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(2) United States Patent Cohen USOO72S67S1B2 US 7,256,751 B2 *Aug. 14, 2007 (10) Patent No.: (45) Date of Patent: 4) (76) en @) (65) @ on) (2) (58) (56) FRACTAL ANTENNAS AND FRACTAL RESONATORS, Inventor: Nathan Cohen, 2 Leigewood Pl Belmont, MA (US) 02178, Notice: Subject to any disclaimer, the term ofthis patent is extended or adjusted under 35 USC. 154{b) by 393 days This patent is subject to terminal dis claim, Appl. No. 107243.444 Filed: Sep. 13, 2002 Prior Publication Data US 20080160723 AI Aug 28, 2008, Related U.S. Application Data Continuation of application No. 08'512.954, fled on Avg. 9, 1995, now Pa, No, 6,452,553 Int. Cl. HuIg v0 (200601) us. cL sas Field of Classification Search 3451846, 33/741, 795, 7925 ‘See application file for complete search history. References Cited US. PATENT DOCUMENT samen a + Dulane a ve 37925 320066 A Flanagan 3699990 A 91972 Moody SRIGINY A S197 Krusinge et SSLLAS A Munson 431809 4 Weathers 4358769 A * 11/1982 Tada ea A3RLS66 A 41983 Kane 46280 A V1987 Bizowrd et a 4656982 A 41987 Peng 0063888 A 4/1991. Shirosaki Sanu A $1992 Dabberg SULTS A * 111992 Waker a. 3079 Sa13216 A S194 Wang ea SBS8318 A 101984 Dione ea S361 A 11904 Shocmaker (Continued) ‘OTHER PUBLICATIONS ‘Kim, “The Festal Random Array” IEEE, 0.74, No.9 pp 218-1290, Sep 1986. (Continved) Wimer MeDeemott Will & Emery Primary Examiner—Miehael C (74) Attorney, Agent, or Firm IP o ABSTRACT An antenna includes atleast one element whose physical supe is at least partially defined as a second or higher iteration deterministic fractal. The resultant fractal ant oes not rely upon an opening angle for perfomance, and may be fabricated asa dipole, a vertical, ora quad, among other configurations. The number of resonant frequencies forthe fatal antenna increases with iteration aumnber N and more suc frequencies are present than ina prior art Euclid fan antenna, Further, the resonant frequencies can inchade ‘on-harmoncally related frequencies. At the high frequen cies associated with wireless and cellular telephoae com- ‘munications, second or thied. iteration, preferably ‘Minkowski fractal antenna is implemented on 2 printed circuit board that s small enough oft within the telephone housing. fractal antenna according tothe present invention is substantially smaller than its Euclidean counterpart, vet exhibits at least similar gain, elcieney, SWR, and provides 1 500 teemination impedance without reiting impedance satehing 8 Claims, 12 Drawing Sheets US 7,256,751 B2 Daas 2 Us. parevr DOCUMENTS asta & 0200 cae 40782 891008 Wan OTHER PUBLICATIONS Sowa & 3907 Mom a ists Abo peal lA“ ira nem Syn’ QS 20 cout A {To age tal 610889 482000 Coben * cited by examiner US 7,256,751 B2 Sheet 1 of 12 Aug. 14, 2007 U.S. Patent Cauv uomd) az auNndld eden Ee ae \ee Ca1uv word) oz TUN ae — \ 202. 0% (Luv uormid) az aundli 4 t C1uv word) wz FUND °o— (Luv uornid) at ans C1uv word) oF aUNdIa ASIA f} 0 —a b-02. 02 Cauv uonid) at aunolt Caiuv uonid) vI Fund —— oF USS. Patent Aug. 14,2007 Sheet 2 of 12 US 7,256,751 B2 78 34 BFSt EF72 et Mo tp 1M 0 0 18 14 38 12 58 34 78 11 98 5/4 Zho FIGURE 3 (PRIOR ART) eh FIGURE 4A (PRIOR ART) @ieaic c c FIGURE 4B (PRIOR ART) U.S. Patent Aug. 14,2007 Sheet 3 of 12 US 7,256,751 B2 FIGURE 5B ‘TRANSCEIVER FIGURE 5A (PRIOR ART) U.S. Patent Aug. 14,2007 Sheet 4 of 12 US 7,256,751 B2 FIGURE 7A HORIZONTAL +} 0 DEGREES VERTICAL FIGURE 6 U.S. Patent Aug. 14,2007 Sheet 5 of 12 US 7,256,751 B2 a FIGURE 7B in 170 “yyy Was a ], Da // AVL. SG XQ a oe c WN AN NS N NS \ \ USS. Patent Aug. 14,2007 Sheet 6 of 12 US 7,256,751 B2 wa 8 rt g 3 a " g 8h. 8 2. Ih | ok tds | : R ‘ y fe F e Ei lemme 8 518 — USS. Patent Aug. 14,2007 Sheet 7 of 12 US 7,256,751 B2 FIGURE 7F ~e, FIGURE 7G ee [- FIGURE 7H 50 FIGURE 71 U.S. Patent Aug. 14,2007 Sheet 8 of 12 US 7,256,751 B2 FIGURE 8A US 7,256,751 B2 Sheet 9 of 12 Aug. 14, 2007 US. Patent FIGURE 8B US 7,256,751 B2 Sheet 10 of 12 Aug. 14, 2007 US. Patent 510B FIGURE sc US 7,256,751 B2 Sheet 11 of 12 Aug. 14, 2007 U.S. Patent a6 aunola (N) NOLLWHALI 4O HACHO z I v6 aunsla (N) NOLLWHAL 40 H3QHO z oN avno HW @p USS. Patent Aug. 14,2007 Sheet 12 of 12 US 7,256,751 B2 FIGURE 10A FIGURE 10B US 7,256,751 B2 1 FRACTAL ANTENNAS AND FRACTAL RESONATORS. “The following is «continuation application of US. appli cation Ser. No. 08/512,954, now US. Pat. No. 6.452.553 issued Sep. 17, 2002, FIELD OF THE INVENTION ‘The present invention relates to antennas and resonators, and more specifically to the desig of non-Fueldian anten- nas ad noa-Eulidian resonators, BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Antenna are used 10 radiate andor receive typically ‘leteomagneti sina, preferably wih antenna gain, dr tivity, and efeiney Practical antenna design raitnaly involves indeofs between various parame, including senna gain, size, ficiency, and bandwith Antenna desian has historically been dominated by Eveldcan geometry: In such designs the clos antenna ‘example if one doubles the leah of an Ecidcan square (or “qual”) antema, the enkosed area of the antema ‘quadruples. Classical antenna design has dealt wth planes, irs, tangles, squares ellipses, rectangle, hemispheres, parabolids, and the Hike, (a6 well a lines) Similarly, resonators, typically capacitors (-C") coupled in seis and! fr parle] with inductors 7", taonally ane imple mented with Euclidian inductor. ‘With respect oantenas, roe at design plosophy has been 1 pick a Boclidean geometic constction, ©, a ‘quad, and to explores radiation charters, especialy with emphasis on frequency resonance sand power pals. ‘Tho unfortunate esl is that antenna design as far oo Jong, ‘soneentated onthe ease of antenna consiction, abe tha, ‘on the underlying loetomegnetics. Many prior art antennas are based upon closedloop or island shapes. Experience has long demonstrated tht sal Sized anteanes. including loops, do not work ell, one rewion being that radiation resslce CR") decreases Sharply when the antenna size s shortened. 4 smal sized loop, or even shot dipole, wil exhibit aration patern ‘of sand ah, respectively, ithe radiation resistance Ris not swamped by substantially lager ohmic (*O") losses ‘Obmic losses ean he minimized using impedance matching ncvorks, which can be expensive and dificult to we But althoogh even impedance matched smal loop antennas ean exit SP to 85% efcioncies, their bandwidth is inher. ‘ely nao, with ery igh Q. eg, QoS0. As used herein, (Qs defined a (tansmited or rceved fequeney)(3 dB Banvit. ‘As note, itis well Know expesimently that radiation resistance R drops rpaly with small rea Euclidean ante nas. However, the thsrtical basis isnt generally kn, an any present understanding (or misunerstanding) _ppeato sem from research by) Kras, note in Antennas (£41), MoGraw Hill New York (1980. in which a iclar Toop antenna with uniform cument ws examined. Kraus’ loop exited gin wih a surprising limit of 18 dB over an jottopi raator as lop aea lls below tat of oop having a1 Fesquared apt. For stall loops of area 2.27100, ration resistance R was given by: direelly proportional to the antenna perimeter. For 2 where Kis a constant isthe enclosed area of he loop and. 2s wavelength. Unfortunately, radiation resistance R ean all too readily be less than 1 9 fora small loop antenna From his circular loop research Kraus generalized that caleulatons could be defined by antenna area rater than antenna perimeter, and that his analysis shoul be cores for small ops of aay geometric shape, Kraus’ ealy research ‘and conelusions that small-sized sntennas wil exhibit relatively lage ohmic resistance © and a relatively small radiation resistance R, such that resultant low efciney defeats the use of the small antenna have been widely accepted, In fat, some researchers have actually proposed. reducing ohmic resistance O to 0.2 by consircting small, antennas from superconducting material, to promote elie AS noted, prior art antenna and resonator design has ‘eagtionally concentrated on goometey that is Euclidean, However, one non-Fuelidian geometry is fractal geometry Fractal geometry may be grouped into random factls, which are also termed chaotic or Brownian fractals and include 4 random noise components, such as depicted in FIG. 3, or deterministic fractals such as shown in FIG. 1C, In deterministic fractal omer, slfsimiaesteacture resuls from the epetiton of a design or motif or “genera- tof"), on a series of different size scales. One well known, twetise inthis field is Fracals, Endlessly Repeated Geo- metrical Figures, by Hans Lauverier,Prinoston University Press (1991), which treatise applicant refers to and incor- porate herein by reference. FIGS. 14-29 depict the development of some elementary forms of facta. In FIG. 18, a base element 10 is shown as straight line, although a curve could instead be used. In FIG, 1B, a so-alled Koch fractal motif or generator 20, hare a triangle is inserted into base element 10, to foem & fist order iteration ("N”) design, eg.. N-I- In FIG. 1C a second order N=2 iteration desga results fom replicating the triangle moti 20-1 into each sogment of FIG. 1B, but where the 20-1 version has been diferently sealed, here reduced in size, AS noted in the Lauwerier teatse, in is replication, the motif may be rotated, translated, scaled in dimension, ofa combination of any ofthese characteristics, “Thos, as sod herein, second order af teration or N-2 means the fandamental motif as been replicated, afer rotation, ‘tansaton, sealing (ora combination ofeach) ino the first order iteration pattem. A higher onder, eg, N-3, iteration sieansa third fractal patter is been generated by including yet another rotation, translation, and/or sealing ofthe first. onder moti InFIG. 1D, a portion of FIG, 1C has been subjected fo 8 ‘ther iteration (N-3) in which scaled-down versions of the teiangle motif 20-1 have ben insered into each segment of the left half of FIG. 1C. FIGS, 24-2C follow what as been deseried with respect to FIGS. 1A-1C, except that a ect- angular motif 20-2 has been adopted. FIG. 2D shows a pattem in which portion ofthe left-hand side isan N=3 steraton of the 20-2 rectangle motif, and in which the center portion ofthe figure now inclndes another moi, here @ 20-1 ‘ype triangle motif and in which the right-hand side ofthe figure remains an N=2 iteration “Traditionally, non-Buclidean designs inchading random. Aactals have Been understood to exhibit antresonance char US 7,256,751 B2 3 sctristcs with mechanical vibrations. Is known in the art to attempt t use non-Euelidean random designs at lover frequency regimes to absorb, o at east not reflect sound due to the amtresonance characteristics. For exanple, M, Schroeder in Fractals, Chaos, Power Laws (1992), W. Hs Freeman, New York discloses the use of presumably random ‘or chaotic facials in designing sound blocking dillsers for recording studios and auditoriums. Experimentation with non-Fuelidean siructures has also been underaken with respect to elecitomagnetic waves, inchudng radio antennas. In one experiment, ¥. Kim and D, Jaggard in The Fractal Random Array, Proc. IEEE 74, 1278-1280 (1986) spreadout antenna elements ina sparse microwave army, to minimize sidelobe energy witout hav- ing to use an excessive number of elements. But Kim and Jaggard did not apply a fecal condition to the antenna ‘elements, and test results were not necessarily better than any other techniques, including a totally random spreading ‘of anteasa elements, More significantly, the esultaat army ‘was not smaller than a conventional Euclidean design Prior art spiral antennas, cone antennas, and V:shaped antennas may be considered as a continuous, deterministic first order fractal, whose motif continuously expands a8 distance increases from a central point. A log-peridic antenna may be considered type of coatinious fractal in > that it i fabricated from a radially expanding structure. However, log periodic antennas do not utilize the antenna perimeter for radiation, but instead rly upon an are-like ‘opening angle inthe antenna geometry. Such opening angle is an angle that defines the size-scae of the log-peiodie sMructure, which structure is proportional to the distance fiom the antenna center multiplied by the opening angle. Further, known log-periodic antennas are aot necessarily smaller than conventional dziven elementparasite element antenna designs of similar pin, Unintentionaly, fist order facials have been used 10 lst the shape of dipole and vertical antennas to increase ain, the shapes being defined as a Brownian-ype of chaotic fects, See F, Landstofer and R. Sacher, Optimisation of re Antennas, J. Wiley, New York (1985). FIG. 3 depicts three beat-vertical antenaas developed by Landstorfer and Socher through tal nd error, the plots showing the actual ‘etical antennas a a function of xaxis and y-axis coon nates that area funtion of wavelength The “EE” and "BE" nomenclature in FIG, 3 refer eespoctively to end-ire and backfire mediation patterns of the resullant bea-vertial ‘antennas. First onder fractals have also boon used to reduce hor type antenna geometry, in which a double-idge hom con- figuration is usod to decrease resonant frequency. See J Krausin Antennas, MeCirass Hil, New York (1885). The use of rectangular, boxlke, and angular shapes as imped ance-matching loading elements to shorten antenna element slimeasions is also known inthe art. ‘Whether intentional or not, such prorat stempts to use ‘8 quasi-fzcal or facial motif in an antenna employ st best. ‘frst onder iteration fractal. By fist iteration is meant that ‘one Puetidian strgcure ig loaded with another Fuclidean structure in a repetitive fashion, using the same size for repetition. FIG. 1C, for example, isnot first onder because «0 the 20-1 triangles have boen shrunk with respect to the size ‘ofthe first moif 20-1, Prior art antenna design does not attempt 10 exploit rulipe sale selsimilarity of real facials. This is hardly surprising in view ofthe accepted conventional wisdom that 65 hocause such antennas would be anti-resonators, andr if suitably shrunken would exhibit so smal a radiztion resis- « 4 tance R, that the substantially higher obs losses O would result in too low an antenna efiieney for any practical use. Further, itis probably no possible to mathematically prec sch an antenna design, and high onler iteration fractal ftennas would be increasingly dificult to fabricate snd erect, in practice FIGS. 4A and 4B depit respective prior at series and parallel ype resonator configurations, comprising epacitors (Cand Euclidean indetors [Inthe series coatigiration of FIG. A, a notchfltercharocteristic is presented ia thatthe ‘impedance from port Ato port B is high excep at lrequen- cies approsching resonance, determined by (LC), In the distributed parallel coniguration of FIG. 4B, low-pass fer charvctriste is create in that at Frequencies below resonance, there is relatively low impedance path fom port A to port B, but at frequencies greater than resonant frequency, signals at port Aare shunted to ground (e2.,common terminals of capacitors C), anda high imped ‘ance path is presente between por. and port B. OF course, 4 single parallel LC configuration may also be ereated by removing (eg. shor-cireuitng) the rightmost inductor ‘and right two capzcitors C, in which ease port B would be located at the bottom end of the leftmost capacitor C. In FIGS. 4A aod 4B, inductors I are Euclidean in that increasing the effective area captured by the inductors increases with increasing geometry ofthe inductors, e, more or larger inductive windings of, if not eylindreal, traces comprising inductance. In such prior art configura~ tions as FIGS. 44 and 4B, the presence of Euclidean inductors L ensures a predictable relationship between L, C ‘and frequencies of resonance, ‘Thus, with respect to antennas, there isa need fora design sthodology that ean produce smallerscale antennas that exhibit at least as much gain, diretvity, and ellicency as Jarger Evclidean counterparts. Preferably, such design approach should exploit the multiple scale self-similarity of ‘eal focal, including N22 iteration onde acta, Furber, as respocts resonators, there is a need for a non-Euelidean resonator whose preseace ia a resonating configuration can create frequencies of resonance beyond those normally presented in series andor parallel LC configurations “The present invention provides such antennas, as well as 1 mothod for their dosign. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION ‘The present invention provides an antenna having at east ‘one clement whose shape, atleast s par, is substantially deterministic facial of iteration order N22. Using tract geometry, the antenna element has a sal-similar structure resulting fom the repetition ofa desig or moti (or “gen= rato” that i replicated wsing otation, andor translation, andioe scaling. The fractal element will hve x-axis, y-axis coordinates fora next iteration Nel defined by Xai yby)and ye) -ElR% Yo where xy ¥y define coordinates for a preceding iteration, and where x.y) and p(xy) are fume tions defining the fractal motif and behavioe In contrast to Euclidean geometric antenna design, deter= instic fractal antenna elements acooeding to the prseat invention have a perimeter that is nat deectly proportional tw area, Fora given perimeter dimeasion, the enclosed area ‘fa multi-iteation fractal will always be as small or smaller than the area of a corresponding conventional Euclidean antenna US 7,256,751 B2 5 ‘A facta antenna hes a fractal ratio limit dimension D given by log(L/log(), where Land r are one-timensional antenna clement lengths before and after fractlization, respectively ‘According 10 the present invention, facta) antennas perimeter compression parameter (PC) is defined as fabio nea lent eg c= eae ane et eh uo where Petes DO in which A and C re constant cocflicens fora given fractal ‘motif, N is an iteration number, and D is the fractal dimen- soa, defined shove. Radiation resistance (R) of facta antenna decreases os 1 small power ofthe perimeter compression (PC), with a fect loop or island always exhibiting a substantially higher radiation resistance than a small Euclidean loop ‘antenna of equal size. ln the present invention, deterministic. fractals are used wherein ad Chave large values. and thus. provide the greatest and most rapid element-size shrinkage. ” ‘fractal antenna according to the present invention will ‘exhibit an increased effctive wavelength, ‘The number of resonant nodes of a fractal loop-shapod antenna accoading tothe present iavention increases as the iteration number N and isa leat as lage a the number of resonant nodes of an Euclidean island with the same area, unter, resonant frequencies of fractal antenna inchude frequencies that are not harmonically related ‘A inetal antenna according 10 the present invention is smaller than its Bucidean counterpart but provides atleast as much guin and Frequencies of resonance and provides ‘essentially SOD ternation impedance at its lowest reso- nant foquency. Further, the facta antenna exhibits non harmonically frequencies of resonance, alow Q and result ‘ant good bandwidth, acceptable standing wave ratio. (/SWR”), a radiation impedance that is Irequeney depen ‘dent, and high efficiencies, Froctal inductors of fist or higher iteration order may also be provided in LC resonators, to provide aditional resonant frequencies including nonha monically related frequencies, Other features and advantages ofthe invention will appear fiom the fallowing description in which the preferred ‘erbodimens have been set forth in del, ia conjunction With the accompanying deawings BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1A depicts base element for an antenna oF an inductor, aecoring tothe prior ar ‘ FIG. 1B depicts a tiangularsbaped Koch fractal motif, scconling to the prorat FIG. IC depicts a seconditeration fractal using the motif ‘of FIG. 18, according to the prior art; FIG. 1D depicts athied-itertion facta using the mati of gy FIG. 1B, according tothe prior art; FIG. 2A depicts base element for an antenna or an inductor, aeconding to the prior art FIG. 28 depicts a rectangular-shaped Minkowski fractal motif, agconding to the prior ar FIG. 2C depicts a seconditeraion fractal using the motif ‘of FIG. 2B, according to the prior art; 6 6 FIG. 2D depict a fractal configuration inlung @third- onler using the moti of FIG, 2B, aswell as the motif of FIG, 1B, scconting to the prior ants FIG. 3 depicts bent-vertical chaotic fractal antennes, aecoring tothe prior art; FIG. 4 depicts a series L-C resonator, acconling tothe prior a FIG. 4B depicts distributed parallel L-C resonator, according wo the prior art; FIG. $A depicts an Buclidean quad antenna system, according to the prior art; FIG. $B depicts a second-order Minkowski island fractal «quad antenna, according to the present invention: FIG. 6 depicts an ELNEC-generated free-space radiation patter for an M-2 fractal antenna, seconding to the present FIG. 7A depicts a Cantr-comb fractal dipole antenna, according to the present invention; FIG. 7B depicts a tom square fractal quad antenna, sccoring tothe present invention; FIG. 4C-1 dopits 2 second iteration Minkowski (MI-2) printed circuit fractal antenna, according 10 the preseat savention; FIG. 7C-2 depts secoad iteration Miakowski (M2) slot fractal antena, according t the present invention; FIG. 7D depicts deterministic dendrite fractal vertical antenna, according tothe preset invention; FIG. TE depicts third iteration Minkowski island (M3) ‘facta quad antenna, acconing tothe present invention; FIG. TF depicts a second iteration Koch facial dipole, according tothe present invention; FIG. 1G depicts third iteration dipole, aovording tothe present invention; FIG. TH depicts a second iteration Minkowski fractal ipo, according to the present invention: FIG. TI depts a third iteration mulifracta dipole, accortng tothe present invention; FIG. 8A depicts a generic system in which @ pasive or ctv electronic system communicates using a facta ‘antenna, according to the preset invention; IG. 8H depicts a comminieation system in which several ‘octal antennas are electronically selected for best perfor. ‘mance, according to the present invention; FIG. 8C depiets a communication system in which elec- ‘wonically storable areays of fatal antennas are eletroni- cally selected for best performance, according tothe present FIG. 9A depicts fractal antenna gsin as a function of iteration order N, according to the preset invention; FIG. 9B depicts perimeter compression PC asa function of iteration order N for factal-antennas, aceonding to the present invention: FIG. 104 depicts a frectal inductor for use in a fractal resonator, according fo the present invention; FIG. 10B depicts a credit cand sized security device uilizing a foctal resonator, aecordng to the present inven= tion. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS In overview, the present invention provides an antenna ‘having at least one element whose shape, atleast is parts substantially fractal of iteration order N>2. The result antenna is smaller than its Euclidean counterpart, provides 3 ‘500 termination impedance, exhibits atleast as much gain ‘and more frequencies of resonance than its Euclidean coun- US 7,256,751 B2 1 tera, including non-hannonially related froguencis of resonance, exhibits Tow Q ad resultant good andi, acceptable SWR, a radiation impedance that is frequency dependent, and high efficiencies. Tnconirst Eucideangeumetric antenna design, rt ‘antenna elemens according to the present invention havea perimeter that is not directly proportional to area, For a sven perimeter dimension, the enclosed are of a mul iteration fractal area will aways be at east as smal 8 ny vclidena ara Using fractal gsomet the aatensa element bas a sll simile structure reslling from the repetition of design oF motif (or “generator”), which motif is replicated using rotation, translation, andor scaling (or any combination thereof), The fractal portion ofthe element has x-axis, y-axis ‘coordinates for a next iteration Nal defined by xy, fle. yb) andy, Yh Whee yo yc ae coordinates ofa preceding iteration, and where f(x,y) and g(x,y) are fune- Mons defining the fractal mot and bev. For example, fata ofthe Julia et may be represented by the form: oan Jn complex notation, the shove may be representa as Ainough tis apparent that fractals can comprise a wide vatiety of foms for functions fix) and gy), it i the iterative nature and the ditet relation between structure oF morphology on different size scales that uniguely distinguish fix) and p(y) from non-actal forms. Many references including dhe Lauwerier treatise set forth equations appro Priate for fy) and a(x) Iteration (N) is defined as the application of fractal motif ‘over one size cae. Ths, the repetition of a single size scale ‘of a moti is not a fractal as that term is used herein, Mult-factals may of course be implemented, in which a molt is changed for different iterations, bu eventually at least one moti is repeated in another iteration An overall appreciation of the present invention may be “oblainad by comparing FIGS. $A aad SB. FIG. SA shows a ‘conventional Euclidean quad antenna § having a driven ing iteration N=2. All designs were constructed on the % > ‘axis, and foreach iteration the outer length was msintained at 42" (106, em). ‘Table 1, below, summarizes ELNEC-derived far fed radiation pater for Minkowski island quad antennas for ‘ach iteration forthe first four resonances. In Table I, each iteraon is designed as MIAN for Miakowski Island of iteration N. Note thatthe fraquency of lowest resonance decreased with the factal Minkowski Island antennas, as ‘compared 0 a proe art quad antenna. Stated differently, for ‘2 given resonant frequency, a fractal Minkowski Island antenna willbe smaller than a conventional qual antenna TABLE! Ree Foy Gait oe eana "ti ih) SWR__n}__Dieton Regal mas lie mM $2) Ende me Se AS Enis im aot Ene Py 5S Ente bs 23 Bie so 2 1s 179 Beale Ss iB Enlie 16 S4 Brea Its apparent from Table I hat Minkowski sland fractal antennas are multi-esonant structures having viewally the same gain as larger, full-sized conventional quad antennas, Gain igures in Table are for “free-space” in the absence ‘of any ground plane, but simulations over a perfet ground at 1, yelded similar gain results. Understandably, there will be some inaceuracy inthe FLNEC resis due to round-off and undersampling of pulses, smong othe factors ‘Table 2 presents the ratio of resonant ELNEC-derived froquences foe the fst fous resonance nodes eeferred to in Table 1 s “ 16 ‘TABLE 2 ‘Anas WR SWR WR SWR Mga wae Met oS Iss Se ‘Tables 1 and 2 confirm the shrinking ofa fractal-designed antenna, and th inerease inthe number of resonance points. Inthe above simulations, the fractal ML-2 antenna exhibited four resonance nodes belore the prir art refereace quad exhibited its second resonance. Near flds in antennas are very important, a they are combined in multiple-lement antennas to achieve high gain arays. Unfortunately, ro srauming limitations iaberent in ELNEC preclude serious ear field investigation. However, as described Inter herein, applicant has designe and constacted several diferent high ‘gin fraetal array that explit the near eld Applicant fabricated three Minkowski Island fractal ‘antennas fom aluminum #8 andlor thinner #12 galvanized groudwvire. The antennas were designed so the lowest ‘operating Hraqueny fell close to a desied frequency inthe 2M (44 MHz) amateur aio band to faiitate relative gain ‘measurements using 2 M FM repeater stations. The antennas. ‘were mounted for vertical polarization and placed so thei center points were the highest practical poiat above the ouating platforms, For gain comparisons, a verial ground plane having thee reference radials, and a reference quad ‘were consructed, using the same sized wire as the fractal ‘antenna being tested, Measurements were made in the receiving mode. “Mult-path reception was minimized by carefl placement of the antennas. Low height ellects were reduced and free space testing approximated by mouating the antenna test platform a the edge ofa third-store window, affording a3. 2. eight above ground, and line of sight to the repeater, 45 niles (28 KM) distant, The antennas were stuck out ofthe window about 0.8 2 fom aay metalic objets and testing was repeated on five occasions from diferent windows oa, the same floor, with test results boing consistent within 4 dB foreach tri Each anteana was attached to a shon piece of 9913 50 8 coaxial cable, fed at right angles tothe antenna, A 2M. teansceiver Was coupled with 9913 coaxial cable 10 two precision attenuators to the antenna under test. The trans- cviverS-meter was coupled to a vol-ahm meter to provide signal strength measurements The attenators were sed t0 insert inital threshold to avoid problems associated with ‘non-linear Ssmeter readings, and With S-metersanetion in the presence of fill squeleh quieting Each antenna wes quickly switehed infor volt-okmmeter measurement, with attenuation add or subtracted to obtain the same meter reading as experienced withthe reference «quad. All wadings wore coerctd for SWR attenuation. For therelerence quad, the SWR was 241 for 1200 impedance, and for the fractal quad antennas SWR was less than 15:1 at resonance. The lack of a suitable noise bridge for 2 M precluded eficency measurements forthe various anteans. ‘Understandably, anechoic chamber testing would provide even more useful measurements, For each antenna, relative forward gain and optimized physical oreattion were measured, No afemp was made tw correct for lnunch-angle, or to measure power pattems ‘other than to demonstrate the broadside nature of the gain. Difference of ¥2 dB produced noticeable S-meter dette US 7,256,751 B2 7 tions, and differences of several dB produced substantial meter deletion, Removal ofthe satenna fom the reciver resulted ina 20° dB drop in received signal strength. In this fashion, system distortions ia eaings were canceled out to Provide more meaningful resuls. Table 3 summarizes theses results TABLES ox cin Sangh 4g Antes RPL SWR Ma att tal was MEL 1812 Ba 1s os wa 1 te dss Mada a Iv is apparent from Table 3 that forthe vertical configu rations under test, a fractal quad acconling to the present invention either exceeded the gain of the prior art test quad, ‘or had a gain deviation of not more than dB from the test ‘quad. Cleary, prior at cubical (square) quad antennas are not optimized for gain, Practally shrinking a cubical-quad by 2 factor of two will inctease the gain, and further shrinking will exhibit modes losses of 12 dB. ‘ensons of a ML-2 and ML-3 fatal quad anteanas were ” constructed forthe 6M ($0 Miz) ali amateur band. An RX 30-2 noise bridge was aac between these antennas anda transceiver. The receiver was nled at sou 84 MHz and the noise bridge was calibrated with $ 9 and 10.9 18 realized. Feosomically of greater interest, fractal antennas constructed far cellular telephone frequencies (850 Mliz) could be sized smaller than 0.5" (1.2 em). As shown by FIGS, 8B and 8C, several such antenna, each orieated lferently could be fabricated within the curve oe rectline car case ofa cellular or wireless telephone, with the antenaa ‘outputs coupled to a circuit for coupling to the most opt mally dteciod of the autennas for the signal then being received, The resultant antenna system would be smaller than the “rubber-ducky” type antennas now used by celular telephones, but would have improved characterises as wel, Similarly, fratal-designed antennas could be used in handheld military walkie-talkie transceivers, global pos tioning systems, setelites, transponders, wireless commu ication and computer networks, remote andor robotic control systems, among other applications. Although the fractal Minkowski island antenna has been eserbed herein, other factal motif re also useful as well. 8 non-sland fractal configurations. ‘Table $ demonstates bandwidths (*BW") and aul fquency resonances of the MI-2 and MI-3 antennas described, as well as Qs, for each node found for 6 M. versions between 30 MHz andl 17S MHz. Imespective of resonant Faquency SWR, the bandits shown aze SWR 311 values. Q values shown were estimated by dividing resonant frequency by the 3:1 SWR BW, Frequency rato i the relative sealing of resonance nodes resistors, Table 4 below summarizes the resus in which antes mst no reactance Was See, es Fay on suns (it) Kas_SWR_MBW mcm SVR 2G) Met ada an) mips on Guigiy aai So : i ae Wi” is es Mess ua so mis tm Ss isa baba “ In Table 4, efciency (F) was defined 2s 100%%(RIZ), ‘where Z was the meesured impedance, and R was Z minus ‘ohmic impedance and reactive impedances (0). As svsn in Table 4, fractal M2 and MI-3 antennas with their low 51.2:1 SWR and low ohmic and reactive impedance pro- Vide extremely high elciencies, 90°%. These findings are indeed surprising in view of prior art teachings stemming fom early Euclidean small loop geometries. n fat, Table 4 strongly suggests that prior art associations of low radiation, impedances for small oops must be abandoned in general, to be invoked only when discussing small Euclidean lops. Applicant's M3 anteana was indeed micro-sized, being dimensioned st about 0.1 % per side, an area of about 3211,000 ad yet didnot signal the onset of ineliciency long thought to eecompany smaller sized antennas However the 6M efficiency data do not explain the fact, thatthe MES fractal antenna bad a gain drop of alos! 3 dB relative to the ME? fractal antenna. The low oumie ime ances of $50 strongly sugges tht the explanation is other than inelcieney, small antenna size notwithstanding. I is ‘quite possible that near field diffraction elfocts oecur at higher iterations that result inguin loss. However, the smaller antenna sizes achieved by higher trations appear to ‘warrant the small loss in gai, Using fractal techniques, however, 2 M. quad antennas slimensioned smaller than 3*(7.6 em) on a side, as well 2s, 20M (14 MHz) quads smaller than 3" (11m) ona side can be “ « ‘The Q values in Table Srelet that MI-2 and MI fractal antennas are multiband, These antennas do not display the very high Qs seen in small tuned Euclidean loops, and there appears not fo exist a mathematical application to electeo= suignetcs for predicting these resonances or Qs. One ‘approach might be to estimate salar ad veetor potential ia ‘Maxwell's equations by regarding esch Minkowski Island iteration as a series of vertical and horizontal in segments ‘ith offset positions. Summation ofthese segments will ead tw aPoyating vector caleulation and power patter that may be espovally usefol in beter prodicting fractal antenna characterises and optimized shapes. Tn practice, actual Minkowski Island fractal sntennas seo fo perf slightly better than their ELNEC pri tions, most likely de to inconsistencies in FLNEC mode Jing ratios of resonant frequencies, PCs, SWRs and gains. ‘Those skilled inthe art will appreciate tht fractal mti= ‘band antenna arays may also be constructed. The resultant ‘ays wll be smaller than thie Buelidean counterparts, will, present less wind area, aad will be mechaaically rotatable ‘with a smaller antenna rotator. Further, fractal antenna configurations using other than ‘Minkowski islands of loops may be implemented. Table 6 shows the highest iteration number N for other fractal configurations that were found by applicant to resonant on at least one frequency US 7,256,751 B2 19 TABLE 6 Tne Maxima Ren Kh To Squat Nate Ca Te Monk’ Song (Car Gate FIG. 9A depicts gain relative to an Euclidean quad (e., an MEO) configuration asa function of iteration value N. (it is understood that an Euclidean quad exhibits 1.5 dB gain relative to a standard reference dipole) For ist and second ‘order iterations, the gain ofa fractal quad increases relative to an Euclidean quad. However, beyond second order, gxin ‘drops off relative to an Buelidean quad. Applicant believes that near eld eletromagneie energy dilaction-type ean-

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