screw motion motion
(iii) Motion
Continuous Reciprocating Oscillatory Intermittent

motion motion motion motion
(iv) Motion
Uniform motion Variable motion Simple Harmonic

motion
(iv) Motion
Completely Partially Incompletely

The tree main types of constrained motion in kinematic pair are,
(i) Completely constrained motion :
If the motion between a pair of links is limited to a definite direction, then it is

completely constrained motion.
E.g.: Motion of a shaft or rod with collars at each end in a hole as shown in fig.
(ii) Incompletely Constrained motion :
If the motion between a pair of links is not confined to a definite direction, then it is
incompletely constrained motion. E.g.: A spherical ball or circular shaft in a circular hole
may either rotate or slide in the hole as shown in fig.

(iii) Successfully constrained motion or partially constrained motion.
If the motion in a definite direction is not brought about by itself but by some other
means, then it is known as successfully constrained motion.
E.g.: Foot step Bearing.
Inversions:
By fixing each link at a time we get as many mechanisms as the number of links, then
each mechanism is called „Inversion‟ of the original Kinematic Chain.
Machine:
It is a combination of resistant bodies with successfully constrained motion which is used

to transmit or transform motion to do some useful work.
E.g.: Lathe, Shaper, Steam Engine, etc.
1.2 Kinematic chains and Inversions:
Kinematic chain with three lower pairs
It is impossible to have a kinematic chain consisting of three turning pairs only. But it is
possible to have a chain which consists of three sliding pairs or which consists of a
turning, sliding and a screw pair.
The figure shows a kinematic chain with three sliding pairs. It consists of a frame B,
wedge C and a sliding rod A. Hence the three sliding pairs are, one between the wedge C
and the frame B, second between wedge C and sliding rod A and the frame B.

This figure shows the mechanism of a fly press. The element B forms a sliding with A
and turning pair with screw rod C which in turn forms a screw pair with A. When link A
is fixed, the required fly press mechanism is obtained.
Types of Kinematic Chain:
1) Four bar chain
2) Single slider chain
3) Double Slider chain

1) Four bar Chain:
The chain has four links and it looks like a cycle frame and hence it is also called quadric
cycle chain. It is shown in the figure. In this type of chain all four pairs will be turning
pairs.
Inversions of four bar chain mechanism:
There are three inversions:
1) Beam Engine or Crank and lever mechanism.

2) Coupling rod of locomotive or double crank mechanism.
3) Watt‟s straight line mechanism or double lever mechanism.
1) Beam Engine:
When the crank AB rotates about A, the link CE pivoted at D makes vertical
reciprocating motion at end E. This is used to convert rotary motion to reciprocating
motion and vice versa. It is also known as Crank and lever mechanism. This mechanism
is shown in the figure below.

2) Coupling rod of locomotive
In this mechanism the length of link AD = length of link C. Also length of link AB =
length of link CD. When AB rotates about A, the crank DC rotates about D. this
mechanism is used for coupling locomotive wheels. Since links AB and CD work as
cranks, this mechanism is also known as double crank mechanism. This is shown in the
figure below.
1) Watt‟s straight line mechanism or Double lever mechanism. In this mechanism, the
links AB & DE act as levers
at the ends A & E of these levers are fixed. The AB & DE are parallel in the mean
position of the mechanism and coupling rod BD is perpendicular to the levers AB & DE.
On any small displacement of the mechanism the tracing point „C‟ traces the shape of
number „8‟, a portion of which will be approximately straight. Hence this is also an
example for the approximate straight line mechanism. This mechanism is shown below.

UNIT-02
MECHANISMS
Slider crank Chain Mechanism:
It is a four bar chain having one sliding pair and three turning pairs. It is shown in the
figure below the purpose of this mechanism is to convert rotary motion to reciprocating
motion and vice versa.
Inversions of a Slider crank chain:
There are four inversions in a single slider chain mechanism. They are:
1) Reciprocating engine mechanism (1st inversion)
2) Oscillating cylinder engine mechanism (2nd inversion)
3) Crank and slotted lever mechanism (2nd inversion)
4) Whitworth quick return motion mechanism (3rd inversion)
5) Rotary engine mechanism (3rd inversion)
6) Bull engine mechanism (4th inversion)
7) Hand Pump (4th inversion)
1) Reciprocating engine mechanism :
In the first inversion, the link 1 i.e., the cylinder and the frame is kept fixed. The fig
below shows a reciprocating engine.

A slotted link 1 is fixed. When the crank 2 rotates about O, the sliding piston 4
reciprocates in the slotted link 1. This mechanism is used in steam engine, pumps,
compressors, I.C. engines, etc.
2) Crank and slotted lever mechanism:
It is an application of second inversion. The crank and slotted lever mechanism is shown
in figure below.
In this mechanism link 3 is fixed. The slider (link 1) reciprocates in oscillating slotted
lever (link 4) and crank (link 2) rotates. Link 5 connects link 4 to the ram (link 6). The
ram with the cutting tool reciprocates perpendicular to the fixed link 3. The ram with the
tool reverses its direction of motion when link 2 is perpendicular to link 4. Thus the
cutting stroke is executed during the rotation of the crank through angle α and the return
stroke is executed when the crank rotates through angle β or 360 – α. Therefore, when the
crank rotates uniformly, we get
This mechanism is used in shaping machines, slotting machines and in rotary engines.
2) Whitworth quick return motion mechanism
Third inversion is obtained by fixing the crank i.e. link 2. Whitworth quick return
mechanism is an application of third inversion. This mechanism is shown in the figure
below. The crank OC is fixed and OQ rotates about O. The slider slides in the slotted link
and generates a circle of radius CP. Link 5 connects the extension OQ provided on the
opposite side of the link 1 to the ram (link 6). The rotary motion of P is taken to the ram

R which reciprocates. The quick return motion mechanism is used in shapers and slotting
machines.
The angle covered during cutting stroke from P1 to P2 in counter clockwise direction is α
or 360 - 2θ. During the return stroke, the angle covered is 2θ or β.
4) Rotary engine mechanism or Gnome Engine
Rotary engine mechanism or gnome engine is another application of third inversion. It is

a rotary cylinder V – type internal combustion engine used as an aero – engine. But now
Gnome engine has been replaced by Gas turbines. The Gnome engine has generally seven
cylinders in one plane. The crank OA is fixed and all the connecting rods from the
pistons are connected to A. In this mechanism when the pistons reciprocate in the
cylinders, the whole assembly of cylinders, pistons and connecting rods rotate about the
axis O, where the entire mechanical power developed, is obtained in the form of rotation
of the crank shaft. This mechanism is shown in the figure below.

Double slider crank chain:
A four bar chain having two turning and two sliding pairs such that two pairs of the same
kind are adjacent is known as double slider crank chain.
Inversions of Double slider Crank chain:
It consists of two sliding pairs and two turning pairs. They are three important inversions
of double slider crank chain.
1) Elliptical trammel.
2) Scotch yoke mechanism.
3) Oldham‟s Coupling.
1) Elliptical Trammel:
This is an instrument for drawing ellipses. Here the slotted link is fixed. The sliding block
P and Q in vertical and horizontal slots respectively. The end R generates an ellipse with
the displacement of sliders P and Q.
The co-ordinates of the point R are x and y.

From the fig. cos θ = x.
PR
and Sin θ = y .
QR
Squaring and adding (i) and (ii) we get
x2 + y2 = cos2 θ + sin2 θ
(PR)2 (QR)2
x2 + y2 =1
(PR)2 (QR)2
The equation is that of an ellipse, Hence the instrument
traces an ellipse.
Path traced by mid-point of PQ is a circle. In this case, PR
= PQ.

x2 + y2 =1
(PR)2 (QR)2
Its an equation of circle with PR = QR = radius of a circle.
2) Scotch yoke mechanism:
This mechanism, the slider P is fixed. When PQ rotates above P, the slider Q reciprocates
in the vertical slot. The mechanism is used to convert rotary to reciprocating mechanism.

3) Oldham‟s coupling:
The third inversion of obtained by fixing the link connecting the 2 blocks P & Q. If one
block is turning through an angle, the frame and the other block will also turn through the
same angle. It is shown in the figure below.
An application of the third inversion of the double slider crank mechanism is Oldham‟s
coupling shown in the figure. This coupling is used for connecting two parallel shafts
when the distance between the shafts is small. The two shafts to be connected have
flanges at their ends, secured by forging. Slots are cut in the flanges. These flanges form
1 and 3. An intermediate disc having tongues at right angles and opposite sides is fitted in
between the flanges. The intermediate piece forms the link 4 which slides or reciprocates
in flanges 1 & 3. The link two is fixed as shown. When flange 1 turns, the intermediate
disc 4 must turn through the same angle and whatever angle 4 turns, the flange 3 must
turn through the same angle. Hence 1, 4 & 3 must have the same angular velocity at
every instant. If the distance between the axis of the shaft is x, it will be the diameter if
the circle traced by the centre of the intermediate piece. The maximum sliding speed of
each tongue along its slot is given by
v=x
where,
= angular velocity of each shaft in rad/sec v = linear velocity in m/sec

1.3 Mechanisms:
i) Quick return motion mechanisms:
Many a times mechanisms are designed to perform repetitive operations. During these
operations for a certain period the mechanisms will be under load known as working
stroke and the remaining period is known as the return stroke, the mechanism returns to
repeat the operation without load. The ratio of time of working stroke to that of the return
stroke is known a time ratio. Quick return mechanisms are used in machine tools to give
a slow cutting stroke and a quick return stroke. The various quick return mechanisms
commonly used are
 Whitworth
 Drag link.
 Crank and slotted lever mechanism
o Whitworth quick return mechanism:
Whitworth quick return mechanism is an application of third inversion of the single slider
crank chain. This mechanism is shown in the figure below. The crank OC is fixed and
OQ rotates about O. The slider slides in the slotted link and generates a circle of radius
CP. Link 5 connects the extension OQ provided on the opposite side of the link 1 to the
ram (link 6). The rotary motion of P is taken to the ram R which reciprocates. The quick
return motion mechanism is used in shapers and slotting machines.
The angle covered during cutting stroke from P1 to P2 in counter clockwise direction is α
or 360 - 2θ. During the return stroke, the angle covered is 2θ or β.

ii) Drag link mechanism :
This is four bar mechanism with double crank in which the shortest link is fixed. If the
crank AB rotates at a uniform speed, the crank CD rotate at a non-uniform speed. This
rotation of link CD is transformed to quick return reciprocatory motion of the ram E by
the link CE as shown in figure. When the crank AB rotates through an angle α in Counter
clockwise direction during working stroke, the link CD rotates through 180o . We can
observe that / α > / β. Hence time of working stroke is α /β times more or the return
stroke is α /β times quicker.
Shortest link is always stationary link. Sum of the shortest and the longest links of the
four links 1, 2, 3 and 4 are less than the sum of the other two. It is the necessary condition
for the drag link quick return mechanism.
3) Crank and slotted lever mechanism:
It is an application of second inversion. The crank and slotted lever mechanism is shown
in figure below.

In this mechanism link 3 is fixed. The slider (link 1) reciprocates in oscillating slotted
lever (link 4) and crank (link 2) rotates. Link 5 connects link 4 to the ram (link 6). The
ram with the cutting tool reciprocates perpendicular to the fixed link 3. The ram with the
tool reverses its direction of motion when link 2 is perpendicular to link 4. Thus the
cutting stroke is executed during the rotation of the crank through angle α and the return
stroke is executed when the crank rotates through angle β or 360 – α. Therefore, when the
crank rotates uniformly, we get,
Time to cutting = α= α .
Time of return β 360 – α
This mechanism is used in shaping machines, slotting machines and in rotary engines.
(ii) Straight line Motion machines:
The easiest way to generate a straight line motion is by using a sliding pair but in
precision machines sliding pairs are not preferred because of wear and tear. Hence in
such cases different methods are used to generate straight line motion mechanisms:
1) Exact straight line motion mechanism. Ex.: Peaucellier mechanism.

Hart mechanism.
Scott Russell mechanism.
2) Approximate straight line motion mechanisms. Ex.: Watt mechanism
Grasshopper‟s mechanism Robert‟s mechanism Tchebicheff‟s mechanism
 Peaucillier mechanism :

The pin Q is constrained to move long the circumference of a circle by means of the link
OQ. The link OQ and the fixed link are equal in length. The pins P and Q are on opposite
corners of a four bar chain which has all four links QC, CP, PB and BQ of equal length to
the fixed pin A. i.e., link AB = link AC. The product AQ x AP remain constant as the
link OQ rotates may be proved as follows:
Join BC to bisect PQ at F; then, from the right angled triangles AFB, BFP, we
have
AB2 = AF2 + FB2 and BP2 = BF2 + FP2
Subtracting,
AB2 - BP2 = AF2 - FP2 = (AF – FP) (AF+FP) = AQ x AP
Since AB and BP are links of a constant length, the product AQ x AP is constant.

Therefore the point P traces out a straight path normal to AR.
o Robert‟s mechanism :
This is also a four bar chain. The link PQ and RS are of
equal length and the tracing pint „O‟ is rigidly attached to the link QR on a line which
bisects QR at right angles. The best position for O may be found by making use of the
instantaneous centre of QR. The path of O is clearly approximately horizontal in the
Robert‟s mechanism.

iii) Intermittent motion mechanism:
1) Ratchet and Pawl mechanism:
This mechanism is used in producing intermittent rotary Motion member. A ratchet and
Pawl mechanism consists of a ratchet wheel 2 and a pawl 3 as shown in the figure. When
the lever 4 carrying pawl is raised, the ratchet wheel rotates in the counter clock wise
direction (driven by pawl). As the pawl lever is lowered the pawl slides over the ratchet
teeth. One more pawl 5 is used to prevent the ratchet from reversing. Ratchets are used in
feed mechanisms, lifting jacks, clocks, watches and counting devices.
2) Geneva mechanism:
Geneva mechanism is an intermittent motion mechanism.
It consists of a driving wheel D carrying a pin P which engages in a slot of follower F as

shown in figure. During one quarter revolution of the driving plate, the Pin and follower
remain in contact and hence the follower is turned by one quarter of a turn. During the
remaining time of one revolution of the driver, the follower remains in rest locked in
position by the circular arc.

3) Pantograph:
Pantograph is used to copy the curves in reduced or enlarged scales. Hence this
mechanism finds its use in copying devices such as engraving or profiling machines.
This is a simple figure of a Pantograph. The links are pin jointed at A, B, C and D. AB is
parallel to DC and AD is parallel to BC.
Link BA is extended to fixed pin O. Q is a point on the link AD. If the motion of Q is to
be enlarged then the link BC is extended to P such that O, Q and P are in a straight line.
Then it can be shown that the points P and Q always move parallel and similar to each
other over any path straight or curved. Their motions will be proportional to their
distance from the fixed point.
Let ABCD be the initial position. Suppose if point Q moves to Q1 , then all the links and
the joints will move to the new positions (such as A moves to A1 , B moves to Q1 , C
moves to Q1 , D moves to D1 and P to P1 ) and the new configuration of the mechanism is
shown by dotted lines. The movement of Q (Q Q1) will be enlarged to PP1 in a definite
ratio.
4. Toggle Mechanism:

In slider crank mechanism as the crank approaches one of its dead centre position, the
slider approaches zero. The ratio of the crank movement to the slider movement
approaching infinity is proportional to the mechanical advantage. This is the principle
used in toggle mechanism. A toggle mechanism is used when large forces act through a
short distance is required. The figure below shows a toggle mechanism. Links CD and
CE are of same length.
Resolving the forces at C vertically
F Sin α = P
Cos α 2
Therefore, F = P . (because Sin α/Cos α = Tan α)

2 tan α
Thus for the given value of P, as the links CD and CE approaches collinear position (α
O), the force F rises rapidly.
4) Hooke‟s joint:

Hooke‟s joint used to connect two parallel intersecting shafts as shown in figure. This can
also be used for shaft with angular misalignment where flexible coupling does not serve
the purpose. Hence Hooke‟s joint is a means of connecting two rotating shafts whose
axes lie in the same plane and their directions making a small angle with each other. It is
commonly known as Universal joint. In Europe it is called as Cardan joint.
5) Ackermann steering gear mechanism:
This mechanism is made of only turning pairs and is made of only turning pairs wear and
tear of the parts is less and cheaper in manufacturing. The cross link KL connects two
short axles AC and BD of the front wheels through the short links AK and BL which
forms bell crank levers CAK and DBL respectively as shown in fig, the longer links AB
and KL are parallel and the shorter links AK and BL are inclined at an angle α.
When the vehicles steer to the right as shown in the figure, the short link BL is turned so
as to increase α, where as the link LK causes the other short link AK to turn so as to
reduce α.
The fundamental equation for correct steering is,

Cot Φ – Cos θ = b / l.
In the above arrangement it is clear that the angle Φ through which AK turns is less than
the angle θ through which the BL turns and therefore the left front axle turns through a
smaller angle than the right front axle.
For different angle of turn θ, the corresponding value of Φ and (Cot Φ – Cos θ) are noted.
This is done by actually drawing the mechanism to a scale or by calculations. Therefore
for different value of the corresponding value of and are tabulated. Approximate value of
b/l for correct steering should be between 0.4 and 0.5. In an Ackermann steering gear
mechanism, the instantaneous centre I does not lie on the axis of the rear axle but on a
line parallel to the rear axle axis at an approximate distance of 0.3l above it.

Three correct steering positions will be:
 When moving straight
 When moving one correct angle to the right corresponding to the link ratio
AK/AB and angle α.
 Similar position when moving to the left.
(In all other positions pure rolling is not obtainable.)
Some Of The Mechanisms Which Are Used In Day To Day Life.
Bell Crank:
The bell crank is used to convert the direction of reciprocating movement. By varying the
angle of the crank piece it can be used to change the angle of movement from 1 degree to
180 degrees.
The bell crank was originally used in large house to operate the servant‟s bell, hence the
name.

GENEVA STOP:
The Geneva stop is named after the Geneva cross, a similar shape to the main part of the
mechanism.
The Geneva stop is used to provide intermittent motion, the orange wheel turns
continuously, the dark blue pin then turns the blue cross quarter of a turn for each
revolution of the drive wheel. The crescent shaped cut out in dark orange section lets the
points of the cross past, then locks the wheel in place when it is stationary.
The Geneva stop mechanism is used commonly in film
Elliptical Trammel

This fascinating mechanism converts rotary motion to reciprocating motion in two

axis.Notice that the handle traces out an ellipse rather than a circle. A similar mechanism
is used in ellipse drawing tools.
Piston Arrangement
This mechanism is used to convert between rotary motion and reciprocating motion, it
works either way. Notice how the speed of the piston changes. The piston starts from one
end, and increases its speed. It reaches maximum speed in the middle of its travel then
gradually slows down until it reaches the end of its travel.
Rack And Pinion
The rack and pinion is used to convert between rotary and linear motion. The rack is the
flat, toothed part, the pinion is the gear. Rack and pinion can convert from rotary to linear
of from linear to rotary.

The diameter of the gear determines the speed that the rack moves as the pinion turns.
Rack and pinions are commonly used in the steering system of cars to convert the rotary
motion of the steering wheel to the side to side motion in the wheels.
Rack and pinion gears give a positive motion especially compared to the friction drive of
a wheel in tarmac. In the rack and pinion railway a central rack between the two rails
engages with a pinion on the engine allowing the train to be pulled up very steep slopes.
Ratchet
The ratchet can be used to move a toothed wheel one tooth at a time. The part used to
move the ratchet is known as the pawl.
The ratchet can be used as a way of gearing down motion. By its nature motion created
by a ratchet is intermittent. By using two pawls simultaneously this intermittent effect can
be almost, but not quite, removed.
Ratchets are also used to ensure that motion only occurs in only one direction, useful for
winding gear which must not be allowed to drop. Ratchets are also used in the freewheel
mechanism of a bicycle.

Worm Gear
A worm is used to reduce speed. For each complete turn of the worm shaft the gear shaft
advances only one tooth of the gear.
In this case, with a twelve tooth gear, the speed is reduced by a factor of twelve. Also, the
axis of rotation is turned by 90 degrees.
Unlike ordinary gears, the motion is not reversible, a worm can drive a gear to reduce
speed but a gear cannot drive a worm to increase it.
As the speed is reduced the power to the drive increases correspondingly. Worm gears
are a compact, efficient means of substantially decreasing speed and increasing power.
Ideal for use with small electric motors.
Watch Escapement.

The watch escapement is the centre of the time piece. It is the escapement which divides
the time into equal segments.
The balance wheel, the gold wheel, oscillates backwards and forwards on a hairspring
(not shown) as the balance wheel moves the lever is moved allowing the escape wheel
(green) to rotate by one tooth.
The power comes through the escape wheel which gives a small 'kick' to the palettes
(purple) at each tick.
Gears.
Gears are used to change speed in rotational movement. In the example above the blue
gear has eleven teeth and the orange gear has twenty five. To turn the orange gear one
full turn the blue gear must turn 25/11 or 2.2727r turns. Notice that as the blue gear turns
clockwise the orange gear turns anti-clockwise.
In the above example the number of teeth on the orange gear is not divisible by the
number of teeth on the blue gear. This is deliberate. If the orange gear had thirty three
teeth then every three turns of the blue gear the same teeth would mesh together which
could cause excessive wear. By using none divisible numbers the same teeth mesh only
every seventeen turns of the blue gear.

Cam Follower.
Cams are used to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion. The motion created
can be simple and regular or complex and irregular.
As the cam turns, driven by the circular motion, the cam follower traces the surface of the
cam transmitting its motion to the required mechanism.
Cam follower design is important in the way the profile of the cam is followed. A fine
pointed follower will more accurately trace the outline of the cam. This more accurate
movement is at the expense of the strength of the cam follower.
Steam Engine.

Steam engines were the backbone of the industrial revolution. In this common design
high pressure steam is pumped alternately into one side of the piston, then the other
forcing it back and forth. The reciprocating motion of the piston is converted to useful
rotary motion using a crank.
As the large wheel (the fly wheel) turns a small crank or cam is used to move the small
red control valve back and forth controlling where the steam flows.
In this animation the oval crank has been made transparent so that you can see how the
control valve crank is attached.

UNIT 03
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS
Introduction
Kinematics deals with study of relative motion between the various parts of the machines.
Kinematics does not involve study of forces. Thus motion leads study of displacement,
velocity and acceleration of a part of the machine.
Study of Motions of various parts of a machine is important for determining their velocities
and accelerations at different moments.
As dynamic forces are a function of acceleration and acceleration is a function of velocities,
study of velocity and acceleration will be useful in the design of mechanism of a machine.
The mechanism will be represented by a line diagram which is known as configuration
diagram. The analysis can be carried out both by graphical method as well as analytical
method.
Some important Definitions

Displacement: All particles of a body move in parallel planes and travel by same distance is
known, linear displacement and is denoted by „x‟.
A body rotating about a fired point in such a way that all particular move in circular
path angular displacement and is denoted by „ ‟.
Velocity: Rate of change of displacement is velocity. Velocity can be linear velocity of

angular velocity.
2
f = dv d x Linear Acceleration (Rate of change of linear velocity)
2
dt dt
2
d
Thirdly = d 2 Angular Acceleration (Rate of change of angular velocity)
dt dt
We also have,
Absolute velocity: Velocity of a point with respect to a fixed point (zero velocity point).
2
O2
Va = 2 xr
Va = 2 x O2 A
Ex: Vao2 is absolute velocity.
Relative velocity: Velocity of a point with respect to another point „x‟

B
3
A
4
2
O2 O4
Ex: Vba  Velocity of point B with respect to A
Note: Capital letters are used for configuration diagram. Small letters are used for velocity
vector diagram.
This is absolute velocity

Velocity of point A with respect to O2 fixed point, zero velocity point.
B
3
A

Vba = or Vab
Vba = or Vab Equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
B
O4
Vb  Absolute velocity is velocity of B with respect to O4 (fixed point, zero velocity point)
b
Vba
Vb
O2, O4
Vab
a
Velocity vector diagram
Vector O2a = Va= Absolute velocity
Vector ab = Vab
Relative velocity
ba = Va
Vab is equal magnitude with Vba but is apposite in direction.
Vector O4 b = Vb absolute velocity.
To illustrate the difference between absolute velocity and relative velocity. Let, us
consider a simple situation.
o
A link AB moving in a vertical plane such that the link is inclined at 30 to the horizontal
with point A is moving horizontally at 4 m/s and point B moving vertically upwards. Find velocity
of B.
Va = 4 m/s ab Absolute velocity Horizontal direction

(known in magnitude and directors)

Vb = ? ab Absolute velocity Vertical direction

(known in directors only)
O Va a
4 m/s Vab
o
A 30
Vb
C
B
Vba
Velocity of B with respect to A is equal in magnitude to velocity of A with respect to B

but opposite in direction.
Relative Velocity Equation

y Rigid body
ya R
O
O4 x
xA
Fig. 1 Point O is fixed and End A is a point on rigid body.
Rotation of a rigid link about a fixed centre.
Consider rigid link rotating about a fixed centre O, as shown in figure. The distance between O
and A is R and OA makes and angle „ ‟ with x-axis next link
xA = R cos , yA = R sin .
Differentiating xA with respect to time gives velocity.
d xA dθ
R sin θ dt dt
= - R sin

dy A dθ
Similarly, R cos θ
dt dt
= - R cos
d
x y
Let, d xA yA
V V
dt dt A A
dθ
= = angular velocity of OA dt
x
VA = - Rω sin
y
VA = - Rω cos
Total velocity of point A is given by

2 2
VA = R sin R cos θ
VA = Rω
Relative Velocity Equation of Two Points on a Rigid link
Rigid body
B
yB
R sin
A
yA
R cos
x
xA xB
Fig. 2 Points A and B are located on rigid body
From Fig. 2
xB = xA + R cos yB = yA + R sin

Differentiating xB and yB with respect to time we get,

d d
R sin θ dθ
xB x xA
VB
dt dt dt
d
xA x
R sin θ VA R sin
dt
d d
yB
y
yA dθ
Similarly,
dt VB dt R cos θ dt
d
yA y
R cos θ VA R cos θ
dt
x y
VA = V V = Total velocity of point A
A A
x y
Similarly, VB = V V = Total velocity of point B
B B
x y
= VA (Rω sin ) VA Rω cos
x y
= ( VA VA ) (Rω sin + R ωcos )
x y
= ( VA VA ) VA Similarly, ( R ωsin + Rω cos ) = Rω
VB = VA Rω = VA VBA
VBA = VB – VA
Velocity analysis of any mechanism can be carried out by various methods.

1. By graphical method
2. By relative velocity method
3. By instantaneous method

By Graphical Method
The following points are to be considered while solving problems by this method.
1. Draw the configuration design to a suitable scale.
2. Locate all fixed point in a mechanism as a common point in velocity diagram.
3. Choose a suitable scale for the vector diagram velocity.
4. The velocity vector of each rotating link is r to the link.
5. Velocity of each link in mechanism has both magnitude and direction. Start from a
point whose magnitude and direction is known.
6. The points of the velocity diagram are indicated by small letters.
To explain the method let us take a few specific examples.

1. Four – Bar Mechanism: In a four bar chain ABCD link AD is fixed and in 15 cm long.
The crank AB is 4 cm long rotates at 180 rpm (cw) while link CD rotates about D is 8
cm long BC = AD and | BAD = 60o. Find angular velocity of link CD.
C
15 cm
B
8 cm
ωBA
60o
A D 15 cm
Configuration Diagram

2πx120
Vb = r = ba x AB = x4 = 50.24 cm/sec 60
Choose a suitable scale

1 cm = 20 m/s = ab

r c
to CD Vcb
a, d
r
to BC
r
to AB
Vcb = bc
Vc = dc = 38 cm/sec = Vcd
We know that V =ω R
Vcd = CD x CD
Vcd 38
ωcD = 4.75 rad/sec (cw)
CD 8
2. Slider Crank Mechanism:

In a crank and slotted lever mechanism crank rotates of 300 rpm in a counter clockwise
direction. Find
(i) Angular velocity of connecting rod and
(ii) Velocity of slider.
A
60 mm 150 mm
o
45
B
Configuration diagram
Step 1: Determine the magnitude and velocity of point A with respect to 0,

2π x 300
VA = O1A x O2A = x 60 60
= 600 mm/sec
Step 2: Choose a suitable scale to draw velocity vector diagram.

a Va
r r
to AB to OA
b
O
Along sides B
Vab = ab =1300mm/sec
Vba 1300
ba = 8.66 rad/sec BA 150
Vb = ob velocity of slider
Note: Velocity of slider is along the line of sliding.
3. Shaper Mechanism:
In a crank and slotted lever mechanisms crank O2A rotates at rad/sec in CCW
direction. Determine the velocity of slider.
6
D Scale 1 cm = ……x…. m
5
ω 3
O2 B
2
O1

To Determine Velocity of Rubbing
Two links of a mechanism having turning point will be connected by pins. When
the links are motion they rub against pin surface. The velocity of rubbing of pins depends
on the angular velocity of links relative to each other as well as direction.
For example: In a four bar mechanism we have pins at points A, B, C and D.
Vra = ab x ratios of pin A (rpa)
+ sign is used ab is CW and Wbc is CCW i.e. when angular velocities are in opposite
directions use + sign when angular velocities are in some directions use
-ve sign.
Vrb = ( ab + bc) radius rpb
VrC = ( bc + cd) radius rpc
VrD = cd rpd
Problems on velocity by velocity vector method (Graphical solutions)
Problem 1:
In a four bar mechanism, the dimensions of the links are as given below:

AB = 50 mm, BC = 66 mm
CD = 56 mm and AD = 100 mm
o
At a given instant when | DAB 60 the angular velocity of link AB is 10.5 rad/sec in
CCW direction.
Determine,
i) Velocity of point C
ii) Velocity of point E on link BC when BE = 40 mm
iii) The angular velocity of link BC and CD
iv) The velocity of an offset point F on link BC, if BF = 45 mm, CF = 30 mm
and BCF is read clockwise.
v) The velocity of an offset point G on link CD, if CG = 24 mm, DG = 44 mm
and DCG is read clockwise.
vi) The velocity of rubbing of pins A, B, C and D. The ratio of the pins are 30
mm, 40 mm, 25 mm and 35 mm respectively.
Solution:
Step -1: Construct the configuration diagram selecting a suitable scale.
Scale: 1 cm = 20 mm
C
G
B
F
o
60
A D
Step – 2: Given the angular velocity of link AB and its direction of rotation determine velocity of
point with respect to A (A is fixed hence, it is zero velocity point).
Vba = BA x BA
= 10.5 x 0.05 = 0.525 m/s
Step – 3: To draw velocity vector diagram choose a suitable scale, say 1 cm = 0.2 m/s.
First locate zero velocity points.

r
Draw a line to link AB in the direction of rotation of link AB (CCW) equal to
0.525 m/s.
Vba = 0.525 m/s
e, g
a, d f
C Ved
r r
From b draw a line to BC and from d. Draw d line to CD to interest at C.
Vcb is given vector bc Vbc = 0.44 m/s
Vcd is given vector dc Vcd = 0.39 m/s
Step – 4: To determine velocity of point E (Absolute velocity) on link BC, first locate the
position of point E on velocity vector diagram. This can be done by taking corresponding
ratios of lengths of links to vector distance i.e.
be BE bc BC
be = BE x Vcb = 0.04 x 0.44 = 0.24 m/s BC 0.066
Join e on velocity vector diagram to zero velocity points a, d / vector de = Ve =

0.415 m/s.
Step 5: To determine angular velocity of links BC and CD, we know Vbc and Vcd.
Vbc =ω BC x BC
V
b
c 0.44
ωBC = 6.6 r / s . (cw)
BC 0.066
Similarly, Vcd = ωCD x CD

V
cd 0.39 6.96 r / s
ωCD = (CCW)
CD 0.056
Step – 6: To determine velocity of an offset point F
r
Draw a line to CF from C on velocity vector diagram.
r
Draw a line to BF from b on velocity vector diagram to intersect the previously
drawn line at „f‟.
From the point f to zero velocity point a, d and measure vector fa to get
Vf = 0.495 m/s.
Step – 7: To determine velocity of an offset point.

r
Draw a line to GC from C on velocity vector diagram.
r
Draw a line to DG from d on velocity vector diagram to intersect previously drawn
line at g.
Measure vector dg to get velocity of point G.
Vg = dg 0.305 m / s
Step – 8: To determine rubbing velocity at pins

Rubbing velocity at pin A will be
Vpa = ab x r of pin A
Vpa = 10.5 x 0.03 = 0.315 m/s
Rubbing velocity at pin B will be Vpb = ( ab +

cb) x rpb of point at B.
[ ab CCW and cbCW]
Vpb = (10.5 + 6.6) x 0.04 = 0.684 m/s.
Rubbing velocity at point C will be = 6.96 x
0.035 = 0.244 m/s
Problem 2:
In a slider crank mechanism the crank is 200 mm long and rotates at 40 rad/sec in a
CCW direction. The length of the connecting rod is 800 mm. When the crank turns through
o
60 from Inner-dead centre.

Determine,
i) The velocity of the slider
ii) Velocity of point E located at a distance of 200 mm on the connecting rod extended.
iii) The position and velocity of point F on the connecting rod having the least absolute
velocity.
iv) The angular velocity of connecting rod.
v) The velocity of rubbing of pins of crank shaft, crank and cross head having pins
diameters 80,60 and 100 mm respectively.
Solution:
Step 1: Draw the configuration diagram by selecting a suitable scale.
E
A
F
o
45
BOG
Va = Woa x OA
Va = 40 x 0.2
Va = 8 m/s
Step 2: Choose a suitable scale for velocity vector diagram and draw the velocity
vector diagram.
Mark zero velocity point o, g.

r
Draw oa to link OA equal to 8 m/s
ea
f
b o, g
r
From a draw a line to AB and from o, g draw a horizontal line (representing the line of
motion of slider B) to intersect the previously drawn line at b.

ab give Vba=4.8 m/sec
Step – 3: To mark point „e‟ since „E‟ is on the extension of link AB drawn be =
BE
x ab mark the point e on extension of vector ba. Join e to o, g. ge will give AB
velocity of point E.
Ve = ge =8.4 m/sec
Step 4: To mark point F on link AB such that this has least velocity (absolute).
r
Draw a line to ab passing through o, g to cut the vector ab at f. From f to o, g. gf will
have the least absolute velocity.
To mark the position of F on link AB. Find BF

by using the relation.
fb ab BF AB
fb
BF x AB =200mm ab
Step – 5: To determine the angular velocity of connecting rod.

We know that Vab = ab x AB
Vab
ab = = 6 rad/sec AB
Step – 6: To determine velocity of rubbing of pins.

Vpcrankshaft = ao x radius of crankshaft pin
= 8 x 0.08
= 0.64 m/s
VPcrank pin = ( ab + oa) rcrank pin= (6 +8)0.06 =0.84 m/sec

VP cross head = ab x rcross head = 6 x 0.1 = 0.6 m/sec
Problem 3: A quick return mechanism of crank and slotted lever type shaping machine is
shown in Fig. the dimensions of various links are as follows.

O1O2 = 800 mm, O1B = 300 mm, O2D = 1300 mm and DR = 400 mm
o
The crank O1B makes an angle of 45 with the vertical and relates at 40 rpm in the
CCW direction. Find:
i) Velocity of the Ram R, velocity of cutting tool, and
ii) Angular velocity of link O2D.
Solution:
Step 1: Draw the configuration diagram
R
R 200
Tool D D
B on orank, O, B B
o
C
O1 45
C on O2D 2
O1

Step 2: Determine velocity of point B. Vb = O1B x O1B

2 N O1B 2 x 40
O1B = 4.18 rad / sec 60 60
Vb = 4.18 x 0.3 = 1.254 m/sec
Step 3: Draw velocity vector diagram.

Choose a suitable scale 1 cm = 0.3 m/sec
b
d
r O1O2

Problem 4: Figure below shows a toggle mechanisms in which the crank OA rotates at
120 rpm. Find the velocity and acceleration of the slider D.
Solution:
120
All the dimensions in mm
o A
45
40
190
100
135 B 120
D
Step 1: Draw the configuration diagram choosing a suitable scal.
Step 2: Determine velocity of point A with respect to O.

Vao = OA x OA
2 x120 0.4 5.024 m /
Vao = s
60
Step 3: Draw the velocity vector diagram. o

Choose a suitable scale
o Mark zero velocity points O,q
Draw vector oa to link OA and magnitude = 5.024
o r m/s.
a b
D
O,q

r r
o From a draw a line to AB and from q draw a line to QB to intersect at b.
ab Vba and qb Vbq .

r
o Draw a line to BD from b from q draw a line along the slide to intersect at d.
dq Vd (slider velocity)
Problem 5: A whitworth quick return mechanism shown in figure has the following
dimensions of the links.
The crank rotates at an angular velocity of 2.5 r/s at the moment when crank
makes an angle of 45o with vertical. Calculate
OP (crank) = 240 mm
a) the velocity of the Ram S
OA = 150 mm
b) the velocity of slider P on the slotted level
AR = 165 mm
c) the angular velocity of the link RS.
RS = 430 mm
Solution:
Step 1: To draw configuration diagram to a suitable scale.
R
S A
O
o P on slider Q on
45 BA
Step 2: To determine the absolute velocity of point P. VP =

OP x OP
2 x 240
Vao = x 0.24 0.6 m / s 60

Step 3: Draw the velocity vector diagram by choosing a suitable scale. P
0.6 m
q
S
O, a, g
r
r
o Draw op link OP = 0.6 m.
r
p From O, a, g draw a line to AP/AQ and from P draw a line along AP to intersect
previously draw, line at q. Pq = Velocity of sliding.
aq = Velocity of Q with respect to A.
Vqa = aq =
sr
o Angular velocity of link RS = RS rad/sec SR
Problem 6: A toggle mechanism is shown in figure along with the diagrams of the links
in mm. find the velocities of the points B and C and the angular velocities of links AB,
BQ and BC. The crank rotates at 50 rpm in the clockwise direction.

Q 100
B
140
OA = 30
AB = 80
A 50 rpm
BQ = 100
BC = 100
All dimensions are in mm O
Solution
Step 1: Draw the configuration diagram to a suitable scale.
Step 2: Calculate the magnitude of velocity of A with respect to O. V a =
OA x OA
2 x 50
Va = x 0.03 0.05 m / s 0.1507 m / s
60
b
a
O, q c
Vector velocity diagram
Step 3: Draw the velocity vector diagram by choosing a suitable scale.

r
o Draw Oa to link OA = 0.15 m/s
r r
p From a draw a link to AB and from O, q draw a link to BQ to intersect at b.
ab Vba and qb Vb 0.13 m / s
ab = ab 0.74 r / s (ccw) bq qb 1.3 r / s (ccw)

AB aB
r
o From b draw a line to Be and from O, q these two lines intersect at C.
OC VC 0.106 m / s
bC VCb
bc
BC 1.33 r / s (ccw) BC
Problem 7: The mechanism of a stone crusher has the dimensions as shown in figure in
mm. If crank rotates at 120 rpm CW. Find the velocity of point K when crank OA is
inclined at 30o to the horizontal. What will be the torque required at the crank to
overcome a horizontal force of 40 kN at K.
500
o
60 A
M
100 hz
h2 100
200
600 K
400 600
D
360 320
B 200 C
Solution:
Step 2: Given speed of crank OA determine velocity of A with respect to „o‟.

2 x 120
Va = OA x OA = x 0.1 1.26 m / s
60
Vk(hz) o, q, m
d
c a
Step 3: Draw the velocity vector diagram by selecting a suitable scale.
r
o Draw Oa to link OA = 1.26 m/s
r r
o From a draw a link to AB and from q draw a link to BQ to intersect at b.
r r
o From b draw a line to BC and from a, draw a line to AC to intersect at c.
r r
o From c draw a line to CD and from m draw a line to MD to intersect at
d.
o From d draw a line r to KD and from m draw a line r

to KM to x intersect the
previously drawn line at k.
o Since we have to determine the torque required at OA to overcome a horizontal

force of 40 kN at K. Draw a the horizontal line from o, q, m and c line r to this
line from k.
T I T O
P P
V= R T
T=FxP F=
r
OA TOA = Fk Vk horizontal

FV
k k hz
TOA =
OA
TOA = 40000 X 0.45 = N-m

12.6
Problem 8: In the mechanism shown in figure link OA = 320 mm, AC = 680 mm

and OQ = 650 mm.
Determine,
i) The angular velocity of the cylinder
ii) The sliding velocity of the plunger
iii) The absolute velocity of the plunger
When the crank OA rotates at 20 rad/sec clockwise.

r
From a draw a line to AB and from o, q, draw a line perpendicular to AB. o To mark
point c on ab
We know that ab AB
ac AC
ab x AC
ac = AB
o Mark point c on ab and joint this to zero velocity point. o
Angular velocity of cylinder will be.
V ab
ab = AB = 5.61 rad/sec (c )
o Studying velocity of player will be
qb = 4.1 m/s
OC
o Absolute velocity of plunger = qc = 4.22 m/s
Problem 9: In a swiveling joint mechanism shown in figure link AB is the driving crank which
rotates at 300 rpm clockwise. The length of the various links are:




r
o Draw gb = 0.43 m/s to BG.
r r
o From b draw a line to BC and from „f‟ draw a line to CF to intersect at C.
r r
o From b draw a line to BE and from g, f draw a line to GE to intersect at e.

r r
o From c draw a line to CD and from f draw a line to FD to intersect at d.
Problem 11: For the mechanism shown in figure link 2 rotates at constant angular
velocity of 1 rad/sec construct the velocity polygon and determine.
i) Velocity of point D.
ii) Angular velocity of link BD.
iii) Velocity of slider C.
Solution:
Step 1: Draw configuration diagram.
Step 2: Determine velocity of A with respect to O2.
Vb = 2 x O2A
Vb = 1 x 50.8 = 50.8 mm/sec.
Step 3: Draw the velocity vector diagram, locate zero velocity points O2O6.

r
o From O2, O6 draw a line to O2A in the direction of rotation equal to 50.8
mm/sec.
o From a draw a line r to Ac and from O2, O6 draw a line along the line of stocks
of c to intersect the previously drawn line at c.
ab
o Mark point b on vector ac such that ab AC x AB
r r
o From b draw a line to BD and from O2, O6 draw a line to O6D to intersect at
d.
Step 4: Vd = O6 d = 32 mm/sec
= BDbd = Vc =
bd
O2C =

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE
Problem 1: In a slider crank mechanism shown in offset by a perpendicular distance of

50 mm from the centre C. AB and BC are 750 mm and 200 mm long respectively crank
BC is rotating e at a uniform speed of 200 rpm. Draw the velocity vector diagram and
determine velocity of slider A and angular velocity of link AB.
Problem 2: For the mechanism shown in figure determine the velocities at points C, E
and F and the angular velocities of links, BC, CDE and EF.
The crank op of a crank and slotted lever mechanism shown in figure rotates at 100 rpm
in the CCW direction. Various lengths of the links are OP = 90 mm, OA = 300 mm, AR
= 480 mm and RS = 330 mm. The slider moves along an axis perpendicular to r AO
and in 120 mm from O. Determine the velocity of the slider when | AOP is 135o and also
mention the maximum velocity of slider.

Problem 4: Find the velocity of link 4 of the scotch yoke mechanism shown in figure. The
angular speed of link 2 is 200 rad/sec CCW, link O2P = 40 mm.
4
P
2
Q on link 4
o
45
Problem 5: In the mechanism shown in figure link AB rotates uniformly in C direction

at 240 rpm. Determine the linear velocity of B and angular velocity of EF.
E C AB = 160 mm
B BC = 160 mm
o CD = 100 mm
A 45
AD = 200 mm
EF = 200 mm
100 mm CE = 40 mm
F

UNIT- 04
VELOCITY AND ACCELRATION ANALYSIS (Instantaneous Method )
Instantaneous Method
To explain instantaneous centre let us consider a plane body P having a non-linear

motion relative to another body q consider two points A and B on body P having velocities as
Va and Vb respectively in the direction shown.
If a line is drawn r to Va, at A the body can be imagined to rotate about some point on
the line. Thirdly, centre of rotation of the body also lies on a line r to the direction of Vb at B.
If the intersection of the two lines is at I, the body P will be rotating about I at that instant. The
point I is known as the instantaneous centre of rotation for the body P. The position of
instantaneous centre changes with the motion of the body.
r
In case of the lines drawn from A and B meet outside the body P as shown in Fig 2.

If the direction of Va and Vb are parallel to the r at A and B met at . This is the case when
the body has linear motion.
Number of Instantaneous Centers
The number of instantaneous centers in a mechanism depends upon number of links. If

N is the number of instantaneous centers and n is the number of links
Fixed instantaneous center I12, I14

Permanent instantaneous center I23, I34

Neither fixed nor permanent instantaneous center I13, I24
Arnold Kennedy theorem of three centers:

Statement: If three bodies have motion relative to each other, their instantaneous centers
should lie in a straight line.
Consider a three link mechanism with link 1 being fixed link 2 rotating about I12 and link 3
rotating about I13. Hence, I12 and I13 are the instantaneous centers for link 2 and link 3. Let us
assume that instantaneous center of link 2 and 3 be at point A i.e. I23. Point A is a coincident
point on link 2 and link 3.
Considering A on link 2, velocity of A with respect to I12 will be a vector VA2 r to link A I12.
Similarly for point A on link 3, velocity of A with respect to I13 will be r to A I13. It is seen
that velocity vector of VA2 and VA3 are in different directions which is impossible. Hence, the
instantaneous center of the two links cannot be at the assumed position.
It can be seen that when I23 lies on the line joining I12 and I13 the VA2 and VA3 will be same in
magnitude and direction. Hence, for the three links to be in relative motion all the three centers
should lie in a same straight line. Hence, the proof.
Steps to locate instantaneous centers:
Step 1: Draw the configuration diagram.
Step 2: Identify the number of instantaneous centers by using the relation
Step 3: Identify the instantaneous centers by circle diagram.
Step 4: Locate all the instantaneous centers by making use of Kennedy‟s theorem.
To illustrate the procedure let us consider an example
A slider crank mechanism has lengths of crank and connecting rod equal to 200 mm and 200
mm respectively locate all the instantaneous centers of the mechanism for the position of the

crank when it has turned through 30o from IOC. Also find velocity of slider and angular
velocity of connecting rod if crank rotates at 40 rad/sec.
Step 1: Draw configuration diagram to a suitable scale.

Step 2: Determine the number of links in the mechanism and find number of instantaneous
centers.
Step 3: Identify instantaneous centers.
o Suit it is a 4-bar link the resulting figure will be a square.

o Locate fixed and permanent instantaneous centers. To locate neither fixed nor
permanent instantaneous centers use Kennedy‟s three centers theorem.
Step 4: Velocity of different points.
Va = 2 AI12 = 40 x 0.2 = 8 m/s also Va = 2 x A13

3 = Va
AI13
Vb = 3 x BI13 = Velocity of slider.
Problem 2:
A four bar mechanisms has links AB = 300 mm, BC = CD = 360 mm and AD = 600 mm.
Angle | BAD  60o . Crank AB rotates in C direction at a speed of 100
rpm. Locate all the instantaneous centers and determine the angular velocity of link BC.
Solution:
Step 2: Find the number of Instantaneous centers

For a mechanism in figure crank OA rotates at 100 rpm clockwise using I.C. method
determine the linear velocities of points B, C, D and angular velocities of links AB, BC and
CD.
OA = 20 cm AB = 150 cm BC = 60 cm
CD = 50 cm BE = 40 cm OE = 135 cm

In the toggle mechanism shown in figure the slider D is constrained to move in a horizontal
path the crank OA is rotating in CCW direction at a speed of 180 rpm the dimensions of
various links are as follows:
OA = 180 mm CB = 240 mm
AB = 360 mm BD = 540 mm
Find,
i) Velocity of slider
Angular velocity of links AB, CB and BD.

Va = 2 x AI12 = 3.4 m/s
Va = 3 x AI13
V
a
3 = 2.44 rad / sec
AI13
Vb = 3 x BI13

Vb = 4 x BI14
Vb
4 = 11.875 rad / sec
AI14

Figure shows a six link mechanism. What will be the velocity of cutting tool D and the angular
velocities of links BC and CD if crank rotates at 10 rad/sec.


Va = 2 x AI12 = 10 x 0.015 Va = 2 x AI12 = 0.15 m/s
Va = 3 x AI13
Va
3 =
AI13
Vb = 3 x BI13
Vb = 4 x BI14
4 = Vb 4.25 rad / sec

BI14
VC = 4 x CI14

A whitworth quick return mechanism shown in figure has a fixed link OA and crank OP
having length 200 mm and 350 mm respectively. Other lengths are AR = 200 mm and RS = 40
mm. Find the velocity of the rotation using IC method when crank makes an angle of 120 o
with fixed link and rotates at 10 rad/sec.



UNIT-05
VELOCITY AND ACCELRATION ANALYSIS (Analytical method)
Acceleration Analysis
Rate of change of velocity is acceleration. A change in velocity requires any one of the
following conditions to be fulfilled:
o Change in magnitude only

o Change in direction only
o Change in both magnitude and direction
When the velocity of a particle changes in magnitude and direction it has two
component of acceleration.
1. Radial or centripetal acceleration

c 2
f = r
Acceleration is parallel to the link and acting towards centre.
Va‟ = (ω + δ t) r
Velocity of A parallel to OA = 0
Velocity of A‟ parallel to OA = Va‟ sin δ θ
Therefore change in velocity = Va‟ sin δ θ – 0
c t r sin
Centripetal acceleration = f =
t

as δt tends to Zero sin δ θ tends to δ θ
r r t
t
c 2
f = ωr (dθ/ dt) =ω r
But V = ωr or ω = V/r
c 2 2
Hence, f =ω r = V /r
2. Tnagential Acceleration:
Va‟ = (ω + δ t) r
Velocity of A perpendicular to OA = Va
Velocity of A‟ perpendicular to OA = Va‟ cos δ θ
Therefore change in velocity = Va‟ cos δ θ – Va
t t r cos r
Tnagnetial acceleration = f =
t
as δt tends to Zero cos δ θ tends to 1
r r t r
t
t
f = r
Example:
2
= AB

Acts parallel to BA and acts from B to A.
r
f ab
fab
t
f ab
t r
f = BA acts to link.
r t
fBA = f BA + f BA
Problem 1: Four bar mechanism. For a 4-bar mechanism shown in figure draw velocity and
acceleration diagram.
Solution:
Step 1: Draw configuration diagram to a scale.
Step 2: Draw velocity vector diagram to a scale. Vb = 2 x AB

Vb = 10.5 x 0.05 Vb = 0.525 m/s

STEP 4: Draw the acceleration diagram (ABOVE FIG)
Choose a suitable scale to draw acceleration diagram.

o Mark the zero acceleration point a1d1.
o Link AB has only centripetal acceleration. Therefore, draw a line parallel to AB and toward
2
A from a1d1 equal to 5.51 m/s i.e. point b1.
2 1
o From b1 draw a vector parallel to BC points towards B equal to 1.75 m/s (b 1).
1 r
o From b 1 draw a line to BC. The magnitude is not known.
2
o From a1d1 draw a vector parallel to AD and pointing towards D equal to 2.72 m/s i.e.
point c1.
1 r r
o From c 1 draw a line to CD to intersect the line drawn to BC at c1, d1c1 = fCD and
b1c1 = fbc.
To determine angular acceleration.

t 1
f bc c1b1
BC = 34.09 rad / sec (CCW)
BC BC
t 1
f cd c1c 1
CD = 79.11rad / sec (CCW)
CD CD
Problem 2: For the configuration of slider crank mechanism shown in figure below.
Step 1: Draw configuration diagram.
Step 2: Find velocity of A with respect to O.

Va = OA x OA
Va = 20 x 0.48
Va = 9.6 m/s

Step 4
Sl.
Link Magnitude Direction Sense
No.
c 2
1. OA f aO = OAr = 192 Parallel to OA O
c 2
2. AB f ab = abr = 17.2 Parallel to AB A
t r
f ab – to AB –
3. Slider B – Parallel to Slider –

Problem 3: In a toggle mechanism shown in figure the crank OA rotates at 210 rpm CCW
increasing at the rate of 60 rad/s2.
Velocity of slider D and angular velocity of link BD.
Acceleration of slider D and angular acceleration of link BD.

Step 1 Draw the configuration diagram to a scale.

Step 2 Find
Va = OA x OA
2 210
Va = x 0.2 = 4.4 m/s
60
Step 3: Draw the velocity vector diagram.
Step 4:
2
Sl. Link Magnitude m/s Direction
No.
c 2
1. f aO = r = 96.8 Parallel to OA
AO t r
f aO = r = 12 to OA
c 2
2. f ab = r = 5.93 Parallel to AB
AB t r
f ab = r= to AB
c 2
3. f bq = r = 38.3 Parallel to BQ
BQ t r
f bq = r= to BQ
c 2 r
4. BD f bd = r = 20 to BD
t r
5. f bd = r= to BD
Slider D
– Parallel to slider motion

Step 5: Draw the acceleration diagram choosing a suitable scale. o Mark zero acceleration
point

Coriolis Acceleration: It has been seen that the acceleration of a body may have two
components.
Centripetal acceleration and
Tangential acceleration.
However, in same cases there will be a third component called as corilis acceleration to
illustrate this let us take an example of crank and slotted lever mechanism.

Assume link 2 having constant angular velocity 2, in its motions from OP to OP1 in a
small interval of time t. During this time slider 3 moves outwards from position B to B2.
Assume this motion also to have constant velocity VB/A. Consider the motion of slider from B
to B2 in 3 stages.
1. B to A1 due to rotation of link 2.
2. A1 to B1 due to outward velocity of slider VB/A.
r
3. B1 to B2 due to acceleration to link 2 this component in the coriolis component of
acceleration.
We have Arc B1B2 = Arc QB2 – Arc QB1
= Arc QB2 – Arc AA1
Arc B1B2 = OQ d - AO d
= A1B1 d
2
= VB/A 2dt
r
The tangential component of velocity is to the link and is given by Vt = r. In this
case has been assumed constant and the slider is moving on the link with constant velocity.
Therefore, tangential velocity of any point B on the slider 3 will result in uniform increase in
tangential velocity. The equation Vt = r remain same but r increases uniformly i.e. there is a
r
constant acceleration to rod.
2
Displacement B1B2 = ½ at
2
= ½ f (dt)
2 2
½ f (dt) = VB/A 2 dt
cr
f B/A = 2 2 VB/A coriolis acceleration
The direction of coriolis component is the direction of relative velocity vector for the
two coincident points rotated at 90o in the direction of angular velocity of rotation of the link.

A quick return mechanism of crank and slotted lever type shaping machine is shown in Fig.
the dimensions of various links are as follows.
O1O2 = 800 mm, O1B = 300 mm, O2D = 1300 mm and DR = 400 mm
The crank O1B makes an angle of 45o with the vertical and rotates at 40 rpm in the CCW
direction. Find:
iii) Acceleration of the Ram R, velocity of cutting tool, and
iv) Angular Acceleration of link AD.

Solution:
Step 1: Draw the configuration diagram
Step 2: Determine velocity of point B
Vb = OB x OB
2 N 2 x 40
OB = O1B 4.18rad / sec
60 60
Vb = 4.18 x 0.3 = 1.254 m/sec
Step 3: Draw velocity vector diagram.
Choose a suitable scale 1 cm = 0.3 m/sec

Step 4: prepare table showing the acceleration components

KLENIN‟S Construction
This method helps us to draw the velocity and acceleration diagrams on the
construction diagram itself. The crank of the configuration diagram represents the
velocity and acceleration line of the moving end (crank).
The procedure is given below for a slider crank mechanism

To draw the velocity vector diagram:
Link OA represents the velocity vector of A with respect to O.
Voa = oa = ω r = ω OA.
Draw a line perpendicular at O, extend the line BA to meet this perpendicular line at b.
oab is the velocity vector diagram rotated through 90º opposite to the rotation of the
crank.
Acceleration diagram:
The line representing Crank OA represents the acceleration of A with respect to O. To
draw the acceleration diagram follow the steps given below.
Draw a circle with OA as radius and A as centre.
Draw another circle with AB as diameter.

The two circles intersect each other at two points C and D.
Join C and D to meet OB at b1 and AB at E.
O1,a1,ba1and b1 is the required acceleration diagram rotated through 180º.
*******************

UNIT-06
GEARS
Introduction:
The slip and creep in the belt or rope drives is a common phenomenon, in the transmission
of motion or power between two shafts. The effect of slip is to reduce the velocity ratio of
the drive. In precision machine, in which a definite velocity ratio is importance (as in
watch mechanism, special purpose machines.etc), the only positive drive is by means of
gears or toothed wheels.
Friction Wheels: Kinematiclly, the motion and
power transmitted by gears is equivalent to that
transmitted by friction wheels or discs in contact
With sufficient friction between them. In order to
Figure
understand motion transmitted by two toothed 4.1
wheels, let us consider the two discs placed together
as shown in the figure 4.1.
When one of the discs is rotated, the other disc will be rotate as long as the tangential force
exerted by the driving disc does not exceed the maximum frictional resistance between the
two discs. But when the tangential force exceeds the frictional resistance, slipping will
take place between the two discs. Thus the friction drive is not positive a drive, beyond
certain limit.
Gears are machine elements that transmit motion by means of successively engaging teeth.
The gear teeth act like small levers. Gears are highly efficient (nearly 95%) due to
primarily rolling contact between the teeth, thus the motion transmitted is considered as
positive.
Gears essentially allow positive engagement between teeth so high forces can be
transmitted while still undergoing essentially rolling contact. Gears do not depend on
friction and do best when friction is minimized.

Some common places that gears can normally be found are:
Printing machinery parts Newspaper Industry Book binding machines
Rotary die cutting Plastics machinery builders Injection molding machinery
machines
Blow molding machinery Motorcycle Transmissions (street Heavy earth moving to
and race applications) personal vehicles
High volume water pumps

Agricultural equipment Polymer pumps for
municipalities
High volume vacuum Turbo boosters for automotive Marine applications
pumps applications
Boat out drives Special offshore racing drive Canning and bottling
systems machinery builders
Hoists and Cranes Commercial and Military Military offroad vehicles
operations
Automotive prototype
and Low volume automotive Stamping presses
reproduction production
Diesel engine builders Special gear box builders Many different special
machine tool builders
4.1 Gear Classification: Gears may be classified according to the relative position of the
axes of revolution. The axes may be
1.1 Gears for connecting parallel shafts,

1.2 Gears for connecting intersecting shafts,
1.3 Gears for neither parallel nor intersecting shafts.

Gears for connecting parallel shafts
1.2 Spur gears: Spur gears are the most common type of gears. They have straight teeth,
and are mounted on parallel shafts. Sometimes, many spur gears are used at once to
create very large gear reductions. Each time a gear tooth engages a tooth on the other
gear, the teeth collide, and this impact makes a noise. It also increases the stress on
the gear teeth. To reduce the noise and stress in the gears, most of the gears in your
car are helical.
Spur gears (Emerson Power

Transmission Corp)
External contact Internal contact
Spur gears are the most commonly used gear type. They are characterized by teeth,
which are perpendicular to the face of the gear. Spur gears are most commonly available,
and are generally the least expensive.
 Limitations: Spur gears generally cannot be used when a direction change between
the two shafts is required.
 Advantages: Spur gears are easy to find, inexpensive, and efficient.
 Parallel helical gears: The teeth on helical gears are cut at an angle to the face of the
gear. When two teeth on a helical gear system engage, the contact starts at one end of
the tooth and gradually spreads as the gears rotate, until the two teeth are in full
engagement.
Helical gears Herringbone gears double-helical gears

This gradual engagement makes helical gears operate much more smoothly and quietly
than spur gears. For this reason, helical gears are used in almost all car transmission.
Because of the angle of the teeth on helical gears, they create a thrust load on the gear
when they mesh. Devices that use helical gears have bearings that can support this thrust
load.
One interesting thing about helical gears is that if the angles of the gear teeth are correct,
they can be mounted on perpendicular shafts, adjusting the rotation angle by 90 degrees.
Helical gears to have the following differences from spur gears of the same size:
o Tooth strength is greater because the teeth are longer,
o Greater surface contact on the teeth allows a helical gear to carry more load than a
spur gear
o The longer surface of contact reduces the efficiency of a helical gear relative to a
spur gear
Rack and pinion (The rack is like a gear whose axis is
at infinity.): Racks are straight gears that are used to
convert rotational motion to translational motion by
means of a gear mesh. (They are in theory a gear with
an infinite pitch diameter). In theory, the torque and
angular velocity of the pinion gear are related to the
Force and the velocity of the rack by the radius of the
pinion gear, as is shown.
Perhaps the most well-known application of a rack is the rack and pinion steering
system used on many cars in the past
Gears for connecting intersecting shafts: Bevel gears are useful when the direction of
a shaft's rotation needs to be changed. They are usually mounted on shafts that are 90
degrees apart, but can be designed to work at other angles as well.
The teeth on bevel gears can be straight, spiral or hypoid. Straight bevel gear teeth actually
have the same problem as straight spur gear teeth, as each tooth engages; it impacts the
corresponding tooth all at once.
Just like with spur gears, the solution to this problem is to curve the gear teeth. These spiral
teeth engage just like helical teeth: the contact starts at one end of the gear and
progressively spreads across the whole tooth.
Straight bevel gears Spiral bevel gears

On straight and spiral bevel gears, the shafts must

be perpendicular to each other, but they must also
be in the same plane. The hypoid gear, can
engage
with the axes in different planes.
This feature is used in many car differentials. The

ring gear of the differential and the input pinion
gear are both hypoid. This allows the input pinion
to be mounted lower than the axis of the ring
gear.
Figure shows the input pinion engaging the ring
gear of the differential. Since the driveshaft of the
car is connected to the input pinion, this also
lowers Hypoid gears (Emerson Power
Transmission Corp)
the driveshaft. This means that the driveshaft
doesn't pass into the passenger compartment of the car as much, making more room for people
and cargo.
Neither parallel nor intersecting shafts: Helical gears may be used to mesh two shafts that
are not parallel, although they are still primarily use in parallel shaft applications. A special
application in which helical gears are used is a crossed gear mesh, in which the two shafts are
perpendicular to each other.
Crossed-helical gears
Worm and worm gear: Worm gears are used when large gear reductions are needed. It is
common for worm gears to have reductions of 20:1, and even up to 300:1 or greater.
Many worm gears have an interesting property that no other gear set has: the worm can easily
turn the gear, but the gear cannot turn the worm. This is because the angle on the worm is so
shallow that when the gear tries to spin it, the friction between the gear and the worm holds
the worm in place.
This feature is useful for machines such as conveyor systems, in which the locking feature can

act as a brake for the conveyor when the motor is not turning. One other very interesting usage
of worm gears is in the Torsion differential, which is used on some high-performance cars and
trucks.
4.3 Terminology for Spur Gear
Figure 4-4 Spur Gear
Terminology:
Addendum: The radial distance between the Pitch Circle and the top of the teeth.
Arc of Action: Is the arc of the Pitch Circle between the beginning and the end of the
engagement of a given pair of teeth.
Arc of Approach: Is the arc of the Pitch Circle between the first point of contact of the gear
teeth and the Pitch Point.

Arc of Recession: That arc of the Pitch Circle between the Pitch Point and the last point of
contact of the gear teeth.
Backlash: Play between mating teeth.
Base Circle: The circle from which is generated the involute curve upon which the tooth
profile is based.
Center Distance: The distance between centers of two gears.
Chordal Addendum: The distance between a chord, passing through the points where the
Pitch Circle crosses the tooth profile, and the tooth top.
Chordal Thickness: The thickness of the tooth measured along a chord passing through the
points where the Pitch Circle crosses the tooth profile.
Circular Pitch: Millimeter of Pitch Circle circumference per tooth.
Circular Thickness: The thickness of the tooth measured along an arc following the Pitch
Circle
Clearance: The distance between the top of a tooth and the bottom of the space into which it
fits on the meshing gear.
Contact Ratio: The ratio of the length of the Arc of Action to the Circular Pitch.
Dedendum: The radial distance between the bottom of the tooth to pitch circle
Diametral Pitch: Teeth per mm of diameter.
Face: The working surface of a gear tooth, located between the pitch diameter and the top of
the tooth.
Face Width: The width of the tooth measured parallel to the gear axis.
Flank: The working surface of a gear tooth, located between the pitch diameter and the
bottom of the teeth
Gear: The larger of two meshed gears. If both gears are the same size, they are both called
"gears".
Land: The top surface of the tooth.
Line of Action: That line along which the point of contact between gear teeth travels, between
the first point of contact and the last.
Module: Millimeter of Pitch Diameter to Teeth.
Pinion: The smaller of two meshed gears.
Pitch Circle: The circle, the radius of which is equal to the distance from the center of the
gear to the pitch point.
Diametral pitch: Teeth per millimeter of pitch diameter.
Pitch Point: The point of tangency of the pitch circles of two meshing gears, where the Line
of Centers crosses the pitch circles.
Pressure Angle: Angle between the Line of Action and a line perpendicular to the Line of
Centers.
Profile Shift: An increase in the Outer Diameter and Root Diameter of a gear, introduced to
lower the practical tooth number or acheive a non-standard Center Distance.
Ratio: Ratio of the numbers of teeth on mating gears.
Root Circle: The circle that passes through the bottom of the tooth spaces.

Root Diameter: The diameter of the Root Circle.

Working Depth: The depth to which a tooth extends into the space between teeth on the
mating gear.
4.2 Gear-Tooth Action
4.2.1 Fundamental Law of Gear-Tooth
Action

Although the two profiles have different velocities V1 and V2 at point K, their velocities along
N1N2 are equal in both magnitude and direction. Otherwise the two tooth profiles would
separate from each other. Therefore, we have
We notice that the intersection of the tangency N1N2 and the line of center O1O2 is point P, and
from the similar triangles,
Thus, the relationship between the angular velocities of the driving gear to the driven gear, or
velocity ratio, of a pair of mating teeth is Point P is very important to the velocity ratio, and it

is called the pitch point. Pitch point divides the line between the line of centers and its
position decides the velocity ratio of the two teeth. The above expression is the fundamental
law of gear-tooth action. where is the pressure angle or the angle of obliquity. It is the angle
which the common normal to the base circles make with the common tangent to the pitch
circles
4.2.2 Constant Velocity Ratio
For a constant velocity ratio, the position of P should remain unchanged. In this case, the
motion transmission between two gears is equivalent to the motion transmission between two
imagined slip-less cylinders with radius R1 and R2 or diameter D1 and D2. We can get two
circles whose centers are at O1 and O2, and through pitch point P. These two circles are termed
pitch circles. The velocity ratio is equal to the inverse ratio of the diameters of pitch circles.
This is the fundamental law of gear-tooth action.
The fundamental law of gear-tooth action may now also be stated as follow (for gears with
fixed center distance)
A common normal (the line of action) to the tooth profiles at their point of contact must, in all
positions of the contacting teeth, pass through a fixed point on the line-of-centers called the
pitch point
Any two curves or profiles engaging each other and satisfying the law of gearing are conjugate
curves, and the relative rotation speed of the gears will be constant(constant velocity ratio).
4.2.3 Conjugate Profiles
To obtain the expected velocity ratio of two tooth profiles, the normal line of their profiles
must pass through the corresponding pitch point, which is decided by the velocity ratio. The
two profiles which satisfy this requirement are called conjugate profiles. Sometimes, we
simply termed the tooth profiles which satisfy the fundamental law of gear-tooth action the
conjugate profiles.
Although many tooth shapes are possible for which a mating tooth could be designed to satisfy
the fundamental law, only two are in general use: the cycloidal and involute profiles. The
involute has important advantages; it is easy to manufacture and the center distance between a
pair of involute gears can be varied without changing the velocity ratio. Thus close tolerances
between shaft locations are not required when using the involute profile. The most commonly
used conjugate tooth curve is the involute curve. (Erdman & Sandor). conjugate action : It is
essential for correctly meshing gears, the size of the teeth ( the module ) must be the same for
both the gears.

Another requirement - the shape of teeth necessary for the speed ratio to remain constant
during an increment of rotation; this behavior of the contacting surfaces (ie. the teeth flanks) is
known as conjugate action
4.3 Involute Curve
The following examples are involute spur gears. We use the word involute because the
contour of gear teeth curves inward. Gears have many terminologies, parameters and
principles. One of the important concepts is the velocity ratio, which is the ratio of the rotary
velocity of the driver gear to that of the driven gears.
4.1 Generation of the Involute Curve
The curve most commonly used for gear-tooth profiles is the involute of a circle. This
involute curve is the path traced by a point on a line as the line rolls without slipping on the
circumference of a circle. It may also be defined as a path traced by the end of a string, which
is originally wrapped on a circle when the string is unwrapped from the circle. The circle from
which the involute is derived is called the base circle


1. The line rolls without slipping on the circle.
2. For any instant, the instantaneous center of the motion of the line is its point of tangent
with the circle.
Note: We have not defined the term instantaneous center previously. The instantaneous
center or instant center is defined in two ways.
1. When two bodies have planar relative motion, the instant center is a point on one body
about which the other rotates at the instant considered.
2. When two bodies have planar relative motion, the instant center is the point at which
the bodies are relatively at rest at the instant considered.
3. The normal at any point of an involute is tangent to the base circle. Because of the
property
(2) of the involute curve, the motion of the point that is tracing the involute is perpendicular to
the line at any instant, and hence the curve traced will also be perpendicular to the line at any
instant.
There is no involute curve within the base circle.
Cycloidal profile:
Epicycliodal Profile:

Hypocycliodal Profile:
The involute profile of gears has important advantages;
• It is easy to manufacture and the center distance between a pair of involute gears can be
varied without changing the velocity ratio. Thus close tolerances between shaft locations are
not required. The most commonly used conjugate tooth curve is the involute curve.
(Erdman & Sandor).
2. In involute gears, the pressure angle, remains constant between the point of tooth
engagement and disengagement. It is necessary for smooth running and less wear of gears.
But in cycloidal gears, the pressure angle is maximum at the beginning of engagement,
reduces to zero at pitch point, starts increasing and again becomes maximum at the end of
engagement. This results in less smooth running of gears.

3. The face and flank of involute teeth are generated by a single curve where as in cycloidal
gears, double curves (i.e. epi-cycloid and hypo-cycloid) are required for the face and flank
respectively. Thus the involute teeth are easy to manufacture than cycloidal teeth.
In involute system, the basic rack has straight teeth and the same can be cut with simple tools.
Advantages of Cycloidal gear teeth:
1. Since the cycloidal teeth have wider flanks, therefore the cycloidal gears are stronger than
the
involute gears, for the same pitch. Due to this reason, the cycloidal teeth are preferred
specially
for cast teeth.
2. In cycloidal gears, the contact takes place between a convex flank and a concave surface,
where as in involute gears the convex surfaces are in contact. This condition results in less
wear
in cycloidal gears as compared to involute gears. However the difference in wear is negligible
3. In cycloidal gears, the interference does not occur at all. Though there are advantages of
cycloidal gears but they are outweighed by the greater simplicity and flexibility of the involute
gears.

Properties of involute teeth:

1. A normal drawn to an involute at pitch point is a tangent to the base circle.
2. Pressure angle remains constant during the mesh of an involute gears.
3. The involute tooth form of gears is insensitive to the centre distance and depends only on
the
dimensions of the base circle.
4. The radius of curvature of an involute is equal to the length of tangent to the base circle.
5. Basic rack for involute tooth profile has straight line form.
6. The common tangent drawn from the pitch point to the base circle of the two involutes is
the
line of action and also the path of contact of the involutes.
7. When two involutes gears are in mesh and rotating, they exhibit constant angular velocity
ratio
and is inversely proportional to the size of base circles. (Law of Gearing or conjugate action)
8. Manufacturing of gears is easy due to single curvature of profile.
System of Gear Teeth
The following four systems of gear teeth are commonly used in practice:
 14 ½O Composite system
 14 ½O Full depth involute system
 20O Full depth involute system
 20O Stub involute system
The 14½ O composite system is used for general purpose gears.
It is stronger but has no interchangeability. The tooth profile of this system has cycloidal
curves at the top and bottom and involute curve at the middle portion.The teeth are produced
by formed milling cutters or hobs
O
The tooth profile of the 14½ full depth involute system was developed using gear hobs for
spur and helical gears.
The tooth profile of the 20o full depth involute system may be cut by hobs.
o
The increase of the pressure angle from 14½ to 20o results in a stronger tooth, because the
tooth acting as a beam is wider at the base.
The 20o stub involute system has a strong tooth to take heavy loads.

The study of the geometry of the involute profile for gear teeth is called involumetry. Consider
an involute of base circle radius ra and two points B and C on the involute as shown in figure.
Draw normal to the involute from the points B and C. The normal BE and CF are tangents to
the Base circle.
Let
ra= base circle radius of gear
rb= radius of point B on the involute
rc= radius of point C on the involute

and
b= pressure angle for the point B
c= pressure angle for the point C
tb= tooth thickness along the arc at B
tc= tooth thickness along the arc at C
From OBE and

OCF
r r cos (1)
a b b
ra rc cos c 2
Therefore
rb cos b rc cos c
From the properties of the Involute:
Arc AE = Length BE and
Arc AF = Length CF
AOE ArcAE BE tan

OE OE b
AOB AOE b tan b b

Inv. b tan b b
Expression tan b b is
called involute function
Similarly:
ArcAF BE
AOF tan c
OF OF
AOC AOF c tan C C
Inv. c tan c c
At the po int B
tb
AOD AOB
2rb
tb
tan b b
2rb
At the po int C
tc
AOD AOC
2rb
tc
tan c c
2rc
Equating the above equations :
t t
tan b
tan c
b b c c
2rb 2rc
t t
inv. b
inv. c
b c
2rb 2rc
tb
t inv. inv. 2r
c b c c
2r
b
tooth thickness at C
Using this equation and knowing tooth thickness at any point on the tooth, it is
possible to calculate the thickness of the tooth at any point

Consider a pinion driving wheel as shown in figure. When the pinion rotates in
clockwise, the contact between a pair of involute teeth begins at K (on the near the base
circle of pinion or the outer end of the tooth face on the wheel) and ends at L (outer end
of the tooth face on the pinion or on the flank near the base circle of wheel).
MN is the common normal at the point of contacts and the common tangent to the base
circles. The point K is the intersection of the addendum circle of wheel and the common
tangent. The point L is the intersection of the addendum circle of pinion and common
tangent.
The length of path of contact is the length of common normal cut-off by the addendum
circles of the wheel and the pinion. Thus the length of part of contact is KL which is the
sum of the parts of path of contacts KP and PL. Contact length KP is called as path of
approach and contact length PL is called as path of recess.
ra = O1L = Radius of addendum circle of pinion,
and
R A = O2K = Radius of addendum circle of wheel
r = O1P = Radius of pitch circle of pinion,
and
R = O2P = Radius of pitch circle of wheel.
Radius of the base circle of pinion = O1M = O1P cos = r cos
And radius of the base circle of wheel = O2N = O2P cos = R cos
From right angle triangle O2KN
2 2
KN O2 K O2 N
2 2 2
RA R cos
PN O2 P sin R sin
Path of approach: KP
KP KN PN
2 2 2
RA R cos R sin Similarly from right angle
triangle O1ML
2 2
ML O1L O1M
2 2 2
ra r cos
MP O1P sin r sin
Path of recess: PL
PL ML MP
2 2 2
r r cos r sin
a
Length of path of contact = KL
KL KP PL
2 2 2 2 2 2
RA R cos ra r cos R r sin
Arc of contact: Arc of contact is the path traced by a point on the pitch circle from the
beginning to the end of engagement of a given pair of teeth. In Figure, the arc of contact
is EPF or GPH.

Considering the arc of contact GPH.
The arc GP is known as arc of approach and the arc PH is called arc of recess. The
angles subtended by these arcs at O1 are called angle of approach and angle of recess
respectively.
Lenght of path of approach KP

Length of arc of approach = arc GP
cos cos
Lenght of path of recess PL

Length of arc of recess = arc PH
cos cos
Length of arc contact = arc GPH = arc GP + arc PH
KP PL KL Length of path of contact
cos cos cos cos

Contact Ratio (or Number of Pairs of Teeth in Contact)
The contact ratio or the number of pairs of teeth in contact is defined as the ratio of the length
of the arc of contact to the circular pitch.
Length of the arc of contact
Mathematically, Contat ratio P
C
Where: PC Circular pitch m and m = Module.
Number of Pairs of Teeth in Contact
Continuous motion transfer requires two pairs of teeth in contact at the ends of the path of
contact, though there is only one pair in contact in the middle of the path, as in Figure.
The average number of teeth in contact is an important parameter - if it is too low due to the use
of inappropriate profile shifts or to an excessive centre distance.The manufacturing inaccuracies
may lead to loss of kinematic continuity - that is to impact, vibration and noise.The average
number of teeth in contact is also a guide to load sharing between teeth; it is termed the contact
ratio

Let r = Pitch circle radius of the pinio n = O1P
= Pressure angle
ra. = Addendu m radius of the pinion
a = Addendum of rack
EF = Length of path of contact
EF = Path of approach EP + Path of recess PF
AP a
sin
EP EP
a
Path of approach EP
sin

Path of recess PF NF NP
From triangle O1 NP :
NP O1P sin r sin
O1 N O1P cos r cos
From triangle O1NF:

1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
NF O1F O1 N ra r cos
Substituting NP and NF values in the equation (3)
1
2 2 2
2
Path of racess PF ra r cos r sin
Path of length of contact EF EP PF
a 2 2 2
1
2
sin ra r cos r sin
Exercise problems refer presentation slides
Figure shows a pinion and a gear in mesh with their center as O1andO2 respectively. MN is the
common tangent to the basic circles and KL is the path of contact between the two mating teeth.

Consider, the radius of the addendum circle of pinion is increased to O1N, the point of contact L
will moves from L to N. If this radius is further increased, the point of contact L will be inside of
base circle of wheel and not on the involute profile of the pinion.
The tooth tip of the pinion will then undercut the tooth on the wheel at the root and damages
part of the involute profile. This effect is known as interference, and occurs when the teeth are
being cut and weakens the tooth at its root.
In general, the phenomenon, when the tip of tooth undercuts the root on its mating gear is
known as interference
Similarly, if the radius of the addendum circles of the wheel increases beyond O2M, then the tip
of tooth on wheel will cause interference with the tooth on pinion. The points M and N are
called interference points.
Interference may be avoided if the path of the contact does not extend beyond interference
points. The limiting value of the radius of the addendum circle of the pinion is O1N and of the
wheel is O2M.
The interference may only be prevented, if the point of contact between the two teeth is always
on the involute profiles and if the addendum circles of the two mating gears cut the common
tangent to the base circles at the points of tangency.
When interference is just prevented, the maximum length of path of contact is MN.

Maximum path of approach MP r sin

Maximum path of recess PN R sin
Maximum length of path of contact MN
MN MP PN r R sin
r R sin
Maximum length of arc of contact r R tan
cos
Methods to avoid Interference
1. Height of the teeth may be reduced.
Under cut of the radial flank of the pinion.
Centre distance may be increased. It leads to increase in pressure angle.
By tooth correction, the pressure angle, centre distance and base circles remain
unchanged, but tooth thickness of gear will be greater than the pinion tooth thickness.
Minimum number of teeth on the pinion avoid Interference
The pinion turns clockwise and drives the gear as shown in Figure.
Points M and N are called interference points. i.e., if the contact takes place beyond M and
N, interference will occur.
The limiting value of addendum circle radius of pinion is O1N and the limiting value of
addendum circle radius of gear is O2M. Considering the critical addendum circle radius of
gear, the limiting number of teeth on gear can be calculated.
Let
Ф = pressure angle
R = pitch circle radius of gear
r = pitch circle radius of pinion = ½ mt
T & t = number of teeth on gear & pinion
m = module

aw = Addendum constant of gear (or) wheel
ap = Addendum constant of pinion
aw. m = Addendum of gear ap. m = Addendum of pinion
G = Gear ratio = T/t
From triangle O1NP, Applying cosine rule

2 2 2
O1 N O1P NP 2 O1P PN cos O1PN
2 2 2
r R sin 2 r R sin cos 90
2 2 2 2
r R sin 2 r R sin
2 2 2
2 R sin 2R sin 2 R R 2
r 1 r 1 2 sin
2
r r r r
PN O2 P sin R sin




Let
t = Minimum number of teeth on the pinion
r = Pitch circle radius of the pinion = ½ mt
Ǿ = Pressure angle
AR.m = Addendum of rack
The straight profiles of the rack are tangential to the pinion profiles at the point of contact and
perpendicular to the tangent PM. Point L is the limit of interference.
Backlash:
The gap between the non-drive face of the pinion tooth and the adjacent wheel tooth is known
as
backlash.
If the rotational sense of the pinion were to reverse, then a period of unrestrained pinion motion
would take place until the backlash gap closed and contact with the wheel tooth re-established
impulsively.
Backlash is the error in motion that occurs when gears change direction. The term "backlash"
can
also be used to refer to the size of the gap, not just the phenomenon it causes; thus, one could
speak of a pair of gears as having, for example, "0.1 mm of backlash."
A pair of gears could be designed to have zero backlash, but this would presuppose perfection
in
manufacturing, uniform thermal expansion characteristics throughout the system, and no
lubricant. Therefore, gear pairs are designed to have some backlash. It is usually provided by
reducing the tooth thickness of each gear by half the desired gap distance.
In the case of a large gear and a small pinion, however, the backlash is usually taken entirely off
the gear and the pinion is given full sized teeth.

Backlash can also be provided by moving the gears farther apart. For situations, such as
instrumentation and control, where precision is important, backlash can be minimised through
one of several techniques.
Let
r = standard pitch circle radius of pinion
R = standard pitch circle radius of wheel
c = standard centre distance = r +R
r’ = operating pitch circle radius of pinion
R’ = operating pitch circle radius of wheel
Ф = Standard pressure angle
Ф’ = operating pressure angle
h = tooth thickness of pinion on standard pitch circle= p/2
h’ = tooth thickness of pinion on operating pitch circle

Let
H = tooth thickness of gear on standard pitch circle
H1 = tooth thickness of gear on operating pitch circle
p = standard circular pitch = 2п r/ t = 2пR/T
p’ = operating circular pitch = 2п r1/t = 2пR1/T
ΔC = change in centre distance
B = Backlash
t = number of teeth on pinion
T = number of teeth on gear.
Involute gears have the invaluable ability of providing conjugate action when the gears' centre
distance is varied either deliberately or involuntarily due to manufacturing and/or mounting
errors.

There is an infinite number of possible centre distances for a given pair of profile shifted gears,
however we consider only the particular case known as the extended centre distance.
Non Standard Gears:
The important reason for using non standard gears are to eliminate undercutting, to prevent
interference and to maintain a reasonable contact ratio.
The two main non- standard gear systems:
(1) Long and short Addendum system and
(2) Extended centre distance system.
Long and Short Addendum System:
The addendum of the wheel and the addendum of the pinion are generally made of equal
lengths.

Here the profile/rack cutter is advanced to a certain increment towards the gear blank and the
same quantity of increment will be withdrawn from the pinion blank.
Therefore an increased addendum for the pinion and a decreased addendum for the gear is
obtained. The amount of increase in the addendum of the pinion should be exactly equal to the
addendum of the wheel is reduced.
The effect is to move the contact region from the pinion centre towards the gear centre, thus
reducing approach length and increasing the recess length. In this method there is no change in
pressure angle and the centre distance remains standard.
Extended centre distance system:
Reduction in interference with constant contact ratio can be obtained by increasing the centre
distance. The effect of changing the centre distance is simply in increasing the pressure angle.
In this method when the pinion is being cut, the profile cutter is withdrawn a certain amount
from the centre of the pinion so the addendum line of the cutter passes through the interference
point of pinion. The result is increase in tooth thickness and decrease in tooth space. Now If the
pinion is meshed with the gear, it will be found that the centre distance has been increased
because of the decreased tooth space. Increased centre distance will have two undesirable
effects.
*********************

UNIT-07
GEARS TRAINS
A gear train is two or more gear working together by meshing their teeth and turning each other
in a system to generate power and speed. It reduces speed and increases torque. To create large
gear ratio, gears are connected together to form gear trains. They often consist of multiple gears
in the train.
The most common of the gear train is the gear pair connecting parallel shafts. The teeth of this
type can be spur, helical or herringbone. The angular velocity is simply the reverse of the tooth
ratio.
Any combination of gear wheels employed to transmit motion from

one shaft to the other is called a gear train. The meshing of two
gears may be idealized as two smooth discs with their edges
touching and no slip between them. This ideal diameter is called the
Pitch Circle Diameter (PCD) of the gear.
Simple Gear Trains

The typical spur gears as shown in diagram. The direction of rotation is reversed from one gear
to another. It has no affect on the gear ratio. The teeth on the gears must all be the same size so
if gear A advances one tooth, so does B and C.
t = number of teeth on the gear,

v
D = Pitch circle diameter, N = speed in rpm
D v
m = module = t
and
A
module must be the same for all
gears otherwise they would not mesh. B C
m = D A = D B = DC
tA tB tC
DA = m tA; DB = m tBandDC = m tC
= angular velocity.
D GEAR 'A'
v = linear velocity on the circle. v = = r GEAR 'B' GEAR 'C' (Idler gear)
2

The velocity v of any point on the circle must be the same for all the gears, otherwise they would
be
slipping. DA DB DC
v A 2 B 2 C 2
A DA B DB C DC
A mtA B m tB C m tC
tAA B tB C tC
or in terms of rev / min
NA tA N B tB NC tC
1
Application:
1.3 to connect gears where a large center distance is required
1.4 to obtain desired direction of motion of the driven gear ( CW or CCW)
1.5 to obtain high speed ratio
Torque & Efficiency

The power transmitted by a torque T N-m applied to a shaft rotating at N rev/min is given by:
2 NT
P
60
In an ideal gear box, the input and output powers are the same so;
T
2 N1 T1 2 N 2 2
P
60 60
T2 N1
N1 T 1 N2 T 2 GR
T1 N2
It follows that if the speed is reduced, the torque is increased and vice versa. In a real gear box,
power is lost through friction and the power output is smaller than the power input. The
efficiency is defined as:
T
Power out 2 N2 T2 60 N2 2
Power In 2 N1 T1 60 N1 T 1
Because the torque in and out is different, a gear box has to be clamped in order to stop the case
or body rotating. A holding torque T3 must be applied to the body through the clamps.
The total torque must add up to zero.

T1 + T2 + T3 = 0

If we use a convention that anti-clockwise is positive and clockwise is negative we can

determine the holding torque. The direction of rotation of the output shaft depends on the design
of the gear box.
Compound Gear train Input

Compound gears are simply a chain of simple gear
trains with the input of the second being the output of B
D
the first. A chain of two pairs is shown below. Gear B
is the output of the first pair and gear C is the input of A Output
the second pair. Gears B and C are locked to the same C
shaft and revolve at the same speed.
Compound Gears
For large velocities ratios, compound gear train GEAR 'B'
arrangement is preferred.
The velocity of each tooth on A and B are the same GEAR 'A'
GEAR 'D'
so: A tA = B tB -as they are simple gears.
Likewise for C and D, C tC = D tD. GEAR 'C'

tA tB and tC tD
B A D C
tB B tD D
A and C
tA TC
tB B tD D
A C
tA tC
A C tB tD
B D tA tC
Since gear B and C are on the same shaft
B C
t t
A
tt
B D GR
D C A
Since 2 N
The gear ratio may be
written as:
N In tB tD
GR
N Out t A tC
Reverted Gear train tB tD
The driver and driven axes lies on the same t A tC
line. These are used in speed reducers, clocks and machine
tools.
NA
GR
N
D
If R and T=Pitch circle radius & number of teeth of the gear
RA + RB = RC + RD and tA + tB = tC + tD
Epicyclic gear train: This design can produce large gear

ratios in a small space and are used on a
Epicyclic means one gear revolving upon and wide range of applications from marine
around another. The design involves planet and sun gearboxes to electric screwdrivers.
gears as one orbits the other like a planet around the
sun. Here is a picture of a typical gear box.

Basic Theory
The diagram shows a gear B on the end of an arm.

Gear B meshes with gear C and revolves around it
when the arm is rotated. B is called the planet
gear and C the sun.
First consider what happens when the planet

gear orbits the sun gear.
Planet wheel
B
B
Arm
Arm 'A'
C
C
Sun wheel

Observe point p and you will see that gear B also revolves once on its own axis. Any object orbiting
around a center must rotate once. Now consider that B is free to rotate on its shaft and meshes with
C. Suppose the arm is held stationary and gear C is rotated once. B spins about its own center and
tC t
number of revolutions it makes is the ratio . B will rotate by this number for every complete B
revolution of C.
tC
Now consider that C is unable to rotate and the arm A is revolved once. Gear B will revolve 1 t
B
because of the orbit. It is this extra rotation that causes confusion. One way to get round this is to
magine that the whole system is revolved once. Then identify the gear that is fixed and revolve it
back one revolution. Work out the revolutions of the other gears and add them up. The following
tabular method makes it easy.
Suppose gear C is fixed and the arm A makes one revolution. Determine how many revolutions the
planet gear B makes.
Step 1 is to revolve everything once about the center.
Step 2 identify that C should be fixed and rotate it backwards one revolution keeping the arm fixed
as it should only do one revolution in total. Work out the revolutions of B.
Step 3 is simply add them up and we find the total revs of C is zero and for the arm is 1.
Step Action A B C
1 Revolve all once 1 1 1
Revolve C by –1 revolution, tC
2 0 -1
keeping the arm fixed tB
t
C
3 Add 1 1 0
tB

Example: A simple epicyclic gear has a fixed sun gear with 100 teeth and a planet gear with 50 teeth.
If the arm is revolved once, how many times does the planet gear revolve?
Solution:
Step Action A B C
1 Revolve all once 1 1 1
Revolve C by –1 revolution, 100
2 0 -1
keeping the arm fixed 50
3 Add 1 3 0
Gear B makes 3 revolutions for every one of the arm.

The design so far considered has no identifiable input and output. We need a design that puts an input
and output shaft on the same axis. This can be done several ways.

Problem 1: In an ecicyclic gear train shown in figure, the arm A is fixed to the shaft S. The wheel B
having 100 teeth rotates freely on the shaft S. The wheel F having 150 teeth driven separately. If the
arm rotates at 200 rpm and wheel F at 100 rpm in the same direction; find (a) number of teeth on the
gear C and (b) speed of wheel B.
C
100 rpm
F150
S B100
Arm A
C 200 rpm
Solution:
TB=100; TF=150; NA=200rpm; NF=100rpm:
Since the mod ule is same for all gears :

the number of teeth on the gears is proportional to the pitch cirlce :
rF rB 2rC
TF TB 2TC
150 100 2 TC
TC 25 Number of teeth on gears C
The gear B and gear F rotates in the opposite directions:

TB
Train value
TF
N N
L Arm NF NA
also TV N (general exp ression for epicyclic gear train)
NF Arm NB NA
T N N
B F A
N ATF NB
100 100 200

NE 350
150 NB 200
The Gear B rotates at 350 rpm in the same direction of gears F and Arm A.

Problem 2: In a compound epicyclic gear train as shown in the figure, has gears A and an annular gears
D & E free to rotate on the axis P. B and C is a compound gear rotate about axis Q. Gear A rotates at 90
rpm CCW and gear D rotates at 450 rpm CW. Find the speed and direction of rotation of arm F and gear
E. Gears A,B and C are having 18, 45 and 21 teeth respectively. All gears having same module and
pitch.
P E
A
B
C Arm F
Q
Solution:
TA=18 ; TB=45; TC=21; NA = -90rpm; ND=450rpm:
Since the module and pitch are same for all gears :
the number of teeth on the gears is proportional to the pitch cirlce :
rD rA rB rC
TD TA TB TC
TD 18 45 21 84 teeth on gear D
Gears A and D rotates in the opposite directions:

TA TC
Train value
TB TD
N N
NL Arm D NF
also TV N
NF Arm NA NF
T T N N
A C D F
TB N FTDNA
18 21 450 N F
45 84 90 N F
N F Speed of Arm 400.9 rpm CW

Now consider gears A, B and E:

rE rA 2rB
TE TA 2TB
TE 18 2 45
TE 108 Number of teeth on gear E
Gears A and E rotates in the opposite directions:

T
A
Train value
TE
NE NF
also TV
NA NF
TA NE NF
TE NA NF
18 N E 400.9
108 90 400.9
N E Speed of gear E 482.72 rpm CW
Problem 3: In an epicyclic gear of sun and planet type shown in figure 3, the pitch circle diameter of the
annular wheel A is to be nearly 216mm and module 4mm. When the annular ring is stationary, the
spider that carries three planet wheels P of equal size to make one revolution for every five revolution of
the driving spindle carrying the sun wheel.
Determine the number of teeth for all the wheels and the exact pitch circle diameter of the annular
wheel. If an input torque of 20 N-m is applied to the spindle carrying the sun wheel, determine the fixed
torque on the annular wheel.
Annular 'A'
Spider 'L'
Sun Wheel 'S'
Planet Wheel 'P'
Solution: Module being the same for all the meshing gears:
TA = TS + 2TP

PCD of A 216
TA 54 teeth
m 4
Spider Annular wheel A

Operation Sun Wheel S Planet wheel P
arm L
TS TP TA = 54
Arm L is fixed & TS T T T
Sun wheel S is 0 +1 S P S
given +1 revolution TP TP TA TA
Multiply by m T
TS
(S rotates through 0 m m
m revolution) TP S m
Add n revolutions TS TA
n m+n n m T
to all elements TP n S
If L rotates +1 revolution: n=1 (1) m TA

The sun wheel S to rotate +5 revolutions correspondingly:
n+m=5 (2)
From (1) and (2) m=4
When A is fixed:
n TS m 0 T 4T
A S
TA
54
TS 13.5 teeth
4
But fractional teeth are not possible; therefore TS should be either 13 or 14 and TA
correspondingly 52 and 56.
Trial 1: Let TA = 52 and TS = 13

TA TS 52 13
TP 19.5 teeth - This is impracticable
2 4
Trial 2: Let TA = 56 and TS = 14
TA TS 56 14
TP 21teeth - This is practicable
2 4
TA = 56, TS = 14 and TP = 21
PCD of A = 56 4 = 224 mm
Also
Torque on L L = Torque on S S
Torque on L L = 20
5 100 N m
1

Fixing torque on A = (TL – TS) = 100 – 20 = 80 N-m

D
Problem 4: The gear train shown in figure 4 is
used in an indexing mechanism of a milling A C Arm
machine. The drive is from gear wheels A and B B
to the bevel gear wheel D through the gear train. H
The following table gives the number of teeth on G
each gear.
Gear A B C D E F
Number of E
72 72 60 30 28 24 F
teeth
Diametral
08 08 12 12 08 08
pitch in mm
How many revolutions does D makes for one Figure 4

revolution of A under the following situations:
2. If A and B are having the same speed and same direction
3. If A and B are having the same speed and opposite direction
4. If A is making 72 rpm and B is at rest
5. If A is making 72 rpm and B 36 rpm in the same direction
Solution:
Gear D is external to the epicyclic train and thus C and D constitute an ordinary train.
Arm
Operation E (28) F (24) A (72) B (72) G (28) H (24)
C (60)
Arm or C is fixed 28 7 28 7
& wheel A is given 0 -1 +1 -1 +1
+1 revolution 24 6 24 6
Multiply by m
(A rotates through 0 -m 7m +m -m +m 7m
m revolution) 6 6
Add n revolutions 7 7
n n-m n m n+m n-m n+m n m
to all elements 6 6
(i) For one revolution of A: n+m=1 (1)

For A and B for same speed and direction: n+m = n–m (2)
From (1) and (2): n = 1 and m = 0
If C or arm makes one revolution, then revolution made by D is given by:

T
ND C 60 2
N T
C D 30
ND 2NC (n + m) = - (n – m)(3)

(ii)A and B same speed, opposite direction:

n = 0; m = 1
When C is fixed and A makes one revolution, D does not make any revolution.

+ A is making 72 rpm: (n + m) = 72
B at rest (n – m) = 0 n = m = 36 rpm
60
C makes 36 rpm and D makes 36 72 rpm
30
(iv) A is making 72 rpm and B making 36 rpm
(n + m) = 72 rpm and (n – m) = 36 rpm
(n + (n – m)) = 72; n = 54
60
D makes 54 108 rpm
30 A2
P2 A1
Problem 5: Figure 5 shows a compound
P1
epicyclic gear train, gears S1 and S2 being
rigidly attached to the shaft Q. If the shaft P
rotates at 1000 rpm clockwise, while the P
Q
annular A2 is driven in counter clockwise
direction at 500 rpm, determine the speed S2
and direction of rotation of shaft Q. The S1
number of teeth in the wheels are S1 = 24;
S2 = 40; A1 = 100; A2 = 120.
Figure 5
Solution: Consider the gear train P A1 S1:
Arm A1 Arm A1
Operation S1 (24) Operation S1 (24)
P (100) P (100)
100 P OR Arm P is fixed A1 P1
Arm P is fixed & P
1
1 24 & wheel A1 is P1 S1
wheel A1 is given 0 +1 0 -1
+1 revolution 25 given -1 A1
revolution
6 S1
Multiply by m
(A1 rotates through 0 +m 25 m 0 -1 100 25
m revolution) 6 24 6
Add +1
Add n revolutions 25 25 31
n n+ m n m revolutions to +1 0 1
to all elements 6 all elements 6 6
If A1 is fixed: n+ m; gives n=-m

NP n 1 6
N n 25 n 31 31
S1 6 6
NP 6 N
31 S1

Now consider whole gear train:
A1 A2 S1 (24), S2 (40)
Operation
(100) (120) and Q Arm P
P 6
A1 is fixed & 120 2 3
P 31
wheel A2 is given 0 +1 2 40
18
+1 revolution 3
31
Multiply by m 18
(A1 rotates through 0 +m 3m m
m revolution) 31
Add n revolutions 18
n n+ m n 3m n m
to all elements 31
18
When P makes 1000 rpm: n m = 1000 (1)
31
and A2 makes – 500 rpm: n+ m = -500 (2)
18
from (1) and (2): 500 m m 1000
31
31 1000 500 31 49 m
m 949 rpm
and n 949 500 449 rpm
NQ = n – 3 m = 449 – (3 -949) = 3296 rpm

Problem 6. An internal wheel

B with 80 teeth is keyed to a
shaft F. A fixed internal wheel
B Arm C
C with 82 teeth is concentric
E
with B. A Compound gears D- E
E meshed with the two internal D D B
F A
wheels. D has 28 teeth and
meshes with internal gear C A
while E meshes with B. The
compound wheels revolve B80
freely on pin which projects C82
D28
from a arm keyed to a shaft A N A=800rpm
co-axial with F. if the wheels
have the same pitch and the
shaft A makes 800 rpm, what is
the speed of the shaft F? Sketch
the arrangement.

Data: tB = 80; tC = 82; D = 28; NA = 800 rpm
Solution: The pitch circle radius is proportional to the number of teeth:
rC rD rB rE
tC tD tB tE
82 28 80 tE
tE 26
number of teeth on gear E
Compound Gear wheel

Operation Arm B (80) C (82)
E(26) D (28)
Arm is fixed & B 0 +1 80 80 80 28
is given ONE
revolution (CW) 26 26 26 82
Multiply by m
40 40 m 40 14
(B rotates 0 +m m m
through m 13 13 13 41
revolution)
Add n 40 40 40 14
revolutions to all m n m n
elements n m+n 13 m n 13 13 41
Since the wheel C is fixed and the arm (shaft) A makes 800 rpm,
n 800rpm
40 14
m n 0
13 41
40 14
m 800 0
13 41
m 761.42rpm
Speed of gear B m n 761.42 800 38.58rpm

Speed of gear B Speed of shaft F 38.58rpm

Problem 7: The fig shows an Epicyclic gear train. Wheel E is fixed and wheels C and D are
integrally cast and mounted on the same pin. If arm A makes one revolution per sec (Counter
clockwise) determine the speed and direction of rotation of the wheels B and F.
Arm
D15 E20 F30

B20
C35
Solution:
Data: tB = 20; tC = 35; tD = 15; tE = 20; tF = 30 NA = 1rps-(CCW)
Compound Gear
F
Operation Arm B (20) wheel E (20) (30)
D (15) C (35)
Arm is fixed & 4 35 7 20
B is given 20 20
ONE 0 +1 3 20
revolution 15 15 7 3 30
(CW) 3
Multiply by m
(B rotates 0 +m
4m 4m 7m 14 m
through m 3 3 3 9
revolution)
Add n m+ 4 7
revolutions to n n n 4m n m m n n 14 m
all elements 3 3 3 9
Since the wheel E is fixed and the arm A makes 1 rps-CCW
n 1rps and 7m n 0
3
7m 1 0 m 3 0.429
3 7
Speed of gear B m n 0.429 1 0.571rps (CCW )
14 14
Speed of gear F n m 1 0.429 1.667 (CCW )
99
Problem 7: In the gear train shown, the wheel C is fixed, the gear B, is keyed to the input shaft and the
gear F is keyed to the output shaft.
D60
Output
Shaft A E30
Input
Shaft
B20
F32
C80
The arm A, carrying the compound wheels D and E turns freely on the out put shaft. If the input speed is
1000 rpm (ccw) when seen from the right, determine the speed of the output shaft. The number of teeth
on each gear is indicated in the figures. Find the output torque to keep the wheel C fixed if the input
power is 7.5 kW.
Solution:
Data :
tB = 20; tC = 80; tD = 60; tE = 30; tF = 32; NB = 1000 rpm (ccw) (input speed); P = 7.5 kW

Compound Gear
Operation Arm B (20) wheel C (80) F (32)
Input D (60) E (30)
20 1 1 1 60 1 30
Arm is fixed & 0 +1 3 80 3 32
B is given +1
revolution 60 3 3 1 5
4 16
Multiply by m
(B rotates 0 m
1m 1m 1m 5 m
through m
revolution) 3 3 4 16
Add n
revolutions to n m+n 1 m n 1m n n 1 m n 5m
all elements 3 3 4 16
Input shaft speed = 1000 rpm (ccw)
i.e., gear B rotates – 1000 rpm

m n 1000
Gear C is fixed; n 1m 0
4
1000 m 0.25m 0
1000
m 800
1.25
n 1000 800 200
5
Speed of F n m
16
5
200 800 50
16
Speed of the output shaft F 50rpm (CW )
2
N BTB
Input power P
60
2 1000 TB
7.5 1000
60
TB 7500 60 71.59Nm
2 1000
From the energy equation;
T B N B TF N F T C N C 0
Since C is fixed : NC 0 TB
N B TF N F 0
71.59 1000 TF 50 0
TF 1431.8Nm
From the torque equation :
TB TF TC 0
71.59 1431.8 TC 0
TC 1360.21Nm

The Torque required to hold the wheel C = 1360.21 Nm in the same direction of wheel

Problem 8: Find the velocity ratio of two co-axial A1

shafts of the epicyclic gear train as shown in figure 6.
S1 is the driver. The number of teeth on the gears are A2
S1 = 40, A1 = 120, S2 = 30, A2 = 100 and the sun
wheel S2 is fixed. Determine also the magnitude and P1 P2
direction of the torque required to fix S2, if a torque of
300 N-m is applied in a clockwise direction to S1
Solution: Consider first the gear train S1, A1 and A2

for which A2 is the arm, in order to find the speed S1 S2
ratio of S1 to A2, when A1 is fixed.
(a) Consider gear train S1, A1 and A2:
A2 A1
Operation S1 (40)
(100) (120)
Figure 6
A2 is fixed & 120
wheel A1 is given 0 +1 3
+1 revolution 40
Multiply by m
(A1 rotates through 0 +m 3m
m revolution)
Add n revolutions
n n+ m n 3m
to all elements
A1 is fixed: m n
N
S1 n 3n 4
N
A2 n
N S1 4 N A2
(b) Consider complete gear train:
Operation A1 (120) A2 (100) S1 (40) S2 (30)
A1 is fixed & wheel S2 is given 0 30 3 3 4 6 +1

+1 revolution 100 10 10 5
Multiply by m 0 3 m 6m +m
(A1 rotates through m revolution) 10 5
Add n revolutions to all elements n n 3m n 6m n+ m
10 5
S2 is fixed m=-n

N n 6n
S1 5 11 10 22
N
A2
n 3 n 5 13 13
10
Input torque on S1 = TS1 = 300 N-m, in the direction of rotation.
T
A2
Resisting torque on A2;
22
TA2 300 507.7 N
m 13
opposite to directiojn of rotation
Referring to the figure:

T
A2
S2
TS 2 507.7 300 207.7 N m (CW )
S1
T
S1

UNIT-08
CAMS
INTRODUCTION
A cam is a mechanical device used to transmit motion to a follower by direct contact. The driver
is called the cam and the driven member is called the follower. In a cam follower pair, the cam
normally rotates while the follower may translate or oscillate. A familiar example is the camshaft
of an automobile engine, where the cams drive the push rods (the followers) to open and close
the valves in synchronization with the motion of the pistons.
Types of cams
Cams can be classified based on their physical shape.
a) Disk or plate cam (Fig. 6.1a and b): The disk (or plate) cam has an irregular contour to
impart a specific motion to the follower. The follower moves in a plane perpendicular to the axis
of rotation of the camshaft and is held in contact with the cam by springs or gravity.
Fig. 6.1 Plate or disk cam.
b) Cylindrical cam (Fig. 6.2): The cylindrical cam has a groove cut along its cylindrical surface.
The roller follows the groove, and the follower moves in a plane parallel to the axis of rotation of
the cylinder.
Fig. 6.2 Cylindrical cam.

c) Translating cam (Fig. 6.3a and b). The translating cam is a contoured or grooved plate
sliding on a guiding surface(s). The follower may oscillate (Fig. 6.3a) or reciprocate (Fig. 6.3b).
The contour or the shape of the groove is determined by the specified motion of the follower.
Fig. 6.3 Translating cam

Types of followers:
1.7 Based on surface in contact. (Fig.6.4)
Knife edge follower
Roller follower
Flat faced follower
Spherical follower
Fig. 6.4 Types of followers
(ii) Based on type of motion: (Fig.6.5)

(a) Oscillating follower
(b) Translating follower
Fig.6.5
(iii) Based on line of motion:
(a) Radial follower: The lines of movement of in-line cam followers pass through the centers
of the camshafts (Fig. 6.4a, b, c, and d).
(b) Off-set follower: For this type, the lines of movement are offset from the centers of the
camshafts (Fig. 6.6a, b, c, and d).
Fig.6.6 Off set followers

Cam nomenclature (Fig. 6.7):
Fig.6.7
Cam Profile The contour of the working surface of the cam.
Tracer Point The point at the knife edge of a follower, or the center of a roller, or the center of a
spherical face
Pitch Curve The path of the tracer point.

Base Circle The smallest circle drawn, tangential to the cam profile, with its center on the axis of
the camshaft. The size of the base circle determines the size of the cam.
Prime Circle The smallest circle drawn, tangential to the pitch curve, with its center on the axis
of the camshaft.
Pressure Angle The angle between the normal to the pitch curve and the direction of motion of
the follower at the point of contact.

Types of follower motion:
Cam follower systems are designed to achieve a desired oscillatory motion. Appropriate
displacement patterns are to be selected for this purpose, before designing the cam surface. The
cam is assumed to rotate at a constant speed and the follower raises, dwells, returns to its original
position and dwells again through specified angles of rotation of the cam, during each revolution
of the cam.
Some of the standard follower motions are as follows:
They are, follower motion with,
p Uniform velocity
q Modified uniform velocity
r Uniform acceleration and deceleration
s Simple harmonic motion
t Cycloidal motion
Displacement diagrams: In a cam follower system, the motion of the follower is very
important. Its displacement can be plotted against the angular displacement θ of the cam and it is
called as the displacement diagram. The displacement of the follower is plotted along the y-axis
and angular displacement θ of the cam is plotted along x-axis. From the displacement diagram,
velocity and acceleration of the follower can also be plotted for different angular displacements θ
of the cam. The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams are plotted for one cycle of
operation i.e., one rotation of the cam. Displacement diagrams are basic requirements for the
construction of cam profiles. Construction of displacement diagrams and calculation of velocities
and accelerations of followers with different types of motions are discussed in the following
sections.
(a) Follower motion with Uniform velocity:
Fig.6.8 shows the displacement, velocity and acceleration patterns of a follower having uniform
velocity type of motion. Since the follower moves with constant velocity, during rise and fall, the
displacement varies linearly with θ. Also, since the velocity changes from zero to a finite value,
within no time, theoretically, the acceleration becomes infinite at the beginning and end of rise
and fall.

Fig.6.8
(b) Follower motion with modified uniform velocity:
It is observed in the displacement diagrams of the follower with uniform velocity that the
acceleration of the follower becomes infinite at the beginning and ending of rise and return
strokes. In order to prevent this, the displacement diagrams are slightly modified. In the modified
form, the velocity of the follower changes uniformly during the beginning and end of each
stroke. Accordingly, the displacement of the follower varies parabolically during these periods.
With this modification, the acceleration becomes constant during these periods, instead of being
infinite as in the uniform velocity type of motion. The displacement, velocity and acceleration
patterns are shown in fig.6.9.
fig.6.9
(c) Follower motion with uniform acceleration and retardation (UARM):
Here, the displacement of the follower varies parabolically with respect to angular displacement
of cam. Accordingly, the velocity of the follower varies uniformly with respect to angular
displacement of cam. The acceleration/retardation of the follower becomes constant accordingly.
The displacement, velocity and acceleration patterns are shown in fig. 6.10.

Fig.6.10

(d) Simple Harmonic Motion: In fig.6.11, the motion executed by point Pl, which is the
projection of point P on the vertical diameter is called simple harmonic motion. Here, P moves
with uniform angular velocity ωp, along a circle of radius r (r = s/2).

s= Stroke or displacement of the follower.
θo = Angular displacement during outstroke.
θr = Angular displacement during return stroke

ω = Angular velocity of cam.
(e) Cycloidal motion:
Cycloid is the path generated by a point on the circumference of a circle, as the circle rolls
without slipping, on a straight/flat surface. The motion executed by the follower here, is similar
to that of the projection of a point moving along a cyloidal curve on a vertical line as shown in
figure 6.12.

The construction of displacement diagram and the standard patterns of velocity and acceleration
diagrams are shown in fig.6.13. Compared to all other follower motions, cycloidal motion results
in smooth operation of the follower.
The expressions for maximum values of velocity and acceleration of the follower are shown
below.

Solved problems
p Draw the cam profile for following conditions:
Follower type = Knife edged, in-line; lift = 50mm; base circle radius = 50mm; out stroke with
SHM, for 600 cam rotation; dwell for 450 cam rotation; return stroke with SHM, for 900 cam
rotation; dwell for the remaining period. Determine max. Velocity and acceleration during out
stroke and return stroke if the cam rotates at 1000 rpm in clockwise direction.

Cam profile: Construct base circle. Mark points 1,2,3…..in direction opposite to the direction of
cam rotation. Transfer points a,b,c…..l from displacement diagram to the cam profile and join
them by a smooth free hand curve. This forms the required cam profile.

2) Draw the cam profile for the same operating conditions of problem (1), with the follower
off set by 10 mm to the left of cam center.
Displacement diagram: Same as previous case.
Cam profile: Construction is same as previous case, except that the lines drawn from 1, 2,3….
are tangential to the offset circle of 10mm dia. as shown in the fig.

 Draw the cam profile for following conditions:
Follower type = roller follower, in-line; lift = 25mm; base circle radius = 20mm; roller radius =
5mm; out stroke with UARM, for 1200 cam rotation; dwell for 600 cam rotation; return stroke
with UARM, for 900 cam rotation; dwell for the remaining period. Determine max. velocity
and acceleration during out stroke and return stroke if the cam rotates at 1200 rpm in clockwise
direction.

Cam profile: Construct base circle and prime circle (25mm radius). Mark points 1,2,3…..in
direction opposite to the direction of cam rotation, on prime circle. Transfer points a,b,c…..l
from displacement diagram. At each of these points a,b,c… draw circles of 5mm radius,
representing rollers. Starting from the first point of contact between roller and base circle, draw
a smooth free hand curve, tangential to all successive roller positions. This forms the required
cam profile.

(4) Draw the cam profile for conditions same as in (3), with follower off set to right of cam
center by 5mm and cam rotating counter clockwise.
Displacement diagram: Same as previous case.
Cam profile: Construction is same as previous case, except that the lines drawn from 1,2,3….
are tangential to the offset circle of 10mm dia. as shown in the fig.

 Draw the cam profile for following conditions:
Follower type = roller follower, off set to the right of cam axis by 18mm; lift = 35mm; base
circle radius = 50mm; roller radius = 14mm; out stroke with SHM in 0.05sec; dwell for
0.0125sec; return stroke with UARM, during 0.125sec; dwell for the remaining period. During
return stroke, acceleration is 3/5 times retardation. Determine max. Velocity and acceleration
during out stroke and return stroke if the cam rotates at 240 rpm.



3. Draw the cam profile for following conditions:
Follower type = knife edged follower, in line; lift = 30mm; base circle radius = 20mm; out
stroke with uniform velocity in 1200 of cam rotation; dwell for 600; return stroke with uniform
velocity, during 900 of cam rotation; dwell for the remaining period.
Displacement diagram:

Follower type = oscillating follower with roller as shown in fig.; base circle radius = 20mm;
roller radius = 7mm; follower to rise through 400 during 900 of cam rotation with cycloidal
motion; dwell for 300; return stroke with cycloidal motion during 1200 of cam rotation; dwell for
the remaining period. Also determine the max. velocity and acceleration during outstroke and
return stroke, if the cam rotates at 600 rpm.
Displacement diagram

Cam profile: Draw base circle and prime circle. Draw another circle of radius equal to the
distance between cam center and follower pivot point. Take the line joining cam center and pivot
point as reference and draw lines indicating successive angular displacements of cam. Divide
these into same number of divisions as in the displacement diagram. Show points 1‟, 2‟, 3‟… on
the outer circle. With these points as centers and radius equal to length of follower arm, draw
arcs, cutting the prime circle at 1,2,3…. Transfer points a,b,c.. on to these arcs from
displacement diagram. At each of these points a,b,c… draw circles of 7mm radius, representing
rollers. Starting from the first point of contact between roller and base circle, draw a smooth free
hand curve, tangential to all successive roller positions. This forms the required cam profile.

Follower type = knife edged follower, in line; follower rises by 24mm with SHM in 1/4 rotation,
dwells for 1/8 rotation and then raises again by 24mm with UARM in 1/4 rotation and dwells for
1/16 rotation before returning with SHM. Base circle radius = 30mm.

(9) Draw the cam profile for following conditions:
Follower type = flat faced follower, in line; follower rises by 20mm with SHM in 1200 of cam
rotation, dwells for 300 of cam rotation; returns with SHM in 1200 of cam rotation and dwells
during the remaining period. Base circle radius = 25mm.
Cam profile: Construct base circle. Mark points 1,2,3…..in direction opposite to the direction of
cam rotation, on prime circle. Transfer points a,b,c…..l from displacement diagram. At each of
these points a,b,c… draw perpendicular lines to the radials, representing flat faced followers.
Starting from the first point of contact between follower and base circle, draw a smooth free
hand curve, tangential to all successive follower positions. This forms the required cam profile.

Follower type = roller follower, in line; roller dia. = 5mm; follower rises by 25mm with SHM in
1800 of cam rotation, falls by half the distance instantaneously; returns with Uniform velocity in
1800 of cam rotation. Base circle radius = 20m.

Follower type = roller follower, off-set to the right by 5mm; lift = 30mm; base circle radius =
25mm; roller radius = 5mm; out stroke with SHM, for 1200 cam rotation; dwell for 600 cam
rotation; return stroke during 1200 cam rotation; first half of return stroke with Uniform velocity
and second half with UARM; dwell for the remaining period.


(12) A push rod of valve of an IC engine ascends with UARM, along a path inclined to the
vertical at 600. The same descends with SHM. The base circle diameter of the cam is 50mm and
the push rod has a roller of 60mm diameter, fitted to its end. The axis of the roller and the cam
fall on the same vertical line. The stroke of the follower is 20mm. The angle of action for the
outstroke and the return stroke is 600 each, interposed by a dwell period of 600. Draw the profile
of the cam.

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Kinematics of Machines 10ME44

Introduction: Definitions Link or element, kinematic pairs, Degrees of freedom, Grubler's

Mechanisms: Quick return motion mechanisms-Drag link mechanism, Whitworth

Velocity and Acceleration Analysis of Mechanisms (Graphical Methods) Velocity and

Velocity Analysis by Instantaneous Center Method: Definition, Kennedy's Theorem,

Velocity and Acceleration Analysis of Mechanisms (Analytical Methods): Analysis of

Department of Mechanical Engineering SJBIT Page 2

Sl.No Particulars Page No

1 Introduction to KOM 4-14

Velocity & Acceleration Analysis of

Velocity & Acceleration Analysis of

Velocity & Acceleration Analysis of

6 Spur Gears 106-139

7 Gear train 140-167

Department of Mechanical Engineering SJBIT Page 3

A mechanism is made of a number of resistant bodies out of which some

Links can be classified into

Binary Link Ternary Link Quarternary

Department of Mechanical Engineering SJBIT Page 4

Types of Kinematic Pairs:

Kinematic pairs can be classified according to

ii) Nature of mechanical constraint.

i) Kinematic pairs according to nature of contact :

 Kinematic pairs according to nature of mechanical constraint.

iii) Kinematic pairs according to nature of relative motion.

Department of Mechanical Engineering SJBIT Page 5

b) Turning Pair: When on link has a turning or revolving motion relative to

1. Translational Motions along any three mutually perpendicular axes x, y and z,

2. Rotational motions along these axes.

Degrees of freedom of a pair is defined as the number of independent relative motions,

Degrees of freedom = 6 – no. of restraints.

F = Mobility or number of degrees of freedom n = Number of links including frame.

If F > 0, results a mechanism with „F‟ degrees of freedom.

F < 0, results in a statically indeterminate structure.

Department of Mechanical Engineering SJBIT Page 6

The degrees of freedom for various joints are given by:

Type of joint Nature of Motion. Degrees of freedom.

Slider (prismatic) Pure Sliding 1

Cylindrical, Cam, Gear, Rolling and Sliding 2

Rolling Contact Pure Rolling 1

Department of Mechanical Engineering SJBIT Page 7

Linkage, Mechanism and structure:

If one of the links of a redundant chain is fixed, it is known as a structure.

To obtain constrained or definite motions of some of the links of a linkage, it is necessary

Department of Mechanical Engineering SJBIT Page 8

Motion and its types:

Absolute motion Relative motion

Plane motion Rectilinear Helical or Spherical

Continuous Reciprocating Oscillatory Intermittent

Uniform motion Variable motion Simple Harmonic

Completely Partially Incompletely

Department of Mechanical Engineering SJBIT Page 9

The tree main types of constrained motion in kinematic pair are,

(i) Completely constrained motion :

If the motion between a pair of links is limited to a definite direction, then it is

(ii) Incompletely Constrained motion :

Department of Mechanical Engineering SJBIT Page 10

(iii) Successfully constrained motion or partially constrained motion.

It is a combination of resistant bodies with successfully constrained motion which is used

E.g.: Lathe, Shaper, Steam Engine, etc.

1.2 Kinematic chains and Inversions:

Kinematic chain with three lower pairs