LIVERPOOL PHYS370 — Advanced Electromagnetism Part 7: Electromagnetic Potentials Electromagnetic Potentials In this section, we consider: ‘* The electric scalar and magnetic vector potentials, ‘+ The wave equations for the electromagnetic potentials. ‘pavanced Elecromagretiom 1 are 7: Electromagnetic Potentials Potentials Electrostatic Potential A potential is a function whose derivative gives a field. Fields are associated with forces; potentials are associated with energy. The magnetic vector potential 4 is defined so that the magnetic field # is given by: B=vxd q@) The electric scalar potential ¢ is defined so that the electric field & is given by -ve- 4 2 eZ @ Note that in general, the scalar and vector potentials are functions of position and time origin The electric field in the presence of a static charge distribution (7) is found from Coulomb's iaw: i 1 foee= #4) o-oo @) where the integral extends over all space. Note that the prime con the coordinates indicates that the coordinate is associated with the charge. ‘Advanced Eleevromagretism 2 Par. Electromagnetic Patents ‘Advanced Elecromagretism 3 Pare 7: Electromagnetic PotentaisElectrostatic Potential origin In terms of the scalar potential, for a static charge distribution, we have: (@) Calculating the potential is simpler than calculating the field directly; and one can then use # = —V¢ to find the electric fie Electrostatic Potential Since we have from Maxwells’ equations: vb e «) where Back CO) it follows that in an homogeneous, isotropic medium: m and so. V76() Equation (8) is called Poisson's equation. ) Equation (4) is the solution to Poisson's equation, expressed as an integral ‘Advanced Eleivomagnetism 5 Pare 7: Clectomagnetc Potentnis Electrostatic Potential The behaviour of a charged particle in an electric field is determined by the field £, rather than by the potential Since E = —V¢ for an electrostatic field, we can add any function with vanishing gradient to the potential ¢, and obtain ‘the same physics. In other words, the behaviour of any electrostatic system is the same under the transformation: 80) 9 807) + do @) where go is a constant (independent of position) The freedom that we have in choosing the potential is called gauge invariance. This allows us to choose arbitrarily the point at which 4(r) = 0. Electrostatic Potential Note that if we write the solution to Poisson's equation (4). (10) then implicitly (assuming that all charges are within a finite distance from the origin), we make the gauge choice! S40 as A-¥00 ay ‘Advanced Eleevromagretism 6 Par. Electromagnetic Patents ‘Aavanced Elecromaoretism 7 Pare 7: Electromagnetic PotentaisMagnetic Vector Potential Magnetic Vector Potential In the presence of sources for the magnetic field (i.e. a current distribution), the magnetic field # can be found from the Biot-Savart law: Be = 12 Ie ioxe- where the integral extends over all space. av! (12) Generally, the Biot-Savart law is difficult to apply. It is often easier to first calculate the magnetic vector potential; but first, we need to derive the differential equation for the vector potential In a static case (constant fields, charges and currents), the magnetic field is related to the current density by: Vx Bap (13) Substituting # = V x A, and using the vector identity: vxvx dev (vi A)-vh aa) we fing: v24—v(9-A) =-nS as) This looks like a complicated equation; but there is a way to simplify it ‘Aavanced Eleivomagretism 8 Part 7 Electromagnetic Poventans ‘Advanced Eleivomagnetism ° Pare 7: Clectomagnetc Potentnis Magnetic Vector Potential Magnetic Vector Potential Suppose that. v f (16) where J is some function of position, Let us define a new vector potential 4’ =A+Vvo an Since Vx Vo =O (18) for any function vo, the new vector potential 4’ gives exactly ‘the same magnetic field as the old vector potential 4. However, if we choose vo such that: Vig = =f as) then ° (20) In other words, given a vector potential, we can always choose to work with another vector potential that gives the same field as the original one, but that has zero divergence. Assuming that we make such a choice, then equation (15) for the vector potential becomes: (21) This is again Poisson's equation — or rather, three Poisson equations, one for each component of the vectors involved. ‘Advanced Eleevromagretism 10 Pan 7) Electromagnetic Potent ‘Aavanced Elecromaoretism n Pare 7: Electromagnetic PotentaisMagnetic Vector Potential Gauge Transformations of the Magnetic Vector Potential Since we already know the solution to Poisson's equation for e scalar potential, we can immediately write down the solution to Poisson's equation for the vector potential Ay =H [2 CO av’ (22) This integral is generally easier to perform than the one Involved in the Biot-Savart law. Once we have obtained the vector potential, we can derive the magnetic field from B = V x A. Notice that to derive equation (22), we made use of a gauge transformation of the vector potential: the magnetic field is unchanged if we make the transformation: A+A+ Vu (23) for any scalar function vi In particular, we made a gauge transformation so that ved=0 (24) The gauge condition (24) is known as the Coulomb gauge, and is implicit in equation (22) The Coulomb gauge is a convenient choice for static systems; but as we shall see later, there is a better choice for dynamic systems, ‘Aavanced Eleivomagretism 2 Part 7 Electromagnetic Poventans ‘Advanced Eleivomagnetism 3 Pare 7: Clectomagnetc Potentnis Summary (so far) Wave Equations with Sources For time-independent fields, we can perform calculations more simply using the electric scalar and magnetic vector potentials. The potentials obey Poisson's equation in the presence of sources ve) = 9, v2 = -u tt“) (25) The physics is invariant under gauge transformations of the scalar and vector potentials: o4O+b0, As A+ Vv (26) where go Is a constant, and vo Is any scalar field. One possible choice of gauge is such that: We are interested in the case of electromagnetic waves produced by time-dependent sources, i.e. charge and current distributions that vary with time, Note that we can (somewh: Into two sorts: artificially) divide electric currents ‘* “External” currents that cause electromagnetic waves. * “Induced” currents caused by electromagnetic waves, Sif=x)=0, vaso en The potentials can be calculated directly from the sources: We will consider only the case where the conductivity ¢ of the twee jo medium is zero; then we can neglect induced currents, and seh /Mw, am=2/Z2w es) include only external sources of power. Kavareed Pecvomoeseism Ta Pin? Tacvomvanatc Poets ‘avareed Pecvonsenetin 15 Pun 7 Gacvonvenatie PoetsWave Equations with Sources As usual, we start from Maxwell's equations: vib VxE=-B vxH=J+5 Taking the curi of Vx Vx Vx B=V(V-E)- VB = -p¥ x H=-pJ—-peE (29) We find that the wave equation for the electric field, in the presence of sources, is Wave Equations with Sources Following a similar procedure, starting by taking the curl of 'V x i, we obtain the wave equation for the magnetic field i (31) Note that as the sources p and J approach zero, we obtain the usual source-free wave equations. Also note that the wave equation for the magnetic field has only a source term dependent on the electric current J, whereas the wave equation for the electric field includes a source term for the electric charge p. 5. @E_ at WE — usSe = HG, + Vole) (30) This is a consequence of the fact that there are no magnetic monopoles. ‘aavanced tlecvomsgretm Te Pan Fs Llecvomagneie Pores ‘aavancoa Kecvomagnetam 17 Pan 7 Cleroragneie Parents Wave Equations with Sources Wave Equations for the Potentials Equations (30) and (31) are best solved using the electric scalar and magnetic vector potentials, and with an appropriate gauge choice. For static electromagnetic fields, we have already seen the Coulomb gauge via=o (32) Recall that by making an appropriate gauge transformation Ao A+ vv (33) we can fix V4 to be anything we like, while leaving Vx A unchanged. For time-dependent fields, we make the choice of gauge ae a The condition (34) is called the Lorenz gauge. Working in the Lorenz gauge simplifies the solution of the wave equations vi At pe (2a) Let us substitute B=vxA, E=-vo-A (35) into Maxwell’s equation Vx Bap + pe (35) We obtain VA) VPA = wT = web = ped 7) Imposing the Lorenz gauge (34) Vv A+ped=0 (38) we obtain: ~ ea 7 WA pe iS (39) nese =H 9) This is the wave equation for the vector potential 4. Note that In the static case, it reduces to equation (21). ‘Advanced Eleevromagretism 18 Par. Electromagnetic Patents ‘Aavanced Elecromaoretism 19 Pare 7: Electromagnetic PotentaisWave Equations for the Potentials Wave Equations for the Potentials Now we substitute: We have derived, using Maxwell's equations and the Lorenz gauge condition, the wave equations (39) and (44) for the B=-v$—-A (40) magnetic vector and electric scalar potentials: Into Maxwel's equation . eye . v2 eS) A = pl 45 vb=t (41) ( 3) ¥ (45) c +0 obtain (ve-nede)o = -£ (48) bed “Vo -V-A (42) Let us take the divergence of equation (45), plus ye multiplied imposing the Lorene gauge (24) by the time derivative of equation (46) 7 ae 7. ag =, Op ye VP = weds) (Vat ne ) »(v +2) a7: vat nes =0 (aay (v2 = 1d) (a+ ne) = 5 3) any we find: But from the Lorenz gauge condition (34), the left hand side ee (ea) of equation (47) must be zero, Hence a 7.8 Equation (44) is the wave equation for the electric scalar vistBao (2) potential, with sources. In the static case, It reduces to Equation (48) is the continulty equation, that expresses the Poisson's equation (8) local conservation of electric charge, Wave Equations for the Potentials Solution to the Wave Equation with Sources “The final step is to write down the solution to the wave In free space, = po and e = eo, Recall that: equations (39) and (44) for the vector and scalar potentials in : the presence of sources. ae (29) in th 4 of light vho We define th The equations have essentially the same form, so let us where ¢ Is the speed of light In @ vacuum. (¢ define the consider just the equation for the scalar potential: @’Alembertian operator 0 18 26 — pet = 2 (53) v (50) ae ear In terms of the d’Alembertian operator, the wave equations for the potentials in free space can be written: In the absence of any charge, we know there are solutions in which changes in ¢ propagate through space at speed D4 = -noS (s1) v= Wie In the presence of a static charge, we know that a solution can op = 4 (62) ” oe z be written (54) eaves Pecvomoaseism 22 Purr Fecvomagnetc Povetos ‘avareed Pecvonsenetin 23 Pur Gcvomagnetc PotentSolution to the Wave Equation with Sources Solution to the Wave Equation with Sources Putting aside conservation of charge for a moment, imagine a system in which 2 point charge q appears at some point # in space at time ¢', and then disappears a moment later, An observer measuring the potential at point 7 and time ¢ will find a potential (85) (56) This suggests the solution to the wave equation with sources: noe [Ew 7) Where (and (! are related by (56). origin Equation ($7) is in fact a correct solution to the wave equation with sources. The integral is very similar to the static case; but the finite speed of propagation of signals through space is taken into account by evaluating the charge density at the source at an earlier time than the observation time. ‘Aavanced Eleivomagretism 2 Part 7 Electromagnetic Poventans ‘Advanced Ele:romagnetism 25 Pare 7: Clectomagnetc Potentnis Solution to the Wave Equation with Sources Electromagnetic Potentials: Summary Having obtained the solution to the wave equation for the scalar potential, we can immediately write down the solution to the wave equation for the vector potential wp TY Agn= 4 [2 aw an! FF] (58) where, as before: iF tae+ (59) In the next part of the course, we shall apply these equations to find the electric and magnetic fields generated by an oscillating dipole. In other words, we shall investigate the generation of electromagnetic waves. You should be able to Write expressions for the electric and magnetic fields in terms of the scalar and vector potentials. * Explain that under a gauge transformation of the scalar and vector potentials, the electric and magnetic fields remain unchanged ‘* Starting from Maxwell's equations and the expressions for the fields in terms of the potentials, derive wave equations for the potentials in the Lorenz gauge. ‘* Write integral expressions for the scalar and vector potentials in terms of the source charges and currents, for both static and dynamic systems. ‘Advanced Eleevromagretism 26 Par. Electromagnetic Patents ‘Aavanced Elecromaoretism 27 Pare 7: Electromagnetic Potentais